Timelines of Everything

Trench warfare Each side dug a line of trenches along the Western Front. The trenches ranged from small dugouts to sophisticated structures, but living conditions were horrendous. The open space between, known as “No Man’s Land,” was criss-crossed in miles of barbed wire. New weapons, such as machine guns, caused huge numbers of casualties. Peace Battle of Jutland U-boats Passchendaele With US troops now helping the Allies, The only naval battle of the Germany announces it will After relentless heavy the Germans are war is fought off the Jutland use U-boats (submarines), rainfall, this four-month overwhelmed. Both battle campaign near Ypres sides agree to end the Peninsula in Denmark to fire torpedoes at sees 600,000 casualties. war. The fighting stops between the British and unarmed British merchant The Allies gain only 5 miles officially on the 11th German navies. There are ships carrying vital supplies (8 km) of land. The battle is hour of the 11th month. heavy losses on both sides. of food and ammunition. Red poppies go on to remembered for the be symbols of the tragic The German navy horrendous conditions and waste of World War I. withdraws for the duration terrible death toll. of the war. July 31– November 11, November 6, 1918 January 31, 1917 AFTER May 31–June 1917 1, 1916 World War I costs March 21, the lives of almost April 6, 1918 10 million military 1917 personnel and six February 21– July 1– million civilians. The December 16, 1916 November Treaty of Versailles, signed in 1919, ends 18, 1916 the Austro-Hungarian and Turkish Empires. It also leaves USA joins the war The Spring Germany humiliated Offensive and angry. Despite all America has stayed neutral, but the German sinking of After Russia surrenders, Battle of Verdun Battle of the the passenger liner Germany focuses on a leaders promising Somme series of huge attacks peace, by 1939 the The war in France is at a Lusitania on May 7, 1915, against the Allied forces, world is at war again. stalemate. The Germans Tanks are used, and British killing Americans on board, plan a major offensive in soldiers climb out of their the French city of Verdun. trenches toward the changes public opinion. which now include US soldiers. The Germans More than 700,000 men German line in a “big push.” When America discovers hope to achieve a quick that Germany is urging lose their lives in the They are met with Mexico to start a war with victory, but fail in their ensuing battle, which is the unrelenting artillery fire. More longest of the war. than 19,000 British troops them, America joins attempted “knockout blow.” die on the opening day. the Allies. 249

The 1920s After the horrors of World War I, the Roaring Twenties proved to be a more carefree and hopeful time, especially in the US. An economic boom there meant people had money to enjoy the finer things in life—from cars to culture. Music, writing, and fashion all buzzed with new ideas, and the powerful artistic medium of film began. 1920 Prohibition Alcohol is prohibited in the US. Criminal gangs grow rich by illegally making and selling their own alcohol and running bars called speakeasies. The ban on alcohol will be lifted in 1933. 1923 The Charleston 1922 The Jazz Age Flappers The Charleston (see page 172)— Originating with African- named after a song composed Americans in New Orleans, The flapper craze takes Western in 1923—is the dance of the era. jazz music really takes off, so fashion for women by storm. Flappers The dance is deemed indecent, much so that the 1920s become wear shorter skirts, bob their hair, and which makes young people love known as the Jazz Age. listen to jazz—all things that are seen it even more! Jazz music features strong as rebellious by older generations. 1926 Birth of television rhythms and improvisation. The Scottish inventor John Logie Baird demonstrates 1925 Boom! the first television images Factories that had increased to scientists in London. Television is born. production for World War I 1927 The Jazz Singer switch to making consumer The first film to feature goods. People buy cars and synchronized sound is The luxury items on credit (paying Jazz Singer. The film is a hit, for the item in installments). and signals the beginning of the The economy experiences end of the silent era of movies. a boom as a result. 1929 Academy Awards The Academy of Motion 1927 Ford Model T The last Model T cars roll out Picture Arts and Sciences of the Ford Motor Company’s (AMPAS) hand out the factories. 16.5 million units were sold worldwide. Its success is first awards (soon to down to mass production and be called “Oscars”) in a small ceremony the economic boom. in Hollywood, California. 1929 The Wall Street Crash Billions of dollars are wiped off the value of the American stock market on Wall Street, as the economic boom turned into a bust. The Wall Street Crash will prove to be the biggest economic catastrophe in US history. 250

The 1930s The Wall Street Crash spelled the end of the Roaring Twenties. The 1930s were to prove a decade of hardship and conflict like no other before, with dire consequences for almost every part of the world. There were some positive aspects, however. The “New Deal” got the US economy back on track, and comic books entertained people all over the world. 1930 Great Depression 1931 Crisis in Europe The Wall Street Crash causes Germany and Austria’s economies American businesses to stop investing and importing things are thrown into chaos. Austria’s from Europe. This loss of business largest commercial bank triggers the worldwide Great Depression. Millions lose their collapses in May, and this triggers jobs, homes, and ability to pay a financial panic throughout for basic things, such as food. Europe in particular is hit hard. Europe. In Germany, people burn worthless banknotes for warmth. Lining up for food 1933 Hitler and fascism 1932 Hoovervilles Adolf Hitler comes to power in More than two million Americans The economic crash leaves millions without homes, Germany with promises to fix are homeless, and 25 percent are jobs, or both, and forces many to rely on charity to the country’s economic woes. survive. Long lines gather at bakeries and soup Hitler and his Nazi party are out of work. Slums—mockingly kitchens in order to receive free food. Many dress fascists: an extreme right-wing called “Hoovervilles” after professionally to give the impression to neighbors ideology that emphasizes that they are off to work for the day. nationalism and has contempt President Herbert Hoover, who for democracy and minorities. fails to help—start popping up. 1934 Dust Bowl Years of severe drought across 1933 New Deal the prairies of the US and Franklin D. Roosevelt becomes Canada cause winds to whip up the light, dry soil into dust US president, and promises a storms, destroying agriculture “New Deal” for the American and worsening the problems people. This includes jobs and a of the Great Depression. huge social welfare package to 1936 Spanish Civil War help ease the Great Depression. Spanish nationalists, led by General Francisco Franco, rebel. 1938 Superheroes rise! Pro-government supporters unite The “Golden Age of Comic Books” against the nationalists, and a civil begins when superheroes such as war breaks out. It will last for three years before the nationalists win. Superman and Wonder Woman 1939 World War II appear for the first time. World War II begins when Hitler invades Poland, forcing Britain and France to declare war on Germany. 251

Archaeology Uncovering Pompeii Archaeology is the study of the past In Italy, workers begin digging at Pompeii, through the objects, buildings, and a town buried under a volcanic eruption in human remains left by those who have 79 ce. Their aim is to find works of art. Later, Pompeii’s streets, shops, houses, and temples are revealed, as well as the empty spaces left by the decayed corpses of those buried in ash during the eruption. lived before us. Around the world, archaeologists have uncovered 1748 entire buried towns, discovered the existence of long forgotten civilizations, and unearthed spectacular treasures. Their findings have revealed fascinating details, not just about the lives of past kings and queens, but of everyday people, too. Decoding 1797 hieroglyphics Layers of history Jean-François Champollion uses the Rosetta Stone, discovered Historian John Frere uses in Egypt in 1799, to decipher stratigraphy for the first time Egyptian hieroglyphics. The stone to describe a Stone Age site has the same inscription in Greek, hieroglyphics, and demotic (an at Hoxne in Suffolk, UK. everyday Egyptian script). Stratigraphy, the study of layers, is based on the idea 1822 Assyrian treasures that the lowest layers are The city of Uruk In modern-day Iraq, Henry Layard the oldest. discovers and excavates the William Loftus discovers and Three-age system excavates the Sumerian city of Assyrian palaces of Nimrud and Nineveh. He finds statues of gods Danish historian Uruk in modern-day southern that have human heads, bird wings, Christian Thomsen divides Iraq. Uruk, founded in around 4500 bce, is the world’s oldest city. and the bodies of lions or bulls. prehistory into the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages, based on human tool use. He reasons that the earliest tools used by humans were initially made of stone, then bronze, and later, iron. 1836 1871–18901849–18541845–1851 Royal tombs The Gokstad ship Seeking to find the truth Norwegian historian Nicolay Nicolayson behind the Greek excavates the 9th century Gokstad ship burial. The ship is 76 ft (23 m) long and perfectly legends of the Trojan preserved. It holds the body of a Viking ruler. War, German Heinrich Schliemann excavates 1880 Troy, Mycenae, and Tiryns. In the royal tombs of Mycenae, he discovers beautiful gold masks. 252

AFTER The Terracotta Army Tollund Man Archaeological discoveries are still Chinese archaeologists begin Two brothers cutting turf at Tollund being made. In 1991, hikers in the Alps excavating pits holding an army of in Denmark discover the perfectly find the 5,300-year-old frozen body 7,000 life-size terracotta warriors. They preserved body of a man, who died of Ötzi the Iceman. In 2016, the oldest were buried in 210 bce to protect the 2,000 years ago. His stomach held his last meal, a gruel of barley and handwritten tablets ever found in tomb of China’s First Emperor. Britain are discovered. They reveal chamomile. notes written by the Romans. 1974 1950 Inscribed bones King Pacal’s tomb The Chinese archaeologist Li Ji In Palenque, Mexico, Alberto Ruz excavates Anyang, capital of the Lhuillier digs beneath a Mayan pyramid temple and discovers Shang Dynasty, which ruled the tomb of King Pacal (ruled northern China from 1600–1046 bce. 615–683). Pacal’s skeleton was He finds many thousands of animal found wearing a beautiful jade mosaic mask. bones, inscribed with the earliest known Chinese writing. Tombs of Ur1927 1928–1937 1948–1952 The Indus civilization Leonard Woolley excavates Machu Picchu the Sumerian royal tombs In India, John Marshall excavates the cities at Ur, dating from c.2750– of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. He reveals In the Andes of Peru, Hiram 2400 bce. Among the Bingham finds the lost Inca treasures is a golden and the existence of the forgotten Indus, or citadel (fortress) of Machu lapis lazuli (a semiprecious Harappan, civilization, which flourished Picchu. Built on a mountain blue stone) statue of a goat. ridge 7,970 ft (2,430 m) here from 2500–1800 bce. above sea level, Machu 1922 Picchu was abandoned 1921–1922 in the 16th century. Pharaoh’s tomb 1911 Howard Carter discovers the tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamun, the only unrobbed Egyptian royal burial ever found. The king was buried in 1327 bce wearing a solid gold mask, inlaid with blue glass. Sequence dating The Minoan Civilization In Egypt, Flinders Petrie develops Arthur Evans excavates the Palace sequence dating. By documenting of Knossos in Crete, Greece, changing styles of pottery from the cemetery at Naqada, he is able to revealing a previously unknown work out the dates of those graves. Bronze Age civilization, at its height from 2000–1500 bce. He calls it Minoan, after Minos, the legendary king of Crete. 1880–1901 1900–1905

The Soviet Union In the early 20th century, Russia transformed—its monarchy ended, and there were two revolutions and a civil war. Reborn as the Soviet Union (or the USSR), it brtaSheseesocloavfgaouniomerrdtvcceeUaientrnsnghndiaemotmfhnwaeeoronommntcrlgscsdthout’asohpbnfeuideeirlpdcdssetohtmcaomaokapreeenmlecycw.mooFcemuonraontumlrmitnsohuttltrncsohieirtfseeasrtat1e,ie9tntseo,4oEbdo0ueu.bsrlrciy,oeetpvthshieenes,gsuecthhatGCfoarlielleutpacrheetetpi.ovGceFpeoarlafeawusaaimanirnhndmntiericttsiyshsvhnsteadpsaiuesdirtckepoateiea,trvtminttvoeeioenfsa8ar.gf,noeIamtyfmenalediidmlnlaiotUdinhnskeeprtaioneinoep.le TTWEblshiochnaeueeofekspgsGuUstUbpitnnGSetteGlKntiohreStre,eimwynsWRUrer,SmgeamiWSencenCtatt,suahenyoaanttnesosnuyEBWyrtCdno.laerGtdeTeifsortFfoseemlhtlitrdtnWrreaefiamaBnnntWWintoneaadcosasrehntprWlahriysSnozrc,tneoeorabodetsnavnaynrtwiteotd.efeaisloptinic.rns,t TChoaSmermtAwmaGcyrlhaiuoanrolrneumegeimanssepddtaeitsgePs2n)thra,tr0staTirtd,tonomoeyopdgrimrlfpltpuirahooeleaonosnmagyuersSbsshaoea(nivlmrnatsidseb., tsosrdie. 1932 1939 1948–1949 1p9puStomt2tiuawlJnrl4ieodegnrsfaehhWrieuidlahspneseprThsgrnoiuhVShslsipitRtaeesiapuldnrioisroitrinsnvtimotsias.ealr’arpsseksLoieaceowsnnonfiedormnvSbedmit1ry.uea9nsil,is2tn8(–hk1Luulag9anekid3pscir)no2sloclatrdneaeuccdkatcioestcivuneooenfTtcnrfmrooaoiFboyr,iianvlm,nmSvedetrpsu.medaels5i-ietatrnnyiystalea,apolelianraaztasnnse.rsdt thoPioellan 1936–1938 ThheUospwUtStaahcWSeSfrcdteoatvShRiteupnetoeRa.wfrcigreBt,nNrzoaaoGaWadolnlanFt,dstenetzidoBrtnirarleddieorsemvWGnlse.sdlariGc,eaosnldieeWaen,nrfeGenabm,,tyrraoschauPematruherrItruoenIIaemtuIrpUlhy.anndlbSltaeKanyssiievmnocid,Uagotiyotdew,anhSnnnadetdeeSeat,rduheeilURtyneinsnS.dt,oer From czar to USSR March 1917 1905 Further mass Czar Nicholas II From the 19th century, protests force gives his people Russians began to demand the czar to a better way of life. Huge abdicate. an elected famine led to multiple 1918 government. revolutions, in which the The Bolsheviks November 1917 czar (emperor) lost power. execute anyone The Bolsheviks, The Bolsheviks, a disloyal to them. led by Vladimir communist political party, They become Lenin, seize seized power. In the wake the Russian of this political upheaval, Communist power. the Soviet Union was Party. formed in 1922. 1922 The Russian Communist Party founds the Soviet Union. 254

“Upon the success of perestroika … depends the future of peace.” Mikhail Gorbachev, 1987 praHoetnwhSedsdepetewaEorSalafinatuonshsSslvsdataiibee,ticerylrtaeurnseUotlftahEsoinhnflsurieteoermCsnodmrseipavlidlaneieeosdti.crrtnseyartsoal ktooefr., relaetinoacnanossduowprrpeeaLitiesrngheenttearstrnushodtercedewosturWiusakpcM,rraeGioemne.isksrTgetlrhgp,.harealkoiassinsllsioGcnntwioroeosonsrstb,oiatkfcaahnevd 1985 1953 1970s fTahitihsplitoidtnwloaestirmdhtBtlooeeiarvpsebggiUnspzueonghrgysvednrceitasoeenhordwrvntensE,lamcitedtpnoochaigegutrredioenb.orneuTestlnni.par,cchsaLt’ooes.tinoenrimdeoono,nimnsiicdy SoRgCvoeiveeevtnp-robtoinemreafmolgplup1aeionl9tnnesnidtfe8osisrndoeEa9ngmeacrsikesonStimtenPoordompvnelipaeuEplntneuedridsrnu,otdliaenpes.en,ce 1989 toTEdTncdoahhBoiiwsgveemthinedGBtmfeo,reeamnulWrrilnlmaonilenirnsaoskWtWentifnryBmaug,talleileohst,rlhmblilbeinenureEioeflntrkunoteordmonuopsfe. 1989 The fall of the Soviet Union Boris Yeltsin becomes the first popularly elected president of Russia and bans the Soviet Communist Party. The Soviet Union is disbanded. 1991 255

256 The story of skyscrapers Jeddah Tower From the very first high-rises in the This skyscraper in Saudi 19th century to the super-tall glass towers Burj Khalifa Arabia is scheduled to of today, skyscrapers have become open in 2020. It will be the powerful symbols of modern life. They In 2010, the Burj Khalifa first building in the world continue to reach greater heights, made opens in Dubai. Standing possible by exciting developments in at 2,717 ft (828 m) tall, it to reach more than building materials and construction can be seen from 60 miles 3,200 ft (1 km). methods. Many of today’s architects (100 km) away. In response and engineers are now challenging to the attack on the World Shanghai Tower Trade Center, the Burj Topping out in 2013, this Khalifa is designed with twisting tower in China refuge areas on each floor, is 2,073 ft (632 m) tall. to provide protection in Its elevators are the case of fire. fastest in the world, traveling at speeds of themselves to design spectacular Twin Towers 45.9 mph (74 kph). The Dynamic buildings that are environmentally building also captures Tower friendly, too. Engineers learn more about the rainwater to be used in effect of wind on tall, solid structures, its air conditioning and In the United Arab “The skyscraper making it possible for buildings they Emirates, heating systems. design to reach greater heights. In construction of the New York in 1971, the Twin Towers of Dynamic Tower the World Trade Center, symbols of starts in 2020. With the city’s wealth and power, are wind turbines completed. In 2001, both collapse after terrorists fly planes into them. between each pair of floors, the building is the point Empire State Petronas Towers will be able to where art and the Building Construction on these produce all of its own city meet.” This high-rise, opened in twin skyscrapers in Kuala energy. Each floor will 1931, is a symbol of hope Lumpur, Malaysia, finishes rotate independently, Ada Louise Huxtable, in 1998. They are 1,483 ft The Tall Building Artistically for New York during a giving occupants period of economic turmoil, (452 m) high and constantly changing Reconsidered, 1984 connected by a skybridge. offering employment to views. those without work. At The designers were influenced by Islamic art. 102 stories high, for 40 years, it is the world’s tallest building. Chrysler Building American businesses compete to build the tallest company headquarters in New York. Racing against the Bank of Manhattan, car manufacturer Chrysler hoists a stainless-steel spire to the top of its building in 1930, making it 1,046 ft (318 m) high.

Tribune Tower In 1922, the Chicago Tribune newspaper launches a competition to design a dazzling new office. The winning entry is an elaborate design by John Mead Howells and Raymond Hood. The Tribune Tower is finished 3 years later, in 1925. Home Insurance Building The 10-story Home Insurance Building in Chicago, IL, designed by architect William Le Baron Jenney, opens in 1885. It is the first building to use a steel skeleton to bear its weight. 257 1885 1925 1930 1931 1971 1998 2010 2013 2020 From 2020

BEFORE War erupts Blitzkrieg In 1933, Hitler sweeps to power in After Hitler’s troops invade Hitler invades the Netherlands, Germany, due partly to resentment of Poland on September 1, Belgium, France, and Luxemburg the Treaty of Versailles, signed after France and Britain declare using Blitzkrieg (lightning war) World War I. The treaty forbids war on Germany. Hitler tactics with air power and fast- German expansion, but Hitler’s troops occupies Poland with moving tanks. On the same day, overwhelming force. enter Austria in 1938. At the time, Winston Churchill becomes European leaders fail to oppose Hitler, September 3, 1939 prime minister of Britain. who becomes more aggressive. May 10, 1940 Battle of the Atlantic The Blitz Britain relies on oil, food, and raw For almost 40 weeks, Germany targets materials arriving by sea from British towns and cities with nighttime America, but German U-boats bombing raids, nicknamed the Blitz, to (submarines) attack and sink cripple Britain’s war effort. People take supply ships. Allied ships start to cover in underground shelters and sail in escorted convoys (groups). children are evacuated to areas less at risk of attack. 1940–1941 September 1940– May 1941 World War II in Europe Fought between 1939 and 1945, World War II was the most costly and destructive war in history—many millions of people were killed and injured. One by one, countries joined the conflict and the world divided into the Axis powers (led by Germany, Italy, and Japan) and the Allies (made up of Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and, later, the USA). January 22–December 10, 1941 April 6, 1941 June 22, 1941–February 2, 1943 November 8, 1942 Tobruk siege Invasion of the Balkans Russia invaded Operation Torch The Allies take Tobruk in Libya, German, Italian, and Bulgarian Germany attacks Russia with When President Franklin D. North Africa, and then resist troops attack Yugoslavia. After a huge force, but after almost Roosevelt brings America two years of fighting, Germany into the war, his soldiers help German attacks in a nine-month terrible losses, Yugoslavia in the successful invasion of siege. This dogged defense surrenders. The Battle of Greece is defeated at the Battle of North Africa. After seven Stalingrad on February 2, 1943 months of fighting, German prevents any German advance ends with the fall of Athens on after a bitter winter. The Battle and Italian troops are forced into Egypt. April 27. Hitler now has direct access to the Mediterranean Sea. of Stalingrad is a crucial to surrender. turning point in the war.

May 27–June 3, 1940 Italy joins the war June, 14 1940 Fall of France Dunkirk Benito Mussolini, dictator of Italy, joins the war as a France, one of Europe’s greatest As German troops march into powers, has fallen after just six France, thousands of Allied troops member of the Axis weeks of fighting. German troops are trapped on beaches at Dunkirk, powers. He orders the triumphantly enter Paris. Much of on France’s northern coast. They invasion of Greece, but the country is now occupied by are rescued by British and French German troops. Hitler turns his civilian boats that ferry troops to Hitler has to send in troops to help. attention further afield. safety across the Channel. June 10, 1940 War in the desert Battle of Britain Allied and Axis forces push each other back and forth Hitler launches an air attack on across Egypt and Libya in North Britain across the English Channel. Africa. Both sides depend on British planes keep control of the tanks and aircraft to journey skies and prevent an invasion thanks across the hostile desert terrain. to the invention of radar, which helps June 1940–May 1943 pilots track enemy planes. July 10–October 31, 1940 Bombing raids The fall of Berlin Germany surrenders The Allies decide that America will bomb German Two and a half million Soviet Hitler commits suicide on April 30, and cities by day and that the British will bomb them troops and 6,000 tanks are Germany surrenders unconditionally by night to force Germany into submission. The deployed for the final attack to the Allies seven days later, thereby on the German capital. On relentless bombing raids kill around April 30, Soviet soldiers take ending war in Europe. May 7 is 600,000 civilians and declared VE (Victory in Europe) Day, destroy many cities. control of the Reichstag, sparking joyful victory celebrations in Germany’s former parliament building. the Allied countries. June 10, 1943 June 6, 1944 April 23, 1945 May 7, 1945 AFTER D-Day At the Potsdam Conference on July After four years of planning, “Operation Overlord” 17, 1945, the Allies divide Germany, begins: the Allied invasion of France. Around and Berlin, into controlled zones. 150,000 troops land on the French coast, and The United Nations is created, with after six weeks of fighting German forces, they the aim of finding peaceful start to push across France, liberating towns and solutions to conflict. Although the cities from Nazi occupation as they go. war is over, Europe faces an enormous refugee crisis. 259

1939 War at home PBRRE IPTAARI NE S Evacuation World War II wasn’t just fought June between soldiers on the battlefield: ThbWhouiesiptWlhtplW,aaiwbtyoraleaaIml,sdrcWieselgkoaxnoeroacte’utsrmr-ratruLeecilicnasaausitgnbdaar,dtolcybaarrAltooiiirnofslroersmhmtarreadieyfddraiuaen(rrsttWmiophngtheuLgspetl.ArtWouei)nvp,rosjwi,urdalarhdeenriecddh. BmrAaiOeitnlrievlseiptoanihacenctsiirguprapeaoaatesvitptoSoeiewnonpdregpenlPetumlpNoli,leaamateadsteznviooPiootmsbnvimitpdoeloyebomrGfrscv.eSbeeehIntirrasinrmldsaFga1,rsarlearambnansnoiob,dcpustoesoartm,g,rtrttthhuhibsorereseaf.el it involved millions of ordinary civilians, too. Men, women, and WDITOHINOGUT Gas masks children had to adjust to wartime conditions and their daily lives August M19dga3uatntrh9soyine)aB.pgtbMtretaoitoihlcimlspeiSkohblsSeneifnpdsarpegaumomnrtofiileingfeisegcahmmsisWtCbfimobeeiovrsrearipllbtsdWrhrykoeWsaatehraiarco(rcr1etrrI9iraoago3fnnitr6v.doe–fn changed dramatically. Food was aiknreIotnRSerufoeuBtpnaaodaprsdrtriuep“ttidtianclhrhoyoiaegenesitnsn,airhwobegfiodonanoswrroetcrotgrlddiaoditpchgnriiptniaoe,nnioebtusJitpnooutamru.sptn”ntobleitGeuenoladriagec,mnara,ruymmbutnmhc1sudoa9iattnerns4taaHiyumad0dliegtlj.ullu,aemsrrt,. rationed, children were evacuated, and cities were bombed. 1940 1940 July 3 UKSUIENGDEER FREE FRANCE Sthheeltbeormfrbosm June June 18 GofrtfothecABoitmerolsnmlatuiAoesfNinatostdomtlontoairfmnlrydanUvetdkh,etni-tibeacbroaoAcun,olrtmhftthmsgahaweuetteeansphrirjltotBlipsohycesuirlfaniishiremtsknAhiitstpsoepiatphscthyroBslavrptraaerrarstoaicrsetttnipvairreommoueuitdnnsglliuiia..nlcsbglTctigyolihhoinneng “dFArermefetGseaeisarkFteutrhLtslahleenaae,NcnauNeaajna,uz”pznitcpoihioiehecnracveiglaunxoedpignlneaeettrdrhisroaeeg. nIlot,rsoafvilsiifdeestFrisohtnreaatmfoonbnercLenFceogtr,neiaoCndnfnhocFiannerrgaaltenoonscfde. CLUaotGKrhrndaeedcisifrdio“fhvmBsineisllai,fliattottnezhhnry,reces”sbetfafaaiierrprknsesgeedttitonscohuspipfrtnluybmledasotectatomoreningesybotrxeoioannpeuitgerSkhnarieedctitesptofrnartuaveoccreimlnekbrstsabbitnl,anioekntaarmneioi7rorwben.rwTaisahnn.sihegd.ean. Isn September 15 Polish pilots thPoeof lBRisrohityapaiilnloA, ttishr eFeosPcrocaleipse(hRtpAoilFBo)tr.siDtafiuignrhinttoghfetighroehitcBwaailttltyhl.e 260

1941 1942 1943 war PROSPOAVGIEATNDA ry TShoeluFtiinoanl Geinrmduasnt June January 20 frpmHworemiohtaldoeNsulreucaisrotzeiffios-oson”ro..ccBGcFecaoiudeeestptrhtbysmoieltaarhaidnrvuenetceyraeomolbacrudoobrnyuibnnotcriogrlei.iezsm“seityndotoatwfaonboldrewrwktuaheasrerresd eppfnrooWoctpshnouhteteule,oaSrranaftsnoisgoGudvaenriebgeinawrtoemsgsotpyaauaroiikgrsnneueeeysnrcttpsegoitvnrhtomoihteleipaaeprNalnnstrgoastttahzdhotnieouejidoncicSnavieanvoatrmavtodrhsyieoereioaorrtsemlnUul.y.ftSnioltaiiothrocavetntrhisy,ee,t totTWotrhpadaekonenipNslanleuptsahldoeazrcietotipa,orJnamnfeoerwtopraycfsrisweEBihnduaeprPntrooeltoipsnoclae,tpaotn.lrhAedrdeyt,feywraoosfhutcomretoromhrnayeaflaltetrholhdrizeeveleenayJrcbaewEeowpiurlili.lnasrbonhepe ReFsriestnacnhce SKIRTED SOLDIERS Dangerous work sTasOfghiubfgrieropgohdNFuphttianaeprtogeazrbsrsniertaayocsscaccthpFknrrcrraomdaeeun1sganpgods9daciuveethi4eehnadrmsrepns3rAtteriecliel–Nl-olanoiNae1patuwcad9zltnehoazitp4eoijrruoifpyslca4noi.rncirRdtoteussrepee,pthrasaasameignicstsiaiidgttontainahcenundnts.sc.tcaehteeo,eir December 7 Amtauotmnfhwomietmonioherukknendnesiragwieitsvfhipahoemticonnrost,eghof,tcaatarithhivnneseaekdswnsw,lmeiw,acagfrastorum,,cfmnoewhasareiecn,ctnlahhedhtneieanocdrfkeporseeoeug,xenronoaptnvtitnlrlgeooiyngrisrndestiwevh.e. eTeieptsrhhers.eonI,nyldess wiJsoacmpWoatenynhntpeeraeosnrveoeAefarrmwetstcieoaarrcrlui;kckmitaioseaendonnnPiyntleeyatoartssrttulhhtHihteeaeatmbriwmblielaoietfrrao,barHreyfmta.leiTewerhvanteehi.ie,tshUteiSsp 1945 HirNoasghaimsaakai nd sNuTTrahhrogeeenanUustdhnaSehepkrud,irJ.bmer1aouc2appte0nastd,ih0ntAteaeeh0nrseub0tiaeeowgpndcmoeuciatroboistledpitnntas’lssegco6efskafiqr–shrHsuea9ftieorvkaonreitclscoleedhemdeiJsmiv.aicnaapsbsaattoananmntdtitonblygs. The Blitz During the Blitz (September 1940– May 1941), Germany launches 71 nighttime bombing raids on London. Air raid wardens and civilians search for survivors in the wreckage of destroyed buildings. 261

The Holocaust Anne Frank From 1933 to 1945, Germany was ruled by the Nazi Anne Frank was a young Jewish girl living Party, an anti-Semitic (anti-Jewish) political organization in the Netherlands when World War II that blamed Jewish people for the country’s broke out. She later died in Bergen- misfortunes. The Nazis built thousands of Belsen concentration camp. Her diary concentration camps, where they survived, though, recording her thoughts imprisoned and killed 6 million Jews, and and experiences while she was hiding 5 million homosexuals, disabled people, from the Nazi regime. Her writing is a Romanies, and political prisoners. reminder of the constant fear and hardship felt by many who lived under Nazi occupation. Auschwitz, Poland Railway tracks lead right up to the entrance to Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration camp. During the Holocaust, more than 1 million people were killed at Auschwitz. Today, the camp is preserved as a memorial. Dachau concentration camp March Nuremberg race laws 1933 Just months after seizing power, the Nazis September 15, At its annual rally in Nuremberg, the Nazi open the first concentration camp at 1935 Party passes more anti-Semitic laws, November 9–10, that further restrict the rights of Dachau, near Munich. It holds 12,000 1938 Jewish people. The laws mean that prisoners, mostly communists and those December 2, Jews lose their citizenship and 1938 can no longer marry non-Jews. considered “enemies of the state.” September 21, 1939 Kindertransport Kristallnacht After Kristallnacht, many Jews try to In a night of violence, Nazis leave Germany, but some countries terrorize Jews across Germany refuse to accept them. As part and Austria, attacking stores, of a rescue effort known as homes, and synagogues. Kindertransport, 10,000 Jewish Thirty thousand Jews are children escape to Britain, rounded up and transported leaving their parents behind. to concentration camps. Jewish ghettos When Nazi troops invade Poland, Polish Jews are forced to move into ghettos, restricted areas controlled by Nazi troops. Food and water are scarce, and living conditions are very cramped.

June 14, 1940 Auschwitz opens September 1, The first prisoners arrive at 1941 Auschwitz concentration camp in Poland. The prisoners, mostly Polish political rebels, are tattooed with numbers in order of their arrival. Star of David January 20, The final solution 1942 From this date, Jewish 1942 High-ranking Nazis meet to people over the age of 6 discuss the “Final Solution,” in Nazi-occupied Europe are February 15, gradually made to wear a 1942 their plan to exterminate badge in the shape of the Europe’s Jews, who they see as Star of David (a traditional July 1944–May 1945 Untermenschen (subhumans) and a Jewish symbol), so that they problem to be solved. They agree to can be easily identified. deport all Jews to Poland, where they The death camps will be killed in death camps. Six “death camps” are Gas chambers established across Nazi- occupied Poland. Jews from all The Nazis use increasingly over Europe are rounded up. systematic methods to They are transported by train in appalling conditions to the camps, commit mass murder. They where they are selected for slave release poison gas into sealed labor or immediate execution. shower rooms, which are full of prisoners. The bodies are buried Liberation in mass graves or cremated. As Allied troops march toward Germany, they liberate the 1945–1949 The concentration camps from May 14, Nuremberg Nazi control. The soldiers are 1948 appalled by the death and Trials devastation they find. Prisoners are weak, starving, and sick. After World War II ends in After liberation, thousands September 1945, the Allies seek continue to die from illnesses to bring those responsible for the they caught while imprisoned. Holocaust to justice. The trials A Jewish homeland are fully televised, and for the first After the horrors of the Holocaust, the time, the public learns the horrific international community faces pressure extent of Nazi war crimes. to find land for Jewish survivors to establish a homeland. The new state of Israel is created in the Middle East. 263



The D-Day landings On June 6, 1944—“D-Day”— the Allied forces of Britain, the US, Canada, and France launched the largest naval, land, and air operation in history. Troops landed on the beaches of Normandy, France, including the code-named Omaha Beach, seen here. By the end of D-Day, more than 150,000 troops had landed in Normandy. They moved inland, allowing more troops to land over the next few days. This marked the first step towards freeing Europe from Nazi occupation.

The Pacific War Although World War II began in Europe, by 1941, conflict had erupted worldwide. Much of the fighting took place in Asia and the Pacific between the Allied forces and Japan, supported by the Axis powers Germany and Italy. Hitler’s invasion of France and the Netherlands in 1940 had left European-controlled territories in Southeast Asia vulnerable as Japan attempted to expand its empire in the region. Japanese victories Australia attacked Battle of the Coral Sea With astonishing speed, Japanese planes bomb the Japanese forces attack port of Darwin, on the north Allied forces halt Japanese Hong Kong, the Philippines, plans to invade New Malaya, Thailand, Guam, Australian coast. Most of and Wake Island, taking vast the city’s military structures Guinea. This is the first sea battle in which neither side’s areas of land. are destroyed. ships catch sight of the other. Instead, the battle is fought between planes sent out from aircraft carriers. Military alliance Feb119r5u4,a2ry Feb119r9u4,a2ry FebMrau19rac4rhy212,7– M419–a48y2, Japan enters into a military Dec1e97m,4b1 er Dec1e9m41ber alliance with Germany and Italy, signing a document Battle of the Java Sea known as the Tripartite Pact. Germany and Italy After defeating Allied naval promise Japan an empire forces in the Java Sea, Japan that stretches across Asia. conquers the Dutch East Sep1t9e4m0ber Indies (modern-day Pearl Harbor Singapore Indonesia). It is another surrenders devastating victory against the Japanese forces bomb the Allied forces, and Japan now US naval base at Pearl Japanese forces continue Harbor in Hawaii. to advance. The fall of dominates the air and sea. Americans are shocked Singapore and the loss by the surprise attack. The of 138,000 British US and Allies declare war Commonwealth troops on Japan; Germany marks a humiliating declares war on the US. defeat for Britain.

Fighting in the skies Japanese planes were faster than those of the US. They ruled the skies until 1943, when American air capabilities improved, overtaking Japan’s. Atomic bombs The cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki are destroyed Battle of Iwo Jima when the US drops two Island hopping US troops land on Iwo Jima, atomic bombs. Tens of meeting fierce resistance thousands are killed The tide starts to turn as US immediately, and tens of forces fight back and begin from Japanese troops hiding thousands more die later in tunnels that criss-cross to defeat Japanese troops the island. Japanese soldiers from the effects of radiation. one island at a time. Many Japanese soldiers refuse to refuse to surrender, but the US declares victory. be taken prisoner, choosing to commit suicide instead. Au119g5u4,s5t FeMb1ra9ur4ac5rhy– M91a–9r14c05h, A6u1a9gnu4ds59t, J41u9–n47e,2 FA1eu91bg94ruu42sa3–try Oc1t9o4b4er Japan under siege Japan surrenders Despite the devastation caused by the atomic bombs, US forces begin a bombing Japan’s military leaders and campaign designed to cut parts of the government off essential supplies to the refuse to surrender. Emperor Kamikaze attacks mainland. Japanese cities Hirohito pressures them to Battle of Midway Japanese pilots adopt are attacked, too. A raid on admit defeat, and after extreme tactics during Tokyo creates a firestorm 4 years of bloodshed, the The Japanese navy’s battle, flying their planes that kills 100,000 people. war finally ends. attempts to take control of into the decks of US Midway Island in the Central warships. These suicide Pacific are defeated by missions, known as Allied forces. Japan suffers “kamikaze” attacks, destroy the loss of 3,500 troops and dozens of warships. four aircraft carriers in its War at sea first major setback. Aircraft carriers became the most important elements in each country’s naval forces, allowing planes to take off and land in the heat of battle. Burma and India Expecting the Indian population to rise up against its British colonial rulers, Japan tried to invade India from Burma. The British fought back, however, and the jungle conflict became one of the bloodiest of World War II. 267

Indian Migration independence The partition of the colony in 1947 turns Britain had controlled India since the 1820s, millions of Muslims in India, and Hindus but by the late 19th century, Indians began and Sikhs in Pakistan, into religious demanding the ability to make their own way minorities. What follows is the largest in the world, free from British rule. mass-migration of people in history. More than 14.5 million people leave their homes and most of their possessions to make it across the new borders. Violence on the way claims about one million of these refugees. These Sikhs are leaving Pakistan to make it to East Punjab, in northern India. 1885 The INC 1909 British concessions The Indian National Congress The British pass laws in 1909, (INC) forms to campaign for 1919, and 1935 that give Indians Indian independence. As the more control over their country. INC is mainly Hindu, Indian Both the INC and Muslim League Muslims form the Muslim League in 1906 to campaign for them. feel that these concessions don’t go far enough, and the independence campaign rolls on. 1930 Salt March 1915 Gandhi Gandhi walks 242 miles (390 km) The Indian nationalist and to protest at the British taxes on activist Mohandas Gandhi basics such as salt. Many are begins organizing opposition to arrested, but the march British rule in the country through draws more attention to the nonviolent means, such as independence movement. 1939 World War II begins disobeying British laws. The British Empire declares 1942 Quit India Movement India’s entry into World War II Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru (the without consulting India’s leaders. INC leader) call for the British to Although 2.5 million Indian leave in the Quit India Movement. soldiers fight, the decision only increases Indian resentment. Gandhi is arrested and the 1945 End of World War II movement is banned, but this For Britain, the cost of victory in World War II is high. It simply only increases its support. did not have the ability or the 1946 Riots desire to attempt to hold on to India, and so it sets about Muhammad Ali Jinnah, leader of negotiating an end to its control. the Muslim League, demands a separate Muslim state, which the 1947 Independence Pakistan gains independence, INC rejects. Riots break out in with Jinnah as its first governor- Calcutta, leading to the deaths general. A day later, India finally achieves its freedom. Nehru of 4,000 people. It is later becomes its first prime minister. agreed that the largely Muslim populations in the northeast and northwest will become Pakistan. 1948 Early struggles Gandhi is assassinated by a Hindu extremist who believes the leader is responsible for partition. Later on, India and Pakistan go to war over the disputed Kashmir region. 268

Ghana’s first president African independence Kwame Nkrumah becomes the first president of an independent Ghana in 1957. He immediately sets After World War II, the European colonial about improving conditions in the country by opening powers found it increasingly difficult to hold schools and establishing a social welfare system. on to their colonies. Some African countries Perhaps one of his most enduring ideas is his fought for freedom, but others were granted promotion of Pan-Africanism—an intellectual it democratically. movement dedicated to studying, understanding, and communicating African culture. 1952 Kenyan uprising 1952 Egypt A group of Kenyan protesters, Although officially independent called the Mau Mau, rebel against British control. About 13,000 of since 1922, Egypt was still them are killed, but Kenya will occupied by Britain. The British finally gain independence in 1963. Empire’s grip on the country is 1957 Ghanaian freedom finally loosened by a revolution Ghana demands freedom from British rule, and it is led by Colonel Gamal Abdel immediately granted. Kwame Nasser, who becomes the Nkrumah becomes the first country’s first president. president of the new nation. 1956 Morocco and Tunisia Two former French colonies in North Africa break free from French power within weeks of each other. Morocco achieves independence after a short period of unrest, but Tunisia’s transition comes in a largely peaceful fashion. 1960 African independence Seventeen sub-Saharan African countries, including 14 former French colonies, achieve independence from European control. It will become known as the “Year of Africa.” 1962 Algerian agreement 1963 African unity Years of war between the The Organization of African Unity Algerian people and the ruling French army end when French is established by 32 African president Charles de Gaulle states. It aims to improve the lives grants Algeria its independence. Rwanda also gains freedom of ordinary Africans through from Belgium, and Uganda its cooperation and discussion independence from Britain this year. between member states. 1964–1968 Leaving the 1974–1975 Portuguese colonies British Empire In four years, six countries The dictatorship that had led leave the British Empire. In 1964, Portugal since 1933 is Malawi and Zambia go, followed by Botswana and Lesotho two overthrown in 1974. Angola, São years later. Mauritius and Tomé, and Príncipe, Mozambique, Swaziland gain independence in 1968, along with Equatorial and Cape Verde, all seize Guinea, which cedes from Spain. their opportunity and gain independence from Portugal. 269

Ancient spies The Art of War Some of the earliest spies operate In his book The Art of War, the during the war between the ancient ancient Chinese general Sun Tzu Egyptians and the Hittite Empire. The advises that spying is necessary in Hittites send people in disguise to feed warfare. Using spies allows you to learn as much as you can about the Egyptians false information, your enemy and their battle plans. hoping to lead them into an ambush. 5th century bce 1274 bce Invisible ink The Cabinet Noir Organized by an American major, Cardinal Richelieu, chief minister to the spy network known as the King Louis XIII of France, sets up the Culper Ring uses invisible ink Cabinet Noir (“black room”). This French to write hidden messages. intelligence service intercepts the letters The ink helps Americans sent between French nobles, so that communicate in secret during threats to the king can be thwarted. the Revolutionary War. 1778 1628 New technology The invention of photography and telegrams allows for new methods of surveillance during the Civil War. Spies can now photograph military defenses and camps and intercept telegrams. 1860 Codebreaking Enigma machine During World War I and World The cracking of the War II, communication technology German Enigma code helped to lead the Allies becomes increasingly complex, to victory in World War II. as new codemaking machines are created. As a result, improving codebreaking techniques becomes crucial for deciphering secret messages. 1914–1945 The story of spying Today For thousands of years, spies have worked to uncover The age of secret information. Most spies work for governments, digital spies finding out the secrets of enemies or potential enemies. The most important part of spying, or espionage, is to A USB flash drive is able to keep the activity secret, and over the centuries, spies store vast amounts of data on a have devised ingenious ways to conceal their work. tiny stick, making it easier than ever to obtain secret information 270 and keep it hidden.

Early codes 1467 ce–1603 ce In order to avoid their communications Masters of Shuriken being read by the enemy during the infiltration Also known as throwing Peloponnesian War, the Spartans develop the scytale. This was one of Using great stealth and blades, shuriken could the earliest systems for coding and speed, the shinobi (later be thrown at a shinobi’s decoding secret messages. known as ninja) are trained enemy or used by hand secret agents employed by 431–404 bce powerful Japanese warlords. to slash. Hiding in plain sight They use espionage, sabotage, and assassination The writing of the Florentine Codex is finished, and reveals that Aztec to attain their goals. merchants, called Pochteca, often The first spy network acted as spies. Their extensive travels make them perfect for this Frances Walsingham becomes the task, because they can learn much principal secretary and spymaster of Queen Elizabeth I of England. about the Aztec Empire. Walsingham builds up a network of spies whose aim is to uncover The Spymaster plots to overthrow the queen. Walsingham had conspirators tortured 1573 in order to get them to confess to their plots. 1585 The French Resistance Angry about German occupation, Pencil fuses groups emerge within France to Used during World War II, these time- sabotage enemy activity. The delayed pencil fuses Resistance sets up escape routes for allowed the person airmen and escaped prisoners of war, setting the bomb to and attacks German transportation escape before the attached explosives and communications. detonated. 1940 First modern Public surveillance Formation of the CIA spy agencies East Germany’s State Security In order to improve its intelligence World War II sees the creation of Ministry, known as the Stasi, is gathering after World War II and new intelligence services to help formed. Secret agents use with the Cold War beginning, win the war, including Britain’s impressive technology, such as the US creates the Central Special Operations Executive Intelligence Agency (CIA), tiny cameras concealed in a foreign intelligence service. (SOE) and the US Office of everyday items, to observe Strategic Services (OSS). people of interest. 1940–1942 Video surveillance Formation of the KGB 1950 1947 CCTV cameras can be used The Soviet Union creates an Camera to monitor traffic and crime, intelligence agency called the Stasi spies would but are also an important tool Committee for State Security, or the KGB. It becomes one use this secret for spies and intelligence of the world’s most effective camera to gather agencies, who use them to intelligence organizations. intelligence. track the movements of people of interest. 1974 1954 271

BEFORE Middle East conflicts From the 1890s, a political campaign Although the Middle East is home to many identities, Muslim known as Zionism called for a Jewish Arabs make up the majority of its people. After World War I, homeland in Palestine. In the Balfour European empires that had power in the region collapsed, Declaration of 1917, Britain pledged and the Arabs regained control. But soon after World War II, Jews were granted the state of Israel in Palestine. Age-old to help create this nation of Jews. tensions, Arab–Israeli conflict, and intervention by the West, However, Muslim Arabs had lived in have combined to make the Middle East a volatile region. Palestine for centuries. After the horrors inflicted on the Jewish people during the Holocaust (see pages 262–263) the United Nations (UN) decided that Arabs and Jews would share Palestine, fueling Arab anger. 1940s–1960s 1960s–1970s May 14, 1948 June 5–10, 1967 ITasbntstnohrearedeiItgasaeAUrhkeacrNbsaealoobdllilrguessisvtad.bibdciTnyIesehricnrtseeawrgPeecaemaalo.ettlnAoeinenfrslwgIeidtscianraltaareunneilmbedtl iawe.mmntwaJedtedeeiwteilsaynitsAleehJrleayawdbss Six-Day War kWtvSAeniycreroarrtsiiwobattornBfairooytaarut.csnasTekct,hhsckaeeafnIrsPp“dorotaamuGcleercailEsn,uztbggpianuyiseiStpawdIttns,ratriJaeptaohrreberreldieatseoacsmonrooif,eemfAasrtnegr.h”adeebs 1948–1960s October 6–26, 1973 January 1978– PImarOnfHerraootevfohuremlleeeogerxceMtytsphhaeeeuateusalisns.lrnnelBti7femdosio5xaulft0tlcrohrnod,ov0wsmeiuv0diicdnno0taetighrrsdssPieteephasbisr,eellleJhaatacsetomnlrtcwemdeieneiiae2snieaths5miaInos,0cisbmnr,hea0efomleo0cenfltoe.i0Igthsmoreraarirn.negtl,s Yom Kippur War February 1979 Iranian Revolution cSIhEAsaoygrtltarllyaysieapcdfl.toksTaasrtyhrna,oiekdtncaecSekIsosyeabnrrsaIfiasealeicrcfloaikrtbeneeayl.YnnbitoddysmsisAtwsuKrrathiprpbeorpninosuepetrhis,.geaHehUJonbewtNoewrersivsehr, lsinktSTeshtonahrhreionedaecwrcpehtemolrI,nalsiiuoAgsclaannyieosomtaadrvutyrtiheosccbierhlnywltlaahIoatsawhrhflyona,eKIwhremoaIhewrfnnioacali,anmrfdMReenieaegedhodniivnemhfoRboia.pelyreumrcvboMteimoamodulsnuaoste.tdoltiTideomRlhdenoeea,nzavaleso March 26, 1979 Israel and Egypt peace deal iIptHnsheroteaahselceteleeaSrdetdiaxtienul-krDrtssnha.oseTyfEUhWIsgeSrayyabpresoytiligafaPn1nnr9edal6asdEn7ide.gdeayintlpitcntCaawptathtreutinceredhr,d 272

1980s 1990s 2000s SeAptuegmusbte2r02,21,9189880– Iran–Iraq War FAeubgruuastry2,2189,91909–1 SepFteebmrubaerry288, ,22000050– WInmrt3Aaaha5olfqaetltiinneoeUirntasrnhSvi,tgsrniaSoiracdleanantheadstdhestid,nsireeaas,uvfanmflapaGodmlpuruHotuonialufcicrbtrlstcaohfleseurmedeypodibnoitiehltypoirseseefeKodsUrxaruoeScptwufieeeoarasaclnniItetf,rde,ralsoeadiq.tdm.Ss. bixy TAaMTpnhepluamIeesscrlrpeiiamoSleeidsselMiosapcefsooveouHliinontnailctaer.disaTanmanchIn,eneavievtlni-sriisSsiuftuihsaptlatttadosbrsiyafaa,itfnaPetenaIksrdlnelAatosmortwiieJnicnleiaShwtnohossaly.arosn, tAHfFeoeunbllassorrsuiwoietnnaiignnsl ge,aipnintghrcehuerstpe-IiarrydaisseeneianniartagnwocinfrRaoIrhresabivssqeoto,glhuiwnietnvinosrae,cndago,enSiuosdannIdtr.radyna. m TTaUTTaththrSatoleaa-l,eQibdFcblteerekaarWiarsnenCordgoad,eiamanrgadningrsa,otottiewtoShngtorehsnrneittenoUhthrpuhTNeSitpegteeediheanTrwerr-alto-smperYlQtirrrobroiovsaubarrfeteckinlengedtb. ireBroaretoesaengcu1riglinoaipg1merf,ie,Avrnietstii2fhens.gssesg0ihunWoatp0htunhpoati1eosrtltrdtathinneg June 6, 1982 Israel invades Lebanon WTIotrwhhafeoeeqmraUwbladeMSspoocs,roltnaaddhlun.yeersWscsieUnterhcKtoushr,ctefe2Aetayirmu0osnbsne–ietansrtlMahtiaseelainvrsatavge,ceedyaIonrrnauet1adiqlo,dsgPhn2atbooiiren0nllaudsatn0sthcdttewhh3tareIeiestoatWlaaapntcmeotkosnicts. July 12–August 14, 2006 (aTiIPnnnhLLdaeOentPbh)a,aaetfltlneePeoseamtnlitenp,oIsitsaTttrinoaunsenea,litlsLeitniaiadbvc.eabkrdyaPeYtasiaoletsnhssOeteinrcrgiAoaaunrnanriftzearabytt.eiol fnorces JWpItIshusoarrawarlanyeeeel1rrliiW,ufs0pupo0letalLd0soeripieLnblreeaLsbnaeaaerbnensadeeknsIiomslelernaipdliaeteaiflnotrfeipy3grl4gheHrtdaesoanzubybdpaso,accolrklaaof. hfpuMi,gtnuaohdrrtee1in6sg5. SDeepcteemmbbeerr913, 1,919897–3 The First Intifada 1993 AFTER TIaAnraeghrlasjareeeohbceiststOsseitgotrvonsrriiositlwcoloaebritniphreAecedseacarikatcactwheghaoardfsorirenouodasmgctlshcwIss,uoirItpsahmrieeaIelsde. rJolaifofettrhlhd. eeanPLO 3saGTe0ghana0eztiancPtosilavatsliuelIitsanosrntcapisnhetilwhaai eonnitcshrinecilnitbuvifepiiatnlsadlgitofaiiionrn(snpktt.hoiyIleslpemruWaalorea.erlrisesuttopBhlradaisnnieiknrgsa)nd Palestinians continue to call for independence for the occupied territories, and conflict still November 15, 1988 rages across the region. In 2010, a period of gs2fTIouon5hrpvecdaepoProePunLrapnmtOlteteerosiisnetntsitshn.udeaTiaerehunsoennuasoPntcdfadLfetieOcetchi.alfsWaeloarPwaiytrathsoilPoierintlnsdawdtoioalanfefyniifansetsns,drtmetpihponeeeraeierncdtehe. annce uprisings across the Middle East known as the Arab Spring challenged leadership and called for democracy. The worst violence was in Syria, which descended into brutal civil war. Understanding the 1897 Zionism 1987 Hamas 1988 Al-Qaeda 2013 ISIL Middle East This movement aims to create This Islamic military group is Formed by Osama Bin Laden, Also known as ISIS, a permanent Jewish national dedicated to destroying Israel al-Qaeda wants to rid Islamic this terrorist organization There are many different state in Palestine. and creating an Islamic state countries of Western influence. seeks an Islamic state across groups involved in conflicts in Palestine. Iraq, Syria, and beyond. across the Middle East. Some of the key players 1964 PLO 1994 Taliban are listed here, with the The Palestine Liberation Organization An extreme Islamic political and year they were founded. aims to liberate Palestine and destroy religious movement, the Taliban is the state of Israel. founded in Afghanistan.

274 2014 2010 1999 Voice command Smart thermostat Wi-Fi technology The heat can now be turned up “Smart” household appliances, which are Voice-activated gadgets can now without anyone having to be home, operated remotely via the internet, are made control home appliances. Machines using a smartphone. Over time, the possible with the introduction of Wi-Fi into obey commands to do anything, smart thermostat learns its user’s homes. These range from entertainment from playing music to ordering preferences and adjusts the systems to fridges and cooking utensils. groceries, without their users temperature accordingly. having to lift a finger. Smart Robotic vacuum fridge cleaner 2006 1996 1970–1979 Steam iron 1975 1983 1985 1970s Teasmade Electronic sewing machine Bagless vacuum Bird kettle cleaner First mass-produced in 1933, this iconic The Athena 2000, made by American This kettle, by Italian company British invention combines an alarm clock company Singer, is the world’s first Invented by James Dyson in Alessi, has a bird figure on its with a kettle that brews tea ready for electronic sewing machine and an the UK, the bright pink spout that whistles when the when its user wakes up. By the 1970s, immediate success. A computer controls G-Force cleaner does not kettle boils. It is a huge global 2 million households have one. the motor’s speed and needle position. require a bag to collect hit, revolutionizing how dust as it vacuums, household products look. improving its suction.

1967 1938 1929 1929 1929 Electric toaster Microwave Clothes dryer Air conditioning Dishwasher The introduction of presliced Despite being invented in the American inventor J. Ross bread in 1928 advances the American company Frigidaire Originally invented in the 1940s, it isn’t until 1967 that a Moore, tired of hanging his use of electric toasters. creates one of the first air 1880s by American Josephine microwave oven small and clothing outside, especially conditioning units small enough for Cochrane, German company cheap enough to be used during winter, invents a Stovetop coffee maker use in regular homes. It is shaped Miele improves the dishwasher easily in homes is developed. clothes dryer that can run 1933 like a radio cabinet. by creating an electric version. on gas and electricity. 1872 1882 1907 1908 1913 Modern radiator Electric iron Vacuum cleaner Washing machine Electric fridge In the 1800s, plumbing is People have been American inventor Introduced by the Hurley American engineer Fred W. Wolf a sign of wealth, so pipes are pressing creases out of James Spangler invents Machine Company of Chicago, creates the first electric shown off. The Bundy Loop, a clothes for centuries, but the portable vacuum IL, the Thor is the first electric refrigerator suitable for the cast-iron, steam-heated radiator, Henry Seely of New York cleaner, which has a washing machine. population at large. It’s known becomes fashionable. is the first to power an rotating brush and as the Domelre. iron using electricity. a bag to collect dust. Electric kettle 1922 Household appliances Advertising In the early 20th century, electricity revolutionized everyday life. After World War II, advertising A whirlwind of labor-saving devices transformed the home, relieving promoted labor-saving devices people of domestic drudgery. Appliances such as vacuum cleaners that promised to cut the time spent and washing machines freed women from spending so much time doing household chores. Most of doing housework, as society expected of them, allowing them this was aimed at women, but as to work or pursue hobbies. In the 21st century, new devices have society has begun to develop evolved to save time and effort for women, men, and children. a more equal attitude toward women and men, advertising has made some progress in representing men in household roles, too. 275

The Korean War In 1950, conflict between North and South Korea threatened to explode into a much wider war. It became an international concern when the US supported the South Koreans, and the communist countries of China and the Soviet Union championed the North Koreans. 1948 After World War II 1947 Truman Doctrine The Korean peninsula was US president Harry Truman under Japanese rule before announces that the US will World War II. After Japan’s defeat in the war, the Soviet seek to stop the spread of Union occupies the north of communism in places it had not the country, while the US spread to yet—a policy known controls the south. as the “Truman Doctrine.” 1948 Partition Korea is partitioned into two countries, but both communist North Korea and democratic South Korea hope to overthrow the other, and reunite the country. 1950 North Korea invades 1950 US and China join Refugees Communist North Korea strikes Through the United Nations (UN), first and invades the South. The the US sends troops to help South The back-and-forth nature of the war creates a huge North makes great gains, and Korea in July, turning the tide in the refugee crisis as people flee to find safety. By 1951, about captures the South Korean 500,000 refugees crowded into the South Korean city of capital, Seoul. South’s favor. By October, they Busan, with the overall number of refugees created by 1953 Truce have driven the North back and the war believed to be between four and six million. The two sides agree to a truce, which ends the fighting. The have even taken the North’s border between the two countries capital city, Pyongyang. China stays where it was before the war, enters the war to help the North. and a demilitarized zone is set up between them. 1951 Stalemate China’s intervention drives the South Korean and UN troops south. A stalemate emerges, with each side’s territory reverting back to the prewar borders. Peace talks begin, but don’t achieve anything. 1954 The Geneva talks The US and China meet to talk about uniting the two Koreas, but they can’t reach an agreement. The Korean peninsula remains divided to this day—with a communist North and a democratic South. 276

A difficult war The Vietnam War The US found fighting in Vietnam to be incredibly One of the major conflicts of the late 20th difficult. The Vietnamese communists were century, the Vietnam War raged for almost guerilla fighters, which meant their attacks were 20 years. It destroyed large swathes of the sporadic and unpredictable. They used the country and led to the deaths of millions of terrain much better than the Americans, and soldiers and civilians. As the conflict dragged slowly demoralized them by dragging them on, an international antiwar movement protested into a complex and seemingly endless struggle. what seemed to be a senseless, bloody war. 1945 Ho Chi Minh 1950 US support The defeat of the Japanese in The US steps up its military and World War II leaves a power vacuum in Vietnam. Communist financial help to France, and leader Ho Chi Minh declares President Truman authorizes North Vietnam independent, and $15 million in aid. The People’s his Viet Minh guerrilla fighters Republic of China (formed in take on France, Vietnam’s old colonial masters. 1949) and the Soviet Union 1959 Ho Chi Minh Trail support North Vietnam. North Vietnam builds a supply route called the Ho Chi Minh Trail 1954 Withdraw and partition to South Vietnam. They use this The French completely withdraw to support pro-communist rebels after a huge defeat at the battle of in the South, known as the Dien Bien Phu. Vietnam is divided National Liberation Front. in half, with Ho Chi Minh taking 1962 Agent Orange control of the North, and The US sprays Agent Orange, a deadly herbicide, to kill the anticommunist, US-supported foliage sheltering communist Ngo Dinh Diem ruling in the South. fighters and to destroy their food supplies. This causes long-lasting 1964–1965 Gulf of Tonkin health issues for civilians and North Vietnam attacks two US troops on both sides, and ruins warships. In response, the US large swathes of Vietnamese soil. 1968 Tet Offensive issues the Gulf of Tonkin The communists launch the Resolution, committing the country Tet Offensive—a coordinated series of attacks across South to defending itself and South Vietnam. Initially surprised by the Vietnam. The USSR increases assault, the South Vietnamese and US forces regroup and retaliate. support of North Vietnam. 1975 Fall of Saigon A ceasefire is announced in 1973, 1965 First protests and US troops are withdrawn. The first antiwar marches North Vietnam launches another happen in the US, with mounting attack and the South’s capital, casualties and the massive cost Saigon, falls. Vietnam is united of fighting angering many. More as a communist state soon after. than 100,000 people march on Washington DC in 1967. 1971 Pentagon Papers The Washington Post publishes the Pentagon Papers. These show the government felt the war to be unwinnable, but had lied about it. The US had begun to pull out troops in 1969, and secret peace talks began in 1970. 277

Bay of Pigs invasion Cuban missile crisis The CIA attempts to remove The Soviet Union installs nuclear Cuba’s communist leader Fidel missiles in Cuba, and the US Castro from power. The CIA-backed demands their removal. The rebel invaders are defeated by world fears full-scale nuclear Castro’s army in what became war, but, after 13 days, the known as the Bay of Pigs invasion. Soviet Union offers to remove the weapons in Nuclear disarmament return for a US promise not to invade Cuba. In London, thousands protest against nuclear weapons, especially the testing 1962 1963 of hydrogen bombs by the US and Soviet Union. The protest is led by the 1960 The 1960s Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament 1961 (CND) organization. The 1960s saw great change take place. The Cold War (see pages President John F. Kennedy 282–283) took hold, with continuing John F. Kennedy becomes the conflict in Vietnam, and nuclear war youngest-ever US president in was a constant threat. But there was the tightest election since 1884. He also a fresh optimism. New attitudes promises to fight for world freedom. about freedom of expression and Anti-segregation sit-ins equality were reflected in music, fashion, and politics, and African American students launch a anything and everything series of “sit-in” protests against segregation seemed possible. (separating of blacks and whites) by refusing to leave “whites only” counters at diners. 1969 Woodstock 1968 1967 A 3-day music festival is held in the Revolution Catskill Mountains in New York. It is Protests across the world attended by more than 400,000 break out when people people, causing massive traffic demand political change and jams and road closures. Musicians better rights. In Paris, France, such as Jimi Hendrix, Janis Joplin, more than 10 million students and workers go on strike. and Ravi Shankar perform. Dr King assassinated Stonewall Riots Dr Martin Luther King, Jr. is shot in A police raid of the Stonewall Inn, Memphis, TN. A few days later, his a gay club in New York City, wife, Coretta, and their children lead a turns violent. This inspires huge crowd on a silent remembrance the formation of several gay, lesbian, and bisexual civil rights march through Memphis. organizations to protect against social and political discrimination. 278

The Feminine “I have a dream” Mystique The campaign for civil rights in the Betty Friedan launches US is led by Dr Martin Luther King, the modern feminist Jr. He calls for equality in his movement with a book passionate “I have a dream” that discusses the role speech to demonstrators of women in society in Washington, DC. and promotes equality. It sells millions of copies. Kennedy assassination President John F. Kennedy is shot and killed in Dallas, TX. His death devastates the country. Lyndon B. Johnson is quickly sworn in as the new president. 1964 British invasion Vietnam War British bands such as The Beatles, The US becomes The Who, and The Rolling Stones involved in a long war storm the US charts, achieving fame in Vietnam to prevent and changing music forever. it from falling under communist rule. The Pop art loss of life on both sides leads to mass protests Taking inspiration from comic books around the world. and advertising, the pop art movement 1965 flourishes. Artist Andy Warhol is the most distinctive pop artist, using bold images and bright colors to depict everyday objects. 1966 Underground press Fashion revolution New publications develop for Teenagers begin to have young people who don’t agree their own money to buy with the traditional views of clothes, and they feel less their parents. These include pressure to dress like their Oz, International Times, and parents. This causes a Ink, and are dedicated to revolution in the fashion poetry, music, and promoting world, with designs aimed at political change. these new customers. Summer of Love Hippies Young people reject the violence seen in news broadcasts and call A movement of young for peace, love, and understanding people known as across the world. They are influenced “hippies” emerges in by music and Eastern religions such San Francisco. They are recognizable by as Buddhism and Hinduism. their long hair and colorful clothing, and they promote ideas of nonviolence and love. 279

Postcolonial Africa Rwandan Genocide In the 1950s and 1960s, African nations gained More than a million people of independence from colonial rule with varying degrees the Tutsi ethnicity in Rwanda of success. Although there was freedom in many are killed by members of the places, there was also corruption, military coups, civil war, and division among different ethnic groups. neighboring ethnic group, However, in the 21st century, optimism is growing, with the Hutus. The international greater wealth and improving political stability. community fails to stop this. Ghanaian “In the end, the ballot must President Nelson Mandela independence decide, not bullets.” After decades of apartheid (racial Kwame Nkrumah Jonas Savimbi, Angolan politician, segregation) in his country, and 27 becomes the country’s first years of imprisonment for protesting independent prime minister in a speech in 1975 against this, Nelson Mandela is elected after years of British colonial the first black president of South Africa. rule. In an emotional speech, This ends 300 years of white rule. he tells tens of thousands of Ghanaians: “your beloved country is free forever.” 1957 1960–1965 1963 1971–1979 1975– 1984– 1994 1994 2002 1985 Congo Crisis Idi Amin The Congo (modern-day Ugandan president Democratic Republic of Congo) Amin expels Asian minorities from Uganda dissolves into crisis after and launches attacks becoming independent from on his Tanzanian enemies. He abuses Belgium in June 1960. human rights and uses A breakaway state of Katanga violence against other exists until the United Nations (UN) ethnic groups. He is intervenes in 1963. The army overthrown in 1979. seizes power in 1965. African Unity Ethiopian famine Following the independence Decades of war and of many African nations extreme drought cause from European rule, the starvation in Ethiopia, where more than Organization of African Unity 400,000 people die is established by 32 African and millions more are states to encourage and left hungry and poor. protect Africa’s interests. Many are forced to leave their homes and resettle elsewhere. Angolan Civil War The Republic of Angola, rich in diamonds and oil, becomes independent from Portugal in 1975, but becomes impoverished by a civil war. This will be one of Africa’s longest-running conflicts.

Economic boom Africa is predicted to have the largest economic growth of any continent over the next decade, thanks to younger populations, access to water, and less poverty and disease. Kofi Annan Polite politics Kofi Annan from Ghana Nigeria votes out becomes the Secretary- President Goodluck General of the United Jonathan in favor Nations. He expands the of Muhammadu UN’s work into protecting Buhari. Jonathan’s the environment, fighting politeness in defeat against HIV/AIDS in allows a peaceful Africa, and improving transfer of power, human rights. which is inspirational across Africa. Civil war in Sudan Independence for HIV/AIDS vaccine South Sudan trial launched Civil war begins in the Darfur region of Sudan between rebel South Sudan votes to break away 5,400 South African men and groups and the government. from Sudan after a bloody civil war women sign up for a trial of Several hundred thousand between the mainly Christian south a new HIV/AIDS vaccine, people are killed and millions hoping for a breakthrough flee their homes in a conflict and the Arab Muslim north. Much against the disease. Seven that remains unresolved today. of the world recognizes the new million South Africans are nation, but it remains one of the living with the virus. poorest areas in the world. 1997 2003 2004 2010 2010 2011 2011 2015 2014– 2016 2017 2016 Prize for Kenya Ebola Wangari Mathai, a West Africa experiences the Kenyan feminist and biggest outbreak of the Ebola environmentalist, virus ever known. Thousands die receives the Nobel and the economies of many Peace Prize. Her countries are damaged, some Green Belt Movement teaches women to of which are still recovering grow trees in order from civil war. to improve their living conditions. World Cup The World Cup comes to South Africa, the first time an African nation has held such a prestigious worldwide event. Many people’s perceptions of the country and continent are changed for the better. Rwandan reform Robert Mugabe steps down Rwanda manages to rebuild its economy Robert Mugabe, president of Zimbabwe since after its devastating civil war. Life expectancy, 1980, loses his grip on power and resigns after the number of children attending the military take control. He is blamed for school, and the amount of money spent on economic chaos, preventing political health care have all improved. freedom, and the abuse of human rights. 281

Berlin blockade 1948 1949 1949 1949 First Soviet The USSR flexes its NATO George Orwell’s nuclear bomb muscles by preventing 1984 road and rail access to The East-West divide In response to the US nuclear West Berlin, threatening becomes official when the British author George bombs that ended World War II, West Germany. Britain US and Western European Orwell writes 1984, a the Soviets become a nuclear and the US drop millions novel that imagines the of tons of supplies into countries establish the nightmare of living under power by testing their own West Berlin from planes North Atlantic Treaty a brutal government weapons. The US and USSR Organization (NATO), similar to a communist compete to have more powerful until the Soviets lift promising that in times of dictatorship. It inspires the blockade. conflict, these countries many books, movies, weapons than each other. will help one another. Neither of them ever actually A divided Europe and music. uses these because they fear After World War II, the 1945 mass destruction. USSR takes control of areas of Eastern Europe, 1972 including East Germany, forming a communist World Chess “Eastern Bloc.” The US Championship helps to rebuild western European countries. In the “match of the century,” American Eastern Europe Bobby Fischer beats becomes cut off from chess champion Boris Spassky of the USSR. the West. This ends 24 years of Soviet domination The Cold War of the World Chess AScbgwapofoeasoteuevgilnatiinrhateipintcWentroga,iUeCnoaltnssrosiodlidioolcenednraWametWhcs(atauehahtrcreareswhI,dtIib,hUdoptaeeerhSonlcrdeStwatra.hcRieuAedaa)srdd.pnpweTitteimtoeichoarroieiplnoeliinstardinatteflhlvroUvitceyehefStnrfngmewotatriaroeoantcthsasnd.eettTf.ocpothofeoouitnsnmhwgusiehsmeciortrlkuenfftnruhnaoolrirsomwtungh Championship. 282 1983 “Star Wars” US president Ronald Reagan calls the USSR an “evil empire.” He reveals a plan, called “Star Wars,” to put weapons in space. These would defend against a nuclear attack, and show off US wealth and technology. However, they are never built.

The hot wars 1950–1953 1956 1973 1975 1979–1990 Korean War Hungarian Revolution Chilean coup Angolan Civil War Nicaraguan Revolution Although the Cold War never resulted in actual warfare between the USSR and US, 1955–1968 1959 1968 1979–1989 it led to many smaller wars in other countries Vietnam War Cuban Revolution Czechoslovakian Uprising Afghan War as the two sides tried to spread their influence. These were known as proxy wars, or hot wars. 1951 1950–1954 1955 Cambridge spies McCarthyism Warsaw Pact After being recruited as A scandal erupts when Soviet spies while at The USSR unites the Eastern some US government Bloc through the Warsaw Pact officials are caught giving Cambridge University in the which, like NATO in the West, American secrets to the UK, four British men are creates an agreement that the USSR. Senator Joseph discovered to have been McCarthy mounts a countries will support one campaign to hunt down passing secret information another. It strengthens Soviet rebel US communists, to the USSR. Three of them power over the Eastern Bloc, too. but innocent people are forced to move to the 1960s 1957–1969 are prosecuted in Soviet Union, and one the process. shares Soviet secrets in The internet Space Race exchange for his freedom. 1962 During the 1960s, the US The US and USSR 13 August 1962 government funds a compete to advance Cuban Missile project by DARPA their space exploration. Crisis The Berlin Wall (Defense Advanced Research Projects Their progress The USSR builds nuclear German communists Agency) to develop a represents the scientific missile launch sites in erect a wall dividing and economic power of communist Cuba, close East Berlin from West. way to share information to the US coast. The It becomes an ugly between military each country. It ends US demands that symbol of division when American the sites be removed. between the two Cold computers quickly, and Nuclear war seems War political ideals. so the internet is born. spacecraft Apollo 11 inevitable. However, the The wall separates lands on the Moon. Soviets withdraw at many people from their the last minute. families, homes, and jobs. 1985–1991 10 November 1989 1991 Glasnost and Perestroika Fall of the The Soviet Union Berlin Wall collapses Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev begins to make changes in the As the USSR weakens, East For the first time in its USSR. Perestroika (“restructuring”) Germans are astonished to history, Russia elects a improves the economy, while finally be allowed to travel president. The Communist glasnost (“openness”) allows Party is defeated and freely to West Germany. ordered to end its rule. freedom of the press and The wall is knocked down, The world looks on in political expression. and Germany is reunited. amazement as the USSR This marks the end of disintegrates into communist rule in 15 separate countries. Eastern Europe. 283

Soviet astronaut Augus First Soviet spacecraft selection process on the Moon t 1959 The Soviet air force’s research Luna 2 is launched to the Moon. institute, NIIVVS, starts recruiting It is the first spacecraft to Sep land on the Moon and astronauts for future missions. the first man-made First US astronauts tember 12, 1959 object to land on a selected body in space. The first US astronauts April 9, 1959 are selected by NASA, before human spaceflight operations begin. February 20, 1947 NASA formed Octobe First animals in space The US founds the National r 1, 1958 The US sends the first animals into Aeronautics and Space space. They are fruit flies, launched Administration (NASA), on board a German-designed V-2 a federal agency rocket from World War II. dedicated to space exploration. October 4, 1957 November 3, 1957 First satellite orbit of earth First animal in orbit The USSR’s Sputnik 1, the world’s first artificial satellite, orbits Earth. The Laika, a stray dog from the streets US is shocked and surprised at this of Moscow, is the first animal to success, and increases efforts on its orbit Earth, on Russia’s Sputnik 2. own space program. She is sent to test the effects of spaceflight on a living creature. Race to the Moon During the Cold War (see pages 282–283), the US and the USSR began to develop technology in order to explore space. The public in both countries took great pride in these space programs, and as more achievements were made, national excitement increased. A long, thrilling race began to be the first country to put a satellite in space and, ultimately, an astronaut on the Moon. 284

First human May 5 First American in space in space Alan Shepard becomes the first Yuri Gagarin, an astronaut American in space, in the spacecraft from the USSR, is the first Freedom 7. It flies 116 miles (187 km) human to journey into outer high and returns safely to Earth. 5, 1961 space. His spacecraft, April 1 , 1961 Vostok 1, is launched 2, 1961 and orbits the Earth. “That’s one small Kennedy announces May 2 step for man, one the space race Jul y 3, 1969 giant leap for President Kennedy makes a mankind.” speech announcing his intention Neil Armstrong, to race the Soviets to put a first man on the Moon, human on the Moon. July 20, 1969 USSR tests rockets for manned mission The second test of the USSR’s N1 rocket, which is planned to take the first human to the Moon, ends in disaster when it is destroyed in one of the largest non-nuclear explosions in human history. 20, 1969July First human on the Moon The US sends humans to the Moon in Apollo 11. Neil Armstrong is the first human to walk on the Moon, and his co-pilot Buzz Aldrin is the second. 285

Apollo launches Apollo 11 was the first crewed mission to land on the Moon. The astronauts’ journey would not have been possible without the extremely powerful Saturn V rocket. On the morning of July 16, 1969, the huge three-stage rocket, towering 361 ft (110 m) above its launch pad in Florida, lifted Apollo 11 away from Earth and into low Earth orbit. Its upper stage then blasted the craft on its epic 950,000-mile (1.5 million-km) journey to the Moon.



THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS A world on the brink of war In the fall of 1962, the global superpowers of the United States and the Soviet Union were in a diplomatic deadlock. This began when the Soviets installed nuclear missiles on the Caribbean island of Cuba, close to the US. As letters, official statements, and threats passed between the two rival nations, the rest of the world looked on for 13 tense days as fragile global peace teetered on the brink of nuclear war.

Old comrades, new rivals Missiles in place Tensions rise During the 1950s, former World War II allies Relations between the US and the On October 23, 1962, Premier Khruschev the United States and the Soviet Union Soviet Union continue to decline with replies to President Kennedy, claiming that become rival superpowers, and they each disagreements over Allied-occupied Berlin all weapons on Cuba are defensive. On slowly build up a stock of nuclear weapons. in Germany. Then, in April 1962, the US October 24, tensions rise as Soviet ships As this “Cold War” develops, in 1952, the finalizes a deal to make ready their nuclear approach the US naval blockade, with Soviet US secretly backs a military coup in Cuba, weapons in Turkey, close to the Soviet submarines close behind. The US reacts around 100 miles (160 km) off the coast of border. In July, in retaliation for this threat by making ready its airbases in Florida, and Florida. This allows military dictator to his country, the Soviet Union’s premier by placing US Strategic Air Command on Fulgencio Batista to regain power. Seven Nikita Khrushchev strikes a deal with high alert for the first time in its history. years later, in 1959, a revolution led by Castro to build Soviet missile bases on the Over the next two days, communications Cuban nationalist Fidel Castro overthrows island. On August 31, US senator Kenneth flow between Kennedy and Khrushchev Batista, and Cuba becomes the first Keating warns his government of the Soviet through the United Nations. A deal to end communist state in the West. military presence in Cuba. On September the standoff is close until a US spy plane 21, Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs Andrei is shot down over Cuba on October 27. An invasion fails Gromyko urges the US to back away from Cuba or else face the possibility of war. The world holds its breath In 1960, US president Dwight D. Eisenhower halts trade and aid to Cuba. The crisis begins Nations around the world watch as nuclear Cuba’s isolation encourages Castro to seek war looms. Then, on October 28, a deal is new allies and, by December 1960, Castro On October 14, 1962, after ordering a struck to end the crisis. The US promises not has accepted military and diplomatic U-2 spy plane to fly over Cuba, evidence to invade Cuba, and to withdraw its missiles support from the Soviet Union. In 1961, is presented to President Kennedy and from Turkey in exchange for the removal of all John F. Kennedy becomes the new the Executive Committee, known as missiles from Cuba. The US naval blockade president of the US, and he approves a ExComm. Eight days of discussions and finally ends on November 20, as the last plan to overthrow Castro’s government. analysis lead to President Kennedy Soviet ship leaves the Caribbean. A month This is put in motion on April 17, 1961, addressing the nation at 7:00 p.m. on later, on December 24, the US sends food when a force of exiled Cubans living in the October 22, stating that he has evidence and medical supplies to Cuba in exchange for US invades western Cuba at the Bay of of Soviet nuclear missiles on Cuba. The US those captured in the Bay of Pigs invasion. Pigs. The US-backed rebellion fails, and sends its navy to surround the Caribbean A year later, on August 30, 1963, the US Castro’s military forces are triumphant, island and block any other ships from and the Soviet Union establish a “hotline” killing 100 and capturing about 1,200 of approaching. The military is ordered to between their leaders to allow for immediate the invading exiles. increase their readiness for war. diplomatic discussions in the future. “We were eyeball to eyeball and the other fellow just blinked.” US Secretary of State Dean Rusk on hearing that the Soviet ships had turned back, October 1962 289

The Civil Rights February–July 1960 Movement DINERS PROTEST The Civil War brought an end to slavery, but the African American struggle for equal rights was only just apcaNClroltoooouatrlvneltweehtsegrhGtCsreti.thaerSlsierk-etooouesoeldniotnnhlenuya,intps,sWhtteos.aboankinocoeeelGwrttfahourokeelree“istrshnpsii’tsstle-abi-lancuiot”nensroch, beginning. In many parts of the country, racism and unequal treatment for black people were supported by May–December 1961 law. During the 1950s and 1960s, people joined together as the Civil Rights Movement to fight for equality. FRREIDEEDROSM May 17, 1954 1957 BsCbs“vahlFyeairoaorgcroewlimrkedueennitadgnhcpdnogaeedmttaio,herwtniedshRghubegaidipnutlrpoeeepsehbraoecsoersrso”tt..solatWlfoeosraegghrateemcertteinsvheatsiettulhchrrwdeioikgeniswthnehetntsds INSTCEGHORAOTLESD December 1, 1955 Law change BAsrABletcnwasobhmirjuhnweeoahlenaaoecgpwlsilcUccort-rruusnoiwBehklScdibti,ng8naahd.lsrSsiaT-onniceoTottyutdehcioissfethpnweiutpcewdaegrEutheelcreriehnd-(oomkdassfomientaaosevetlenuatdee,hlphstKsclCnca.AaeeLihatt.sornrafiaiannrludfdrittsdicyrlsirieantaaeo,ussgnnp,)nain September 3 RAORSRAEPSATREKDSBus boycott Little Rock Nine SWssgssNocctoehohmihvnneopoeedenoortstsnhnllotstioeinanrtsmrouteLcecod.hiAsatpLetoflislanlrgeositttcnlesRto. ahoreo,enertnecs-hNrAkcteoh,aomlAUletriietroSnnktrnheiaagcawennoal svLnGaraeuilhtlus-rtleiwanl,getsrmhhhd.Rieettoenoctk bSaKwrMPeuuiyohnfospeuligenitracse,estreeJgmm-isrsola.oeatmlrinelornlCeegae.gsgodArbiytavusu,yRelrA.bsotoullrubaaspunocablhegkyaPescmtDaorosrrabwte.kt,MugsnbasrsaifeentsprfegoteerianraosettpiLhottlueohenteahionenr September 9 TtCrCTvhaihgoihenveihtedivgiltUnRslrsiegoSliilgggawrRginhiwsgionatlihsavigglnstteAsimhmosrconuntotofmpsovhrApeeefefAom1nlrtp9ihrtcctes5arafne7ttnonot,sro8-twpphAc0ofeirhmtonyh1aftedein9ertrsashgcit5cretetsocat.7.ihnvesil 290

1963 1964 March 7–25, 1965 RIOTS BALLOT OR BULLET? Equal rights Selma May 11 April 3 July 2 RtMoti5gotWoth0hhtnohtiemsttMuehgpsAilosMeaaactmssnatarsdte(ircne8itsnri0yhAcngo.aukfTLotpgmmuhfoiutttea)hahsAfrmeletrcoor1haVl9fmKaero6cirtbnS5hsing.eawlg,elJmmaarld.ak, as Birmingham riots Malcolm X gives speech Civil Rights Act of 1964 1968 acsLrlbAeitoonoouavpactnmdestranioerbiolanirtnpinesgnBgoasegtliltutirscohdmfroetfeneaitlsbnrlchroeggaioenwstehutepritaonni.eoomtg8dntrsy,addaA.staMnvplcayiigoaesibvhlrdeaoiktlinmasfrotigfalyh., ts Activist and religious leader After a summer of protests, Malcolm X gives a fiery speech in the US government proposes VIOLENCE August 28 which he promotes change by any legislation to end segregation in means necessary, whether it’s the public places and give everyone April 4 “I have a dream” ballot box or the bullet. Rivals equal access to jobs regardless of Luther King, Jr. shot assassinate him in 1965. a person’s race, color, or religion. tmKtJci2Ahmriia5n.vteedn0igtlshye,f’r0stoeileAgi0pvrpehme0ocsntrhwsedpsoarleefehoincrotaifgfhsapuadeenflleae.mswLrmitiaonMnhorrcWacdauothrssaltnnaicssnothopMtwLeineneunveigsmtidchnttoehoechndrerefiraKDbolyi.mCng, , The act is signed into law by nprJsqTLAeeroeeuuejwevhsnitscecnhnnslketrieseupalvgoyrsreli,eiKnosUsraellioaanSeanenssdtngc.iksocC,SrisaJtienoiohsreA.tqaonsssimnnuigc.nbdiPkreMcaerrrspkteseeiecpluasysmsartk.itesdMnpooaeshuapdnittrsasotti,sinns President Lyndon B. Johnson. EQUAL ACCESS FREEDOM SUMMER April 11 June Civil Rights Act of 1968 Register to vote eioagCsqfcihovucceunaievggelsiieltrvsyer,eitbsgcrosuyhohottsnsotnitghiluenenesugfsimaenistisgrhala..airsTtcnioahhdcnefeotliqimtrkouepatalhcist In Mississippi, thousands of volunteers work together to register as many African American voters as possible. The volunteers face harassment and intimidation. Selma The march in Alabama from Selma to Montgomery was organized to draw attention to the difficulties African Americans faced when registering to vote. Although African Americans had the right to vote, state officials tried to stop them from registering. Registration offices were rarely open, and officials made people complete unnecessary literacy tests, fill in long forms, and pay fees. 291

3150 bce–30 ce c.750–323 bce 509 bce–476 ce Ancient Egyptians Ancient Greeks The Romans 1400s c.1450–1600 The Egyptians live in a hot A simple chiton (a long Most people wear simple Middle Ages Renaissance climate, so they make sleeveless shirt tied with a tunics and togas made from wool and linen. The colors The most common item Clothing moves from being nearly all their clothes from belt) is worn by men, of medieval clothing is the loose to fitted. Men and lightweight linen woven women, and children. It can of these clothes mark the tunic. Rich people wear women start to wear from flax plants grown be short or long, printed or wearer’s rank in society. plain, gathered or loose, and Purple, for example, is fancy versions of this. different items of clothing. beside the Nile River. Both worn by the ruling classes. Hose (thin, fitted trousers As wealthy people begin to men and women wear topped with a cloak for with feet, much like tights) travel the world, fashions makeup and wigs. extra warmth. begin to become popular from different countries Fashion for men. These are an influence each other. Many early version of pants. copy the style of Queen People have always been interested Elizabeth I of England, in what they wear, from the ancient known for her full-skirted Egyptians and their carefully dresses and large ruffs. crafted wigs, to today’s shoppers, who can buy the latest fashions online. Fashion has changed as many times as you’ve changed your socks. Its history is as long and colorful as some of its most sensational creations. 2000s 1980s 1970s 1960s 1950s Fast fashion Designer decade Flares and heels Youthquake Leisure time Fashion becomes accessible, In the 1980s, fashion Trousers are more popular Teenagers, now with their After World War II ends, with high-end stores cheaply designers became with women than ever own money to spend, break travel and leisure, superstars, and models recreating catwalk trends. became celebrities. The before, and flares get wider free from the fashions of once just for the wealthy, However, concerns grow internet makes fashion truly for men and women. their parents. Young become more affordable. about working conditions global. If a celebrity appears Swimwear, sandals, and in a dress, it can sell out Platform shoes step into designers lead the way, in factories, and the in moments on the other fashion, influenced by such as Mary Quant, who sunglasses become environmental impact of side of the world. shocks older generations popular. The bikini is cheap, disposable clothes. performers such as David invented in 1946, and rises Bowie and Elton John. when she designs the in popularity in the 1950s. miniskirt in 1964. 292

c.1500–1700 1600s 1603 1700s 1800s Ottoman finery European fashions Kimono Rococo Sportswear The Ottoman Empire, France (and to a lesser The Edo period in Japan An artistic movement The introduction of vacation stretching from southern extent, England) leads the (see pages 158–159) sees a known as rococo inspires in the 1800s gives people Europe to Asia, inspires way in fashion, with the rest more leisure time to do European fashion. This of Europe following. More rise in the kimono, a robe lighter, more flowing sports. Rich people adopt includes turbans and long, with flowing sleeves and a clothes. Fitted dresses are outfits for sports such as flowing robes, crafted from than ever, clothes wide belt. Wealthy people hunting, riding, and archery. beautiful, expensive fabrics. demonstrate wealth and replaced by full-skirted Sporty fashion is for both position in society. The rich compete for the richest gowns known as mantuas, women and men. fabrics, expressing their and later by open robes and splurge on the latest petticoats. Men wear coats fashions in hand-decorated status and style. and breeches (short pants) silk and velvet. in a move away from tight-fitting hose. T-shirts The US Navy introduces this iconic item of clothing, meant to be worn as an extra layer under a shirt. It is stretchy and holds its shape, as well as being easy to clean and inexpensive. 1930s 1920s 1913 1871 1846 1940s African prints Wartime fashion Film star fashion Jazz age Blue jeans A new printing technique is developed, which prints During World War II, money A financial crash puts an Following World War I, The first jeans are invented fabric with wax to create and material is in short end to the fun of the jazz practical, comfortable by Jacob W. Davis and Levi colorful patterns. This supply, meaning few can age. Unable to buy into clothes become popular. Strauss in the US. The jeans fashion, normal people Skirts become shorter, and have metal fastenings at the printed fabric is a huge hit in afford new suits or dresses. instead admire the clothes many young women, known seams, making them tough Ghana, and soon is being Many men and women of glamorous film stars such as flappers, cut their hair used to make clothes are inspired to join the as Fred Astaire and Ginger short, smoke, and dance to and long-lasting. They across much of West and armed forces by Rogers. The women wear jazz to rebel against old- become popular with the smart uniforms. long, fitted dresses, and laborers across the US, Central Africa. The patterns men’s suits have narrow fashioned society. and by the mid-20th are used to create pictures waists and wide shoulders. century will become a key that tell stories and ideas. feature of wardrobes across 293 the world.

Space exploration “History will remember the 20th century for two The desire to explore space has led to many incredible developments. In 1969, humans first landed on the technological Moon. Twenty years later, all the planets in the solar developments: atomic system had been explored by spacecraft. Now, the energy and space flight.” next era of space exploration is beginning, with ambitious plans to expand space tourism and send Neil Armstrong, humans to Mars. in introduction to Moon Shot: The Inside Story of America’s Apollo Moon Landings, 1994 First satellite Sputnik 1 Viking 1 This simple satellite One of two Viking spacecraft The Soviet Union triggers is about the size of sent to Mars by NASA, Viking 1 the Space Age with the a basketball. takes pictures and gathers launch of Sputnik 1, the first scientific data. artificial satellite, into space. Sputnik 1 takes about 98 minutes to travel around Earth. Its success shocks the US, causing the country to speed up its own space program. 1957 Mission to Mars NASA’s Viking 1 lands on the surface of Mars after a 10-month journey. It is the first spacecraft to not only land on another planet, but also take photos and collect data that can be sent back to Earth. 1965 1976 1990 Images of Mars Hubble space Space telescope telescope The first close-up photos This historic telescope NASA’s Hubble Space of the planet Mars are circles Earth every Telescope is launched, and beamed back to Earth. 96 minutes. becomes the most famous Taken by US spacecraft space observatory ever flown. It can observe objects more Mariner 4, they aren’t quite than 13.4 billion light-years what the world is expecting. Rather than showing aliens from Earth. on Mars as people hoped, the grainy pictures show barren, gray craters. Mariner 4 This spacecraft records images as it flies past Mars. It is the first craft to photograph a planet other than Earth. 294

Humans in space 1965 1969 2001 Soviet Alexey American Neil Businessman For as long as humans have looked up at Leonov walks Armstrong walks Dennis Tito is the the stars, we have dreamed of exploring on the Moon. first space tourist. the universe. In 1961, the first person in space. entered space in his spacecraft, marking the beginning of an extraordinary journey 1961 1998 2003 for humans venturing into space. Soviet Yuri The International The first piloted Gagarin is the first Space Station Chinese space person in space. (ISS) is built. mission is launched. Juno Space probe Juno is roughly the size of a basketball court. Interstellar space Golden record Jupiter mission exploration Voyager 1 carries a record of sounds and images of Juno travels more than NASA’s Voyager 1 probe is life on Earth, in case of 1.7 billion miles (2.7 billion km) the first artificial object to encounters with aliens. from Earth to Jupiter, a giant travel to the edge of the planet with a diameter around solar system and head off 11 times the size of that of into interstellar space Earth. Juno investigates how (the space between stars). Jupiter formed 4.6 billion No spacecraft has gone years ago. there before. 2012 2014 2016 Comet landing 2017 The Philae is the first Mission to spacecraft ever to land on Saturn ends the surface of a speeding comet. As it hurtles toward Launched in 1997, Cassini the comet, it sends back ends its 20-year mission information about the solar exploring Saturn and its system and life on Earth. moons. The craft breaks up as it plows into Saturn’s Philae cloud tops in a dramatic end This giant robot is to one of NASA’s most packed with cameras and sensors to probe successful missions. the secrets of space. Cassini The probe slips between Saturn and its rings to send stunning images back to Earth. 295

Booming nations After World War II, many East and Southeast Asian countries progressed from poverty to extreme wealth. This development began in the 1960s, as Asian countries, starting with Japan, began to produce high-tech items such as cameras and computers. As these goods were exported to other continents, the economies of these countries grew until they were some of the largest in the world. 1964 1965 1974 1978 Bullet train Singapore develops Ten projects Changing China The world’s first high-speed After becoming independent On the island of Taiwan, Deng Xiaoping becomes leader train, nicknamed a “bullet” train, from neighboring Malaysia, a series of improvements gets of China after Mao’s death and underway known as the Ten is built in Japan. It reaches Singapore sees massive Major Construction Projects. makes huge changes to the speeds of around 186 mph economic growth. Factories Some projects are industrial, economy. Foreign firms are (300 kph) and runs between and companies are encouraged invited to invest in China for the Japanese cities Tokyo and to develop, attracting huge but six of them focus on first time in many years. Almost Osaka, cutting the travel time investments from abroad. Many improving transportation by every organization undergoes between them from seven international companies build building new roads, railroads, extensive change, transforming China beyond recognition. hours to four. offices here. ports, and airports. 1990 1993 1997 2003 Japanese crash High aspirations Hong Kong Three Gorges Dam Japan has risen from the The Petronas Towers are built The control of Hong Kong China builds a giant dam across ruins of World War II to become in Kuala Lumpur in Malaysia. is transferred from Britain the Yangzte River, 1.4 miles to China after more than the world’s second-largest These twin skyscrapers, 150 years of British rule. Skilled (2.3 km) long and 607 ft (185 m) economy. However, in 1990, the inspired by Islamic art, will be workers use the business skills tall. It is an incredible feat of the world’s tallest buildings until they have acquired during engineering, but China is economy crashes, leading to British rule to help the Hong what is known as the “lost 2004, standing at 1,482 ft criticized for forcing more than (452 m) tall. They symbolize Kong economy grow. a million people to leave their decade,” in which the country Malaysia’s economic success. homes to make room for it. struggles to make money. 296

“Economic growth depends on … the courage to sail without hesitation onto the rough seas of global competition.” Japanese prime minister Shinzo Abe, in a speech to the Japanese government, 2013 1979 1981 1983 1988 The Walkman High poverty Gaming revolution Korean cars Japanese company Sony Although business and Japanese company Nintendo After a decade of growth in releases a portable cassette technology is rapidly improving launches what will become the its automobile industry, best-selling game console of all South Korea exports half tape player, called the in Asia, most people’s living time, known as the Famicom. It a million cars to the rest Walkman. It enables people to conditions are not. East Asia has the highest poverty rate in revolutionizes how people of the world in a single year. listen to music while on the the world, with 77 per cent living spend their free time and makes By the early 21st century, South move. It sells out in Japanese stores and soon becomes a on less than $1.25 a day, Nintendo a leader in the new Korea is one of the world’s according to the World Bank. gaming industry. largest car manufacturers. worldwide phenomenon. 2004 2008 2011 2015 Tsunami Beijing Olympics Nuclear disaster Chinese boom An earthquake (the third-largest China hosts the Summer An earthquake and tsunami on the The World Bank, an ever recorded) under the Olympic Games in Beijing coast of Japan kills thousands, but international bank, ranks across 37 venues. It is a the crisis worsens when sea water China as the world’s largest Indian Ocean near Indonesia chance for China to impress damages the Fukushima nuclear economy, overtaking the United sets off a devastating tsunami, the rest of the world—more plant. The plant melts, explodes, States. Its decision is based producing waves of nearly 100 ft than 4.7 billion people watch and leaks lethal radiation, meaning on the comparison of the size the events on televisions of incomes in countries (30 m). Across 14 different over 100,000 people have to countries, 230,000 people die, around the world. be evacuated. across the world. and millions lose their homes. 297

Computing 1946 Before 1935, the word “computer” referred to a person whose job it was to do mathematical calculations. Today, a computer is a machine that takes input, stores and processes data, and gives output. Computers were initially built from mechanical components such as levers and gears until electronic parts were used in the 20th century. Early computers were so huge they filled entire rooms. Now, the computing power of the smartphone in your pocket is just as powerful. 1890 1936 ENIAC Turing John Mauchly and machine J. Presper Eckers, scientists at the University British computer of Pennsylvania, build one scientist Alan of the first general-purpose computers, called ENIAC. Turing has an idea for a This massive 30-ton machine that can solve computer glowing with 18,000 tubes is intended to any problem that is make more calculations solvable, leading to than all of humanity has the development of the modern computer. up to this point. During World War II, he 1843 Punch card devises a range of codebreaking tools to Ada Lovelace American inventor break Nazi codes. invents programming Herman Hollerith 1822 designs a machine to Babbage shows math whiz calculate the size of the Babbage’s Ada Lovelace his idea for a population in the 1890 US Difference Engine mechanical computer. She census. It uses electricity to works out how the computer can read a pattern of holes British inventor Charles manipulate letters and symbols punched in a card. His Babbage draws up plans for as well as numbers. Her idea was invention saves both time decades ahead of its time. and millions of dollars. his Difference Engine—a Historians consider her the first mechanical device that can do complicated calculations. computer programmer. He imagines that this “A computer… is the most Artificial intelligence machine will store data in the remarkable tool we have ever come up with. It’s the equivalent As early as 1950, Alan Turing wanted to know if future, anticipating the machines could ever think as intelligently as humans. computer technology that is of a bicycle for our minds.” Steve Jobs, in a 1990 documentary He put together a test to decide when this AI to come. Construction (artificial intelligence) was achieved. Nowadays, begins on the engine but is computer scientists and inventors with access to even faster and more powerful machines are coming never completed. closer to achieving Turing’s goals of creating a machine with the intelligence of a human. 298