200 The French Revolution France experienced troubled times during the 18th century,July 14, “Liberty, equality, as the divide between the rich rulers and poor peasants grew1789 fraternity!” wider and wider. King Louis XVI was the target of national anger, with riots and marches on the streets. This eventually led to aJune 17,Slogan of the French Revolution bloody revolution that saw the country move from more than1789 1,000 years of royal rule to the formation of a new republic. National Assembly Storming of the Bastille After King Louis XVI refuses to give the common people A mob of angry French rioters attacks power, a group establishes the Bastille prison, a medieval fortress itself as the National Assembly. Its members are in Paris. They release the prisoners angry with the wealthy ruling and take the prison’s ammunition. classes for letting the rest This event marks the start of the of the population struggle French Revolution. and starve. They start holding regular meetings to plot the king’s downfall. Bread riots October 5, Equal rights 1789 High grain prices cause The Declaration of the Rights small-scale bread riots August 26, of Man is written, which states in France. About 7,000 1789 that all men are equal under armed female protesters law. This landmark document march on the Palace of June 20, becomes an important legacy of Versailles, calling for bread 1791 the French Revolution. to feed their hungry October New radicals families. King Louis XVI 1789 gives in to their demands. The most radical leaders of the French Revolution King’s capture form the Jacobin Club, led by Maximilien Robespierre. The National Assembly Inspired by the US Declaration abolishes the ruling of Independence in 1776, this ambitious politician is classes. Under cover of determined to topple the king darkness, King Louis and create a new republic. XVI and his wife Marie Antoinette try to escape, but they are seized and imprisoned.
Reign of Terror September January 21, Republic replacement 22, 1792 1793 The Jacobins take over The government abolishes the the government, as the July 28, monarchy and charges the former former king is executed at 1794 king with treason. History is made as France becomes a republic, with the guillotine. Marie November 10, a new republican calendar and Antoinette will be executed 1799 standard system of measurements. nine months later. Many Date with death thousands of enemies of the Revolution are also killed. As the public become sick of Robespierre’s brutality, Emperor Napoleon his rivals arrest him. He tries to shoot himself but only Military leader Napoleon manages to shatter his lower Bonaparte takes charge of jaw, and is later executed at the France and becomes First guillotine. His death weakens the power of the Revolution. Consul. The French Revolution is over. In 1804, Napoleon crowns himself emperor of France and starts to wage war across Europe. The guillotine Introduced in 1792, the guillotine was used to behead about 17,000 people during the French Revolution. This death machine was named after Doctor Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, who wanted executions to be as quick and painless as possible. Public executions by guillotine became a gruesome form of popular entertainment, drawing huge crowds of spectators. 201
Medicine “First, do no harm.” Medicine began almost 10,000 years ago, when our prehistoric ancestors practiced crude forms of Hippocrates, c.400 bce surgery. Later, the ancient Egyptians used honey in the belief that it could heal wounds, and created Lady with artificial body parts from pieces of wood. Today, the lamp technological developments and our advanced Florence understanding of the body have redefined medicine Nightingale was and could save the lives of millions of people. known as the “lady with the lamp.” Avicenna Hearing heartbeats Bloodletting Nursing pioneer Persian scholar The first stethoscope is a At this time, it is wrongly British nurse Florence Ibn Sina, better basic wooden tube created thought that having too Nightingale sees soldiers known as dying from disease rather Avicenna, by French doctor René much blood causes than injuries in the military publishes The Laënnec to listen to illnesses, so doctors use hospitals of the Crimean Canon of Medicine. bloodsucking leeches to War. She reforms hospital This textbook is heartbeats and breathing. remove blood from patients. care, improving survival adopted by many Two earpieces are later Hospitals in London use rates. Nursing becomes a medical schools and added to the original design. 7 million leeches a year. remains one of the most new profession. important works in the 1833 history of medicine. 1025 1816 1854 400 bce 1796 1818 1849 1859 Father of medicine First vaccination Blood transfusion First female doctor Germ theory Hippocrates is the most English doctor Edward When British doctor James Many medical schools turn Instead of bad air being the celebrated physician of Jenner intentionally infects a Blundell transfers blood Elizabeth Blackwell cause of infections, French ancient Greece. He is the from a donor to a patient young boy with the mild (1821–1910) down on the microbiologist Louis first to suggest that disease cowpox to make him using a syringe, it is the first basis of her gender, but she Pasteur shows that bacteria diseases aren’t caused immune to the killer disease successful blood eventually graduates from by the supernatural, and smallpox. This is the world’s Geneva Medical College as and other microscopic stresses the importance first vaccination, bringing an transfusion. Unfortunately, germs cause disease. He many of the earliest the first woman with a soon develops vaccinations of a healthy diet and end to smallpox in 1979. medical degree. against the deadly diseases regular exercise. transfusions caused the death of patients. anthrax and rabies. 202
Surgery 1860s First antiseptic 1890s Sterilization 2014 3D-printed skull Surgeon Joseph Lister cleans Infection rates drop when surgeons Dutch doctors replace half A series of groundbreaking wounds with carbolic acid, start boiling their instruments to of a patient’s skull with a moments in the history of stopping infections. remove bacteria from them. 3D-printed plastic version. surgery has resulted in 1846 Ether operations becoming much Dentist William Morton finds the 1967 First heart transplant safer and more comfortable chemical ether can make a Surgeon Christiaan Barnard puts for patients. patient lose consciousness. the heart of a traffic accident casualty into another patient. Penicillin Body scanner First IVF baby Stem cell advances Cell division Stem cells Scottish scientist Alexander The first full body The first baby is born Scientific research reveals have the Fleming is studying bacteria scanner is designed by following in vitro that stem cells can be potential to fertilization (IVF). grow into any in petri dishes when he American professor altered to become different type of cell. spots mold growing there. Raymond Damadian. England’s Louise Brown types of cells. This The magnetic resonance is the world’s first “test- This mold had killed the imager (MRI) scanner tube baby,” born from an breakthrough provides the surrounding bacteria, and creates a picture of the potential to transplant stem this first antibiotic, known as body’s internal workings embryo created in a penicillin, is mass produced using the principles of laboratory dish. cells to treat a range of magnetism, allowing it to blood and bone diseases. by the late 1940s. help identify diseases and trouble spots. 1928 1977 1978 1999 1895 1965 1981 2015 Growing kidneys Medical X-rays Battery-powered Nanoscale technology defibrillators Scientists grow a German physicist Wilhelm The Scanning Tunneling functioning kidney in a Röntgen discovers energy In the 19th century, scientists Microscope (STM) is invented by laboratory and transplant it waves he calls X-rays that found that an electric shock German scientists Gerd Binnig into a living organism. Tests pass through skin but not can start a stopped heart, show the replacement bone. X-rays are still used to leading to the invention of the and Heinrich Rohrer. This kidney works successfully locate broken bones and defibrillator—a device that invention allows scientists to work in rats and pigs, but further spot problem areas inside at the nanoscale, moving even the research is needed for passes an electric current humans to receive artificial the body. through the heart. In tiniest atoms. 1965, British doctor kidney transplants. Frank Pantridge designs a 203 defibrillator small enough to fit inside ambulances.
The Napoleonic Wars Having become Commander of the French Battle of Austerlitz Feeding armies army in 1796, ambitious officer Napoleon Bonaparte led his nation into the French One of Napoleon’s greatest victories In 1795, Napoleon offers Revolutionary Wars and sought to take occurs on December 2nd at Austerlitz (in a financial reward for control of Europe. Britain and France signed the modern-day Czech Republic), where the Peace of Amiens treaty to end the conflict. 68,000 French troops beat the combined budding inventors to find When France failed to keep the agreement, a way to preserve food Britain declared war in 1803, marking the start forces of nearly 90,000 Austrian and for his army. A French of the bloody Napoleonic Wars. Russian troops. confectioner claims the prize in 1809 for his design for sealed bottles. A year later, British merchant Peter Durand patents the tin can. Emperor Battle of Trafalgar 1810 of France At this naval battle off the 1806 As the French Republic southwest coast of Spain comes to an end (see 1805 page 201), Napoleon on October 21st, the announces himself the French and Spanish navies new emperor at the Notre Dame Cathedral are beaten by the British in Paris. This historic navy, led by Admiral moment sees Horatio Nelson, who dies Napoleon become the while fighting. With the first Frenchman to take French navy greatly the title of emperor for weakened, France can’t invade Britain. 900 years. 1805 European Empire 1804 Much of Europe is now controlled by Napoleon and the French army. After 1,000 years, the Holy Roman Empire (see page 98) finally ends as France conquers Italy and parts of Germany. War horses Huge numbers of horses were used in the Napoleonic Wars. 204
End of Peninsular War 1821 Napoleon’s life 1814 sees the end of a six-year Bitter end Like the wars he waged, Napoleon’s war, in which the French fought personal life was turbulent and testing. the Spanish, Portuguese, and Failed invasions and He divorced his first wife and spent two British for control of the Iberian battles result in long periods in exile. His ambitions drove Peninsula. French defeat at him to military success, but ultimately the Battle of Vitoria in 1813 Napoleon being sent ended in failure. eventually leads to into exile for a second the end of the war. 1796 1769 time. He spends six Rising through Napoleon 1815 years imprisoned on the ranks, he Bonaparte is born the remote island of St. soon becomes on August 15th in 1815 Helena before his death. Commander of Ajaccio, on the the French army. island of Corsica 1814 off France. 1804 1812 Declaring 1796 himself emperor Napoleon marries Hundred Days of France, he introduces the socialite The Hundred Days sees Napoleonic Joséphine de Napoleon and a small army Code to give Beauharnais. head for Paris to overthrow new rights to the poor. 1805 King Louis XVIII, who 1810 Napoleon is had been restored After ending his defeated at the to the throne in 1814. marriage to Battle of Trafalgar, Joséphine, he but achieves one Invasion Battle of marries Marie- of his greatest of Russia Waterloo Louise, daughter victories at of the Austrian Napoleon launches a The Napoleonic Wars emperor. Austerlitz. disastrous invasion finally end at the Battle 1815 1811 of Russia, so other At the Battle of countries declare war of Waterloo, near Waterloo near Napoleon’s son is on the now weakened Brussels. Napoleon’s Brussels, born on March France. Napoleon will Napoleon is be sent into exile in 1814, army is beaten by defeated in the 20th and named only to escape and return the British and Prussian last military Napoleon II. to France seeking control battle of the 1821 of Europe again. armies. King Louis Napoleonic Following six XVIII returns to the Wars. years in exile, French throne. Napoleon dies on May 5th. “Death is nothing, but to live defeated and inglorious is to die daily.” Napoleon Bonaparte, letter to General Lauriston, 1804 French cavalry Battle square French soldiers, in blue British soldiers stand in and white uniforms, a tight square formation charge against the for defense. British troops. 205
South American independence In 1800, almost all of South America was ruled by Spain and Portugal. However, when those two nations were invaded by the French emperor Napoleon I in the early 1800s, their rule in South America was weakened. Demands for independence increased, and by 1825, most formerly Spanish countries in South America had become independent nations, and Brazil was no longer part of Portugal. MA MHeMiexdxeaiixSclcgiapcaoinnaoM,nilp1ne(ew8r)arx.i1ehdeiH1ci,sscveabtah,nuoiMscritiselnoetitgvhrdnxuoueeetlielepcntwldueuinatenbresdyfd.oernce 1810FreVeicdMtooaSOrimpyp’HúaantiffgrtidoesgheheeirnssrBscCuC,ealaehhntc.tiCitnllBio,eeldhbueeofeienrrlefponctaraemoynrnm’dsdooefefisrInrsttithsrheuler.Army ofodrefaaitgnsyhirdoeiAenAnpbrRdg,aeiegitvenrlhprstenoedeodrAtuniUfPenepdBrncalapoegilo,tatnfUeeeleriAtvder.(nunirmatPgghd)treou,aoiendantvteytniiihn,nrancceian-eiernscHchgoooolwoelagsseBpoevisonvFeteltehírrovs,areatn,hnhalrmeicednfVaioesdirendrencnmgBetpoe.roiuVnasdzlbí)ueewvrlieeiancMnhplraViscuienreohabznronlecieuncdvizta(oeiuzalaeeulfanlnotaidsor.rmnSiasiomrefieóssn the Andes 1816 206 José de San Martín leads an army of 3,500 Argentinians on a 25-day journey over the Andes mountains into Chile. They win the Battle of Chacabuco against Spanish forces and will go on to take Chile’s capital, Santiago. 1817 1818 1811
aisnrVdfeierBnsnaotemplzívCrueGeaeodsrrlliabaAoGdsn,emenSeraacaidnizbnmdonteedi.amasóCGcE,(nfeoopPrcrsoBnlrauoaemtinoatmrsnsaoldeíVvbmlonaCeoiartarnf)-,,.odcNeIrtazleouyowsemslaestbotihae 1819–1821 1825 BaAtsntetdolceeanociAnmooidsytdufia-avecicknAehueS-vcycsluaiochactrmthogrocee,emrh,ugrySBiagSepfconohnpalhdreíainvn,Prnoaiwasetirslhhis’rsnhuelpseaoAraarivnsdmeoderyner aesat.rn.Hdehis 1822 18agd2Aichaenfo1iitcmneMdm–ilMssarAs1eemtroaeg8extevplahuhsifec2nxesaceiortdtr3rtSisídnohnecbpi-wrrneddafoaoodcnewnenfuoeeiItnsgmtpndhuhheieencer,tnbMmsa1wedi8draepeam2exernr3,eyircco,,1peoah8ru..na2bHds0liec–.1822CaJomsPéepdrfauerebirSegeyassnsMnitsehMatfateahoraftncerírrncoatwíepmPwnaaicrtiieymCltnaoihbvlorhn,ydeaLputirltrdieianeoamewuntacsiaeonsfo.osnd,mAt,lrheoSsBpeafalovPennilteníovergrauttrhhf’s.erom CSruectahrSeetoilliaoubastentshreSaASoptppmerafaeasrennBanUiratsiiseopcmhhapArloee.teimurdIvprtoteuPBbipoarbeeoopiclcrsilsciuavotl,eaiimbannay.evdA1se8lilsS26o.uth 1824 KhbisanainodgcdnkhbJePotoeproewhueedPnlneneBrovdoV,lierbverIttrieouona,ndcgcfgrzoePeuaiimcnllofe.llrHrBaioBtnruermgeragalszeeaPziBamllio,,lv.rgwrpPaetoeuhzseergiodlhos’surirsoe. ,se 1836 207 AaoOSdmfSropnemtpfehalpmylCriaietinatcaunthchfaibsinieonanabtnitCaonyaticltialrSnnfyseorodepiatrrbanuancbPbtklneaeuceehinseaaoaeShdrnnvstooddheoieusnarheRnltsmnaahdisdnicsteosodstds.ost.
Trains Wagonways Early locomotive Trains have come a long way since early Basic railroads called English inventor Richard Trevithick horse-drawn wagons. The first railroads wagonways are used for the develops the first steam locomotive. It were short links between neighboring first time in European mines carries 70 people and nine tons of coal towns. Over time, they extended their to transport heavy rock and along a railroad track at 5 mph (8 kph). reach across nations and continents. coal. Carts are pulled along Whether going deep underground or 1804 overhead on monorails, rail is now one of wooden rails by horses. the world’s top modes of transportation. c.1550 Steam demon Epic railroad The Orient Express The speediest steam train ever, the Completed in 1904, Russia’s The most famous passenger train Mallard, reaches a record-breaking Trans-Siberian Railway becomes in history makes its first direct 126 mph (203 kph) in England. It will the world’s longest rail system. The journey from Paris in France to route from Moscow to Vladivostok Istanbul in Turkey. It becomes a travel nearly 1.5 million miles (2.4 stretches 5,772 miles (9,289 km). byword for luxury travel. million km) before retiring in 1963. 1904 1889 1938 Bullet train Fastest on wheels Japan’s Shinkansen train service, At a time when most trains are powered nicknamed the bullet train, opens by diesel engines, France’s Train à Grande Vitesse (TGV) service uses to provide a high-speed link electric motors to reach the world’s between Tokyo and Osaka. The highest speeds for wheeled trains. 332 mile (535 km) trip takes less than four hours thanks to a top Regularly topping 200 mph (320 kph), the TGV is both speedy and silent. speed of 124 mph (200 kph). 1964 1981 208
First passenger trains Stephenson’s Rocket The world’s first public railroad opens English engineer Robert in England. The Stockton and Stephenson designs the Rocket, Darlington Railway carries the most advanced steam engine of its day. Able to reach 30 mph passengers in horse-drawn carriages at first, but these are replaced with (48 kph), it is the first vehicle steam locomotives in 1833. faster than a horse. Intercity link The first intercity railroad opens, connecting Liverpool and Manchester in England. English politician William Huskisson becomes the first person to be killed by a passenger train when he is run over by Stephenson’s Rocket at the opening event. 1825 1829 1830 Going underground Fast track The world’s first underground The renowned English engineer Isambard rail system opens in London, Kingdom Brunel masterminds the first high- with wooden carriages pulled speed railroad—the Great Western—linking by steam engines. It will eventually London with the west of England and Wales. grow into a 253-mile (408-km) Trains reach speeds of 60 mph (96 kph) on network under the city. the network, slashing journey times. Transcontinental The First Transcontinental Railroad opens in the US, linking the east and west coasts via a 1,777-mile (2,860- km) track. A ceremonial 18-karat gold spike is hammered into the track to mark its completion. 1869 1863 1835–1838 The Channel Tunnel Sky high Magnetic magic The Channel Tunnel opens, connecting the The world’s highest railroad opens. The Qinghai– Maglev (magnetic levitation) trains in Japan UK and France via three underwater tunnels Tibet Railway runs from Tibet to China and achieve a record speed of 375 mph (603 kph) reaches a height of 16,640 ft (5,072 m). bored out of chalk under the English during testing. Instead of rolling on wheels, Channel. Two tunnels are for trains, while the Passengers are provided with an oxygen supply maglev trains float in the air, held off the tracks to help them breathe in the thin mountain air. third is for maintenance and emergencies. by powerful electromagnets. 1994 2006 2015 209
1854 1830s 1830s phot(o tgWirmlolaeiTbpadhieheam,edrCoaHsriscoNgtumwoheeamteraeofwdinntrtsRhsetWfuedasrfrwfrisiaoroesrlslnttrt)-mhleiahetpnnafoiehnd.rrtdseteirfncrtohnofelinctt Penny papers reuwSMpsloahreoTenmiscrsegshpueedlaeantelirctltosatMgotlenenadrgortsnntearmetcsse(repeisolstesesfhia.gnedeHnvriolapndeeetpancsgswhgtteasriewltinnlcth2dldhiars2eeetmdieg6staern)e.ns,csalwheesrlsegehawsaroigactvtesehpoeshr, Newspapers experience a boom in the US, as copies sell in the thousands. The most popular are the so-called penny papers, which are affordable daily newspapers aimed at the general public. “Extra! Extra! Read all about it!” Newspaper seller’s slogan 1920 Ticker tape News radio From 1870, machines printed A radio station in Detroit, Michigan financial news on long, narrow strips broadcasts what is considered to be of paper called ticker tape, named after the distinctive ticking sound the first radio news show. This made by the print. These machines triggers more radio stations around fell out of use when televisions and the world as another global platform computers were invented. for sharing news develops. ThbtTehrpoeefirarUelsdesbtSceyvn.anWaesittstneiiotodirhonniLnwtonthgeiwedelneeeepvvleecolnisTorsiwgyinihothboionsvtrmmleboyeyaasntgdsseoicuwlnriaffystsfs.seitnrswinpigitrh,itsa Project SCORE AcmswNTaFaeuboeetierrlrsterinlwlctdlseaitnat’oeserbtnrel.lflekaicnibFsrvtue(souhaiwCnswtseubic2Niorssnoh4ynNleCnee-res)enhaska,steobTwtrwmthuslwheVorealiaorNctnfketriheerT.klsewries,tvvdhsiitasehioen CTtuhohlsealeeuu3cdrmfFnno0saircmb0iise$lrhytu5pwwseosnuasonteDtsnlreiwionidnsprhssseptnohaoapanuletnpetiercnUarwttheohmSersceraa.pihitnTcreaauhchproteeogeefsme.rsse 1939 1980 The US launches Project SCORE, the first communications satellite. By the 1960s, communications satellites will be able to transmit TV broadcasts from major events, such as John F. Kennedy’s funeral, around the world. 1958 1976 210
1792 1791 17th century 1440s fihdnoFitenrirosvegmeadneililcdlofiiwtfnhpaeaeosrirrSnyermotdvnhecfesstehonmptaimshltonloteamaodsrmtipCptulceiaontalthapotninceuwhosabrdoesttreeroir.oeesmC“nsswhsoyp.iavsetTheptlelhdp”mies rUFetwTShgpriheuoetChearpeotorFrtannuehdinerstsesttowbseitgt.esmeAuoTistnovmhioegrtioeshnrscnnefih(semdsaftntrmerehheseeneeeoeoptndrr.epaitogpdigtmnhorebitoetoyt1hno9fses1s) TSthathrepFeaptfsinilherarbesearsoxtcgrDuttnaear2ueln-glllt0fewoc,oedFsyhrvwmrpeaepaaarabnusrpEtrcbsopenue,liraenrs,aoidihwesnppswtsp1ehhep6sr.eeipa0Inrenfpat5stier1pe..s6dFert,1ori8nsr, pamtGpytprphuihneetGeltenpiennterrbsgimwnPecctsraaihgnrnanegidtniabnpeapetvvrreeeiiuansrnssp,estageiosd.ndTrtpdrhJthaoemoritseehsme.mpasaornanesvnksaaeedbssle sdmsyeusavctsTeielcthlmaaoeectsp,iProPspsonoelosaasrrscsspDaihinotalaoigassnrntihhlueagousslmtsgrihempseeeeerrpev-rrvraooimcoinurevcpdtCeeite-roys.erri.tdcuhHaeseirrsry Pigeon post Town crier The first news broadcasts are from town criers. These people ring bells and call out “Hear ye” to share the news. This role becomes essential, because most people at the time can’t read. 11th century Pigeons, which were first domesticated by the ancient Egyptians, are used to carry messages home from Baghdad in modern-day Iraq. This helps speed up long-distance communications. 540 bce 11th century ce opmmipnvojoCoeiicevordTureeoninserhtmancnsooeibnoanzseorellma,eniniessacltslmmeibtnnnciaodlooe.aonjSnfnlngboyltehptesoehoudalw,naceirumcrecosiinpnine,mtwagilti.nozegaeietareashlnndsieas, tm aanmsynowacesbpohwtiWprvleCneessereNaei.arhswmTaNpangehspniboeitlordsiswecoermac2ganavto4atelviaimon-enaahnineniezroylsasasauy,tbtgnitkrimlohodlennoeneoeuvb.ftwwiaioaralnssrt e Spreading the news 2000s As empires expanded and civilizations spread, 2011 people tried all kinds of methods of spreading news, from messengers on horseback to town criers. The invention of the printing press made printing much cheaper and gave people national news in daily newspapers before both television and radio brought the news directly into their homes. Thanks to today’s technology, such as communications satellites, cable TV, and the internet, global news is now accessible 24 hours a day, seven days a week. 211
Engineering Chand Baori Building large and complex structures such as bridges, In the arid region of Rajasthan, India, tunnels, and skyscrapers would be impossible without builders construct the world’s engineers. An engineer uses scientific knowledge and largest stepwell. Its 3,500 stone mathematical calculations to ensure that buildings can steps are arranged in a regular support their own immense weight, keeping them stable geometric pattern and descend and safe. As history demonstrates, well-engineered 100 ft (30 m) into the ground, buildings can stay standing for centuries. providing access to a dependable supply of water and cooler air. WesnouTgoabhidw(dn3efeaceossa4ynawtlsryUoammrAticprcononsayisnmaeldaqyrltFiGinlphsrousrodardLrgaeraanet1fsTi’yse6ranrdo9etocltdheic0mg3untifo,mte1errienclyetr8pffy8rh.Rgtsiotassiol,ds0eel(0toi)6p4forlhc.iauomtP00noN9enoae3arfn00tgînalomgmnuwlohdu3eensafelpn)aseeesrdlenittltasRsntrodabeeno1gysodnlgurgdLlfbssrssmiraiaoltoneuyedtenraeuenonmdcstnGesnhdugther.EeednoiIeaantmdnaPnsrgrmso1.tp,ad,n0iuitrt0erd.0yuncweeaehrnitlcyghohei1pnT7isSeem0henece0orsvaiwlesnstineetrgonnpiErnmlaRinddrarIogi’iasvvrrnletvaiofde.iernr.unspldC,atai,tolBcwlrycntashorsfs,reinitoedd-rsiamee1rigsocr7ihetthneso8sdpobopria1sfrefadinedcbwn1e-egus8sdc2hTseiiorl.ig85dcahtmnrhiwFemna9RpirwgnsnRceiolldesliiaocfnmirlaoooptlcacmelnrmranoeurhesya4ttrlrmwetaettna1niievh,cErniasneybtedees1gheideciutn1ah2tiEfsoadaoniojb4altof.fPrCitne0nhfofpseti1fontneshehe.ua8aetahorltTerhiealtl,wnrnm0nstcTTdGahu1dasdncufoo3,otecto9Gro’iwuosptlro8wpeehtus0esulrpwidMmxrtrttmtt(ei0nneohbmrohtah8’pesoreiiteenyssrnvqety,oeeai8nttnwattnesgueruaPsrrdcor5dnn.feaaetlPEatDeanreIl0satesttrtnaiWecyccrsry4fortskCtirtftehhhnbbft,heaiilm5fsymehteaaebieulfo0,ctis)shsrtoanealwi0itaa.leccfnaniryTonen-lmokc,ctfsrsrhdraornieoastei5oessrcnibtn.nnn,umtep5Irnusdarttcecmho0etiniwlrlttsrseudowa0eupdutardtsfio.rcliidhmlneewcTewlntiegaisnhioaieoinltlelgetl1,nohnlo0,so.nEd,0guaate0ryts0,ht. 9th century bFuraliilOndnkcicPnpeebgraameaotntnnhjowesadearc.enetAPtmedh,tainhevtinnaaartUavehsnmoSqteC2lauvasA02anieprtC08deslnea,as0mentnanhtxd0tihaellit0lc3reil1od,e3aw8aenemnxyosa8tdeceohtrlhaka1Piynpesvr–sadpsaroc1osiitfnfii9.fffonigieccn1eua4aolrtrtfhly on the first day of operation and 9.5 million passengers in the first year. 212
International Space Station Bailong The first module of the Elevator International Space Station—the largest crewed object ever launched into The world’s tallest space—is put into orbit outdoor elevator opens around Earth. Sixteen in Wulingyuan, China. nations cooperate to build it. It ascends a 1,070 ft (326 m) cliff, giving Channel Tunnel breathtaking views over the sandstone pillars The Channel Tunnel, the world’s longest and gorges of the continuous undersea railroad tunnel, Wuling Mountains. opens between England and France. At its lowest point, the triple tunnel is 250 ft (75 m) beneath the seafloor. 1994 1998 1931–1936 2002 HcOovoCnelcoTHoarrlhro7ovegewortmeeaevdhsdrieialistlcyorimDroehuDeRnastscaaiaervtermsomkdeernetvartoososotinnefiomrbisA,ltfluhLotwriheairlzdeiektohetUnhwMaSa.a’nestaesdirx., lafnarbodniunmdiisclTtmtlcouhhrofdeeefreaPteshsteateethalmhdcafe,loonpJwaour1os,rAom7.tvr0Aoeilrdd0rfitori’snDaibufghleunai—abscdrgpcai1aehaia,24fsfccrrl0t0oelouia0mnsfs0rTotattlserihv1cafair2eilcr–lonnleo8KaiH2nadsfodshgoli0.ondsioenasslfgrtaslng0eeantntdLdlunKeo7ssdgndcwooemsedo—nantdaenghbiirsg-nsasrZiislteedahtangsusdetohtu—faCnsti-hnhceMieronealana,eacn.bcInaetaducrisbti2Btsdl3her0tr4i-ghedsm1eegeta7eiaislye—rletasidfnt(ihc5dbei5raoiwdlkfigmHsoleroa)lsdnnlo,’dgsansng. librjamohruaiielrevMlnsoes,eonTa(mys9gnrcta,ed2aRaors8kbmwutne9lsreussatsk-osiift-lmaioriVclSoeub)lraadrauiodbdwwibolidlvaemeian1soteyrehs8st.ki,h,rTtsa9obcoeh.ooukn1ewtmn,–5ttonRrhs1,era7,e9lacdi7nt’21issiln6wg ay
The US frontier Huge numbers of Americans and Europeans pushed westward in North America looking for opportunity, adventure, and land. They were explorers, trappers, traders, and ordinary people. The frontier ideas of individualism and self-reliance are still influential today. 1739 Rocky Mountains 1803 Lewis and Clark Two French fur traders, Pierre Meriwether Lewis and William and Paul Mallet, make an epic journey into the American interior. Clark lead an expedition They are the first Europeans to across America’s rivers and see the Rocky Mountains. waterways. Their task is to map 1769 Spanish settlements the Louisiana Territory. They will Junipero Serra, a Spanish priest later be joined by Sacagawea, an and monk, establishes a string of American Indian woman who will settlements along the Californian act as an interpreter and guide. coast, starting at San Diego. 1803 Louisiana Purchase 1848 Gold Rush President Jefferson buys After the discovery of gold in a the Louisiana Territory for 15 million dollars from France, stream behind a lumber mill, doubling the size of the US. fortune seekers from across the globe head to California. Some 1830s Oregon Trail 80,000 will make the trek in the The very first wagon trains of settlers make their way along first year of the Gold Rush. what will be known as the Oregon Trail, an overland route across the Rocky Mountains to the west. 1845 Manifest destiny “Manifest destiny,” an influential concept that claims that Americans are the “chosen ones” and it is their right to take over the entire continent, is first used. 1866 Outlaws 1858 Transportation Frontier towns Jesse and Frank James start The first nonstop stagecoach from their criminal career with a As more and more people moved westward, frontier bank robbery. The history of St. Louis arrives in Los Angeles. towns such as Tonopah, Nevada (above) spring up all over the “Wild West” will be full The journey takes 20 days. In 1860, the west. Land is cheap, but settlers have to work hard, often of deadly outlaws and their with very little help from the government. Criminal gangs and run-ins with the law. the Pony Express mail service American Indians loot trains, farms, and towns, and getting completes its first delivery from basic supplies is always difficult. St. Louis to Sacramento in 11 days. 1869 Transcontinental railroad The first cross-country railroad is completed at Promontory Summit, Utah. It joins Sacramento, California to Council Bluffs, Iowa (itself connected to the east-coast train lines). 214
The Battle of Little Bighorn Frontier wars Sitting Bull has a vision of soldiers falling into Almost from the start, relations between the native camps “like grasshoppers from the sky,” European settlers in the US and American which inspires Lakota Sioux, Arapaho, and Cheyenne Indian tribes were difficult. Both cultural warriors. In 1876, they inflict a major defeat on the US differences and the settlers’ insatiable demand army, led by Colonel George Custer, by the Little for food and land caused conflict. The settlers Bighorn River, Montana. eventually seized the land, but only after a series of bloody wars and massacres. 1610 Pocahontas 1622 Powhatan Confederacy Pocahontas, a Powhatan The Powhatan American Indians, tribeswoman, helps bring peace between her people and the frustrated by English demands English settlers. She marries an for food and land, launch Englishman in 1614 and travels to London, England in 1616. a surprise attack, killing almost 1680 Pueblo Revolt 350 settlers. Warfare will Spanish authorities in New continue for a decade. Mexico try to stamp out the 1636 Pequot War Pueblo people’s religion. The Pueblos rebel, and Settlers kill 500 members of the successfully plunder Pequot tribe in Connecticut, the Spanish settlements. 1831 Trail of Tears in retaliation for Pequot attacks. American Indians suffer from The tribe is practically wiped out. exposure, starvation, and disease as they are forced into their new 1830 Removal Act territories. Their long walk will President Andrew Jackson orders be known as the “Trail of Tears.” native tribes to move to unsettled 1862 Sioux Uprising land west of the Mississippi River. Broken treaties, hunger, and stress cause the Sioux people to A few tribes go peacefully to the rebel against settlers. They will be specially designated “Indian defeated, and 38 of them hanged. territory” across the Mississippi, but many resist. 1864 Sand Creek Massacre Tensions between settlers and American Indians in Colorado’s plains rise as people pour into the area in search of gold. The situation explodes when the US army and settlers massacre hundreds of tribespeople in Sand Creek, Colorado. 1869 Sitting Bull 1890 Wounded Knee The bravery of Sitting Bull leads The massacre of Sioux people in him to become the leader of the Lakota Sioux people. Other native South Dakota marks the end of peoples, such as the Arapaho the long war between tribes and and Cheyenne, soon follow him. settlers. More than 150 Sioux men, women, and children are killed, with many more injured. 215
BEFORE The 1848 Revolutions After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, the Congress of Vienna creates the German Confederation and brings harsh rule back to Europe. The conservative monarchies of Austria, Russia, and Prussia form the Holy Alliance, making more liberal rule less likely. January 1848 In 1848, a wave of revolutions spread across the cities of Europe. Demands varied. In France, protestors called for January 12 economic reform and the right to vote. In Prussia and Germany, they wanted a democratic constitution (set of Uprising in Sicily laws) and German unification. In parts of the Austrian Habsburg Empire, they demanded independence. Their Independent state governments promised reforms, but very little changed. FtoshahlewlonipKhwisneiindntngogeKdpbaioneonmgnmudFobpeefrtnirNhsdtBeiansinoptigsaamlleintanebsdn.aSsdTo”iic,nfh(e“iScilKsayei,cirsnwn1itlg8aiyhn1tBiage5con,hhwSdmihmiilNcblaei”satl)ihnap.bednleeninesnioncoMbkurnldaneayeistmre1ss8deeh4tw“i9sRui,tpeh April 1848 April 10 February 1848 March 1848 RALLY IN LONDON Puoplirtoicaar l GERMAN AND AUSTRIAN RIOTS Votes for all men February 21 March 13–22 Britain’s working-class Chartist Communist Manifesto Prince Metternich resigns movement organizes a mass meeting in London to demand EGnwaetpgnhrouTemgrrbolhkrsaluyei,innsgitptCghhbhceeoecyaoEdmilraKlpulisgmsnlareosofruLo.lptvnAooMreeinassrp,andtirrctrmMoeoxoevtnnpeaaeo.cnninsWeluoittdfssteauriF.isosgrtrapttnaieoegrinoendeisfasirsntditchhe oCfRphriiaenoaMrpdtnlsiirecaleaipemnsnlesl,Veoncinoirdeatnoen.p,fSnnittAotcaaruelerfoseoeatfsrtrncAiifgdaeiugnaiPshs.ntHrtgriidnniuraagcannneghb-traMareuertdlyeeaetidkddttsseesItrooymanmwuliayctnbn.hinod, ls that all men (but not women) should be given the right to vote. Fearing revolution, the government calls in the army, but the protest is peaceful. May 1848 February 22–23 March 18–19 May 18 REVOLUTION IN PARIS CALLS FOR GERMAN UNITY PFARRALNIKAFMUERNTT dopeonrAocvttnhtlehaegerersetechtsrrtbrtoohorrevwewineedSgrtKs,setik.hnctSielhgoloiennbLlgddapoineu5eFnoi2rrsseip.nPnTflgeihcrheohioeliffspRrpPhipeoooaeptltreitausisricnbsinoadlituclot. ocGrfrPigegeraahronmttteiienzacasagnottnoininnoarsasntBttiioiitoenounfrnttlasiihanoleel,anputsG,hanbsereiuetaryktmtm.eipnAbarGgfolntyeeotCearrfmsnPottwdnrsauofnpcesrdosdsotaniemaaytrtiaasniestgusoeiore)fsenc.seaat(sranlelntefeoowtr aHtrhtneFoeoGdpocfrmeplirleroresaesmwateksttaienenimntgfpaaCoelttachioivrnoneensnlFfsMisefrbootadairtfeneruGtckrhtrahfieeoautrrinrosemlttvn.fraaoToemtnrhleufGueestonieieooritrrfftnmifamtcsohsaa,rketniioysn.
Revolution BELGIUM Berlin PRUSSIA December 1848 in Europe POLAND A NEW ERA The 1848 Revolutions brokAeToLuAt NTIC Paris BEGINS across a wide area of EuropOe,CEAN from Berlin in northern Germany FRANCE Vienna December 2 to Palermo in Sicily. This map Emperor resigns shows the location of the Budapest revolutions that are mentioned Although never a target of the on this timeline. AUSTRIAN protestors, the weak Austrian EMPIRE Milan emperor Ferdinand I is persuaded to resign in favor of SPAIN PAPAL his 18-year-old nephew Franz STATES Joseph I, who will reign for the KEY Mediterranean Sea OTTOMAN Boundary of the Rome EMPIRE next 68 years. German Confederation KINGDOM GREECE December 10 OF THE TWO FRENCH PRESIDENT SICILIES In the first national election Palermo ever held in France, Prince Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, June 1848 October 1848 November 1848 nephew of Napoleon I, is June 23–26 October 6–31 November 15 elected president of the Republic. He promises to MORINEPTARROIUSBLE OCTOBER ROME UPRISING restore order and prosperity REVOLUTION oDpfIfsotnrNahweboryFetatrtoJserhuutSraisetuupoknaetpenuinclcnnrrasneosioestlMe,nowWtitmnadpahDgkkorepRtce.nraolTnkoehotystehpyowthhweoesutenodhbapgupua.elrrioTpscsmopsvrhvttctiyehhrrsoilderoaeiipunnesestusJgmtewiwatsu.nssenenoinantdgrerhetksaeof Minister assassinated to the country. Street battles in Vienna gpssmatoahrsvreTionstaeehsrainrsttesno-sdtlsemfPidvairFInoteeeoeadapdmnflbeteytetRarm.hrufdTnolueoea.hdmlPerecPiiysnrdsraaoag1wnpRbtt8eisaiRyoc4lolslmet9lfStcehope.eitaeraruamdsalbPtrefftloetoiiosclepflfor(ttoethhrahf)meeeis Anger at the Austrian gorveefornrmmsenint’sHautntgemarpytlseatodcsrtuosh thsttehreeeematrpbmearytotlhreatsosinrfeleVteaiektnhenenacc, ioftoynr.tcArionftlg,er the leaders of the uprising are executed. AFTER In April 1849, the Frankfurt parliament offers Frederick William I of Prussia the imperial crown of Germany. He refuses, saying he would not accept “a crown from the gutter.” His decision dashes all hope of liberal reform in Germany. 217
c.39,000 bce Biology Cave paintings Our interest in the natural world began more than 40,000 years ago, when prehistoric people first depicted animals on Evidence of prehistoric humans’ interest cave walls. Over time, zoology, the study of animals, and in animals is seen in paintings on the botany, the study of plants, combined to form a new science known as biology. More recently, the focus of biology has walls at the Cave of El Castillo (Cave of shifted to studying ourselves, with geneticists looking inside the Castle) in Spain. These artworks are the human body to uncover the secrets of life. the first sophisticated representation of wildlife found anywhere in the world. Covered meat Uncovered meat 1674Work of artCircle of lifeMagnifying 1543 This bison is microscope among the Cave Italian biologist Francesco Redi (1626–1697) of El Castillo’s many disproves the idea of “spontaneous Dutch textile merchant Antonie animal paintings, van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) alongside ibex, generation”—that living things, such as flies mammoths, and fleas, appear from dust or rotting meat. He makes a breakthrough in and goats. realizes that flies lay their eggs on uncovered microbiology when he further develops the microscope by c.330 bce meat, which later hatch into maggots. improving its magnification. This allows him to see tiny organisms in water. 1668 Classifying nature 1735 The ancient Greek philosopher First microscope Latin names Aristotle (384–322 bce) travels across Greece and Turkey to Dutch eyewear-maker Zacharias Swedish botanist Carl Janssen (1580–1638) invents the Linnaeus (1707–1778) study wildlife. He organizes devises taxonomy, a way of plants and animals into first compound microscope. grouping together related categories and names The invention helps scientists plant and animal species. In different species. This across all areas of biology study his book Systema Naturae, their subjects in much greater detail. he uses Latin names for classification of nature is the start of zoology and botany. genus (subfamily) and species. 1595 Human dissection Pumping blood Two names 1838 By studying the human Canis lupus (gray wolf) and Flemish scientist Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564) heart, Vesalius learned Canis familiaris (domestic dog) dissects (cuts up) human bodies and creates how blood flows around are examples of the two-name detailed drawings of the blood and nervous the body. Latin system still used today. systems. The publication of his De Humani Corporis Fabrica revolutionizes the field of anatomy, the study of the human body. 218
Mobile genetics 1953 1948 American scientist Barbara McClintock (1902–1992) studies corn and discovers jumping genes (transposons)—genes that can change position in the DNA of cells. By studying these jumping genes, she finds that genes can be switched on or off, changing the characteristics of the corn. DNA discovery “One general law leading to The secret of life the advancement of all organic Using pus-covered bandages from a nearby The work of scientists Franklin, Crick, and surgical clinic, Swiss chemist Friedrich beings—namely, multiply, Watson combines to create the first DNA vary, let the strongest live Miescher (1844–1895) is the first to identify model. Called “the secret of life,” their what he calls “nuclein” inside human white and the weakest die.” model reveals the chemical information blood cells. Nuclein carries a person’s Charles Darwin existing inside all living creatures. genetic information. Today, it is better known as deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). On the Origin of Species, 1859 Double helix DNA is made up of two twisted strands. 1869 Genetics Austrian monk Gregor Mendel (1822– 1884) grows pea plants in his monastery garden and discovers that the plants pass on characteristics like color and size in a simple pattern to their young. This leads to the discovery of genes. 1866 1996 Darwin’s finches Sharing DNA Finches have evolved To create Dolly, DNA from different-shaped beaks one sheep was placed into to suit the food available another sheep’s egg cell. where they live. Dolly the Sheep Natural selection History is made when scientists English naturalist Charles Darwin (1809– successfully clone an animal for 1882) publishes On the Origin of Species, the first time by duplicating a his theory of “natural selection.” After version of its DNA. The newborn studying wildlife in South America, he lamb, named Dolly, is an exact realizes animals with the best copy of another sheep. characteristics for the environment survive and pass these traits on to their young. 1859 2003 Cell theory Command center Human Genome Project The nucleus controls the German botanist Matthias cell and contains all of its The Human Genome Project is Schleiden (1804–1881) discovers genetic information . completed, showcasing the sequence of that all plants are made of cells. human DNA. A huge team of international scientists had mapped and identified the A year later, German zoologist role of more than 20,000 genes that make Theodor Schwann (1810–1882) up human DNA. realizes all animals are also made of cells. 219
Trade beginnings American colony Sugar and slaves A group of London merchants After an earlier settlement in Britain captures the Caribbean establish the East India Company modern-day North Carolina fails to island of Jamaica from the Spanish. to profit from the valuable trade in thrive, the British occupy the land of As exports of sugar from the island silk and spices with India and the the native Powhatan people to increase rapidly, British traders East Indies (modern-day establish Jamestown (in modern- begin forcibly transporting slaves Southeast Asia). day Virginia) as their first permanent from Africa to work on the sugar plantations there (see page 164). colony in North America. 1600 The British Empire 1607 1655 The origins of the British Empire were in trade New Zealand with the East, but its ambition soon spread to other areas of the world. Over time, its mission Britain takes control of expanded beyond commerce to total political New Zealand with the signing control, eventually making it the largest empire in history. But the empire went into decline after of the Treaty of Waitangi. It World War I, when it became clear that people guarantees the native Maori were no longer willing to accept British rule. people possession of their lands in return for giving up their rights of sovereignty. 1857–1858 1840 Direct rule in India South African War After suppressing a revolt by sepoys in The Boers, settlers of Dutch the armies of the East India Company, descent, fight a bitter war against Britain rules India directly. Queen Britain for control of lands in Victoria becomes Empress of India in Transvaal. Their defeat will lead to the creation of the Union of 1870, although she never visits. South Africa in 1910. The birth of Canada African expansion Three British provinces in North The empire grows as it takes America—New Brunswick, Nova huge expanses of territory in Scotia, and Canada (modern-day Africa from native peoples, Ontario and Quebec)—unite to form including Egypt and Sudan in a single country, the Dominion of the north, Gambia and Ghana Canada, within the British Empire. in the west, and most of mineral- rich southern Africa. 1867 1880–1900 1899–1902
Power in India War in the colonies American independence The East India Company builds Fort The Seven Years’ War in Europe William in Calcutta (modern-day turns global as fighting spreads The 13 colonies in North to overseas colonies. At the end America revolt against British Kolkata). From there, it uses its private army of Indian soldiers, called “sepoys,” of the war, Britain gains New rule. They declare their France (modern-day Canada) independence on July 4, to take control of much of India. and other French territories. leading to the creation of the United States of America. 1702 1756–1763 1776 Singapore Foothold in Africa Colony in Australia British colonialist Sir Stamford The British seize the Cape of Good Twenty years after Captain Cook Raffles founds a trading port on the Hope on the southern tip of Africa, claimed Australia for Britain, a fleet which has been a Dutch colony since arrives at Port Jackson (modern-day island of Singapore in Southeast 1652. They will lose it again, but win it Sydney). Prisoner labor is used to Asia, on the main trade route back in 1806, when it then becomes establish a colony there. By the mid- between India and China. It the first British presence in Africa. 1800s, there are nearly 400,000 becomes a British colony in 1824. settlers in Australia. 1819 1795 1788 Irish uprising World War I Partition of India settlements After hundreds of years of British rule India wins independence as two new countries: in Ireland, nationalists rebel in Dublin In the peace treaties the mainly Hindu India, and Pakistan, which on Easter in 1916. The “Easter Rising” concluding World War I, is mainly Muslim. The Partition of India, as it is Britain gains control over known, forces millions of people to migrate, is quickly put down, but the fight former German colonies in leading to riots and thousands of deaths. against British rule continues. The Irish Africa and in the Middle Free State, forerunner of the Republic East following the division of the Ottoman Empire. of Ireland, will be founded in 1922. 1947 AFTER 1916 1919–1920 Nearly all Britain’s colonies and possessions became independent states between 1957 and 1980. Many joined the Commonwealth of Nations, a voluntary association of states with previous ties to the empire. Others operated as individual republics. 221
The American Civil War Belle Boyd Years of conflict over slavery and the rights of individual states eventually led to the American Confederate spy Belle Civil War. From 1861 to 1865, the country was Boyd—one of several torn apart. More than 625,000 American female spies in the soldiers died in the Civil War. This was more Civil War—passes on than the combined total of American soldiers information that helps that had died in all other wars to date. Confederate general Stonewall Jackson’s Confederate states First Battle of army recapture Front Bull Run Royal, Virginia. To protect their economy based on slave labor (see pages The Union is defeated in Gettysburg this Virginian battle (also 164–165), seven southern known as the Battle of This Pennsylvania states leave the United Manassas). Washington battle is a turning point, States to create their D. C. is fortified for finally ending own Confederate protection. In August Confederate hopes government, with 1862, the Confederates of invading the Union Jefferson Davis as will win the Second Battle states. It is the president. The of Bull Run. bloodiest multiday Confederates see conflict in the history themselves as a of the Civil War. separate nation. A month Sep1t8e6m2ber J18u6ly3 later, Abraham Lincoln will become US president. J1u8l6y1 M18a6y2 Feb1r8u6a1ry A1p8r6il1 The war begins Antietam Lincoln refuses The bloodiest single day of to hand over all the war sees some 23,000 military property in soldiers dead, wounded, or Confederate states to missing. After a Union victory, their new government. Confederate forces Lincoln introduces the attack Fort Sumter Emancipation Proclamation, in South Carolina, an order to free every slave in and the Civil War begins. Four more the Confederate states. states leave the United States (known as the Union during the Civil War). Napoleon Field Gun Named after the French emperor Napoleon III, this type of cannon was widely used in the Civil War. It could hit a target up to 5,250 ft (1,600 m) away and fire a cannonball at 1,440 ft (439 m) per second.
Gettysburg Address Surrender meeting President Lincoln delivers After an attempt to break through his most famous speech Union lines fails, Confederate at the dedication of the Soldiers’ National commander Robert E. Lee meets Cemetery in Gettysburg. Union general Ulysses S. Grant at He declares that the Civil War is a struggle for Appomattox Court House freedom and equality. to sign a document of surrender. Conscription and Escape protests More than 100 captive Union There are riots in officers escape from a New York City because Confederate prison after the Union started weeks of digging a tunnel. conscription in March, Around half are recaptured, and people feel the but the others make their system for drafting men way back north. into fighting favors the rich. The first African- American regiment of soldiers sees combat. Nov18em63ber Fe1b8r6u4ary November April May 1864 1865 1865 1J8u6ly3 Submarine warfare March to Lincoln War is over the Sea assassinated Confederate submarine CSS The rest of the Hunley torpedoes and sinks Union general At a play in Washington, Confederate armies the Union warship USS William Sherman and D. C., President Lincoln Housatonic. The Hunley is the is shot by John Wilkes give up the fight. his troops march Booth, an actor hoping Both sides agree first combat submarine to sink from the captured on surrender terms an enemy warship, but it doesn’t city of Atlanta to the to avenge the as new president survive the attack and also sinks. port of Savannah, Confederates. Lincoln Andrew Johnson bringing devastation dies the next morning. declares the official end of the Civil War. to Confederate states. Key battles From the first shots to the final surrender, the American Civil War divided the country. No side seemed to have a clear advantage at the outset. The Union had more soldiers and money, but the Confederates had cunning and strategic generals. March 1862 December 1862 April – May 1863 May 1864 Monitor vs. Virginia Fredericksburg Chancellorsville Spotsylvania This clash between two ironclad This is a low point for the The outnumbered Confederate Neither side claims victory ships has plenty of flying Union as the Confederate army achieves a strategic win. in this brutal Virginia fight. cannonballs, but no victor. army defeats them. April 1862 May – July 1863 July 1864 Shiloh Vicksburg Atlanta The battle blazes for two days in General Sherman and his troops Tennessee before a Union victory. The Union army is victorious as it seize control of this Georgia city. surrounds this Mississippi town. 223
Belgium Colonialism France in Africa Germany Italy In 1870, although the slave trade (see pages 164–165) had ravaged 224 Africa for centuries, European powers controlled just 10 percent of the Portugal continent. The next 30 years saw Spain European nations compete for United Kingdom control of Africa. By 1900, they had Independent seized 90 percent of African land from local communities. It would take more than half a century for these countries to gain their independence. Scramble for Africa This map shows the domination of European powers in Africa by the end of the 19th century. France and Britain colonized the largest areas of land across the continent. Only Liberia and Ethiopia held onto their independence. tiuhnBWndTeTcprdiroosOirhahteefenanerrsAeaciasnneBsefnvrtnBiernagshiictttae-eaaoirasdlantFtnphaetedwriryforerorapaurneSvimroltWeioocSwnoi,ulratcritiayeathtmeshhstcoraepaAotdsun,hnsmsibfieedtrfaoairecinottnsahidmo.sn. GerCmhaBaniscnSmeolaiGluonrtcerhavkrOnmWaeddttassretosytanspiaeVkortrcbteeeaAtonlglcinecfslioriohmhoincnaeueya,rssngtfahwotes.eraIbnatctyreotahrsdlioeenenigzisihntogsles. 1880–1902 rmeaatpebreAkrolrwliteionutAtaodgtuhr1rtAnebtryn,h5iylouBgtie0nhrmta0lsheosot,bentuoZBle-deguBurrZhtioolerthuiaffdutheimiUtsenrbhlhnlaueyeugvnAAnaZwiwldrafiyunrmairil,saceruy.ar, . (mothdeeorGfntTo-hdhledbeaiuryWCBtlaGoSrlaoniAaetrhTsdissAsfcaehrthatonioecstgnashaAfaad)eeo.wisinnArzTamisennthntegmitttrehlhdoodeep-WsAeFeBtaosirfrraips.etintlseaatheont, fdWest 1879 1884 1884–1885 1874 SEucmrbotreoupaetdetcmenT’isaosxohtclmpbioAtsulhnooslfsmereiisusztictacaBAtfaprhhtefkoinoeorarsiwlrnclsfietnuaehbAagt’CrseyudoffourveslEderalntruainsloafucreranafoatrtaAdrpeoibeoefnfldrneiacmniiscarenveaamsitsj,,oeoowrdnuh.drocse. s
1960TraTnhBeseBtpalgeKkoiniaaengrtntlraAuttoahCneinccrngolgaokaanglosurcglgtaaaoomoihr.lpwetoMohpiuacpenaetyoenrLAenniyfnosfrsrronbttiatrhcemioutealwocs. tpteroadritnsspbtKreSevrioanaaBtlngldtiuonrozdsiagtnelo,sibesaEttcmlhheteunaioavssroroeluv.otftApsilrABrndeaesegfeinaarecsnaisdnrcoisaunssaslnorsncoouednesofnfirt,ilanrvoifteonltihoicrismcneseramlyu,ultemdheinagsks. 189aAnet5dofvrHeisrceteneEoastSnau.mibdsnIaanutpdmlhlyt1iyihrh8oTmteceih9rsuasioi8FnTaepru,rturltetoeslmusrhnaere’eygcsenxoohFudihftllrsseiditenrmeh.oniaWetufcnhrMehdmeifslsai1evtedp8soi.e8nrhxyk8paalaonedditxiinlacogmlcuJnasoBoialnvrphtideutneisrrmoRaihDgpilhnhbrleioeetuas.dssinomteionusAereobfcsrsueisntcyamsadsb,altinmhsehCienceil thelaYteeEariurrnbocoedfsopceuTAueopfhbnaYriei-tmnsrenciSedcyaeasa.eeosrhknanaantrcrorcosaefohlifenw.reenATAovsffaher1imirssi7cacna 1897 1896 225 1908 AddtetebhftfyeeEheaAeaStttfBhscroiraIciaftotaaamtllnpeyEb,fouiolmearfroacfAnopredkresvwiAnadiagfncur,intrcEthianaotethg.irofioiyrnpstia 1952 KAeMgrnaoauyugMpaaioann1fus3pu,t,ar0Bbpor0rurtiraie0ttniinssKdsrgtheeeeiebncpnrseyaoeg,anlnnsctdfuaarineoplrlaeenlr.ildcsAlkyeiinblgligeonadui1n,t9s63. 1885–1908 sinefoKtCsriicnevuegnoBpdtrLrytrateh,oulaeoAhnptCfadaororilpcvldnaeargIls.IemoLot gorFfouBcriibelmae.bellsgeSeairut,ramete
Telecommunications Communication has come a long way since ancient times, when messages were sent by smoke signals, beacons, and carrier pigeons. With the invention of the telegraph, telephone, radio, and the internet, people could send messages and converse across countries, and even continents, for the first time. The television transported scenes into the homes of millions, shaping the way people spend their free time today. Electrical messaging Continental cables Tesla’s transmission The invention of an electrical telegraph by British A new era of cross-continent Serbian-American engineer Nikola Tesla is the inventors William Fothergill Cooke and Charles communication dawns when the very first first person to produce and transmit radio Wheatstone makes long-distance messages possible. telegraph cable is laid across the Atlantic waves. He is also the brains behind many Electric signals are sent along wires attached to Ocean. By 1902, cables have been placed needle pointers, which can be made to point to inventions, including the electric motors that specific letters and numbers on a plate to form a under the Pacific Ocean too, allowing power modern machines. message. The messages sent by telegraphs are telegrams to be sent all around the globe. 895 known as telegrams. 1837 1876 2 1844 88 1 179 1858 18 1 8 9 7 Telegraph system Morse code Radio waves French inventor Claude Chappe American inventor Samuel German scientist Heinrich devises a system of movable Morse creates a code to Hertz is the first person to interpret the electric signals discover radio waves. He wooden arms, the position of which being sent along telegraph recognizes the potential indicates letters or numbers. These wires. It uses different lengths of these electromagnetic of signal to create patterns of waves to transfer information. arms are placed on tall masts so dots and dashes, which they can be seen from far away, represent different letters Marconi’s message allowing messages to be passed from town to town. He calls this new and numbers. Italian inventor Guglielmo system a telegraph, which means Marconi sets up his own company Telephone call to investigate radio waves. He devises “to write at a distance.” a wireless telegraph, which uses radio 226 Scottish inventor Alexander waves to send Morse code through Graham Bell experiments with the air without any wires. sending sounds through telegraph wires. These can be heard at the other end, in an early version of a telephone call. The first call is from Bell to his assistant Thomas Watson, when he says: “Mr. Watson— come here—I want to see you.”
“In the new era, thought itself will be transmitted by radio.” Guglielmo Marconi, New York Times, 1931 Voice for radio Color vision Early email World Wide Web Canadian-American inventor The first color television is unveiled in Electronic messaging across British scientist Tim Berners- Reginald Fessenden is the 1928, but it is not until the 1950s that computers, called email, begins Lee creates the World Wide first human voice to be broadcast color televisions become affordable. when US computer programmer Web—a way of connecting via radio. This sparks the People begin to enjoy programs in their Ray Tomlinson sends the first internet resources across construction of radio transmitters own homes. ever email—a test message to the world. This information- to create an exciting new form of himself. Email will become one entertainment that many people sharing system of linked can enjoy, gathered around their of the world’s most popular webpages can be accessed radios in their own homes. forms of communication. from any computer. First mobile phone The first mobile telephone is launched, but it is too large and expensive for people to use. The first mobile phone call is made on a phone that weighs a massive 2.4 lbs (1.1 kg) and takes 10 hours to charge. 1970s 1971 1989 1 Early 1950s 1906 1962 s 1925 984 2000 Space communications Mechanical television Heavyweight phone Digital TV The first communications satellite is British inventor John Logie Telstar 1, sent into orbit by the US. The DynaTAC becomes the Analog television Baird creates the world’s first This satellite receives radio signals world’s first commercial technology, which mechanical television, which from Earth and bounces them back manipulates electrical uses rotating discs to generate a mobile phone. Nicknamed signals to create sound video signal. He constructs this to receivers on the ground, resulting “The Brick,” this device goes and color, is replaced by from random objects including in the transmission of television and plasma screens and knitting needles, cookie tins, and on the market for a jaw- digital technology, which telephone communications. dropping $4,000 (equivalent provides high-definition a tea chest. It is unveiled images and a huge in London in 1926. to around $9,000 today), choice of channels. The which few can afford. The first digital television battery lasts only half an hour. broadcasts take place in the early 2000s. 227
Photography Imagine a world without photos—no selfies, no breaking news shots, and no way of recording the most important events in our lives. When photography began in the early 1800s, it changed the way people saw and understood the world around them. Less than 200 years later, technological advances have seen cameras shrink from large, bulky boxes into tiny digital devices that we carry around in our smartphones. 1855 1888 1861 BCwrttraihihtmkiaislWeteehsgavpaetnihhsnrWioeetitpnrfaoaigrrghts. erHttoahphepetiuchmobgteaueagrtrktpRereleusaosfbgoip3elefic5lhdcr0iosFynnietomefnflraittceohgtsneet.s thMrStooeacCuxxcogpwrtoheoteiaslsrloelhtuepdrrper,aohsgpcjyreohoescfielcootasnirstt,taptaohrJhnrtgaeoadmetnrobasergluiesbprepabChpafoilrhleyntae.rtkres r“oBKaltrlocho-MfPcedwileahmmanskoissaectloais”absgusbmle-nroppae,cxpprhrhoacoheoda.pysTumtubwicotleeaseergcrdealvop,aregmaoasosnyyepteee-istmsa-hoadroe-synoun, llaslasaestare,lre, . 1950s 1980s 1964 conptShthrtriTLesohoRatelhNooc(1igekhsv9roein5tafrnhg0piterFlhshesm.ees-SlrtihearsLonsScRuwssanLmcmnrpeaReraafmelbrreacckeox’eesrv)adtaescmdsee,a,unatmltritleklieionenerdgwrgaass. inTdsthaiofdelkeceteixtnrontaivbhIrnnieselnesnsssbmtgiteiodiooliedatdenstshyhetsol.haiegTfcerthetdhahhgyt-ibsetuefeolretppfo.-isbhibmrMe,eoeoctaatthreohsdcde.gceheydorlpoaeeplfpnvaethischcleewientsas, s tKhIstaopmitdssraaoaetuchkcrttttaeePoii“nnmsfpmtgiosrroesasooiirtntdnaffiootcu,ctrfawachtanlaehlaaydnsiknncsesigihntdewhsignlmoensggaocaeenhfttkwi”nltiemocmheIsnaeroaeatsmchgatttioaeeesomrir.neraeraos.ctfitc 228
1826 1838 1839 TFNphrThueieéosnhpeoitcnxocnehgp,efciolfintilagmaisvrphkue)stetrnut-esatstro(kietpnlhreinggeJhsshtoiosothtsielmivdestveeopaerosckhrgtahoinNslerfgthuimaocoraépvpiucppivvrahhsiiiclen.ostwg.ur re First photo of a human CpchoAaoPrmnmtmooeeegulrirrursaiatcst.rpasTtahainot,kisptuteathsiskploilnetfthhogotehrgoa1efr5dtiareoaspmxtghgpisuenoererusalrRtfur-epeoprseobo.h,terhytyrreptaeit Louis Daguerre photographs this street scene using his invention, the daguerrotype. The only person to appear is a man having his shoes cleaned, as he stays still for the seven minutes it takes to capture the exposure. 1895 1920s 1947 Ghpteaamernkmnuedesas,tcnwraalephntF,ehiXcbyi(h-utrsrrtasisacahyvtirsoeiemtXwlWstas-htgorirtlhohepaeuapoyltgemfXhdh-)Ribrssaöykwynibsnitfogecane’asnennd. mLTbUiafehewSkgees,hignmticaPcsoaarh,lthdmgartesaeooenzvtriteineaanoccsagehlljesmunsodsoooouuefclrocepir“agphhnplihocaioanotasrojttullToaijasosibdetmuimlcsverenase. aaIansnynl.citssdehm,s”e AwcLfahtianmeynr6seadh0hPriamiesnso,vtiemwlhlelciorhuanoesnitcrnestPhod-wtyoshdiea.ldeeaiaBtvrPryfcoe-oooil1adrol9ladsapm5roshdp6iaapie,dcvmuhtr9eguooa5hrstreostoeine,glEtdsrrhtad.aaapwsnnkhtinss 1991 2000 TfighrSsosettteegfoinipserrDvshteoteteiniincnmgngsotaeSiamrtgdlaiedamesb, sosl1ye6ofcarAtncsyham.ieaeeDmalelenidrgrcseiiecigtteaarairdtoflnaatncefleosiarccnrmiatdgfmiwelaimnrteaeaa.rses,ar tKdafTriogkgoherliometesabafalcaiacrnelsnadpltedmhmpbeJeoronairstbaopitSessiamlsensaeetep.ronle“lhSffop-roiepneoenlo,llfeeisaitreasistcsrswaea”eivlbitdtleseheirconabyodnoSumleniiolnrteeus-eitn.ah The dark room Before images were stored as electronic data on digital cameras, photographic film was used to record images (known as exposures). The film was developed into a photograph with the use of chemicals in a dark room, lit only by a shaded bulb. The resulting prints were then hung up to dry. 229
DTevhtehealoisptpMhtoeeeiwdssa1toab9ridnsnytsehfu1Jhti8rsceaso4eecmTtfd0ntueseMtbsdusaseayurrMydrtrski.ieenaiiTlnlngrLehsFiarcethsrhf,,aateiennrgstcrteeia. l PBdaeulttooleUoraymhtnehdlieaenanrdenh,shKiuuwmiugsaismnthraprhcovaelleeuLcotnochsparrbtevtenhsiilagsreoduitnbafosmer’atlttdsooieafseoroaginnasdusr.temocTenbruasdpheipntdellaeotseeots,nonxaamgftcmictseflhuireeaiedmsnierienbgslocoedne. 1901 1J8e3sFeB6oroircufehunldtslhasiefetenifrcdeftmairarcolbaeyl.h,muDznhnelecleumweasertiihsisaslnsfyi,atgbcarfaPbshteiananlatiredlwmgseubitenvleuouogerlsldlnevheteorirswtfhireed. Frcernep1cah8htoae8ptnsoodM8wtglhifricreduaoeep“mgmmlhysastushnhgohetsfAaoosharliptieoddsshdteue”o,—ns.anMptlislafeouyecswgcBtesirsnlehietmgrorctaittitnlsihilgooaechnnlsapto-.nuofbbnleic polygre1Farca8croopr9ormhdass8stn,ahacdAserheubm1asl9uoneps3ogrreLei0edeccdmsiastpe,’.i.sanrlPTieeibdnpohsrd,oleeseyhelusagitictgretreeeheahmcicptlsnytoahotgtacccsr,otsohshiwo,rnwienonestceerrsrokaesvt,fo,earrnsdial. Crime detectionCbruimt sinodaeltsovBoheloaTlhtowovoBToadpuehbyaesebmofnitbyfroertsimsrneeehaauAffgronarecbeiodruelemoetknorsrtrosdu,eetpedmArrahdyrirnitcsnegiftrneirhecsnoheenofgtfditnisensmui1ciginnvcrn8paiogechgri.9ontinenlhet2oedtr.vsieasgrepgiyssnraotiteiniogpntqahs,cubttiasoilcptotrcirmscoihmadhette,anehav.tedneamdontv.rdDaFenNtrreostAcmfimoharnnenmie,aqewluydesstish, e 1930 Insect detective MCrtiihmceEerdloelaecsbCvteiorcmaolmromoanapitgbcpMomserrraoiiisideccemsngroscoptdefobsolceUpecefrsoenniatmipeiapnvSefeeriiictonrls(afsSdccrnioruEteenycmnM.dieneTi)sbgheal3eevtDiddeetnacile. 1965 Alexander Mearns’s research allows him to estimate the time of a victim’s death by studying the life cycle of maggots found on the corpse. 1936 230
FreupnchthhihseLsiamcwotiteo“ticechnrFxl.eatdFHicFsi’tmrrrshtiniaitsden“afElaeneiggwBnrc’cvdfcssei“geuehoremttorsehrrir.lcpinr”etyonkageprreHptancieiiAirmSbnnnsmudimiolrsnmethafeionieLcoarcfetnsreotefolitertbiaraapIcrcerrtolcnyciovobmluhconeavticnonstnasg,uersh”lkeiredgi.cnlcscaoeadTaHaitastshrttiFvohlifegenootloeoeeyerhsatslunaymrssdetrmtrortieiehasoennhiftdarensseotrfaceriifenoal(haFpvgcfintBeoeehel.rIaia”)pcsnterdin1tit9ms,1e10.9F7o5oTJDhtDeepedffNvawrreteUeteioaxAlynKosorbsstltpt.udnah,pFhedtpse’uedshoedraeprsmifiloaatodspiliBHbainayrFttasestsgetwyfgbatoslntaacccaaiataltgehrttolstrhhonmuebhshiieaeoihmtmeremnaceneiarneeoaedcol,siutzimeeey-presnwshsinearctstcirnosvadoonieivhrheiemcscoslsndedfdieiiashicc.eccsuptdurishnpeTtivhntienfnrceogaicuntehiAedncknoatnecirbseshntunlantistetitm,l.mvegiainouhesassccelrawietnaDhtnieDshemsVrdeanNrkeNtsssilerucsvsAnoeAtdi,tyfclvhbovoypeteeereu1iraomadonf9rfli,dfsruhits1lhseat0ie.inrfgirhs1at9iTr8. h4eTIhfDnsiderIvetsaNewrbttisaeeetopAtCobsipcmrogalcoiaCdSlasdiisrlmclt’olSlsiieiioaImneoodIefwv:inntiwesesDCresasitcooabssrNhtobritfrysmwnaeeAirftgoyafiaaeDeorpoadltetlvisroNeirtteSaodlioedvnlmdetAcinnrcaiigwenssaiasebpninmilkofitdarcothDeteonoehsaslesNlfeenosihllUosAyewthiUotooSseo,Krlnk.b.vellTpdeuienswhtacgesaleys.aedssc2.scea,0INaoncn1aa0netso9ofghbtivw0neefm9aeueWrdaUni5ssurnqssStepoolsuu,.an2efTstrTidattpecDdbraeAwnihadensokddncgepdiamoKlmnoty11aiara39nhbnn6ecmia9tye’gtDeswhazmm5rtgivyaosareb.ftmioineoDamcdttaraiusetcnsnceesoinkssbmgtehmeihtiedleswnliessesceroaeitttsbntotycddiotiepltvelocefeoraetnswbpgssvsoeaeiscemrvetstnueneb.tddKhs1bi9eiaymtd7oct8zhaywenasyk.i’s 1996 millions of faces. 2007 2017 231
Aircraft and aviation Up, up, and away! In the 15th century, Italian artist Leonardo da Vinci French brothers Joseph and Etienne sketched designs for flying machines, which he based on Montgolfier send a sheep, a chicken, his studies of birds. For the next four centuries, inventors and a duck soaring in a hot air balloon. continued to set their sights on the skies, but it was not The Montgolfiers’ balloon will later be until the Wright Brothers’ historic flight at the dawn of the 20th century that true aviation history began. used for the first human flight. Battle of Britain Modern helicopter 1783 During World War II, members of the The first practical helicopter is invented Jet power British Royal Air Force (RAF), flying by Russian-American Igor Sikorsky, and in Supermarine Spitfires, fight in the The world’s first fully functioning skies with the German Luftwaffe in takes to the skies. Like modern jet-powered aircraft, the Heinkel He 178, helicopters, the design features a main takes off for the first time. The design, close-range aerial combats that rotor on top and a tail rotor for balance. become known as “dogfights.” by German Hans von Ohain, reaches speeds of 400 mph (644 kph). 1940 1939 1939 Commercial jet Twin-rotor choppers Jump Jet After three years of testing, the world’s American aircraft innovator Frank The Harrier Jump Jet takes flight, first commercial jet airliner takes off. Piasecki invents twin-rotor helicopters, becoming the world’s first vertical De Havilland DH106 Comet can carry including the famous Chinook design. takeoff plane. This style of takeoff more people around the world more suits fast exits from battle zones. quickly than any other aircraft. These are used to carry soldiers into conflict and take part in rescue missions. 1966 1949 1960s 232
Hydrogen airship Wright flight Crossing the Channel The world’s first powered airship is built Orville Wright completes the world’s French inventor Louis Blériot becomes by Frenchman Jules Henri Gifford. The first powered, heavier-than-air flight. the first person to cross the English hydrogen-filled, steam-powered design It lasts for 12 seconds and he covers Channel by air. It takes him 37 minutes completes a controlled journey of a distance of 120 ft (36.5 m). in his Blériot XI. 16.8 miles (27 km). 1903 1909 1852 Around the world Atlantic crossing Jet engine Four Douglas World Cruisers, specially The first nonstop flight across the British engineer Frank Whittle designed aircraft operated by the US Atlantic Ocean is completed by British designs plans for the jet engine. Army Air Service, become the first aviators John Alcock and Arthur He patents the design and planes to circumnavigate the Earth. The Brown, who cross 1,890 miles makes this first working version seven years later. around-the-world trip covers 27,500 (3,040 km) in less than 16 hours. miles (44,250 km) in about six months. 1930 1919 1924 Supersonic flight Aboard the Airbus Pilotless drones British-French turbojet-powered supersonic passenger jet airliner The world’s biggest and heaviest With no pilot on board, flying Concorde takes off for the first time. passenger aircraft, the Airbus A380, machines known as drones Traveling at up to twice the speed of takes to the skies for the first time. are controlled by a handheld remote sound, it remains in service until 2003. Powered by four Rolls-Royce engines, control. Today, there is widespread it has room for up to 853 passengers. use of drones for military purposes, 1969 surveillance, and recreation. 2005 21st century 233
Getting the vote 1789 1789 The ancient Greeks first held elections The Rights of Man 2,500 years ago. In the 17th century, the idea The Declaration of the Rights of Man, written by France’s National of representative government emerged—that Constituent Assembly, states the public should vote for, and be represented that all men, not just those with money and property, can vote by, elected officials. Having the right to vote is and participate in lawmaking. known as “suffrage,” but who should be given this right? In many countries, the “electorate” (those with the right to vote) has expanded “All men…” over time, as people have fought for their voices to be heard. The US Constitution, which sets out America’s laws, comes into effect. The decision about who can and can’t vote is left to the states. Most states only give the right to vote to white males who own property. New democracies 1989 1965 When the Soviet Union collapses, a new wave of democracy sweeps across Europe. With more people going to the polls, teams of international observers begin to monitor elections to keep them fair. 1994 Civil rights progress The hard-earned 1965 Voting Rights Act is a result of the US Civil Rights Movement campaigning for change. It outlaws discrimination against African-American voters, such as turning people away on election day, or making voters pass literacy tests. 2008 Freedom Day Young voters South Africa holds its first election with universal Austria becomes the first country in the suffrage, meaning all people regardless of their race European Union to open the vote to 16-year-olds. now have the right to vote. Previously, South Africa’s A handful of countries allow 16-year-olds to vote, system of racial separation, known as “apartheid,” but in most states, voters are 18 or over. meant that black people could not vote. 234
1832 1870 1893 Compulsory voting Belgium starts the world’s first compulsory voting system, but only men can vote. Those over the age of 18 must pay a fine if they don’t vote, and if they fail to four times in a row, they lose the right. Women’s votes will become compulsory in 1949. Great Reform Bill The 15th Amendment 1893 After widespread rioting in Britain Although slavery was abolished in the US in 1865, about unfair elections, parliament tries African-Americans in the southern states still to make voting fairer. This Bill expands the number of property-owning men can’t vote. The 15th Amendment makes it illegal to deny the vote based on skin color, but African- allowed to vote and standardizes American voters still face discrimination. voting practices across the country. 1903–1918 1920 The 19th Amendment Campaigning for change Female pioneers After decades of struggle and protest, US women Emmeline Pankhurst founds the Women’s Social and After a long equal rights campaign, get the vote. Campaigners like Elizabeth Cady Political Union in England. Its motto, “Deeds, not New Zealand becomes the first country Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, and Alice Paul have words,” is a call to action for suffragettes, who use worked for years to improve opportunities for shock tactics to win support. In 1918, women over to give women the vote. Australia women in education and employment, follows in 1902, then women gain the as well as for the right to vote. 30 get the right to vote; in 1928, women of all ages do. right to vote in Scandinavia, Canada, 2015 and parts of Europe. Progress for women “Voting is the most precious right of every More than 200 years after women in New citizen, and we have a Zealand won the right to vote, women in Saudi Arabia are allowed to vote in local moral obligation to ensure the integrity of elections for the first time. our voting process.” Hillary Rodham Clinton 235
c. 600 bce Physics Static electricity For more than 2,500 years, scientists have studied the behavior of matter, forces, and energy in an The ancient Greeks discover static attempt to understand how the Universe functions. electricity, meaning electricity that does As theories were proposed over the centuries, the not move. Thales of Miletus (624–546 bce) principles of physics were established. We know realizes that rubbing amber (fossilized more today about the Universe than the ancient tree resin) with fur attracts lightweight physicists did, but there is still much more to discover. objects, including hair, straw, and grass. Sun 1514 The Sun produces rays of light, which travel through space and hit objects on Earth. Original optics Light Earthly rotation Light from the Sun Arab physicist Alhazen ibn bounces off the flower At a time when Earth was thought to al-Haytham (965–1040) and is reflected into be at the center of the Universe, Polish the eye. disproves the idea that the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus human eye can see (1473–1543) uses mathematical models to show that the Universe is because it creates its own heliocentric, meaning the Sun is at the light. Instead, he realizes center and the planets rotate around it. that sunlight bounces off an object and is reflected into the eye, allowing us to see it. c. 400 bce EUREKA! c. 1000 1604 Tiny particles Galileo’s theory Greek philosopher Democritus (460–370 bce) Galileo (1564–1642) experiments with gravity and motion. He drops theorizes that the Universe is made up of tiny cannonballs of different sizes from moving particles, although great heights and shows that they all hit the ground at the same time. He he can’t prove this. He also theorizes about inertia—the idea calls these particles that objects will keep going or stay still atoms, but his ideas have little to do with what we unless a force is acting on them. know as atoms today. c. 250 bce Eureka! Greek mathematician Archimedes (287– 212 bce) has a “Eureka!” (“I’ve found it!”) moment while in the bathtub. Water spills Falling objects out as he climbs in, leading him to Objects made from the same material are formulate the principle of buoyancy, pulled down by gravity which explains why objects float in water. at the same rate. 236
Electromagnetism Gravitational waves 2015 Scottish scientist James Clerk Maxwell First predicted by Einstein, (1831–1879) realizes that electricity and gravitational waves are detected magnetism are not separate phenomena, but a single force, and that light is a type of in space. These tiny ripples electromagnetic radiation. His work leads reveal information about the to the discovery of radio waves, which are Universe, including black holes used in many types of technology. and the Big Bang. 1861 Electric experiment 1905X-ray invention The “God particle” 1895 During a thunderstorm, German physicist Wilhelm Röntgen The particle that gives all matter its mass is American politician and (1845–1923) produces the first X-ray discovered by scientists. The Higgs boson, experimenter Benjamin after discovering electromagnetic Franklin (1706–1790) flies a kite nicknamed the “God particle,” advances attached to a metal key. When a radiation can penetrate solid unified field theory, which aims to explain lightning strike causes sparks objects. X-rays revolutionize to fly from the key, it proves that medical science, allowing doctors particles and forces. lightning is a type of electricity. to see inside living bodies. 2012 1752 1898 New elements Schrödinger’s Cat Polonium was named As part of a theoretical experiment, Austrian physicist after Poland, where Erwin Schrödinger (1887–1961) imagines a cat inside a Marie Curie was born. box with radioactive material. As the cat can’t be seen, it could be alive or dead, or both. Similarly, scientists Po84 can’t know what a particle is doing until they observe it. Polonium Radioactive elements 1935 (209) Pierre and Marie Curie discover the Ra88 radioactive elements polonium and Radium radium. Radioactive elements are very (226) unstable, as their atoms can split apart all by themselves. When an atom splits, it gives off radioactivity, either as tiny chunks of particle or waves of energy. Newton’s gravity Latin origins Space and time Expanding Universe Radium is the Latin English physicist Isaac Newton word for “ray.” German scientist Albert Einstein Belgian physics professor Georges (1643–1727) publishes his landmark Famous equation (1879–1955) proposes that gravity Lemaître (1894–1966) proposes his Einstein realized that you can exists because heavy objects bend theory that the Universe is expanding and work Principia Mathematica, in calculate the energy an object space and time. Imagine placing later suggests that the Universe began which he explores motion and produces if you multiply its Earth onto a sheet of stretchy rubber, with an explosion, the so-called Big Bang. explains how the force of gravity mass by the speed of light. making it dip in the middle. When the holds the Universe together. Moon rolls past, it gets stuck circling Earth and can’t climb out of the dip. 1927 1687 237
Cars Steam machine Wheels first got vehicles moving in about 3500 bce, French engineer Nicolas-Joseph allowing horse-drawn carts to carry heavy loads. But Cugnot builds the first automobile, a it took more than 5,000 years for the first horseless carriages to hit the road. The real breakthrough was three-wheeled cart powered by the invention of the internal combustion engine, which steam from a wood burner at the allowed cars to run on gas. Mass production followed, front. It can reach speeds of 2 mph forever changing the way we travel. (3 kph) and has to be refilled with wood every 15 minutes. Traffic lights 1769 The first electric traffic Tin Lizzie lights are installed in Cleveland, Ohio, with American businessman Henry Ford starts the Ford Motor Company. He red and green indicating sells 1,700 cars in the first year. Five stop and go. years later, the Model-T, nicknamed Tin Lizzie, is produced at Ford’s factory in Detroit and becomes the world’s first affordable car. Assembly line Ford introduces a moving assembly line to his factories, using a conveyor belt to haul parts past teams of workers. A Model T can now be assembled in 90 minutes. By 1927, 15 million will have been sold. 1914 1913 1903 First diesel car The German car manufacturer Mercedes-Benz brings the first diesel passenger car to the market. The 260-D model is displayed at an automobile show in Berlin and soon has a year-long waiting list of buyers. Seatbelt safety Robot workers The modern seatbelt is introduced by The first industrial robot is Swedish manufacturer Volvo. In the used in car construction. interest of safety, Volvo makes the Unimate is a robotic arm that welds parts and stacks metal patent open so that all car on the production line at US manufacturers can use it. car giant General Motors. 1936 1959 1961 238
Combustion engine Explosive Four-step cycle design Swiss inventor Francois Isaac de Rivaz German engineer Nikolaus Otto devises an engine that uses an explosion English engineer invents the four-stroke engine, an Samuel Brown internal combustion engine that of hydrogen inside a cylinder to push patents an internal cycles through four steps: sucking a piston out. He uses the engine to drive a combustion engine in fuel; compressing it; burning it; carriage a short distance. It is the world’s fueled by hydrogen. He mounts the engine and expelling it. first automobile driven by an internal on a cart and drives it combustion engine. up a hill in Greenwich, London, in front of a watching crowd. 1807 1823 1876 Speed demon Inflatable tires First road trip The first speeding ticket is Scottish inventor John Boyd German engineer Karl Benz given in England to Walter Dunlop invents pneumatic masterminds the Motorwagen, the Arnold for driving at 8 mph (inflatable) rubber tires for his (13 kph)—more than four times 10-year-old son’s tricycle. first commercial gas-powered the speed limit of 2 mph (3 kph). automobile. In 1888, his wife, Bertha, Inflatable tires are later adapted for automobiles and takes it on the world’s first long- distance automobile journey, acting become a huge success. as both driver and mechanic. 1896 1888 1885 Sporty numbers Driverless cars Italian car manufacturer Lamborghini is established by Ferruccio Nevada becomes the first US state to allow driverless cars to be tested Lamborghini. Luxury sports cars on public roads. Driverless cars use become popular on both sides of the a computer assisted by a GPS unit, Atlantic, but only a small number of laser sensors, cameras, and other people can afford them. devices to find their way without human intervention. 1963 Hybrid cars The Toyota Prius—one of the earliest and most successful hybrid cars—goes on sale. It is powered by both a gas engine and an electric motor, improving efficiency and reducing toxic emissions. Within the next decade, more than one million hybrid cars will be sold. 1997 2011 239
Great adventures Lift off The 20th century saw a burst of daring feats American Orville Wright flies the first and great adventures, as pioneering explorers powered plane, which he designed with his pushed against the limits of human capabilities. brother Wilbur Wright. The fabric-covered Although scientific and technological advances aircraft looks like a box kite with propellers. helped to make these endeavors possible, their It flies for just 12 seconds, 20 ft (6 m) above ultimate success was due to the inspiring courage and resilience of extraordinary men and women. a beach in North Carolina. Everest conquered 1903 Pioneering flight Edmund Hillary from New Zealand and Tenzing Norgay from Nepal American Charles Lindbergh flies solo across the Atlantic Ocean nonstop in successfully climb Mount Everest, the world’s highest mountain, for the first his plane the Spirit of St. Louis. time. It is a dangerous and grueling Traveling for almost 34 hours, from mission to reach the top of the world. New York to Paris, his achievement makes him famous around the world. Mysterious disappearance 1927 Amelia Earhart takes off from Oakland Historic swim Airport, California, on the first leg of her journey to become the first woman to At the age of 64, endurance circumnavigate the globe. En route, she swimmer Diana Nyad becomes the goes missing, and the mystery surrounding her disappearance becomes legend. first person to swim the 60 mile (96.5 km) distance from the 1953 1937 Deep down The Flying Housewife Bahamas to Florida, encountering crocodiles, jellyfish, and sharks Jacques Piccard from Switzerland and Don American Geraldine “Jerrie” Mock, along the way. Walsh from the US, in their submarine Trieste, are famous for her pearls and hairstyle, the first humans to reach Challenger Deep, the becomes the first woman to fly solo oceans’ deepest-known point. Their 6.8-mile (11- around the world. The flight takes km) descent into the Mariana Trench in the 29 days with 21 stopovers. western Pacific Ocean takes almost five hours. They spend just 20 minutes on the ocean floor. 1960 1964 1979 240
Finding the way Claiming the North Pole Sailing in a small fishing boat, famous American Robert E. Peary and his Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen team claim to be the first people to reach the North Pole. Later, and his crew find a way through the experts argue that Peary missed Northwest Passage, the waterway that the pole by about 30 miles links the Arctic and Pacific Oceans. (48 km), but it remains an incredible story of courage. 1903–1906 1908–1909 Race to the South Pole Into the jungle Endurance Five years after navigating the Northwest British geographer Colonel Percy British explorer Ernest Shackleton, in his ship Passage, Roald Amundsen sets off on a race Fawcett disappears in Brazil while looking Endurance, aims to cross Antarctica via the against Britain’s Robert F. Scott to reach the South Pole. Disaster strikes when Endurance for a lost city that he calls “Z.” The gets stuck in ice. The crew survives thanks to South Pole. Amundsen gets there first and unsolved mystery of his disappearance Shackleton’s extraordinary leadership skills. Scott dies on the harrowing journey home. makes international headlines. 1925 1914–1917 1911 The highest jump Walking the Amazon American Alan Eustace travels British explorer Ed Stafford walks to the edge of space in a the length of the Amazon River, 6,000 miles (9,656 km) in total from balloon. He detaches himself its source to the ocean. The journey from the balloon and plummets takes him two and a half years. to earth, opening his parachute 2010 shortly before landing. His descent to Earth is faster than the speed of sound and takes 15 minutes. 2014 241
THE VOYAGE OF R.M.S. TITANIC The “unsinkable” sinks On April 10, 1912, the colossal steamship R.M.S. Titanic set sail on its maiden voyage from Southampton, England. With around 2,200 passengers and crew on board, the world’s biggest ship cut through the waters of the Atlantic Ocean, heading for New York City. The journey was expected to take seven days, but the Titanic, which had been proclaimed “unsinkable,” was unknowingly sailing toward a catastrophic finale.
Harboring bad omens Icy warnings Titanic steers sharply to avoid collision. Traveling at 23 mph (40 kph), the Titanic At the beginning of April 1912, before The Titanic makes good time across the strikes the iceberg, which tears through the R.M.S. Titanic’s scheduled departure for Atlantic Ocean. On April 12, the crew starboard (right) side of its hull, destroying its first ever voyage, the crew reports a fire receives the first ice warning from R.M.S. five watertight compartments. in a coal bunker below deck. Unable to put Empress of Britain. More warnings then out the blaze, and after the Titanic is judged come through in the evening from the Women and children first seaworthy, the crew is ordered to control French ship, S.S. la Touraine. Two days later, the flames until the ship reaches New on April 14, more iceberg warnings are Just before midnight on April 14, Captain York. On April 10, as the Titanic leaves received. At 11:00 a.m., Captain Smith Smith and the ship’s designer, Thomas Southampton, suction created by the cancels the first scheduled lifeboat drill. At Andrews, investigate the damage. Andrews power of the propellers causes the mooring 2:00 p.m., he tells the managing director of predicts the unimaginable—the Titanic will chains of the docked S.S. City of New York White Star Line, the owner of the Titanic, sink in a couple of hours. At midnight, to break. It drifts into a collision course with Joseph Bruce Ismay, who is on board for Titanic’s first distress call is missed by the the Titanic. The quick thinking of Captain the celebratory maiden voyage, about the S.S. Californian, which is only 5 miles (8 km) Smith and the use of several tugboats help ice warnings. away. At 12:20 a.m. on April 15, Captain prevent a disastrous departure. Smith orders use of the lifeboats. The A moonless night Titanic is fitted with 20 lifeboats, which altogether only have room for around 1,200 On the evening of April 14, the temperature people, so the crew prioritizes evacuating drops close to freezing. More warnings women and children. Five minutes later, come in, but Captain Smith is dining with R.M.S. Carpathia responds to the distress the passengers, so doesn’t receive the call, but it is 67 miles (107 km) away. In the news until later. At 11:00 p.m., a final chaos of the evacuation, the lifeboats warning comes in from the S.S. Californian, launch with only 705 on board. At informing the Titanic crew it has decided to 2:20 a.m., the “unsinkable” Titanic sinks stop sailing for the evening due to the ice. below the icy waters, with more than 1,500 The message is ignored by the operator, passengers and crew following it to a who is busy transmitting passenger watery grave. messages to shore. At 11:40 p.m., on a moonless, calm night, the lookout fails to Rescue and relief spot an iceberg until it is only 1,000 yds (900 m) away. First Officer William Murdoch At 4:10 a.m., the Carpathia arrives and at orders the engines into reverse and the around 8:00 a.m., with all 705 survivors on board, it sets sail for New York, arriving “There is no danger three days later on April 18. Survivors that Titanic will sink. disembark amid crowds of eagerly awaiting The boat is unsinkable.” family, friends, and photographers who followed the story that shook the world. Phillip Franklin, Lessons learned White Star Line vice-president After several months of news reports, theories, and an official inquiry, the disaster is deemed an accident. The high speed that the colossal steamship was traveling at is judged as “standard practice,” removing blame from Captain Smith and his crew. After the inquiry, it is recommended that on future voyages, the number of places on board lifeboats should match the number of passengers on board. 243
THE MODERN WORLD After 1914
The Modern World In the first half of the 20th century, tensions between international powers exploded into two world wars. European nations were weakened by the cost and destruction of these conflicts, and lost control of their overseas empires. In the late 20th century, new rivalries sparked new conflicts. At the same time, technology leapt forward. Humans ventured into space, while the invention of computers led to a digital age that continues in the 21st century. 1924 1933 1936–1939 1945 1948 Joseph Stalin becomes leader Adolf Hitler comes to Spain descends into civil war The US drops atomic bombs on The United Nations creates of the ruling Communist Party power in Germany. between the government and the Japanese cities of Hiroshima the nation of Israel in Palestine in the Soviet Union. nationalists led by General Franco. and Nagasaki, ending World War II. as a homeland for the Jews. 1914–1918 1929 1939 1941 1948 1949 War between the powers The crash of the US stock World War II breaks The Japanese attack on The Soviet Union blocks Mao Zedong proclaims of Europe spreads to market on Wall Street leads Pearl Harbor brings the transportation links to West the communist People’s become World War I. to the Great Depression. out when Hitler US into World War II. Berlin, starting the Cold War. Republic of China. invades Poland. World War I The Soviet Union World War II Decolonization Beginning in Europe, World War I A communist revolution in When Adolf Hitler of Germany After World War II, many (see pages 248–249) quickly Russia transformed the country invaded Poland, World War II colonies in Africa and Asia spread to colonies around the into the Soviet Union (see pages (see pages 258–267) engulfed world. The war cost the lives of 254–255). Under Joseph Stalin, the globe. Fifty million people successfully fought for 20 million people. its people faced great hardships. independence from Europe died as a result of the war. 246 (see pages 268–269).
The Difference Engine As early as the 19th century, English mathematician and inventor Charles Babbage had designed a machine to perform complicated mathematical computations. But it wasn’t until the late 20th century that the age of computers really got underway. Babbage was never able to construct a finished machine— the one shown here was made in the 1980s from his original designs for the Difference Engine #2. 1950 1964 1989 1994 2001 North Korea invades The US formally enters English engineer Tim Nelson Mandela is elected Terrorist attacks on sites in South Korea, starting the Vietnam War on Berners-Lee creates the first black president of the US lead to the start of the Korean War. the side of the South. the World Wide Web. South Africa. the “War on Terror.” 1955 1962 1989 2004 2017 African-American Rosa Parks refuses to The Cold War threatens to get hot when The fall of the Berlin Wall A tsunami (tidal President Robert give up her seat on a bus for a white man, the Soviet Union and the US clash over marks the start of the collapse wave) devastates Mugabe of Zimbabwe igniting the US Civil Rights Movement. Soviet missiles installed in Cuba. of the Soviet Union. Southeast Asia. is forced to resign. The Middle East The Cold War Civil Rights The digital age The interference of the West in The US and the Soviet Union More than a century after The development of computers, the affairs of the Middle East were on different sides of a the end of slavery in the US, the internet, and smartphones (see pages 272–273) led to “Cold War” (see pages 282–283) African-Americans sought legal (see pages 298–299) has led to decades of conflict in the region. that was played out in other equality through the Civil Rights a digital age where information It remains unresolved to this day. nations around the world. Movement (see pages 290–291). is readily available. 247
World War I At the turn of the 20th century in Europe, nations competed for land and power, with each country forming both military alliances and hostile rivalries. The stage was set for war. Between 1914 and 1918, Russia, France, and Britain fought against Austria-Hungary and Germany, with both sides using devastating new weaponry and tactics. World War I became one of the bloodiest conflicts in history. BEFORE War erupts Western Front War in the skies Gallipoli Campaign In 1882, Germany, Austria-Hungary blames The German advance World War I is the first major British, French, Australian, Italy, and Austria- Serbia for the Archduke’s across western Europe is war during which aircraft and New Zealand troops Hungary sign a Triple assassination and declares halted by Allied troops. Both are used. From early 1915, mount a huge attack on Alliance. Germany’s war. Russia sends troops to sides dig trenches, which planes are used for rising power alarms form the Western Front, a the Gallipoli Peninsula Britain and Russia. In defend Serbia, leading reconnaissance and taking hoping to capture Turkey, 1907, Britain joins a Germany to declare war on line that eventually photographs. They are later but the plan is a failure. Two Triple Entente with stretches from the Swiss hundred thousand Allied Russia and France. Russia. Country after border to the North Sea, deployed to drop bombs country rushes to defend and fight against one troops are killed their allies and declare war 400 miles (645 km). another in the skies. or wounded. on their rivals. April 25, 1915– January 9, 1916 September January 1915 April 22, 1914 1915 1 August 1914 June 28, August 26– December 25, 1914 30, 1914 1914 Assassination Battle of The Christmas Poison gas Tannenberg Truce The heir to the Austro- The German army unleashes Hungarian throne, Archduke On the Eastern Front By the end of 1914, both sides a new weapon—poisonous (Central and Eastern on the Western Front have chlorine gas. The first attack Franz Ferdinand, is Europe), the Russian army reached a stalemate. A takes place near the Belgian assassinated on a visit to invades Germany, but they city of Ypres. Five thousand Sarajevo, Bosnia. The killer, suffer a crushing defeat. spontaneous truce is called at The Russian commander Christmas. Soldiers enter \"No soldiers die as gas seeps Gavrilo Princip, is a commits suicide and the into the trenches, and nationalist who believes army never really recovers. Man’s Land\" between the 10,000 are injured. that Bosnia should be part trenches to play soccer, sing carols, and swap simple gifts. of Serbia, not Austria-Hungary. 248
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