BAQ111_History-I(English)

BACHELOR OF ARTS HISTORY-I BAQ111 Dr. Abhijit Sahoo

CHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY Institute of Distance and Online Learning Course Development Committee Chairman Prof. (Dr.) R.S. Bawa Vice Chancellor, Chandigarh University, Punjab Advisors Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Bhushan, Director, IGNOU Prof. (Dr.) Majulika Srivastava, Director, CIQA, IGNOU Programme Coordinators & Editing Team Master of Business Administration (MBA) Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) Co-ordinator - Prof. Pragya Sharma Co-ordinator - Dr. Rupali Arora Master of Computer Applications (MCA) Bachelor of Computer Applications (BCA) Co-ordinator - Dr. Deepti Rani Sindhu Co-ordinator - Dr. Raju Kumar Master of Commerce (M.Com.) Bachelor of Commerce (B.Com.) Co-ordinator - Dr. Shashi Singhal Co-ordinator - Dr. Minakshi Garg Master of Arts (Psychology) Bachelor of Science (Travel & TourismManagement) Co-ordinator - Ms. Nitya Mahajan Co-ordinator - Dr. Shikha Sharma Master of Arts (English) Bachelor of Arts (General) Co-ordinator - Dr. Ashita Chadha Co-ordinator - Ms. Neeraj Gohlan Master of Arts (Mass Communication and Bachelor of Arts (Mass Communication and Journalism) Journalism) Co-ordinator - Dr. Chanchal Sachdeva Suri Co-ordinator - Dr. Kamaljit Kaur Academic and Administrative Management Prof. (Dr.) Pranveer Singh Satvat Prof. (Dr.) S.S. Sehgal Pro VC (Academic) Registrar Prof. (Dr.) H. Nagaraja Udupa Prof. (Dr.) Shiv Kumar Tripathi Director – (IDOL) Executive Director – USB © No part of this publication should be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording and/or otherwise without the prior written permission of the author and the publisher. SLM SPECIALLY PREPARED FOR CU IDOL STUDENTS Printed and Published by: Himalaya Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., E-mail: [email protected], Website: www.himpub.com For: CHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY Institute of Distance and Online Learning CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

History-I Course Code: BAQ111 Credits: 3 Course Objectives:  To understand the community of Ancient India.  To impart knowledge about origin and life of Aryans.  To draw a contrast on the basis of philosophies of Jainism and Buddhism. Syllabus Unit 1 - Physical features of India : Define term of Ancient. Physical features of India & its Effect on Indian History. Unit 2 - Harappa & other Indus valley civilization – Extent, Chronology, Origin Unit 3 - Society, Religion and Causes of Decline of Harappan Civilization Unit 4 - Origin of Aryan Home: Political, Social, Economic conditions in Rig Vedic Period. Unit 5 - Literature and Education of Vedic Period. Later Vedic Period: Social and Economic life in later Vedic period. Unit 6 - Teachings and life of Mahavir Jain. Unit 7 - Teachings and life of Mahatma Buddha. Unit 8 - Similarities between Buddhism and Jainism. Reference Books: 1. Tripathi, R.S. (2016). Prachin Bharat Ka Itihas : Seventh Edition. Jaipur: Royal Publication. 2. V.C. Pandey(1986). Political and Cultural History of Ancient India-Part I, Allahabad: Vishal Publication. 3. Mookerji, R.N. (1947). Ancient India. Delhi: Motilal Banarsi Das PublishersPvt. Ltd.. 4. Basham, A.L.(1967). The Wonder that was India. London: Arthur Probsthain. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

5. Davies, C.C. (1949). An Historical Atlas of Indian Peninsula. India: Oxford University Press 6. Majumdar, R.C. (2017). Ancient India. Delhi: Motilal Banarsilal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. 7. Dhillon, S.K. (1991). Religious History of Early Medieval Punjab. Punjab: National Book Organisation. Web Resources https://www.ancient.eu/india/ https://www.culturalindia.net/india-history/ancient-india/index.html CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

CONTENTS 1 - 43 44 - 66 Unit 1: Physical Features of India 67 - 84 Unit 2: Harappan and Other Indus Valley Civilization 85 - 115 Unit 3: Society, Religion and Causes of Decline of Harappan Civilization 116 - 139 Unit 4: Origin of Aryan Home 140 - 162 Unit 5: Literature and Education of Vedic Period 163 - 193 Unit 6: Teachings and Life of Mahavir Jain 194 - 207 Unit 7: Teachings and Life of Mahatma Buddha 208 - 210 Unit 8: Similarities between Buddhism and Jainism References CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Physical Features of India 1 UNIT 1 PHYSICAL FEATURES OF INDIA Structure: 1.0 Learning Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Define the term Ancient and significance of studying Ancient Indian History 1.3 Physical Features of India 1.4 The Mountain Ranges of The Himalayas 1.5 Location, Extent, Boundaries, and Area of India 1.6 Area of India 1.7 The Great Indo-Gangetic Plain or Northern Plain 1.8 The Deccan Plateau 1.9 The Coastal Ghats 1.10 The Islands 1.11 The Indian Desert 1.12 The Effect of Physical Features on Indian History 1.13 Summary 1.14 Key Words/Abbreviations 1.15 Learning activity 1.16 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 1.17 References CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

2 History-I 1.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to  Explain the definition of the term Ancient and ancient Indian history  Describe the importance of ancient Indian history  Explain the physical features of India and its effect on Indian history  Analyse the sources of ancient Indian history 1.1 Introduction The definition of ancient refers to an era that existed a very long time ago. Ancient is also defined as someone or something that has lasted a very long time. The ancients strove for unity. India is a land of diversity in all manners. The wide range of physical features of India makes the country a complete geographical study. In fact, India has every possible landscape that the earth has. From cold mountains to arid deserts, vast plains, hot and humid plateau and wide seashores and tropical islands, the physical features of India cover every terrain. 1.2 Define the term Ancient and significance of studying Ancient Indian History The definition of ancient refers to an era that existed a very long time ago. Ancient is also defined as someone or something that has lasted a very long time. The ancients strove for unity. History is the study of past events and achievements of man. People are not considered civilized unless they know writing the different forms of writing prevalent in India today are all derived from the ancient scripts This is also true of the languages that we speak today, the languages we use have roots in ancient times, and have developed through the ages. History does not mean only the account of the dates and events associated with the kings or dynasties, but rather it also means to study various aspects that shaped the overall personality of the society and the people. History is an analysis of society, economy, and cultural trends over a long period as reflected in obtainable sources. A historian tries to evaluate totally different situations over an extended period and asks questions as to why certain events happened and what CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Physical Features of India 3 was their impact on society at large? For this, a historian needs source material to reconstruct the past. But sources themselves do not reveal the past. They need interpretation and the historian makes them speak. In fact, the historian is expected to track the source, read texts, and ask relevant questions, cross-check evidence to offer a meaningful explanation. The study of Ancient Indian history is significant for a number of reasons i.e.  It informs us how, when, and where people developed the earliest cultures in our country.  The study also indicates how they started agriculture which made life secure and settled.  It also shows how the ancient Indians discovered and utilized natural resources, and how they created the means for their livelihood. Therefore, it is essential to reconstruct ancient Indian history with the help of large varieties of historical evidence and their interpretation. Availability and decipherment are two limitations regarding the sources of Ancient Indian history. Those were the British administrative officers who, for their administrative needs, first paid attention to Ancient Indian history. Like, Sir William Jones, in 1784, founded ‘Asiatic Society of Bengal’, for learning, understanding and publishing sources of Ancient Indian History. Then, after the formation of Archaeological Survey of India in 1861, search for archaeological sources got legal momentum. Then, after the discovery of Indus valley civilisation in 1922, it boosted love for ancient Indian history among Indians. Then, until now, various types of sources are coming forth and their interpretation is becoming a more challenging job for the historians of Ancient India. This chapter will analyze the importance of various sources for the reconstruction of ancient Indian history Main Sources of Ancient Indian History The sources for the reconstruction of ancient Indian history can be studied under three broad headings namely (1) Literary sources (2) Archaeological sources and (3) Accounts of the foreign historians and travellers. Explain this sources with the help of a diagram. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

4 History-I Main Sources of History Religious Archaeological Foreign Secular Literature sources Accounts Literature Greeck & Chinese Roman Hindu Buddhist Jain Literature Literature Canonical Literature Inscriptions Semi- Historical Coins Historical works and work Biographies Ancient Harsha-charita Mudra-rakshas Monuments Sculptures Rajatrangani Arthashastra and Archaeologi Paintings cal Remains Gaudavaho Harsha’s writing Bhojaprabandha Writing of Kalidas Prithvi Raj Raso Works on Other historical Sangam works Literature Literary sources The literary sources to reconstruct ancient Indian history can be classified among the following categories like (i) Religious, (ii) Secular, (iii) Scientific, and (iv) Sangam literature and (v) Travelogues of foreign travellers. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Physical Features of India 5 Religious Literature Religion was the mainstay of society of Ancient World and India was not an exception to it. Hence, we find large numbers of canonical/religious literature of various religions, prevalent in ancient India. These throw light on religious, socio-economic aspects and political thought and ideology of ancient India. However, such sources should be used with caution. Because, first of all, most of the religious sources are retained through oral traditions and put into writing, hundreds of years after their actual creation. Besides, ‘what-we-have-now’ are the editions of actual writings. Secondly, religious literatures were mainly written to provide guidance with an idealist approach. Hence, whatever written is there, is ‘dos and don’ts’ kind of nature and not ‘as- actual’. Sometimes, the body of works like Puranas, though written from 4th century A.D. onwards, written as if they were created 1000 years before and prophesying something about 1000 years after. Hence, with tools like internal and external criticism, a historian can make use of these sources and reconstruct the history of ancient India. Vedic Literature The Vedic literature comprised of sources like four the Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads, Shad-Darshanas, Shad-Angas, Sutras, Smritis and Puranas. Vedas: The four Vedas comprised of Rig Veda, Sam Veda, Yajur Veda, Atharva Veda. The Vedas (derived from the word ‘Vid’ which means to know or knowledge) were basically a compilation of prayers of Aryans for the Gods, which were mainly the powers in nature. According to Aryans, the Vedas were heard (and not created by men), hence these were called ‘Shrutis’ and 'apaurusheya (not created by any man)'. The Vedas are also called as ‘Samhita’. The Vedas provides a lot of information regarding the social, economic, political, religious and cultural life of the people of Vedic Age which helps us in the reconstruction of ancient Indian history. Rig Veda Rig Veda is the earliest among the four Vedas. It is comprised of 10 mandalas and 1028 suktas. These were prayers to the Gods like Indra, Varuna, Agni, Parjanya, Vayu, Marut etc. It gives us information regarding socio-economic, religious, and political condition of Early Aryans, CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

6 History-I located in the area of Sapta-Sindhu. For example, the ‘Purushsukta’ of its 10th mandala depicts the origin of Varna system in India. In the Rig Veda, the battles between ten kings has been mentioned. These battles points to the struggle amongst the different tribal lords, and also gives us the first glimpse of imperialism in India. Sam Veda It comprise the prayers. It teaches how to recite the prayers while performing sacrifices. Again it comprised the prayers from Rig Veda, and provided methods to recite them. Hence, it is considered as the origin of Indian classical music. Yajur Veda It comprises the prayers to be recited while performing sacrifices or yajnya. Actually, the major parts of the prayers are borrowed from the Rig Veda, itself. It has two parts, Shukla and Krishna and six other samhitas. The Vajasaneyi Samhita of Yajur Veda throws ample lights on various Vedic sacrifices. Atharva Veda It comprised assorted subjects like magic, black magic, superstitions etc. We find origins of medicines, botany, and surgery in this Veda. The fours Vedas throw light on the life-ways of Vedic Aryans. We come to know that, when the Aryans, initially were settled in Saptasindhu region, their life-style was different. The second to ninth mandala of Rig Veda tells us about this. But when they migrated to more eastern part of their actual location, and came into contact with other communities, we find drastic changes in their life-ways. The first and 10th mandala of Rig Veda and other three Vedas inform about such changes. Hence, to understand Vedic Aryans, we have to think in two parts: Early Vedic and Later Vedic. Besides the above four Vedas, the other important works includes Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads, Vedangas, Shad-darshanas. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Physical Features of India 7 Brahmanas The Brahmanas were created to teach the procedure of sacrifices that were compiled in the Vedas. Hence, each Veda has its own Brahmana, e.g. of Rigveda-Aitareya Brahmana, Sam Veda — Jaiminiya Brahmana, Yajur Veda — Shatapath Brahmana and Atharva Veda Gopath Brahmana. From these Brahmanas, we get information of Vedic Aryans’ various institutions, like, four Varnas, four Ashramas, philosophy etc. Aranyakas The Aranyakas were created to teach the learning of Vedic religion, especially sacrifices and the mystic philosophy into seclusion. Aitareya Aranyaka is meant for Rig Veda whereas Taiteriya Aranyaka is for Yajur Veda. Upanishads The word Upanishad means ‘to learn, by sitting close to one’s teacher’. These were created to teach the learning of Vedic spiritualism, comprising the subject of, like, knowledge of one’s self, knowledge of God, relations between self and God, creation of Universe, our place in such a vast Universe, etc. Traditionally there are 108 Upanishads, however, some of the important ones are, Ken, Kath, Prashna, Aiterya, Chandogya etc. As these come, chronologically, at the end of Vedas, hence, the Upanishads are also known as ‘Vedanta’. The basic backbone of Indian religions were based, mostly, on Upanishads, hence, with the help of later, we can understand Indian religions more holistically. Vedanga The Vedangas or the Upvedas are treatises on science or art. These are means to the understanding of the Vedas. The six Vedangas are as follows: (1) Shiksha: How to pronounce the Vedic prayers in proper manner (2) Kalpa: Rules to perform sacrifice in a proper manner (3) Vyakaran: To know the proper grammar of Sanskrit language (4) Nirukta: Etymology of words, mentioned in the Vedas CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

8 History-I (5) Chhanda: Various meters in which Vedic shlokas are structured to recite. It comprised of Gayatri meter (Chanda), Anushtubha mantras (Chanda) etc. (6) Jyotish: It deals with proper time (Shakun) on which sacrifices should be performed. It also discusses the subjects of astronomy like sun, moon, constellations and, on cycles of seasons etc. Shada Darshanas These works deal with philosophical teaching or aspects in the Vedas. These are six, like, Vaisheshik (Kanad), Nyaya (Kanad), Sankhya (Kapil), Yog (Patanjali), Mimansa (Jaimini), Uttar- mimansa (Badrayan). These cover topics like the theory, logic, unity of soul with God, atoms, Vedic rituals, structure of universe etc. Sutras In response to the changes and challenges in 6th century B.C., the custodians of Vedic religion resorted to reconstruct and regulate their religion. Hence, Sutras were created to provide norms, rules and regulation to consolidated Vedic religion. Sutras were compiled around 6th century BC. The last of the Vedic literature are the Sutras. These are texts from different schools which came into being and devoted themselves to the understanding and study of the different branches of the Vedas. These were comprised of three sutras, viz. Dharmsutras, Shrautsutras and Grihyasutras; together they are called as Kalpasutras. They throw ample light on such processes going through during 6th century BC. The Smritis The Smritis, like Sutras, are the books of norms, codes, rules, regulations to consolidate and reconstruct Vedic religion. These were written by various scholars, like, Manu, Narad, Parashar, Yajnyavalka etc. Hence, we find many smritis on their name, e.g., Manu-smriti, Narad-smriti etc. Puranas In the absence of an authentic and systematic historical material, the Puranas throw valuabale light on the historical events of our country. In Puranas each and every king of that time has been mentioned with his reigning period. Thus, a genealogical and dynastic chrononology is found in CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Physical Features of India 9 the Puranas. The Puranas present a clear picture of the political , social, economic and religious conditions of India. The Puranas were mainly comprised of 18 Puranas. These were classified according to the devotional cults prevailed in 3rd-4th century India. For example, the Puranas of Shaiva consisted of Shaiv Puranas, Vayu Puranas, Skanda Puranas; whereas the Vaishnavas venerated Vishnu Purana, Garud Purana, Matsya Purana, Varaha Purana. The Shakti cult (devoted to mother goddesses) and Ganapatya cult also created their own Puranas. Such Puranas have common sections, like, origin of universe, stories regarding respective God and its Family, importance of pilgrim centres and pilgrimages, political dynasties and myths of lineages (vansha and vanshanucharit) etc. Subsequently, other related subjects were also touched in the Puranas, like, iconography, architecture (Vishnudharmottar Purana), medicines, geography, political history etc. In short, to understand India of 3rd to 6th century AD, the Puranas help historians to a large extent. Epics The ‘Ramayana’ and ‘Mahabharata’ are two great epics which present a clear picture of the people of those times. Though these epics have been regarded as legendary stories, they give us abundant information about the economic, religious, social and political conditions of the then ancient India. The ‘Ramayana’ shows the Aryan expansion towards south. the performance of Ashvamedha Yajna indicates that the power of the king during this period had increased and that a powerful king asserted his supremacy over other kings. The ‘Mahabharata’ also throws ample light on the historical facts of that age. Buddhist Literature The Buddhist canonical literature is also very important from the point of view of supplying us historical knowledge of ancient India. Buddhism was the religion of the masses. Hence, their literature were found in various languages, like, Prakrit (Pali), Tibetan, Chinese, Sinhali etc. To challenge Vedic religion, these were also written in Sanskrit language. The vast body of Buddhist literature comprised of, mainly, the Pitakas and the Jatakas etc. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

10 History-I The Pitakas The Pitakas comprised of three compilations, viz. Vinaya, Sutta, Abhidhamma and together they are known as ‘Tri-Pitakas’. The Vinay Pitaka was compiled by Upali and comprised of five books. These were basically created to provide codes of conducts for Monasteries, Bhikus, Bhikkunis, their daily routine, ethics etc. It has parts like Sutta-vibhanga (origin of codes regarding Bhikkus), Khandaka (rules regarding entry into monastery and admissions etc) and Parivar. The Sutta-pitaka compiled by Ananda. These were created to teach Buddha’s teaching with examples, parables and lectures. This body of literature is oriented towards common people. The Sutta-Pitaka comprised of five books (nikayas), like Digha-nikaya, Mazzim-nikaya, Sanyukta-nikaya, Anguttar-nikaya, and Khuddak-nikaya. The Khuddak-nikaya was an important volume consisting of works like, Dhammapada, Suttanipata, Thergatha and Therigatha. Jatakas were also a part of Khuddak-nikaya. The same, i.e., Buddha’s teaching is the main theme of Abhidhamma-Pitaka, however, it has a philosophical and scientific form. Obviously, these were meant for Buddhist scholars. It comprised of ‘Kathavastu’ an important Buddhist book. In, short, these books throw ample light on thoughts and codes of conducts of Buddhism. The Jatakas The Jatakas were of inestimable value for the reconstruction of ancient Indian history as it gives a vivid picture of the political, social, economic and religious condition of the India. The Jatakas are the compilation of the stories regarding previous births of Buddha. To solve the problems of his followers, Buddha devised a beautiful method to tell the stories from his own experiences that of his previous births, and, the skeptic or problem follower drew answers from these stories. These were the Jatakas which throw light on India during 6th century BC. Dipvamsha and Mahavamsha: These Buddhist works are of Sri Lankan origin. They inform us about Ashoka, the Mauryan Emperor and various Buddhist scholars. Divyavadan: This Buddhist work is of Nepali origin. It tells Buddhist stories and throws light on northern dynasties, from Mauryan kings to Shunga period. The Buddhist literature also comprised of other important works, like, Milind-Panha (discussion between Bhikku Nagsen with Milind (Menander) Buddhist turned Greek king; CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Physical Features of India 11 Ashvaghosha’s Buddha-Charit (biography of Buddha); Mahavastu, Lalitavistar, Manjushri Mulkalpa etc. Jain Canonical Literature The Jain religious literature was written in Ardha-Magadhi, Prakrit and consists of twelve Angas, twelve Upangas, ten Prakirnas, six Chhedasutras, four Mulasutras and other texts. The more important from the historical point of view is a work ‘Parishista-Parvana’ of Hema Chandra. These works contain rules of conduct for monks, religious doctrines, stories of various religious teachers, etc. They also provide incidental information about the social and economic conditions of the period. It is true that the religious literature of the Hindus, Buddhists, and Jains cannot be compared with the historical works of Herodotus and Thudydides but nonetheless it has proved immensely helpful in the reconstruction on the history of ancient India. Jain Biographies: These were comprised of Bhadrabahu-Charita, Jasahar Charita, Nayakumar Charita etc. The Bhadrabhau-charita throws light on the events related to Mauryan Emperor Chandragupta and his teacher, Bhadrabhau-Jain Acharya. The Jain literature also comprised of Kathakosh of Harisen, Dhananjay-mala (thesaurus), Alankar-chintamani (on literature), Mahavir-ganit-sarsamgraha (mathematics), Niti-vakya-mrita of Somdeva (Political science) etc. Secular Literary Sources Apart from the vast religious literature, there exists considerable secular literature in the form of biographies, dramas, historical texts, works on polity, and scientific and technical works which provide us useful information about ancient Indian history. Histories India was not unaware of history-writing. We would understand some regional histories in the following lines. Rajatrangini This is perceived as the first book of history of India, as per modern lines of historiography. It is the history of Kashmir, written by Kalhan (born in 1100 AD in Kashmir). He completed this CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

12 History-I book within two years, during the reign of King Jaysimha of Kashmir. It is in Sankrit, comprising eight Khandas (chapters/volumes) and 7826 sholkas (verses). It gives history of Kashmir from the period of Mahabharata-war up to 12th century AD; however, only from 9th century, a precise history can be seen. Kalhan was an unbiased historian who, for writing history, utilized large body and variety of sources. He undertook field-work and travelled throughout Kashmir. During his travel he not only collected sources but also interviewed local people and collected oral traditions. Thus based on literary sources and oral tradition and through extensive field-work, he wrote ‘Rajatrangani’. His work shows his love of Kashmir and respect of his patron king. However, as a historian, he also criticizes the negative points of his king. The work shows his beautiful narrative-descriptive style, dramatic dialogues, sprinkled with good advises here and there. Rajatrangini shows importance of sources and variety of them for writing of history. It also stresses the impartiality and unbiased nature of a historian. Hence, it is called as first book of History in India. Apart from Rajatrangani, the ‘Rasmala’ and ‘Kirtikaumudi’ (written by Someshvar) inform us about the history of Gujarat during the Chalukya (of Lata) period. Eulogies The Eulogies are those works which are created to praise the patron king (and his deeds) by a charan/bhat/poet in the court. Such works, though one-sided, informs us about king, his dynasty and family, his deeds and policies etc. Vikramank-deva-charit: This eulogy is written by Bilhan who praises the king Vikramaditya (of Chalukya dynasty) and his various deeds. Gaudavaho: Vakpati wrote this eulogy in praise of Yashovarman’s (of Malwa) victory over Bengal (Gaud region). Harsha-charit: This eulogy was written by Banbhatta in praise of Harshavardhana. Besides, some other notable eulogies comprised of Kumarpala-charit (by Hemchandra), Hammir-mad- mardan (by Jaychand Suri), Prithvi Raj Raso by Chand Bardai etc. Kavya Literature The literature comprised of dramas, poetry, etc. These are secular kind of literature hence we find factual information regarding society and economy, sometimes polity of specific period. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Physical Features of India 13 However, these should be used with caution as their purpose was not to write history but to entertain readers. Dramas: The ‘Sariputta-prakaran’ was considered as the first drama, written by Ashvaghosha. Then, one scholar – Bharat wrote his famous ‘Natyshastra’ on dramatics. Some of the important dramas are as follows: Mudra-rakshas: This is a drama, written by one Vishakhadatta. The drama deals with one incident concerned with Chanakya (the prime minister of Chandragupta Maurya) and Rakshasa (Amatya of Dhanananda). The play gives information on Chankya’s politics, espionage and the foundation of Mauryan Empire. His drama ‘Devi-chandraguptam’ deals with the life of Chandragupta II of the Gupta dynasty. Mrichcha-katika: This drama revolves around the love between one poor Charudatta and beautiful Ganika (prostitute) Vasantasena. It is written by Raja Shudrak which sheds light on economical affluence of ancient India, the prostitutes and respect to them in society, the social structure etc. It also gives passing reference on people’s revolt against an unjust king. Malvika-agnimitra: This play was written by Kalidasa, a great poet and dramatist during Gupta period. The subject of the drama is the love between one Malvika and Agnimitra, brave king of Shunga dynasty. Kalidasa also wrote beautiful dramas like Vikramorvashiya, Shakuntal etc. Nanganada, Ratnavali, Priyadarshika: These plays were written by king Harshavardhana. These reflect upon socio-economic condition and religious outlook during his reign. Other dramas of importance comprised of Uttar-rama-charit and Malati-madhav of Bhavbhuti, Svapna- vasavdatta of Bhasa, etc. Poetry After early centuries of Christian era, and especially during Gupta times, India witnessed growth of classical literature. The ‘Raghu-vamsha’, ‘Kumar-sambhav’, ‘Riti-samhar’ and ‘Meghaduta’ were the classic creation of Kalidasa. The last two are world-famous and the description of nature and cycles of seasons, written therein reflects, not only the classicality India CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

14 History-I received at that time, but, the contemporary ecology of that time. Other works of poetry consisted of Dashakumara-charit (Dandi), Kiratarjuniya (Bharavi), Ravan-vadha (Bhatti), Vasavadatta (Subandhu) etc. Compilations Some compilations are worth mentioning regarding secular sources; such as Gatha-saptashati of 'Hala, the Satavahana king was himself a great man of literature. He collected folk tales/songs and compiled into 'Gatha-saptashati, a compilation of 700 short poems. It has a great literary merit. It is an impartial source which gives information of common folks during early historic Godavari-valley. It touches, mainly the human relations, various relationships and complexities, the cropping patterns, social structures etc. Then, some other compilations include Brihat-katha (of Gunadhya), Brihatkatha-manjari (of Kshemendra), Panchatantra (of Vishnusharma). These are basically universal stories, told to inculcate ethics and moral values in the hearts and minds of people and children, by using imaginary dialogues between trees and animals. Scientific Treaties Ancient India was not unaware of scientific works. Hence, considerable amount of scientific works were created during that period. The treaties mainly comprised of works on political sciences and grammar, however, after early centuries, many scientific works started showing up on subjects like medical science, agro-irrigation science, mathematics, astrology-astronomy, art- architecture, iconography etc. Especially, the Gupta period witnessed the emergence of various sciences. Arthashastra: This is a book on state craft, written by Chanakya/Kautilya, the prime minister in Chandragupta Maurya’s court. He defines Arthashastra as ‘the science to teach how to be benefitted by the power and how to preserve it’. In short, it informs us about methods to acquire power and various types of administrative systems/policies to sustain it. This book is a firsthand document which informs us about the polity and administrative system of Mauryan Empire. As it is an administrative document and especially ‘written-for-the-king’, it is in court language, i.e., Sanskrit. To write this book, Chanakya took review of, pervious researches of 18 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Physical Features of India 15 scholars on the subjects. The Arthashstra comprised of 15 parts (pradhikaranas), 150 chapters (adhyayas), 180 headings (up-vibhagas) and 6000 verses (shlokas). These parts are as follows: Ashtadhyayi and Mahabhashya Ashtadhyayi deals with grammar, written by Panini. It throws light on social churning of 6th century BC, i.e., the period of second urbanization in India. Another similar work is Mahabhashya, written by Patanjali, which informs us about social conditions during Early Vedic period. Charak-samhita and Sushrut-samhita These works inform us about medical sciences during Ancient India and are considered as the basis of Ayurveda branch of medicines. Brihat-samhita It is written by Varhamihir and is of an encyclopedic nature. It touches various subjects like, crops, cropping pattern, agriculture technology, how to foresee earthquakes, astronomy, astrology etc. It testifies the scientific progress in India during Gupta period. He also has written ‘Pancha- siddhantika’, concerns with eclipses, path of planets and pace of constellation etc. Other works on astronomy and astrology comprised of Aryabahatiya (by Aryabhatta), Brahma-sphuta-siddhant (by Brahmagupta) etc. Sangam Literature The Sangam literature gives us information regarding early historic period of southern India. The Sangam means an assembly. The body of Sangam literature comprised of the poems, presented in three assemblies, by Tamil poets. These poems were actually collected by the poets, from various eco-regions in southern India. Thus, these are basically folk-lore, compiled by urban poets. The important works are Shilappadikaram, Manimekhalai, Pattupattu etc. There are five eco-regions in Tamil-land, called as ‘Tinai’ and these are five, hence, ‘Ain-tinai’. Each ‘tinai’ has a specific kind of ecology and, naturally, specific kind of response (or mode of subsistence) to their surrounding ecology. Thus, the poems in hilly regions display different subject-matter or surroundings than those that were of coastal region. However, these folk-songs were created on two basic theme lines, i.e., Love (ekam) and War (puram). Thus, ‘waiting on the coast for her CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

16 History-I lover who has not returned from fishing' is a matter of tension in coastal region and ‘fear of attacks of wild animals on her lover’ is a concern of hilly regions. Such type of literature is mostly a secular one and reflects true nature of common men- women and their life-style. If we look deeply into that, vast hoard of information could come forward of utmost importance, like, ancient ecology, modes of subsistence and methods/techniques to acquire food, forest/sea/plain-products, cropping patterns and their cycle, methods of irrigation, social condition and tensions in social groups, independence of eco-regions and interdependence upon each other whereas on the other side, Tamil polity, kingship and duties of kings, towns and town administration, laws, judiciary, city-layouts, internal and external trade etc. Foreign Accounts Apart from the indigenous sources, certain foreign sources have also greatly helped us in the reconstruction of the ancient Indian history. These foreign sources include the accounts of the foreign visitors from Greece, Rome, China, etc. Though these accounts may not be self-sufficient for the reconstruction of ancient Indian history, they have certainly supplemented the indigenous sources and helped in corroboration of certain facts. After the invasion of Persians and Greeks, India was re-exposed to ancient world. The wars were some incidents; however the process of mobility of people between two counties became a sustainable phenomenon of Ancient India. Such travellers were foreigners hence they had no obligation to any king of the region. Hence, their accounts are impartial and; being ‘eye-witness’ gives us first hand information on the subjects they touched upon. However, it should be kept in mind that, as they were foreigners and not-rooted in India, it is not possible to expect from them a perfect knowledge of the socio-economic and political thoughts and institutions in India. The Greeks and Romans Herodotus He is considered as first historian of the world. He, while describing the war between Persia and Greece, mention Indian soldiers, fighting along the side of Persians. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Physical Features of India 17 Megasthenes He was the ambassador of Selucus Nicator, posted in the court of Chandrgupt Maurya. In his work, ‘Indica’, he gives description of the layout of Pataliputra, like, a big city, with an extent of 14 km × 2 km, fortified with 570 bastions and 67 gateways with one huge royal palace etc. He also touches upon social structure, caste-system, caste-relations etc. It should be noted that the original Indica is lost; hence, we can't use any information, actually written there in. However, the travellers, who came into India after Megasthenes, have referred Indica and quoted it. Thus, through them i.e. indirectly, we can use ‘Indica’ as a source. Peryplus of the Erythraean Sea This travelogue is an anonymous work, presumed to be written by one fisherman on the Egyptian coast. The work gives us impartial and objective information on the Indo-Roman trade during early historic period. It informs us about the ports on India’s coastline, tradecentres in India, the trade routes connecting trade centres and ports, distance between centres, the list of items of trade, the annual volume of trade, the rates, types of ships etc. Chinese Fa-Hien (Fa Xian) (337-422 AD) This Chinese traveller visited India during the Gupta period. He was a Buddhist monk, who visited India to seek knowledge from Dev-Bhumi (i.e. India) and visit Buddhist Pilgrimage centres. On the basis of his three years of travel, he has written, in his chronicle ‘Records of Buddhist Kingdoms’, on society and culture of North India, besides, various factors in Gupta administration. Hiuen-Tsang (602-664 AD) This Chinese Buddhist monk, against all odds, visited India during Harshavardhana’s reign. He started his journey in 629 AD, from Gansu, and then through, Gobi Desert-Kyrgyzstan- Uzbekistan-Samarkand-Balkh came to India in 630 AD. He visited Buddhist pilgrimage centres, stayed at Nalanda University and studied Buddhism, he had gone through original Buddhist works, collected original manuscripts and mementos, made copies, attended Harsha’s assembly CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

18 History-I and after years of travel throughout India, returned to China in 645 AD. In China he wrote his account as 'Si-Yu-Ki' (Great Tang Records on the Western Regions). This chronicle give vivid description of what he had witnessed in India. He gives information of kings especially Harsha and his generosity, people and customs of various regions in India, life-ways etc. He has written of habits and nature of Maharashtrian people. Other chronicles consists of Taranath’s (Tibetan Buddhist monk) Kangyur and Tangyur, reflect upon early Medieval India. Archaeological sources The Archaeological sources comprised of (i) Inscriptions, (ii) Coins, (iii) Ancient Monuments, (iv) Sculptures & Paintings and (v) Archaeological Remains Inscriptions After contact between Persia and India, India came to know the importance of ‘art-in-stone’. Being a stable material, stones were being used for engraving the king’s orders, policies, outlooks to public them and preserved them for time immemorial. These were also used for issuing land- grants to the grantee. With this same notion, court-poets also engraved eulogies by using such material to make it immortal. These are generally called inscriptions and written, either on rock or pillar. These are called epigraphs or edicts. Epigraphs The earliest epigraphs in India are those of Ashoka, the Mauryan Emperor. He, to propagate his dhamma and policies, issued 14 edicts. These were inscribed on rocks, e.g., Junagadh (Gujarat). Besides, he put up pillars in public places or places where people can gather easily; and, inscribed on them. To help people to read these commands, he, categorically, inscribed them into the language and script of the common people, i.e., Brahmi (script) and Prakrit (language). The edicts in North-western India had Kharoshtri script, known to local people of that area. These Ashokan epigraphs (rock-edicts and pillar-edicts) inform us, near about biography of Ashoka, like, his early days, his gruesome war with Kalinga and his remorse, his conversion to Buddhism, his dhamma, his compassionate attitude towards other religion and the same expectations from his subjects, his methods of propagation, stress on morality, ethics – civic sense and universal values etc. Other inscriptions of importance comprised of CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Physical Features of India 19  Naganika's inscription at Nangeghat which gives information of various sacrifices, performed by Satavahana King Satakarni I and his deeds  Gautami Balashri's and Yajnya Satkarani’s inscription at Nasik caves which give information on the adventures of Gautamiputra Satkarni, the great Satavahana king.  Kharvela’s inscription at Hathigumpa tells his deeds.  Harisena’s inscription (eulogy) on the pillar of Allahabad (called as ‘Prayagprashasti’), informing us about adventures and campaigns of Samudragupta, the great Gupta emperor.  Ravikirti's eulogy at Aihole informs us about adventures of Pulkeshi II, the Chalukya king of Badami. So far the epigraphs for ‘land-grants’ are concerned; we find lots of information in there. Like, the king or issuing authority, his lineages, mythical origins of his dynasty, his kingdom and its extent, then; the origin/gotra of grantee; then; purpose of grant, the extents and limits of granted land, list of rights and privileges to the grantee, punishments to the trespassers or violators of the grant etc. Such epigraphs, along with the king's biographical sketch, as immovable, also inform us about the extent of the kingdom of the issuer. Copper-plates Generally for ‘land-grants’ the copper plates were engraved and issued to the grantee. These are basically three plates of copper, tied with each other through copper knot. The upper and last portions are left un-engraved as these can be blurred with ravages of time. Such copper-plates reveals the same information that is in the land-grants, engraved as epigraphs. Such copper-plates give information on socio-economic condition of that period. For example the ‘Sauhagaura- copper plate, informs us about severed draught and the measures undertaken by authorities to tackle the problem of food-shortage. Coins Since 6th century BC we receive information regarding coins in India. Basically the earliest were crude and of punch-marked silver coins; punch-marked Coins then, after the stability of foreigners in India like Greek, Kushanas, Parthian, round, cast-coins with bust of kings — Deities, their titles etc. With their influence, Indian dynasties also came up with developed coins. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

20 History-I However, those were the Guptas who came up with fully developed coins. We find such ancient coins, generally by accidents or through gifts. Such coins help us to reconstruct our ancient History through many ways, like, (a) Coins inform us about such dynasties and kings which missed place in literary sources. (b) The metal used in them informs us about ancient metallurgy. (c) The proportion of pure metal in the coins of ‘claimed metal’ informs us about economical condition of issuing dynasty. For example, the gold coins of Kushanas and Guptas are true to their ‘claim’ and show higher proportion of gold in them; whereas, the proportion is minimal or more-or-less absent in later Gupta rulers. This shows the growth of Indian economy since Kushanas to Gupta period and dwindling during later Gupta period. (d) Coins inform us the economic relationship among people. For example, the discovery of northern punch marked coins in Deccan indicated relationships between north and south India. The same is true when we find Roman coins in Deccan during Satavahana period and Satavahana coins in Mediterranean world. (e) Religious symbols or figures of deities on coins inform us about religious outlook of issuing dynasties. For example, Krishna and Balarama in the coins of Agathocles’ indicated compassionate attitude of that Greek king. The symbols related to Vishnu on Gupta coins like Garuda-dhvaja indicates their belief on Vaishnavism. The titles also tell us about their religious attitude, e.g., titles of Guptas like Param-vaishnava, param- bhagavat indicate their inclination towards Vaishnavism. Samudragupta with Garud- dhvaja. (f) Coins also reflect the king’s personality, his interests etc. For example, the lionslayer image of Chandragupta II indicates his braveness; the harp-in-hand image of Samudragupta indicates his love for art. (g) Some coins also have years, engraved on them. It helps to date the issuers. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Physical Features of India 21 (h) The coins also help for relative dating. For example, in archaeological excavations, if we find coins in one specific stratum then that stratum is relatively dated to the period of that coin. Monuments Another archaeological source which enables us to reconstruct ancient history of India is monuments. These monuments are found in the following forms which clearly show the cultural development of ancient Indian history. Secular Architecture/Monuments So far the public and secular architecture is concerned; first instances were brought from western and north-western India that is of Harappan civilisation of Chalcolithic period. During Harappan civilisation, India went through its first urbanization. Hence, public/civic architecture of utmost importance dotted these cities. These comprised of, long-wide roads, huge bathing places, tanks, religious places, granaries/warehouses, thrashing floors, dock-yards, man-made ports, sanitary arrangements like bathrooms and gutters, stadium, pavilion, palaces, fortification, bastion etc. The site of Inamgaon, during Chalcolithic period, also came up with a large bund and canal. Then, in Maurayan and post-Mauryan period, we find, large fortification (Pataliputra), palaces (Pataliputra), stadiums (Nagarjunkonda), flight of steps to the rivers (Nagarjunkonda) etc. The remains of houses also give information on the standard-of-life and living condition of that period. It also throws light on civic sense, personal hygiene of concerned people. Such sources give us information on socio-economic condition, the role of polity, defensive strategies, water- management, civic sense, life-style of the people of the concern period. Religious Monuments Monuments of Heterodox Religion: The religious monuments started showing up from Mauryan period. It started with the caves of Ajivakas (at Barabar and Nagarujuni hills: Bihar), then, we find large number of Buddhist monuments in India. Since Gupta period, we find the beginning, growth and classicality in Hindu monuments in India. The since early historic period, India was dotted with Buddhist Stupas, Chaityas and Viharas. At the outset, the construction began in Northern India; then through Gujarat, percolated to Maharashtra; and through Orissa, CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

22 History-I came to Andhra Pradesh. The Stupas were created on the physical remains or used-equipment of Buddha or noteworthy Buddhist monks. These stupas were surrounded by beautifully decorative Gate-ways (torana), e.g. stupas at Sanchi, Barhut (Madhya Pradesh); Amaravati (Andhra Pradesh); Pauni, Kolhapur (Maharashtra); Sannati (Karnataka). The Chaityas are Buddhist temples where Buddha was worshipped in the symbolic form of Stupa at the end of Chaityas. Except one at Bairat, the Chaityas were created in the caves; e.g., Chaityas at Bhaje (the earliest of them), Bedasa, Karle. The Viharas are the residential place of Buddhist monks, where a large space is surrounded by rooms along all its three sides. Similar to Chaityas, these were also hewn in rock, e.g., Viharas at Kanheri, Nasik, Junnar etc. After some centuries and under the influence of Mahayana cult, the stupa in Chaitya was replaced by idol of Buddha and Chaityas were combined with Viharas. This development can be witnessed in Ajanta. These Buddhist shrines give lot of information regarding various areas like, the development of religious thought and ideology, its spread in various regions, influence from other religions, its influence on other cults, the monastery (Sangha), relations between monastery and traders, stylistic evolution and growth of art etc. Besides, the decorative motifs on the gateways give us idea of public/individual architecture, flora-fauna, artistic styles of concerned period etc. Hindu Temples Since the Gupta period we witnessed the beginning of separate temple architecture. Initially, drawing influence from Buddhist cave art, these were started in caves. However, to congregate large masses, these descended on plains. The first experiment in separate temple architecture can be seen in modest temple No. 7, at Sanchi. It only comprises two parts, garbhagriha (sanctum) and mukhamandapa (frontal space). Then, through Tigava, Nachana and Devgadh (all in Madhya Pradesh), a complete temple with ‘garbhagriha-enclosed path of pradakshina-mukhmandapa at three sides and pier’ emerged; and that is with beautiful sculptures. The treatment to the Shikhara was to maintain it high, hence, it got narrower to the top. Hence, when a viewer looks at the temple his gaze goes straight, from base to top. Such style is called as ‘Nagara style’. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Physical Features of India 23 However, in Deccan and South India, the progress was different. At the outset, Chalukyas experimented in Temple architecture, from rock-cut temples (Badami) to separate temples (Pattadakal and Aihole). Near about same time, Pallavas, created temples in rock-cut fashion (the ‘Ratha Temples’ at Mahabalipuram). Then, Cholas came up with huge temples. Drawing from these experiments, the Rashtrakutas undertook an experiment of beautiful temple; however, in rock-cut fashion. That is Kailasa temple of Ellora. These temples in Deccan and South India generally use stone-slabs; placing upon each other for the Shikharas. Hence, the Shikhara looks steps-like, presenting squat impression. Such, architectural style is known as ‘Dravida style’. After such experimentation, large temples, beautified with sculptures started dotting whole of India. After 6th-7th century AD, growth of regionalism paved the way for emergence of regional styles in temple architecture. Thus, within a short period of time, India became abode of temples with beautiful sculptures on their walls and complex plan plus designs. Such Ancient monuments are the mute but objective source of Ancient Indian history. They help us to understand the growth of religion as well as ideology of religions. It also informs us about the exchange and influence of ideas among various belief systems. It also give us a idea of changes, growth of artistic styles and influences they draw on them. It also tells us the nature of patronage and the role of temples in political economy of the concerned period. Sculptures & Paintings Sculptures The earliest representation of Indian sculpture is found in Indus Valley civilisation. These were made of various materials, like stone, steatite, clay, terracotta, lime, bronze, ivory, wood etc. Some of them got place in shrine and became idol or icon. Some of them were made to beautify the walls of temples. Some of them were individual sculptures, made for various purposes, like as toys and for entertainment. The bronze statues of a dancer (Harappan civilisation) and toys (Diamabad) during Chalcolithic period show artistic merit, as well as expertise in metallurgy of India. Various other statues of the same period indicate place of entertainment, hairstyles, CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

24 History-I ornaments and costume of the Harappans. Same is true with terracotta toys, belonging to Shunga period. The Mauryan sculptures, like, the Yakshi of Didarganj indicate the contemporary affluence and aesthetic sense of people. The sculptural-reliefs on the gateways of stupas (Sanchi, Barhut), not only display growth of Buddhist ideology, but also of various other things like flora, fauna, civic architecture etc. The statue of Kanishka indicates the foreign origin of the king and costume of foreign style, like, high shoes, overcoats etc. Bronze statue of Poseidon and reliefs on plates/mirror-handles (Kolhapur) indicate trade relationship between Kolhapur and Rome during Satavahana period. The same is true by finding of ivory figure of Laxmi of Ter in the site of Pompeii (in Rome). Gupta sculptures indicate high artistic merit India achieved during that period. At this time, the science of sculptures had attained perfection and classicality. Hence, after Gupta period, the sculptures were made on the same models, that were determined during the Gupta period. Whereas, the development of icon/idols (individual sculptures for worship) regarding their poses and weapons they carry, indicate, development of religious ideology and influence they draw from various sources. These also indicate synchronization of various cults. Paintings Another significant source is paintings that tell us much about the cultural and religious attitudes of the people of ancient India. Earliest instances of paintings can be found in the rock- shelters of Bhimbetaka (Madhya Pradesh). These were drawn by Mesolithic cave-dwellers by using colours and tools from his surrounding nature. In Odisha, we find Rock Art painting at Sitabinji in Keonjhar district of Odisha. Through these rock-paintings we can understand the life- style of Mesolithic people; like, his way of living, methods of hunting, the flora and fauna in his surrounding etc. Then, we find beautiful paintings, especially from Ajanta and then at Bagh. The world-famous paintings of Ajanta give us information about religious ideology, the spiritual serenity, the ornaments, the costumes, the foreign visitors etc. And of course, through these paintings, we can understand the artistic merit and great esthetic sense of concerned period. Whereas, the paintings of Chola king on the walls of temples at Tamil Nadu, display the concept of ‘divine kingship’ of Chola polity. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Physical Features of India 25 Archaeological Remains People settle-people live-create institutions and physical structure and in some unfavourable condition leave the place. The place gets abandoned with material remains that people have left behind-unintentionally. Then, by the environmental agents like wind, soil, rain, a heap of soil gets accumulated on that place. Then, again the next group of people settles over there. Then, the same cycle continues. Thus, after sequence of repeated settlements and abandoning, a heap of soil forms over that place. Such heaps are called as ‘archaeological mounds’, hiding in its belly the history of mankind. Then some certain kind of historians, called as archaeologists unearthed these mounds, called as an excavation. Through excavation, archaeologists exposed the hidden history of that specific settlement. The archaeological material they unearthed can be used as sources for the reconstruction of history of that particular settlement. The material helps us to reconstruct history of those common people who were disregarded by the written source; those periods before the discovery of writing; to supplement the history, reconstructed by written sources. Following is a brief list of archaeological material that can be used as source: Pottery During Proto-history up to Early Medieval period, the base equipment of the common people was the pottery. The pottery or ‘ceramic assemblage’ comprised of various items, like, bowls, plates, pots, etc. It should be noted the pottery gets differentiated according to respective culture that created them. The difference lies in shapes, fabrics, surface-treatment (fabric, colour, designs, painting), pottery-making technique etc. Thus, specific pottery-type is assigned to particular culture/period. With such logic, archaeologists can date the site relatively on the basis of these differences. Hence, pottery is considered as alphabet of that site. Beads Since time-immemorial the bead-industry is one of the world-famous industries of India. These were made of various materials, like, stone, semi-precious stones (like Agate, Chalcedony, Crystal, Turquoise, Lapis-lazuli), glass, metals like gold, copper; terra cotta, ivory, shell etc. Besides, those were of different shapes like round, square, cylindrical, barrel-shaped etc. The technology was so higher that we have achieved the technique of making beads, inlaying other CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

26 History-I metal into them. These can be used as source to know the technological development and aesthetic sense of specific period. Faunal Remains/Bones Excavations reveal large amount of bones or faunal remains. These shed light on the surrounding historical ecology or ecosystem of that particular site. Besides, we can also understand the dietary habits of concerned people. Floral Remains The floral remains the also give us information on the surrounding historical ecology and dietary habits of the concerned people. Foundations of architecture During horizontal excavations, we come across foundation of architecture of related period. The architecture comprised of civic architecture like huts, houses, palaces, stadiums, assembly- halls, bath-rooms, ware-houses, activity areas like kitchen-bedrooms-hall-verandah-thrashing floors; roads, system of sanitation, water source, etc. On these bases and the layout of sites we can know the standard-of-living of the people, besides, the spatial distribution in the area indicates the social division of particular period, if any. The structures like bunds/docks throw light on the economy and technological development, attained by these people. Whereas, defensive architectures, like fortification, bastion, moats indicate the affluence of that particular site and quantum of threat to that site. Domestic Material The excavations reveal a hoard of domestic items, like, kitchen equipment (pots, hearth, spatula, querns etc.), ornaments, items of entertainment like toys; etc. These were made of various materials, like, stone, clays, terra-cotta, metal, shell, ivory etc. Occupational Material The occupation material comprised of agricultural equipments (hoe, plough, fishing- equipments (hook, net), trade equipment (weights and measures, seals and sealing, coins). These were also made of various material, like, stone, clay, terra cotta, metal etc. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Physical Features of India 27 The Charcoal Excavation unearths burnt-organic material of any kind. These are called as ‘Charcoal’. Such charcoal, in specific amount and through laboratory test, could be used for dating the period, called as ‘Carbon-14’. 1.3 Physical Features of India The wide range of physical features of India makes the country a complete geographical study. A thorough knowledge of the geography of a country has a very important role to play in a complete study of its history and India is no exception. The history of any country cannot be understood without some knowledge of its geography. Geography has also given India a distinct existence and maintains a clear identity of her own. India is a huge country divided into four geographical regions, each one having its own particular and peculiar features. These features have in every way that is social, economic, and cultural affected the course of our history. To the north, India is surrounded by the Himalayas. In the east, west, and south, there are seas and oceans. In the north-west, the Hindukush and Suleiman Mountains separate India from Russia, Afghanistan, and Iran. In the east, the Arakan Mountains separate her from Myanmar. Therefore, it is essential to study the geographical features of India while going through its history. In this aspect, Richard Hakluyt is very much true when he says, “Geography and chronology are the sun and the moon, the right eye and the left eye of history”. The physical features of India can be grouped under the following physiographic divisions having special characteristics. These are as follows  The mountain ranges of the Himalayas in the North  The great Indo-Gangetic plain or Northern Plain  The Deccan Plateau  The Coastal Ghats  The Islands  The Indian Desert CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

28 History-I Historically, India is an ancient country, known as Bharatvarsh. It is surrounded by the sea on three sides, separated from the rest of Asia by a lofty mountain chain. Hence, it has become an independent entity called the Indian subcontinent. In size, India is the seventh largest country in the world. It is a vast country characterized by great diversity in its physical features. Therefore, it is necessary to acquire some knowledge about principal physical features. The students should make themselves familiar with the main aspects of its geography, the broad facts regarding the external relief, mountain systems, plateaus, plains, drainage systems, glaciers, volcanoes etc. 1.4 The Mountain Ranges of The Himalayas  In the north of India, there are the lofty Himalaya Mountains which spread out both to the East as well as the West stretching from Kashmir in the West to Assam in the East. The word Himalaya means the “abode of snow” (Sanskrit word hima means “snow” and alaya means “abode”). The great Himalaya mountain wall is about 2500 km long and its width varies from 240 km to 320 km. Its highest peak, Mount Everest is 29,142 feet in height.  In the north-west of India, there are several passes like the Khyber, the Tochi, the Gomal, etc., which served as channels of commercial and cultural exchange between India and other countries in the past. These passes have always provided easy routes for travellers and invaders. Here, Dr. R. C. Majumdar has also pointed out that “The Himalaya is the most inaccessible frontier that, nature has designed for any country but even here, there are roads from Tibet to Nepal that has carried for ages not merely peaceful missionaries of culture and religion, but on rare occasions even formidable hosts of soldiers as well.” CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Physical Features of India 29  The ranges of Himalayas are divided into two groups. The hills like the Hindukush, Sulaiman, Safed Koh, and Kirthar forms the first group, which lie in the north-west region of the Himalayas, while the second group consists of the hills like the Khasi, Jaintia. Pat Koi etc., which lie in its eastern region. The eastern offshoots of the Himalayas are always covered with the thick forest due to the heavy rains, while its Western offshoots are dry and of lesser heights.  The Himalaya comprises of three parallel ranges in its longitudinal extent. A number of valleys lie between these ranges. The northernmost range is identified as the Great or Inner Himalayas or the ‘Himadri’. It is the most continuous range consisting of the loftiest peaks with an average height of 6,000 metres. It contains all the prominent Himalayan peaks. The range lying to the south of the Himadri forms the foremost rugged mountain system and is identified as Himachal or Lesser Himalaya. The ranges are primarily composed of extremely compressed and altered rocks. The altitude varies between 3,700 and 4,500 metres and also the average breadth is of fifty kilometres. While the Pir Panjal range forms the longest and the most vital range, the Dhaula Dhar and the Mahabharat ranges are also outstanding ones. This range comprises of the famous valley of Kashmir, the Kangra and Kullu Valley in Himachal Pradesh. This region is famous for its hill stations.  The outer range of the Himalayas is called the Shiwalik Hills. The Shiwalik Hills, also known as Churia Hills that stretches from the Indus River about 2,400 km eastwards close to the Brahmaputra River. It is ten to fifty kilometres wide with an average altitude varying between 900 and 1100 metres. These valleys are enclosed with thick gravel and alluvium. The longitudinal valley lying between lesser Himalaya and also the Shiwaliks are known as Duns. Dehra Dun, Kotli Dun, and Patli Dun are some of the well-known Duns. In some Sanskritic language texts, the region is called Manak Parbat. The word Shiwalik literally means ‘tresses of Shiva’.  Apart from the longitudinal divisions, the Himalayas have been divided on the basis of regions from west to east. These divisions have been demarcated by river valleys. For instance, the part of the Himalayas lying between Indus and Sutlej has been traditionally CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

30 History-I known as Punjab Himalaya but it is also known regionally as Kashmir and Himachal Himalaya from west to east respectively. A part of the Himalayas lying between Sutlej and Kali rivers is known as Kumaon Himalayas. The Kali and Tista rivers demarcate the Nepal Himalayas and the part lying between Tista and Dihang rivers is known as Assam Himalayas.  The Brahmaputra marks the easternmost boundary of the Himalayas. Beyond the Dihang gorge, the range of the Himalayas bends sharply to the south and spread along the eastern boundary of India. They are known as the Purvanchal or the Eastern hills and mountains. These hills running through the north-eastern states are mostly composed of strong sandstones which are sedimentary rocks. Covered with dense forests, they largely run as parallel ranges and valleys. The Purvanchal comprises the Patkai hills, the Naga hills, Manipur hills, and the Mizo hills.  In the north-western direction, the broken Himalayan ranges contain the major routes linking the Indian plains with Iran and Central Asia through Afghanistan. These routes links through the Gomal, Bolan, and Khyber pass. The Greeks, Shakas, Kushanas, Hunas and other foreign tribes reached Asian country, particularly India following these routes. Similarly, Buddhism and other Indian elements were carried out to Afghanistan and Central Asia through these mountain passes. 1.5 Location, Extent, Boundaries, and Area of India A huge landmass of South Asia is flanked by new fold towering mountains on the northwest, north and northeast. The Arabian Sea lies to its southwest, the Bay of Bengal to its southeast and the Indian Ocean to its south. This well defined South Asian landmass is called Indian sub- continent. This sub-continent consists of the countries of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan including Sri Lanka, an island narrowly separated by the Palk Strait. India alone covers about three fourths of the area of this sub-continent and has common frontier with each one of them. She along with her five neighbours, forms a clearly identifiable geographical unit, with certain common cultural parameters. Since ancient times, the country has been known by various names such as Aryavarta, Bharat, Hindustan and lately India. The Indian Ocean or Hind CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Physical Features of India 31 Mahasagar has also been named after India — the only country to be so. According to the Constitution of India, the country is known as Bharat or India. India lies wholly in the Northern Hemisphere. The Indian mainland extends between 8°4'N to 37°6' N latitudes and from 68°7' E to 97°25' E longitudes. Thus the latitudinal and longitudinal extent of India is of about 29 degrees. It measures about 3,214 km from north to south, and 2,933 km from east to west. Though the latitudinal and longitudinal extent is almost the same, the actual distances do differ considerably. Why is it so? This is because the east-west distance between two successive meridians of longitude along the equator is at its maximum — 111 km. This, however, goes on decreasing as one moves from the equator to the poles, where it is zero. This is because all the meridians of longitude merge in a single point at the poles — both North and South. On the other hand, the north-south distance between any two successive parallels of latitude along any meridian of longitude remains almost uniform, i.e., 111 km. The following table may further clarify this point: A glance at the globe should help to convince this point. The northern most point of the Indian mainland lies in the state of Jammu and Kashmir and the southernmost point is Kanyakumari in Tamilnadu. However, the southernmost point of the country as a whole lies further south in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It is now called Indira Point. It is situated at 6°30'N latitude. The westernmost point of lndia lies in Gujarat and the eastern most in Arunachal Pradesh. Let us see the impact of such large latitudinal extent upon the lives of the people of India. The northern parts of the country are quite far off from the equator. Therefore, the rays of the sun strike those parts more obliquely. Consequently, this part of the country receives lesser amount of isolation and has cold climate unlike the southern parts. Secondly, the difference between the length of day and night in southern most part of India is much less only about 45 minutes as they are situated near the equator, This difference between day and night in the northern parts of India steadily goes on increasing till it becomes as much as 5 hours. The Tropic of Cancer passes almost halfway through the country. Thus half of the country to the south of the Tropic of Cancer is situated in the Tropical or Torrid Zone and the other half lying north of the Tropic of Cancer falls in the Sub-tropical zone. The earth takes 24 hours to complete one rotation on its axis. The Sun rises first in the east and then in the west because the CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

32 History-I earth rotates from west to east. The earth’s longitudinal expanse of 360° is thus covered in 24 hours, at the pace of 15° per hour. As the longitudinal extent of India is nearly 29°, the real time difference in India between its eastern and western extremities is roughly of two hours. While at the eastern extremity of India the day may have just broken out, the western extremity would take nearly another two full hours to do so. To iron out this big chunk of time difference, India, like all other countries of the world, follows the local time of its relatively central meridian as the standard time for the whole country. For the convenience of all, each country chooses its standard meridian in a multiple of 7°30'. Accordingly, the standard meridian of India has been chosen to be 82°30' E. The north-central part of India is broad while the southern part tapers down towards the Indian Ocean in the south. Thus, the northern part of the Indian Ocean has been divided into two, by the sheer presence of Indian Peninsula. The western part of northern Indian Ocean is called the Arabian Sea while the eastern part is called the Bay of Bengal. The total length of the coastline of India including the island groups is about 7,516.6 km. The Palk Strait separates Indian mainland from Sri Lanka. Structurally, Sri Lanka is an extension of the peninsular block of India. 1.6 Area of India India accounts for 2.42 per cent of the world’s total land area; whereas it sustains 16 per cent of the world population. The land frontiers of India measure 15,200 km. Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Nepal, Myanmar and Bangladesh share common boundaries with India. The kingdom of Bhutan is situated in the Eastern Himalaya. It is a small country and the responsibility of its defense rests with India. Most of our boundary with Pakistan and Bangladesh is almost man-made. There is no mountain range or river to form a natural boundary. The international boundary of India passes through a variety of landforms — barren desert lands, lush green agricultural fields, gushing rivers, snow clad mountains as well as densely forested mountain ranges. The defence of such an international boundary passing through various kinds of terrains is certainly a difficult job. An Indian soldier is, therefore, exposed to various types of extremely hostile conditions on the course of his duty. Sometime, he is posted on the icy cold glaciers. At times he has to bear the wrath of the burning sun and he has to face in the hot sands of the desert. Often he is posted in the marshy, riverine, rainy and thickly forested tracts of the northeast. Our country has to spend CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Physical Features of India 33 crores of rupees daily for the defence of such a long and inhospitable boundary that passes through various kinds of terrain. 1.7 The Great Indo-Gangetic Plain or Northern Plain  The great Indo-Gangetic Plain or the Northern Plain has been shaped by the interaction of the three major watercourse systems of India that is the Indus, the Ganga, and the Brahmaputra alongside their tributaries have fed the foothills of the Himalayas. Since these watercourse basins had an enormous quantity of alluvial deposit from these glacial rivers, these regions grew fertile over many years. The Indo-Gangetic Plain or the Northern Plain extends from the Suleiman Mountain in the West to the edge of the Assam hills, is the most important natural region of India. The northern plains again divided into three significant parts i.e. The Punjab Plains – The Indus River and its tributaries specifically the Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas, and the Sutlej lead to the formation of these vast plains, a part of that currently lies in Pakistan. The Ganga Plains – This spreads across the states of North India, like Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Delhi, and West Bengal. The Brahmaputra Plains – This covers major parts of Assam and the other north eastern states.  The Northern Plain is regarded as one of the most fertile lands of the world. In fact, the prosperity of this region proved to be a cause of suffering to its inhabitants. Its enormous wealth was always a source of temptation and attraction for foreign invaders. The renowned cities of India, Banaras, Allahabad, Agra, Delhi, and Pataliputra belong to this plain which witnessed the rise and fall of mighty kingdoms of ancient times. Trade and commerce, wealth and richness, art and literature, etc, have also flourished in this Plain. Due to the fertility of the great plain, its people were happy and peace-loving. They had much spare time for their cultural pursuits. Moreover, they wished to spread, their culture to other parts of the world. Thus, the importance of Indo-Gangetic Plain in shaping the history of India cannot be denied. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

34 History-I 1.8 The Deccan Plateau  The Deccan Plateau lies in the south of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. The Deccan plateau looks almost like a triangle. It is surrounded by mountains and hills. On its North, the Vindhya and the Satpura ranges separate it from the Indo-Gangetic plain and slope down to the Cape Comorin. In the East, it starts from the Bay of Bengal and spreads right up to the Arabian Sea in the West. The Krishna, the Godavari, the Narmada, and the Tapti are the important rivers of this region.  The Satpura and Vindhya mountains are covered with dense forests. Besides, the lack of the means of transportation made it almost impassable for the North Indians to cross over to the South. The mountain ranges, dense forests and irregular terrain had made this region well nigh impregnable. That is why the people of this region are by nature very labourious, brave and courageous.  The Western and the Eastern Ghats fringe the western and the eastern edges of the Deccan Plateau respectively. The Western Ghats lie parallel to the western coast. The Western Ghats are over the Eastern Ghats. The Eastern Ghats stretch from the Mahanadi Valley to the Nilgiris within the south. The highest peaks of the Western Ghats are the Anai Mudi and the Doda Betta.  The Mahendragiri is the highest peak of the Eastern Ghats. The Shevroy Hills (near the city of Salem, in Tamil Nadu state, southern India), and the Javadi Hills (an extension of the Eastern Ghats spread across parts of Vellore and Tiruvannamalai districts in the northern part of the state of Tamil Nadu in south eastern India) are located to the southeast of the Eastern Ghats. 1.9 The Coastal Ghats  The Deccan plateau is flanked by a stretch of narrow coastal strips, running along the Arabian Sea on the west and the Bay of Bengal on the east. It consists of three sections. The northern a part of the coast is termed as the Konkan (Mumbai–Goa), the central stretch is called the Kannada Plain while the southern stretch is referred to as the Malabar CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Physical Features of India 35 Coast. Large rivers like the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, and also the Kaveri have produced extensive delta on this coast. East Coastal Plain extends along the coast of the Bay of Bengal from Ganga Delta in the north to Kanyakumari in the south. This plain is broader than the western coastal Plains. This plain includes the deltas of the rivers Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri. Chilka, Pulicat and Koluru lakes are the famous lagoons of this plain. These lakes have been formed by enclosing small parts of the Bay of Bengal behind sand bars. Lake Chilka is situated south of the delta of Mahanadi. The lake measures 75 km in length. Lake Pulicut is situated north of Chennai city. Koluru lake is situated between the deltas of the Godavari and Krishna rivers. The east coastal plain is fertile where rice grows in plenty. West Coastal Plain extends along the Arabian Sea from the Rann of Kutch in the north to Kanyakumari in the south. Except for the Gujarat plain, the western coastal plains are narrower than the eastern coastal plain. From southern Gujarat up to Mumbai this plain is comparatively broader, but it narrows southwards of Mumbai. Occasionally rocky domes and hills are visible in the plains of Gujarat, the Rann of Kutch and the plains of Kathiawar. The plains of Gujarat are made up of black soil. The coastal strip extending for about 500 km between Daman in the north and Goa in the south is called Konkan. This region is highly dissected and the coast line is indented or irregular with several natural harbours. A number of small and seasonal rivers flow through this region. The coast from Goa to Mangalore is called the Karnataka coast. The coast from Mangalore up to Kanyakumari is called the Malabar Coast. Here the coastal plain is wider. There are a number of long and narrow lagoons 80 km long Vembanad is an example of its kind. Kochi port is situated on one of the lagoons. 1.10 The Islands  India has two main offshore Island possessions i.e., the Lakshadweep Islands and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The Lakshadweep, which lies closer to the Malabar Coast of Kerala. This islands consists of clusters of coral Islands. It covers a little region of 32 sq km. Kavaratti Island which is the administrative headquarters of Lakshadweep. This Island group has a great diversity of Flora (Vegetation) and Fauna (Animal life). Anot unit her Islasnd known as Pitti Island, which is uninhabited, has a bird sanctuary. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

36 History-I  The Andaman & Nicobar Islands located in the Bay of Bengal and lie on the Indian Ocean. These groups of islands are larger in size than their western counterparts and have a rich biodiversity. Because the Andaman & Nicobar Islands are closer to the equator, the region also experiences equatorial climate. It is generally believed that these islands are an elevated portion of submarine mountains. 1.11 The Indian Desert  The Indian desert lies towards the western margins of the Aravali Hills. It is a rolling sandy plain covered with sand dunes. The only desert of India is that the Thar Desert. A major a part of this desert lies in Rajasthan but a little portion of it’s spread in Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, and Pakistan. Luni is the sole river which flows from this land. The desert receives only 150mm rainfall in a year. It is also known as the Great Indian Desert or Marusthali. The Great Rann of Kuchchh also falls into this desert. The Indian Desert The Northern Plains CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Physical Features of India 37 The Drainage System Of India The drainage pattern or system of an area refers to the system of flow of surface water mainly through the rivers and basins forms. The drainage system studies streams and the directions in which they carry the surface water of an area. The drainage system is related to a number of factors, for example slope of land, geological structure, amount of volume of water and velocity of water. The surface run off of India is carried by a number of small and large rivers. The drainage system of country can be studied with reference to two parts Northern India and Southern India. (a) Drainage System of North India Himalayas play an important role in the drainage system of the North India. This is because the rivers of North India have their sources in these mountains and beyond. These rivers differ from those of South India as they are still deepening their valleys rather rapidly. The debris eroded by these rivers are carried to the plains and seas and deposited there. This deposition is caused by the reduced velocity of river waters in the plains and deltas for want of necessary slope. The Great North Indian plain has been formed by the silt brought down by these rivers. Some of the Himalayan Rivers are older than the Himalayas themselves. As the ranges of the Himalayas had been rising upwards, these rivers were equally busy in downward cutting forming deep gorges and valleys. Consequently, parts of the valleys of these rivers are very deep and gorges have been formed. The depth of the Indus gorge near Bunji (Jammu & Kashmir) is 5200 meters. Sutlej and Brahmaputra have also formed such gorges. The drainage system of Northern India can be further sub-divided into three subsystems Indus System, Ganga System and Brahmaputra System. The major rivers of Indus basin are the Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej. The Ganga basin includes Ramganga, Ghaghra, Gomti, Gandak, Kosi, and Yamuna along with its southern tributaries, Son and Damodar rivers. The major rivers of Brahmaputra basin are Dibang and Lohit in Arunachal Pradesh and Assam, Tista in Sikkim, West Bengal and Bangladesh and Meghna, draining north - eastern part of Bangladesh. (b) Drainage System of Southern India Peninsular India is an ancient landmass. Therefore, the streams flowing through this region are in their old stage. They have almost attained their base level of erosion. Their capacity to CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

38 History-I erode valleys vertically has almost come to a negligible stage. Now these streams are eroding their sides at a slow pace. This is resulting in broadening of their valleys. Consequently, during flood their waters spread over a large area. It is believed that at the time of Himalayan progeny, due to the movements associated with the mountain building processes, the peninsular block had a slight tilt towards east. This is why, barring Narmada and Tapi, all the major rivers of south India flow towards east. Narmada and Tapi, both flow through fault or rift valleys. The major rivers of the drainage system of southern India are Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Pennar, Kaveri and Vaigai. The slope of the northern part of the southern peninsula is towards north. Consequently, some of the streams originating in the Vindhyas, flow towards north and join Yamuna and Ganga. Among these, Chambal, Ken, Betwa, Sind and Son are more important. 1.12 The Effect of Physical Features on Indian History  The huge Himalayan Mountain and its western and eastern ranges in the north have separated India from the rest of Asia. It serves almost like a wall separating our land from the other parts of Asia. It is because of the Himalayas that India and China though neighbours possess entirely different histories.  In the north-west, there are many passes from where the invaders like the Aryans, the Iranians, the Greeks, the Sakas, the Hunas, the Turks, the Mughals, and others came to India. Some of these invaders settled down permanently here, while others left after loot and plunder. These passes served as the gateway to foreigners. Except for these passes the boundaries of India were secure from all sides.  Our rivers which flow from the Himalayas are responsible for giving us prosperity and development, which otherwise would have made India a desert.  India is endowed with huge mountains, vast plains, deserts, big rivers and beautiful valleys. This geographical diversity has divided our country into various territorial divisions. This is the reason that in ancient times India could not be unified politically and hundreds of small kingdoms continued to exist.  The huge rivers originating from the Himalayan Mountains such as the Ganga, the Jamuna, the Indus, the Brahmaputra, etc., have made the northern plain extremely CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Physical Features of India 39 productive. It is counted among the most productive regions of the world. Because of its fertility, this region has always been very prosperous and rich. The famous cities of Patliputra, Banaras, Allahabad, Agra, Delhi, Multan and Lahore are situated in this region. Because of the wealth and prosperity, the inhabitants of this region have always been peaceful and have led a life of luxury.  Big deserts, dense forests and succeeding mountain ranges carved out several areas which were inaccessible. The old tribes of these places gave shelter to the fugitives of the plains. In such places lived the ancient tribes like Bhils, Santhals, Kols, Gonds, and others.  In the sphere of cultural, the contribution of north India is supreme. The wealth of this region made the people peace and ease-loving. Free from the worries of livelihood, they had enough time for the cultivation of art and literature. The Vedic literature is the most valuable treasury of our country. The art and crafts developed dramatically during the Mauryan and Gupta periods. The famous Gandhara School of Art too developed in this region. In the domain of literature, the Arthashastra of Kautilya and dramas of Kalidas are the immortal gifts of ancient India. The world-renowned universities of Taxila and Nalanda too flourished in Northern India. This progress in the field of culture in northern India is due to its geographical situation.  Because of geographical situation life in the south as compared with that of the north, was more secure and safe. As a consequence south proved to be the defender of Indian civilisation and culture at a time when the north had to face the attacks of foreign invaders.  Due to the lack of the means of transportation and communication, trade and commerce could not expand a good deal. The paucity of natural ports too added to this weakness but this does not mean that Indians had no commercial relations with countries abroad. During the Gupta period, Indian trade and commerce were at its prime and it was due to the establishment of certain colonies abroad that India was termed as ‘Greater India’. Thus, we may conclude that the physical features of India have greatly affected the history of this country. It has directly affected various political ups and downs, steered social and cultural CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

40 History-I lives and immensely added to its economic prosperity. Dr. H. C. Roychoudhury has aptly remarked that “the course of Indian history, like other countries of the world, is in a large measure, determined by its geography.” 1.13 Summary  The history of any country cannot be understood without some knowledge of its geography. Geography has also given India a distinct existence and maintains a clear identity of her own.  The physical features of India can be grouped under the following physiographic divisions having special characteristics. These are the mountain ranges of the Himalayas in the North, the great Indo-Gangetic plain or Northern Plain, the Deccan Plateau, the Coastal Ghats, the Islands, and the Indian Desert.  In the north of India, there are the lofty Himalaya Mountains which spread out both to the East as well as the West stretching from Kashmir in the West to Assam in the East. The word Himalaya means the “abode of snow” (Sanskrit word hima means “snow” and alaya means “abode”).  The ranges of Himalayas are divided into two groups. The hills like the Hindukush, Sulaiman, Safed Koh, and Kirthar forms the first group, which lie the north-west region of the Himalayas, while the second group consists of the hills like the Khasi, Jaintia. Pat Koi etc., which lie in its eastern region.  In the north-west of India, there are several passes like the Khyber, the Tochi, the Gomal, etc., which served as channels of commercial and cultural exchange between India and other countries in the past.  The outer range of the Himalayas is called the Shiwalik Hills. The Shiwalik Hills, also known as Churia Hills that stretches from the Indus River about 2,400 km eastwards close to the Brahmaputra River. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Physical Features of India 41  The great Indo-Gangetic Plain or the Northern Plain has been shaped by the interaction of the three major watercourse systems of India that is the Indus, the Ganga, and the Brahmaputra alongside their tributaries have fed the foothills of the Himalayas.  The renowned cities of India, Banaras, Allahabad, Agra, Delhi, and Pataliputra belong to the northern plain which witnessed the rise and fall of mighty kingdoms of ancient times.  The Deccan plateau lies in the south of the Indo-Gangetic plain. The Deccan plateau looks almost like a triangle. It is surrounded by mountains and hills. On its North, the Vindhya and the Satpura ranges separates it from the Indo-Gangetic plain and slopes down to the Cape Comorin.  Mahendragiri is the highest peak of the Eastern Ghats. India has two major offshore Island possessions i.e., the Lakshadweep Islands and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The Lakshadweep, which lies closer to the Malabar Coast of Kerala consists of clusters of coral Islands.  The Andaman & Nicobar Islands located in the Bay of Bengal and lie on the Indian Ocean.  The Indian desert lies towards the western margins of the Aravali Hills.  The huge Himalayan Mountain and its western and eastern ranges in the north have separated India from the rest of Asia. The huge rivers originating from the Himalayan Mountains such as the Ganga, the Jamuna, the Indus, the Brahmaputra, etc., have made the northern plain extremely productive. 1.14 Key Words/Abbreviations  Physical Futures: A natural feature on the surface, such as water, mountains, and deserts. Usage: Deserts, mountains, and lakes, are all Physical Features.  History: History is the past as it is described in written documents, and the study thereof.  India: India has a myriad of landscapes, great heritage and culture, varied flora and fauna. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

42 History-I  Himalayas: The Himalayas, or Himalaya, is a mountain range in Asia separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau.  Northern Plain: Northern plains are the youngest physiographic feature in India. They lie to the south of the Shivaliks, separated by the Himalayan Frontal Fault (HFF). 1.15 Learning activity 1. Describe the main physical features of India ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2. Estimate the influence of the Himalayas and the Great Northern Plains on the course of Indian History. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1.16 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) A. Descriptive Types Questions (a) Write a short note on the mountain ranges of the Himalayas. (b) Write briefly about the Northern Plain. (c) Give a brief account of the Deccan Plateau. (d) Write a short note on the Coastal Ghats. (e) Mention about the Indian Desert. (f) Discuss the main geographical divisions of India. (g) What is the effect of physical features on Indian history? Explain. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Physical Features of India 43 B. Multiple Choice/Objective Type Questions 1. The word Himalaya means.. (a) the “abode of house” (b) the “abode of snow” (c) the “abode of sky” (d) the “abode of hill” 2. Which is not a pass of Himalaya Ranges? (a) The Khyber (b) The Tochi (c) The Gomal (d) None of the above 3. The Deccan plateau looks almost like a (a) Circle (b) Triangle (c) Rectangle (d) Oval 4. The Lakshadweep lies closer to coast of which state of India? (a) Kerala (b) Gujurat (c) Odisha (d) Andhra Pradesh 5. The three major water course systems of India that is the Indus, the Ganga, and the Brahmaputra alongside their tributaries form (a) The southern plain (b) The Deccan Plateau (c) The Northern Plain (d) The Western Land Answers 1. (b), 2. (d), 3. (b ), 4. (a), 5. (c). 1.17 References References of this unit have been given at the end of the book. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

44 History-I UNIT 2 HARAPPAN AND OTHER INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION Structure: 2.0 Learning Objectives 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Origin and Extent of Harappa Civilization 2.3 Discovery & Time Span 2.4 Geographical Distribution of Indus Valley Civilization 2.5 Chronology of the Indus Valley Civilization 2.6 Other Indus Valley Civilizations 2.7 Main Features of Harappan Civilization 2.8 Summary 2.9 Key Words/Abbreviations 2.10 Learning Activity 2.11 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 2.12 References CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)