Political-Science---Contemporary-World-Politics---Class-12

CONTEMPORARY WORLD POLITICS TEXTBOOK IN POLITICAL SCIENCE FOR CLASS XII 2018-19

ISBN 81-7450-693-4 First Edition Phalguna 1928 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED February 2007 Pausa 1929  No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system Reprinted Phalguna 1930 or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, January 2008 Magha 1931 photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the March 2009 Phalguna 1934 publisher. January 2010 Magha 1935 March 2013 Pausa 1936  This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade, be January 2014 Pausa 1937 lent, re-sold, hired out or otherwise disposed of without the publisher’s December 2014 Magha 1938 consent, in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published. January 2016 Magha 1939 February 2017  The correct price of this publication is the price printed on this page, Any January 2018 revised price indicated by a rubber stamp or by a sticker or by any other means is incorrect and should be unacceptable. OFFICES OF THE PUBLICATION DIVISION, NCERT PD 100T BS NCERT Campus Sri Aurobindo Marg New Delhi 110 016 Phone : 011-26562708 © National Council of Educational 108, 100 Feet Road Research and Training, 2007 Hosdakere Halli Extension Banashankari III Stage Bengaluru 560 085 Phone : 080-26725740  100.00 Navjivan Trust Building Phone : 079-27541446 P.O.Navjivan Phone : 033-25530454 About the cover Ahmedabad 380 014 Phone : 0361-2674869 The stamps on the cover page are CWC Campus designed by the United Nations Opp. Dhankal Bus Stop Postal Administration portraying Panihati various contemporary world issues. Kolkata 700 114 CWC Complex Maligaon Guwahati 781 021 Publication Team Head, Publication : M. Siraj Anwar Division Chief Editor : Shveta Uppal Chief Business : Gautam Ganguly Manager Chief Production : Arun Chitkara Officer (Incharge) Printed on 80 GSM paper with NCERT watermark Editor : Bijnan Sutar Published at the Publication Division by Production Assistant : Sunil Kumar the Secretary, National Council of Educational Research and Training, Cover and Layout Illustrations Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi 110 016 Shweta Rao Irfaan and printed at Supreme Offset Press, 133, Udyog Kendra Ext.-I, G.B. Nagar, Greater Noida (U.P.) 2018-19

iii Foreword The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005, recommends that children’s life at school must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks a departure from the legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our system and causes a gap between the school, home and community. The syllabi and textbooks developed on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this basic idea. They also attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp boundaries between different subject areas. We hope these measures will take us significantly further in the direction of a child-centred system of education outlined in the National Policy on Education (1986). The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to pursue imaginative activities and questions. We must recognise that given space, time and freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging with the information passed on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook as the sole basis of examination is one of the key reasons why other resources and sites of learning are ignored. Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we perceive and treat children as participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed body of knowledge. These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of functioning. Flexibility in the daily timetable is as necessary as rigour in implementing the annual calendar so that the required number of teaching days is actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for teaching and evaluation will also determine how effective this textbook proves for making children’s life at school a happy experience, rather than a source of stress or boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to address the problem of curricular burden by restructuring and reorienting knowledge at different stages with greater consideration for child psychology and the time available for teaching. The textbook attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority and space to opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in small groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience. The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) appreciates the hard work done by the textbook development committee responsible for this book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory group in Social Sciences, Professor Hari Vasudevan, the Chief Advisors, Professor Yogendra Yadav and Professor Suhas Palshikar and the Advisor, Professor Kanti Bajpai for guiding the work of this committee. Several teachers contributed to the development of this textbook; we are grateful to their principals for making this possible. We are indebted to the institutions and organisations which have generously permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and personnel. We are especially grateful to the members of the National Monitoring Committee, appointed by the Department of Secondary and Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resources Development under the Chairpersonship of Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P. Deshpande, for their valuable time and contribution. 2018-19

iv As an organisation committed to systemic reform and continuous improvement in the quality of its products, NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions which will enable us to undertake further revision and refinement. New Delhi Director 20 November 2006 National Council of Educational Research and Training 2018-19

v Preface Contemporary World Politics is part of the NCERT’s effort to help students understand politics. Other books for students of Political Science in Classes XI and XII deal with various facets of politics — the Indian Constitution, politics in India, and political theory. Contemporary World Politics enlarges the scope of politics to the world stage. The new Political Science syllabus has finally given space to world politics. This is a vital development. As India becomes more prominent in international politics and as events outside the country influence our lives and choices, we need to know more about the world outside. International affairs are discussed with great passion in India, but not always with sufficient understanding. We tend to rely on the daily newspaper, television, and casual conversation for our knowledge of how the world works. We hope this book will help students comprehend what is happening outside and India’s relations with it. Before we go any further, it is necessary to say something about why the book is titled ‘world politics’ rather than the more traditional ‘international politics’ or ‘international relations’. In this world, the relationship between governments of different countries, or what we call international politics or international relations, is of course crucial. In addition, though, there are vital connections between governments, non-government institutions, and ordinary people. These are often referred to as transnational relations. To understand the world, it is not possible any longer to understand only the links between governments. It is necessary to understand what happens across boundaries also — and governments are not the only agents of what happens. In addition, world politics includes politics within other countries, understood in comparative perspective. For instance, the chapter on events in the “second world” of the communist countries after the Cold War deals with internal developments in this region. The South Asia chapter presents the state of democracy amongst India’s neighbours. This is the field of comparative politics. The book is concerned with world politics as it is today, more or less. It does not deal with world politics through the 19th or 20th centuries. The politics of those eras is dealt with in the History textbooks. We deal with the 20th century only to the extent that it is the background to present events and trends. For instance, we begin with the Cold War because it is impossible to comprehend where we are today without an understanding of what the Cold War was and how it ended. How should you use this book? Our hope is that this book will serve as an introduction to world politics. Teachers and students will use the book as a springboard to find out more about contemporary world politics. Each chapter will give you a certain amount of information. It will also, though, give you some useful concepts with which to understand the world: the Cold War; the notion of hegemony; international organisations; national security and human security; environmental security; globalisation; and so on. Each chapter begins with an overview to quickly give you an idea of what to expect. Each chapter also has maps, tables, graphics, boxes, cartoons, and other illustrations to enliven your reading and to get you to reflect on world politics by provoking, challenging, or amusing you. The characters — Unni and Munni, introduced in earlier 2018-19

vi books, reappear. They ask their innocent, often mischievous, frequently probing questions. The chapters have suggestions on group activity (“Let’s Do It Together”)— collecting materials together, solving an international problem, making you negotiate as if you were a diplomat. Then there are the “plus boxes” which provide information not so much for tests and examination questions but rather to fill out knowledge, to summarise information that would burden the text, and, sometimes, to urge you to think further about the subject. The exercises at the end of each chapter should help review materials that you have read and take you beyond what has been said in the chapter. You will notice also that the book is filled with maps. It is difficult if not impossible to understand world politics without a sense of where various places are located, who lives next door to whom, where boundaries, rivers, and other political and geographical features are in relation to each other. We have, therefore, been quite liberal in providing maps. These maps are to help orient you, to visualise the political and geographical spaces that you read about. They are not intended to be things you have to draw and memorise for tests! This brings us to a crucial point about how to use the book. We have made a conscious effort not to load you down with information—with names, dates, events. We have tried to keep these to a minimum. The idea is not for you to become an expert on world politics but instead to begin to grapple with the complexity and urgency of this new world around us. At the same time, should you wish to know more about world politics, you can consult the various sources mentioned separately under, “If you want to read more…”. If the book succeeds in stimulating you, in making you ask even more questions than we have posed for you, and in making you impatient with what you have read here, then we have succeeded! We sincerely hope that you will like this book and find it engaging and useful. We are grateful to Professor Krishna Kumar, Director, NCERT, for his support and guidance in the preparation of this book. He encouraged us in making this book as student-friendly as possible. He also patiently waited for the final draft of the book. Contemporary World Politics would not have been possible without the valuable time and academic expertise of the members of the Textbook Development Committee. Each of the members gave us their precious time and set aside prior commitments at various junctures. Professor Sanjay Chaturvedi and Dr. Siddharth Mallavarapu deserve our special thanks for their help in selecting maps and in editing the text. We are grateful for the devotion and sincerity of Dr. M. V. S. V. Prasad, the coordinator of this textbook from the NCER T, as also Mr. Alex M. George and Mr. Pankaj Pushkar who worked day and night to ensure the quality of the text, the authenticity of the contents, and above all, the readability of this book. Ms. Padmavathi worked on all the exercises. The designer of this book, Ms. Shweta Rao, gave the book the attractive look and feel that it has. Without their unstinting and creative help, we could not have produced the book in its present form. Kanti Bajpai Yogendra Yadav, Suhas Palshikar Advisor Chief Advisors 2018-19

vii Textbook Development Committee CHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR TEXTBOOKS AT THE SENIOR SECONDARY LEVEL Hari Vasudevan, Professor, Department of History, University of Calcutta, Kolkata CHIEF ADVISORS Yogendra Yadav, Senior Fellow, Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS), Delhi Suhas Palshikar, Professor, Department of Politics and Public Administration, University of Pune, Pune ADVISOR Kanti P. Bajpai, Headmaster, The Doon School, Dehradun MEMBERS Alex M. George, Independent Researcher, Eruvatty, District Kannur, Kerala Anuradha M. Chenoy, Professor, Centre for Russian and Central Asian Studies, SIS, JNU, New Delhi Madhu Bhalla, Professor, Department of East Asian Studies, University of Delhi, Delhi Navnita Chadha Behera, Reader, Department of Political Science, University of Delhi, Delhi Padmavathi, B.S., Faculty, Social Sciences, International Academy for Creative Teaching (iACT), Bangalore Pankaj Pushkar, Senior Lecturer, Directorate of Higher Education (Uttarakhand), Haldwani Sabyasachi Basu Ray Chaudhury, Reader, Department of Political Science, Rabindra Bharati University, Kolkata Samir Das, Reader, Department of Political Science, University of Calcutta, Kolkata Sanjay Chaturvedi, Reader, Centre for Study of Geopolitics, Department of Political Science, Panjab University, Chandigarh Sanjay Dubey, Reader, DESSH, NCERT Shibashis Chatterjee, Lecturer, Department of International Relations, Jadavpur University, Kolkata Siddharth Mallavarapu, Assistant Professor, Centre for International Politics, Organisation and Disarmament, SIS, JNU, New Delhi Varun Sahni, Professor, Centre for International Politics, Organisation and Disarmament, SIS, JNU, New Delhi MEMBER-COORDINATOR Malla V. S. V. Prasad, Lecturer, Department of Education in Social Sciences and Humanities (DESSH), NCERT, New Delhi 2018-19

viii Acknowledgements The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) acknowledges all those who contributed – directly and indirectly – to the development of this textbook. We offer thanks to Professor Savita Sinha, Head, DESSH for her support. We gratefully acknowledge the efforts of the administrative staff of DESSH. We want to record our sincere appreciation of the generous institutional support provided by the Lokniti programme of the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS). We would like to thank Professor Peter R. De Souza, Director, Lokniti, in particular. The Council gratefully acknowledges the contribution of the following individuals and institutions: Mr. Robert W. Gray, Chief, United Nations Postal Administration, New York for granting approval to use UN stamps; Professor K. C. Suri for valuable inputs; Cagle Cartoons Inc. for providing copyrights of the cartoons of Andy Singer, Angel Boligan, Ares, Cam Cardow, Christo Komarnitski, Deng Coy Miel, Harry Harrison, Mike Lane, Milt Priggee, Pat Bagley, Petar Pismestrovic and Tab; Mr. Kutty (Laughing with Kutty), The Hindu, and Pakistan Tribune for the cartoons; cartoonist Irfaan Khan for the drawings; M/s. Cartographic Designs for providing two maps (India and its neighbours and the world map); the Parliament Library, the United Nations Information Centre, New Delhi and Gobar Times (Down to Earth supplements) for providing materials; and wikipedia and flickr.com (downloaded before 31 Dec 2006) for providing images. The production of the book benefited greatly from the efforts of the Publications Department. Our special thanks to Purnendu Kumar Barik, Copy Editor, and Neelam Walecha, DTP Operator. Request for Feedback How did you like this textbook? What was your experience in reading or using this? What were the difficulties you faced? What changes would you like to see in the next version of this book? Write to us on all these and any other matter related to this textbook. You could be a teacher, a parent, a student or just a general reader. We value any and every feedback. Please write to: Coordinator (Political Science) DESS, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi 110 016 2018-19

ix iii v Contents 1 17 Foreword 31 Preface 51 65 Chapter 1 81 The Cold War Era 99 117 Chapter 2 135 The End of Bipolarity Chapter 3 US Hegemony in World Politics Chapter 4 Alternative Centres of Power Chapter 5 Contemporary South Asia Chapter 6 International Organisations Chapter 7 Security in the Contemporary World Chapter 8 Environment and Natural Resources Chapter 9 Globalisation 2018-19

If You Want to Read More ... Where can you read more on contemporary world politics? There are hundreds of thousands of sources, but here are a few suggestions. We focus here on English language sources. These are by no means the only good sources, but they are easier for Indian students to access. Wikipedia (on the net) often has interesting entries on many of the subjects, countries, people, and events referred to in the book. Encyclopaedias such as the Encyclopaedia Britannica are rich sources of information. There are many more advanced introductory books on world politics. Some useful and fairly contemporary ones include The Globalization of World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations edited by John Baylis, Steve Smith and Patricia Owens (Oxford University Press, 2004), The Global Future: A Brief Introduction to World Politics by Charles W. Kegley and Gregory A. Raymond (Wadsworth Publishing, 2007), United States and the Great Powers: World Politics in the Twenty-First Century by Barry Buzan (Polity Press, 2004), International Relations by Joshua S. Goldstein and Jon C. Pevehouse (Longman, 2005) and World Politics by Peter Calvocoressi (Longman, 2001). Among the magazines you could read regularly are Frontline, India Today, Outlook and The Week, all Indian publications. Also in India, there are more academic journals such as China Report, Economic and Political Weekly, India International Centre Quarterly, India Quarterly, International Studies, Seminar, South Asian Survey, Strategic Analysis and World Affairs. Outside India, there are a huge number of journals but the most popular include the following US and British journals: Atlantic Monthly, The Economist, The National Interest, Newsweek and Time. The American journals, Foreign Affairs and Foreign Policy will give you an idea how leading US thinkers regard the world. Among the academic journals, internationally, are Alternatives, Arms Control Today, Asian Security, Asian Survey, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, China Quarterly, Comparative Politics, European Journal of International Relations, Global Governance, Harvard International Review, India Review, International Affairs, International Journal, International Organization, International Security, Millennium, Orbis, Pacific Affairs, Review of International Studies, Russian Review, Survival, Security Dialogue, Security Studies, Slavic Review, World Policy Journal, World Politics and YaleGlobal Online. Of course, you should get into the habit of reading the daily newspaper and keeping up with what is going on in the world. The television news channels also report regularly on world events: do watch the world unfold before your eyes! 2018-19

Chapter 1 The Cold War Era OVERVIEW The end of the Second World War led to the rise of two major centres of power. The two pictures above symbolise the This chapter provides a backdrop victory of the US and the USSR in the Second World War. to the entire book. The end of the 1. American soldiers raising the US flag during the Battle of Cold War is usually seen as the Iwo Jima, Japan, on 23 February 1945 beginning of the contemporary era Credit: Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima, in world politics which is the Photograph by Joe Rosenthal/The Associated Press subject matter of this book. It is, 2. Soviet soldiers raising the USSR flag on the Reichstag therefore, appropriate that we building in Berlin, Germany, in May 1945 begin the story with a discussion Credit: Reichstag flag, Photograph by Yevgeny Khaldei/TASS of the Cold War. The chapter shows how the dominance of two superpowers, the United States of America and the Soviet Union, was central to the Cold War. It tracks the various arenas of the Cold War in different parts of the world. The chapter views the Non- Aligned Movement (NAM) as a challenge to the dominance of the two superpowers and describes the attempts by the non-aligned countries to establish a New International Economic Order (NIEO) as a means of attaining economic development and political independence. It concludes with an assessment of India’s role in NAM and asks how successful the policy of non- alignment has been in protecting India’s interests. 2018-19

2 Contemporary World Politics We are on a world tour! Will meet you in different countries. Feels good CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS to be around where events have happened. In April 1961, the leaders of the Map showing the range of the nuclear missiles under construction Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in Cuba, used during the secret meetings on the Cuban missile crisis (USSR) were worried that the Source: John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum United States of America (USA) would invade communist-ruled Cuba and overthrow Fidel Castro, the president of the small island nation off the coast of the United States. Cuba was an ally of the Soviet Union and received both diplomatic and financial aid from it. Nikita Khrushchev, the leader of the Soviet Union, decided to convert Cuba into a Russian base. In 1962, he placed nuclear missiles in Cuba. The installation of these weapons put the US, for the first time, under fire from close range and nearly doubled the number of bases or cities in the American mainland which could be threatened by the USSR. Three weeks after the Soviet Union had placed the nuclear weapons in Cuba, the Americans became aware of it. The US President, John F. Kennedy, and his advisers were reluctant to do anything that might lead to full-scale nuclear war between the two countries, but they were determined to get Khrushchev to remove the missiles and nuclear weapons from Cuba. Kennedy ordered American warships to intercept any Soviet ships heading to Cuba as a way of warning the USSR of his seriousness. A clash seemed imminent in what came to be known as the Cuban Missile Crisis. The prospects of this 2018-19

The Cold War Era WHAT IS THE COLD WAR? 3 clash made the whole world The end of the Second World War So near yet so far! nervous, for it would have been is a landmark in contemporary I can't believe that no ordinary war. Eventually, to world politics. In 1945, the Allied Cuba survived as a the world’s great relief, both Forces, led by the US, Soviet communist country sides decided to avoid war. The Union, Britain and France for so long despite Soviet ships slowed down and defeated the Axis Powers led by being located so turned back. Germany, Italy and Japan, ending close to the US. Just the Second World War (1939- look at the map. The Cuban Missile Crisis was 1945). The war had involved a high point of what came to be almost all the major powers of the known as the Cold War. The Cold world and spread out to regions War referred to the competition, outside Europe including the tensions and a series of Southeast Asia, China, Burma confrontations between the (now Myanmar) and parts of United States and Soviet Union, India’s northeast. The war backed by their respective allies. devastated the world in terms of Fortunately, however, it never loss of human lives and civilian escalated into a ‘hot war’, that is, property. The First World War had a full-scale war between these two earlier shaken the world between powers. There were wars in 1914 and 1918. various regions, with the two powers and their allies involved The end of the Second World in warfare and in supporting War was also the beginning of the regional allies, but at least the Cold War. The world war ended world avoided another global war. when the United States dropped two atomic bombs on the The Cold War was not Japanese cities of Hiroshima and simply a matter of power Nagasaki in August 1945, causing rivalries, of military alliances, Japan to surrender. Critics of the and of the balance of power. US decision to drop the bombs These were accompanied by a have argued that the US knew that real ideological conflict as well, Japan was about to surrender and a difference over the best and that it was unnecessary to drop the most appropriate way of the bombs. They suggest that the organising political, economic, US action was intended to stop the and social life all over the world. Soviet Union from making military The western alliance, headed by and political gains in Asia and the US, represented the elsewhere and to show Moscow ideology of liberal democracy that the United States was and capitalism while the supreme. US supporters have eastern alliance, headed by the argued that the dropping of the Soviet Union, was committed to atomic bombs was necessary to the ideology of socialism and end the war quickly and to stop communism. You have already studied these ideologies in Class XI. 2018-19

4 Contemporary World Politics further loss of American and Allied weapons capable of inflicting death lives. Whatever the motives, the and destruction unacceptable to consequence of the end of the each other, a full-fledged war is Second World War was the rise of unlikely. In spite of provocations, two new powers on the global stage. neither side would want to risk war With the defeat of Germany and since no political gains would Japan, the devastation of Europe justify the destruction of their and in many other parts of the societies. world, the United States and the Soviet Union became the greatest In the event of a nuclear war, powers in the world with the ability both sides will be so badly harmed to influence events anywhere on that it will be impossible to declare earth. one side or the other as the winner. Even if one of them tries to attack While the Cold War was an and disable the nuclear weapons outcome of the emergence of the of its rival, the other would still be US and the USSR as two left with enough nuclear weapons superpowers rival to each other, to inflict unacceptable destruction. it was also rooted in the This is called the logic of understanding that the destruction ‘deterrence’: both sides have the caused by the use of atom bombs capacity to retaliate against an is too costly for any country to attack and to cause so much bear. The logic is simple yet destruction that neither can afford powerful. When two rival powers to initiate war. Thus, the Cold War are in possession of nuclear — in spite of being an intense form of rivalry between great powers — These pictures depict the destruction remained a ‘cold’ and not hot or caused by the bombs dropped by the shooting war. The deterrence US on Hiroshima (the bomb was code- relationship prevents war but not named ‘Little Boy’) and Nagasaki the rivalry between powers. (code-named ‘Fat Man’). Yet, these bombs were very small in their Note the main military destructive capacity (measured in features of the Cold War. The two terms of kiloton yield) as compared to superpowers and the countries in the nuclear bombs that were to be the rival blocs led by the available in the stockpiles assembled by superpowers were expected to the superpowers. The yield of Little Boy behave as rational and and Fat Man were 15 and 21 kilotons responsible actors. They were to respectively. By the early 1950s the US be rational and responsible in the and the USSR were already making sense that they understood the thermonuclear weapons that had a risks in fighting wars that might yield between 10 and 15 thousand involve the two superpowers. kilotons. In other words, these bombs When two superpowers and the were a thousand times more destructive blocs led by them are in a than the bombs used in Hiroshima and deterrence relationship, fighting Nagasaki. During much of the Cold War, wars will be massively destructive. both the superpowers possessed thousands of such weapons. Just imagine the extent of destruction that these could cause all over the globe. 2018-19

The Cold War Era The smaller states in the 5 alliances used the link to the Responsibility, therefore, meant superpowers for their own 1. Identify three being restrained and avoiding the purposes. They got the promise of countries from each risk of another world war. In this protection, weapons, and of the rival blocs. sense the Cold War managed to economic aid against their local ensure human survival. rivals, mostly regional neighbours 2. Look at the map with whom they had rivalries. The of the European THE EMERGENCE OF alliance systems led by the Union in Chapter 4 TWO POWER BLOCS two superpowers, therefore, and identify four threatened to divide the entire countries that were The two superpowers were keen world into two camps. This part of the Warsaw on expanding their spheres of division happened first in Europe. Pact and now influence in different parts of the Most countries of western Europe belong to the EU. world. In a world sharply divided sided with the US and those of between the two alliance systems, eastern Europe joined the Soviet 3. By comparing this a state was supposed to remain camp. That is why these were also map with that of tied to its protective superpower called the ‘western’ and the the European Union to limit the influence of the other ‘eastern’ alliances. map, identify three superpower and its allies. new countries that came up in the post-Cold War period. NATO Members NORWAY FINLAND Warsaw Pact Members Helsinki Other Communist Nations Others Oslo Stockholm SWEDEN IRELAND North Moscow Dublin Sea USSR DENMARK Copenhagen BRITAIN NETH. ATLANTIC London Berlin OCEAN The Hague EAST Warsaw Brussels Bonn GERMANY POLAND BELG. GEWRMESATNYVCiZeEnCnPHaraOgSuLeOVAKIA LUX. Paris FRANCE Bern SWITZ. AUSTRIA Budapest HUNGARY ROMANIA PORTUGAL Belgrade Bucharest Yalta Black Sea SPAIN ITALY YUGOSLAVIA BULGARIA Lisbon Rome Ankara ALBANIA Sofia TURKEY Madrid Tirana GREECE Map showing the way Europe was divided into rival alliances during the Cold War 2018-19

6 Contemporary World Politics FIRST WORLD SECOND WORLD THIRD WORLD In the following The western alliance was respective alliances. Soviet column, write formalised into an organisation, intervention in east Europe the names of the North Atlantic Treaty provides an example. The Soviet three countries, Organisation (NATO), which came Union used its influence in which belong to: into existence in April 1949. It was eastern Europe, backed by the an association of twelve states very large presence of its armies Capitalist Bloc which declared that armed attack in the countries of the region, to ________________ on any one of them in Europe or ensure that the eastern half of ________________ North America would be regarded Europe remained within its ________________ as an attack on all of them. Each sphere of influence. In East and of these states would be obliged Southeast Asia and in West Asia Communist Bloc to help the other. The eastern (Middle East), the United States ________________ alliance, known as the Warsaw built an alliance system called — ________________ Pact, was led by the Soviet Union. the Southeast Asian Treaty ________________ It was created in 1955 and its Organisation (SEATO) and the principal function was to counter Central Treaty Organisation Non-Aligned NATO’s forces in Europe. (CENTO). The Soviet Union and Movement communist China responded by ________________ International alliances during having close relations with ________________ the Cold War era were determined regional countries such as North ________________ by the requirements of the Vietnam, North Korea and Iraq. superpowers and the calculations of the smaller states. As noted The Cold War threatened to above, Europe became the main divide the world into two alliances. arena of conflict between the Under these circumstances, many superpowers. In some cases, the of the newly independent superpowers used their military countries, after gaining their power to bring countries into their independence from the colonial 2018-19

The Cold War Era 7 powers such as Britain and democracy and capitalism were France, were worried that they better than socialism and would lose their freedom as soon communism, or vice versa. as they gained formal independence. Cracks and splits ARENAS OF THE COLD WAR within the alliances were quick to appear. Communist China The Cuban Missile Crisis that we How come there are quarrelled with the USSR towards began this chapter with was only still two Koreas while the late 1950s, and, in 1969, they one of the several crises that the other divisions fought a brief war over a territorial occurred during the Cold War. created by the Cold dispute. The other important The Cold War also led to several War have ended? development was the Non-Aligned shooting wars, but it is important Do the people of Movement (NAM), which gave the to note that these crises and wars Korea want the newly independent countries a did not lead to another world war. division to continue? way of staying out of the alliances. The two superpowers were poised for direct confrontations in Korea Locate the You may ask why the (1950 - 53), Berlin (1958 - 62), the flashpoints superpowers needed any allies at Congo (the early 1960s), and in of the Cold all. After all, with their nuclear several other places. Crises War on a weapons and regular armies, they deepened, as neither of the parties world map. were so powerful that the combined involved was willing to back down. power of most of the smaller states When we talk about arenas of the in Asia and Africa, and even in Cold War, we refer, therefore, to Europe, was no match to that of areas where crisis and war the superpowers. Yet, the smaller occurred or threatened to occur states were helpful for the between the alliance systems but superpowers in gaining access to did not cross certain limits. A great many lives were lost in some (i) vital resources, such as oil of these arenas like Korea, and minerals, Vietnam and Afghanistan, but the world was spared a nuclear war (ii) territory, from where the and global hostilities. In some superpowers could launch cases, huge military build-ups their weapons and troops, were reported. In many cases, diplomatic communication (iii) locations from where they between the superpowers could could spy on each other, and not be sustained and contributed to the misunderstandings. (iv) economic support, in that many small allies together Sometimes, countries outside could help pay for military the two blocs, for example, the expenses. non-aligned countries, played a role in reducing Cold War conflicts They were also important for and averting some grave crises. ideological reasons. The loyalty of Jawaharlal Nehru — one of the key allies suggested that the superpowers were winning the war of ideas as well, that liberal 2018-19

8 Contemporary World Politics  leaders of the NAM — played a crucial role in mediating between 1947 American President Harry Truman’s Doctrine the two Koreas. In the Congo about the containment of communism crisis, the UN Secretary-General played a key mediatory role. By 1947 - 52 Marshall Plan: US aid for the reconstruction of and large, it was the realisation the Western Europe on a superpower’s part that war by all means should be avoided 1948 - 49 Berlin blockade by the Soviet Union and the that made them exercise restraint airlift of supplies to the citizens of West Berlin and behave more responsibly in by the US and its allies international affairs. As the Cold War rolled from one arena to 1950 - 53 Korean War another, the logic of restraint was increasingly evident. 1954 Defeat of the French by the Vietnamese at Dien Bien Phu However, since the Cold War Signing of the Geneva Accords did not eliminate rivalries between Division of Vietnam along the 17th Parallel the two alliances, mutual Formation of SEATO suspicions led them to arm themselves to the teeth and to 1954 - 75 American intervention in Vietnam constantly prepare for war. Huge stocks of arms were considered 1955 Signing of the Baghdad Pact, later CENTO necessary to prevent wars from taking place. 1956 Soviet intervention in Hungary The two sides understood that 1961 US-sponsored Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba war might occur in spite of Construction of the Berlin Wall restraint. Either side might miscalculate the number of 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis weapons in the possession of the other side. They might 1965 American intervention in the Dominican misunderstand the intentions of Republic the other side. Besides, what if there was a nuclear accident? 1968 Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia What would happen if someone fired off a nuclear weapon by 1972 US President Richard Nixon’s visit to China mistake or if a soldier mischievously shot off a weapon 1978 - 89 Vietnamese intervention in Cambodia deliberately to start a war? What if an accident occurred with a 1979 - 89 Soviet intervention in Afghanistan nuclear weapon? How would the leaders of that country know it 1985 Gorbachev becomes the President of the was an accident and not an act of USSR; begins the reform process sabotage by the enemy or that a missile had not landed from the 1989 Fall of the Berlin Wall; mass protests against other side? governments in eastern Europe 1990 Unification of Germany 1991 Disintegration of the Soviet Union End of the Cold War era 2018-19

The Cold War Era 9 Drawn by well- POLITICAL SPRING China makes overtures to the USA. known Indian cartoonist Kutty, these two cartoons depict an Indian view of the Cold War. The first cartoon was drawn when the US entered into a secret understanding with China, keeping the USSR in the dark. Find out more about the characters in the cartoon. The second cartoon depicts the American misadventure in Vietnam. Find out more about the Vietnam War. FOOD FOR THOUGHT President Johnson is in more troubles over Vietnam. 2018-19

10 Contemporary World Politics FOUNDER In time, therefore, the US and (i) cooperation among these five FIGURES USSR decided to collaborate in countries, OF NAM limiting or eliminating certain kinds of nuclear and non-nuclear (ii) growing Cold War tensions Josip Broz Tito weapons. A stable balance of and its widening arenas, and (1892-1980) weapons, they decided, could be President of maintained through ‘arms (iii) the dramatic entry of many Yugoslavia (1945- control’. Starting in the 1960s, the newly decolonised African 80); fought against two sides signed three countries into the inter - Germany in World significant agreements within a national arena. By 1960, War II; communist; decade. These were the Limited there were 16 new African maintained some Test Ban Treaty, Nuclear Non- members in the UN. distance from the Proliferation Treaty and the Soviet Union; Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty. The first summit was attended forged unity in Thereafter, the superpowers held by 25 member states. Over the Yugoslavia. several rounds of arms limitation years, the membership of NAM talks and signed several more has expanded. The latest meeting, Jawaharlal Nehru treaties to limit their arms. the 14th summit, was held in (1889-1964) Havana in 2006. It included 116 First Prime Minister CHALLENGE TO BIPOLARITY member states and 15 observer of India (1947-64); countries. made efforts for We have already seen how the Asian unity, Cold War tended to divide the As non-alignment grew into a decolonisation, world into two rival alliances. It popular international movement, nuclear was in this context that non- countries of various different disarmament; alignment offered the newly political systems and interests advocated decolonised countries of Asia, joined it. This made the movement peaceful Africa and Latin America a third less homogeneous and also made coexistence for option—not to join either alliance. it more difficult to define in very securing world neat and precise terms: what did peace. The roots of NAM went back it really stand for? Increasingly, to the friendship between three NAM was easier to define in terms leaders — Yugoslavia’s Josip Broz of what it was not. It was not about Tito, India’s Jawaharlal Nehru, being a member of an alliance. and Egypt’s leader Gamal Abdel Nasser — who held a meeting in The policy of staying away 1956. Indonesia’s Sukarno and from alliances should not Ghana’s Kwame Nkrumah be considered isolationism or strongly supported them. These neutrality. Non-alignment is not five leaders came to be known as isolationism since isolationism the five founders of NAM. The first means remaining aloof from world non-aligned summit was held in affairs. Isolationism sums up the Belgrade in 1961. This was the foreign policy of the US from the culmination of at least three American War of Independence in factors: 1787 up to the beginning of the First World War. In comparison, the non-aligned countries, including India, played an active 2018-19

The Cold War Era The idea of a New Inter- 11 national Economic Order (NIEO) role in mediating between the two originated with this realisation. FOUNDER rival alliances in the cause of The United Nations Conference FIGURES peace and stability. Their strength on Trade and Development OF NAM was based on their unity and their (UNCTAD) brought out a report resolve to remain non-aligned in 1972 entitled Towards a New Gamal Abdel despite the attempt by the two Trade Policy for Development. Nasser (1918-70) superpowers to bring them into The report proposed a reform of Ruled Egypt from their alliances. the global trading system so 1952 to 1970; as to: espoused the Non-alignment is also not causes of Arab neutrality. Neutrality refers (i) give the LDCs control over nationalism, principally to a policy of staying their natural resources socialism and out of war. States practising exploited by the developed anti-imperialism; neutrality are not required to help Western countries, nationalised the end a war. They do not get Suez Canal, involved in wars and do not (ii) obtain access to Western leading to an take any position on the markets so that the LDCs international appropriateness or morality of a could sell their products and, conflict in 1956. war. Non-aligned states, including therefore, make trade more India, were actually involved in beneficial for the poorer Sukarno (1901-70) wars for various reasons. They countries, First President of also worked to prevent war Indonesia (1945- between others and tried to end (iii) reduce the cost of technology 65); led the wars that had broken out. from the Western countries, and freedom struggle; espoused the NEW INTERNATIONAL (iv) provide the LDCs with a causes of ECONOMIC ORDER greater role in international socialism and economic institutions. anti-imperialism; The non-aligned countries were organised the more than merely mediators during Gradually, the nature of non- Bandung the Cold War. The challenge for most alignment changed to give greater Conference; of the non-aligned countries — a importance to economic issues. overthrown in a majority of them were categorised In 1961, at the first summit in military coup. as the Least Developed Countries Belgrade, economic issues had (LDCs) — was to be more developed not been very important. By the economically and to lift their people mid-1970s, they had become the out of poverty. Economic most important issues. As a development was also vital for the result, NAM became an economic independence of the new countries. pressure group. By the late Without sustained development, a 1980s, however, the NIEO country could not be truly free. It initiative had faded, mainly would remain dependent on the because of the stiff opposition richer countries including the from the developed countries who colonial powers from which political acted as a united group while the freedom had been achieved. non-aligned countries struggled to maintain their unity in the face of this opposition. 2018-19

12 Contemporary World Politics INDIA AND THE COLD WAR cause which had little to do with India’s real interests. A non-aligned FOUNDER As a leader of NAM, India’s posture also served India’s interests FIGURES response to the ongoing Cold War very directly, in at least two ways: OF NAM was two-fold: At one level, it took particular care in staying away First, non-alignment allowed from the two alliances. Second, it India to take international raised its voice against the newly decisions and stances that decolonised countries becoming served its interests rather than part of these alliances. the interests of the super- powers and their allies. Kwame Nkrumah India’s policy was neither (1909-72) negative nor passive. As Nehru Second, India was often able First Prime Minister reminded the world, non- to balance one superpower of Ghana (1952- alignment was not a policy of against the other. If India felt 66); led the ‘fleeing away’. On the contrary, ignored or unduly pressurised freedom India was in favour of actively by one superpower, it could tilt movement; intervening in world affairs to towards the other. Neither advocated the soften Cold War rivalries. India alliance system could take causes of tried to reduce the differences India for granted or bully it. socialism and between the alliances and thereby African unity; prevent differences from India’s policy of non-alignment opposed neo- escalating into a full-scale war. was criticised on a number of colonialism; Indian diplomats and leaders were counts. Here we may refer to only removed in a often used to communicate and two criticisms: military coup. mediate between Cold War rivals such as in the Korean War in the First, India’s non-alignment early 1950s. was said to be ‘unprincipled’. In the name of pursuing its It is important to remember national interest, India, it was said, often refused to take a that India chose to involve other firm stand on crucial international issues. members of the non-aligned group Second, it is suggested that in this mission. During the Cold India was inconsistent and took contradictory postures. So, NIEO was just an War, India repeatedly tried to Having criticised others for idea that never activate those regional and joining alliances, India signed became an order. international organisations, which the Treaty of Friendship in August 1971 with the USSR Right? were not a part of the alliances led for 20 years. This was regarded, particularly by by the US and USSR. Nehru outside observers, as Name any five reposed great faith in ‘a genuine virtually joining the Soviet countries, alliance system. The Indian commonwealth of free and government’s view was that which were decolonised cooperating nations’ that would following the play a positive role in softening, if end of the not ending, the Cold War. Second World Non-alignment was not, as War. some suggest, a noble international 2018-19

The Cold War Era 13 India needed diplomatic and STEPS possibly military support during the Bangladesh crisis  Divide the classroom into three groups of even and that in any case the treaty did not stop India from number. Each group is to represent three having good relations with different worlds - first world/capitalist world, other countries including second world/communist world and the third the US. world/non-aligned world. Non-alignment as a strategy  The teacher is to select any two critical issues evolved in the Cold War context. As we will see in Chapter 2, with which posed a threat to world peace and the disintegration of the USSR and security during the Cold War days. ( The Korean the end of the Cold War in 1991, and Vietnam Wars would be good examples). non-alignment, both as an international movement and as  Assign each group to work on developing an the core of India’s foreign policy, lost some of its earlier relevance ‘event profile’. They have to develop, from the and effectiveness. However, non- vantage point of the bloc they represent, a alignment contained some core presentation that contains a timeline of the values and enduring ideas. It was event, its causes, their preferred course of action based on a recognition that to solve the problem. decolonised states share a historical affiliation and can  Each group is to present their event profile become a powerful force if they come together. It meant that the before the class. poor and often very small countries of the world need not Ideas for the Teacher become followers of any of the big powers, that they could pursue an  Draw students’ attention to the repercussions these crises had independent foreign policy. It was also based on a resolve to on the rest of the world and on the respective countries. democratise the international Connect to the present situation in these countries. system by thinking about an alternative world order to redress  Highlight the role played by the leaders of the Third World existing inequities. These core ideas remain relevant even after (India’s stand and contribution in Korea and Vietnam could the Cold War has ended. be taken up for reference) and the UN to bring back peace in these regions.  Open a debate on ‘how we could avert these kind of crises’ in the post-Cold War world. 2018-19

14 Contemporary World Politics  LIMITED TEST BAN TREATY (LTBT) Banned nuclear weapon tests in the atmosphere, in outer space and under water. Signed by the US, UK and USSR in Moscow on 5 August 1963. Entered into force on 10 October 1963. NUCLEAR NON-PROLIFERATION TREATY (NPT) Allows only the nuclear weapon states to have nuclear weapons and stops others from aquiring them. For the purposes of the NPT, a nuclear weapon state is one which has manufactured and exploded a nuclear weapon or other nuclear explosive device prior to 1 January 1967. So there are five nuclear weapon states: US, USSR (later Russia), Britain, France and China. Signed in Washington, London, and Moscow on 1 July 1968. Entered into force on 5 March 1970. Extended indefinitely in 1995. STRATEGIC ARMS LIMITATION TALKS I (SALT-I) The first round of the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks began in November 1969. The Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev and the US President Richard Nixon signed the following in Moscow on 26 May 1972 – a) Treaty on the limitation of Anti-Ballistic Missile Systems (ABM Treaty); and b) Interim Agreement on the limitation of strategic offensive arms. Entered into force on 3 October 1972. STRATEGIC ARMS LIMITATION TALKS II (SALT-II) The second round started in November 1972. The US President Jimmy Carter and the Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev signed the Treaty on the limitation of strategic offensive arms in Vienna on 18 June 1979. STRATEGIC ARMS REDUCTION TREATY I (START-I) Treaty signed by the USSR President Mikhail Gorbachev and the US President George Bush (Senior) on the reduction and limitation of strategic offensive arms in Moscow on 31 July 1991. STRATEGIC ARMS REDUCTION TREATY II (START-II) Treaty signed by the Russian President Boris Yeltsin and the US President George Bush (Senior) on the reduction and limitation of strategic offensive arms in Moscow on 3 January 1993. 2018-19

The Cold War Era 15 1. Which among the following statements about the Cold War is  wrong? a) It was a competition between the US and Soviet Union and their respective allies. b) It was an ideological war between the superpowers. c) It triggered off an arms race. d) the US and USSR were engaged in direct wars. 2. Which among the following statements does not reflect the objectives of NAM a) Enabling newly decolonised countries to pursue independent policies b) No to joining any military alliances c) Following a policy of ‘neutrality’ on global issues d) Focus on elimination of global economic inequalities 3. Mark correct or wrong against each of the following statements that describe the features of the military alliances formed by the superpowers. a) Member countries of the alliance are to provide bases in their respective lands for the superpowers. b) Member countries to support the superpower both in terms of ideology and military strategy. c) When a nation attacks any member country, it is considered as an attack on all the member countries. d) Superpowers assist all the member countries to develop their own nuclear weapons. 4. Here is a list of countries. Write against each of these the bloc they belonged to during the Cold War. a) Poland b) France c) Japan d) Nigeria e) North Korea f) Sri Lanka 5. The Cold War produced an arms race as well as arms control. What were the reasons for both these developments? 6. Why did the superpowers have military alliances with smaller countries? Give three reasons. 2018-19

16 Contemporary World Politics  7. Sometimes it is said that the Cold War was a simple struggle for power and that ideology had nothing to do with it. Do you agree with this? Give one example to support your position. 8. What was India’s foreign policy towards the US and USSR during the Cold War era? Do you think that this policy helped India’s interests? 9. NAM was considered a ‘third option’ by Third World countries. How did this option benefit their growth during the peak of the Cold War? 10. What do you think about the statement that NAM has become irrelevant today. Give reasons to support your opinion. 2018-19

Chapter 2 The End of Bipolarity OVERVIEW The Berlin Wall symbolised the division The Berlin Wall, which had been between the capitalist built at the height of the Cold War and the communist and was its greatest symbol, was world. Built in 1961 to toppled by the people in 1989. This dramatic event was followed separate East Berlin from West Berlin, this more than 150 by an equally dramatic and kilometre long wall stood for 28 years and was finally broken historic chain of events that led by the people on 9 November 1989. This marked the to the collapse of the ‘second unification of the two parts of Germany and the beginning world’ and the end of the Cold War. of the end of the communist bloc. The pictures here depict: Germany, divided after the Second 1. People making a tiny hole in the wall World War, was unified. One after 2. A section of the wall opened to allow free movement another, the eight East European 3. The Berlin Wall as it stood before 1989 countries that were part of the Credit: 1. and 2. Frederik Ramm, Soviet bloc replaced their www.remote.org/frederik/culture/berlin communist governments in 3. www.cs.utah.edu response to mass demonstrations. The Soviet Union stood by as the Cold War began to end, not by military means but as a result of mass actions by ordinary men and women. Eventually the Soviet Union itself disintegrated. In this chapter, we discuss the meaning, the causes and the consequences of the disintegration of the ‘second world’. We also discuss what happened to that part of the world after the collapse of communist regimes and how India relates to these countries now. 2018-19

18 Contemporary World Politics LEADERS OF THE WHAT WAS THE SOVIET machinery production, and a SOVIET UNION transport sector that connected its SYSTEM? remotest areas with efficiency. It Vladimir Lenin had a domestic consumer (1870-1924) The Union of Soviet Socialist industry that produced everything Founder of the Republics (USSR) came into being from pins to cars, though their Bolshevik after the socialist revolution in quality did not match that of the Communist party; Russia in 1917. The revolution was Western capitalist countries. The leader of the inspired by the ideals of socialism, Soviet state ensured a minimum Russian Revolution as opposed to capitalism, and the standard of living for all citizens, of 1917 and the need for an egalitarian society. This and the government subsidised founder-head of was perhaps the biggest attempt basic necessities including health, the USSR during in human history to abolish the education, childcare and other the most difficult institution of private property and welfare schemes. There was no period following consciously design a society based unemployment. State ownership the revolution on principles of equality. In doing was the dominant form of (1917-1924); an so, the makers of the Soviet system ownership: land and productive outstanding gave primacy to the state and the assets were owned and controlled theoretician and institution of the party. The Soviet by the Soviet state. practitioner of political system centred around Marxism and a the communist party, and no other The Soviet system, however, source of political party or opposition was became very bureaucratic and inspiration for allowed. The economy was planned authoritarian, making life very communists all and controlled by the state. difficult for its citizens. Lack of over the world. democracy and the absence of After the Second World War, freedom of speech stifled people who the east European countries that often expressed their dissent in the Soviet army had liberated from jokes and cartoons. Most of the the fascist forces came under the institutions of the Soviet state control of the USSR. The political needed reform: the one-party and the economic systems of all system represented by the these countries were modelled Communist Party of the Soviet after the USSR. This group of Union had tight control over all countries was called the Second institutions and was unaccountable World or the ‘socialist bloc’. The to the people. The party refused to Warsaw Pact, a military alliance, recognise the urge of people in the held them together. The USSR was fifteen different republics that formed the leader of the bloc. the Soviet Union to manage their own affairs including their cultural The Soviet Union became a affairs. Although, on paper, Russia great power after the Second was only one of the fifteen republics World War. The Soviet economy that together constituted the USSR, was then more developed than the in reality Russia dominated rest of the world except for the US. everything, and people from other It had a complex communications regions felt neglected and often network, vast energy resources suppressed. including oil, iron and steel, 2018-19

The End of Bipolarity 19 In the arms race, the Soviet Gorbachev, did not intervene LEADERS OF THE Union managed to match the US when the disturbances occurred, SOVIET UNION from time to time, but at great and the communist regimes cost. The Soviet Union lagged collapsed one after another. Joseph Stalin behind the West in technology, (1879-1953) infrastructure (e.g. transport, These developments were Successor to Lenin power), and most importantly, in accompanied by a rapidly and led the Soviet fulfilling the political or economic escalating crisis within the USSR Union during its aspirations of citizens. The Soviet that hastened its disintegration. consolidation invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 Gorbachev initiated the policies of (1924-53); began weakened the system even economic and political reform and rapid further. Though wages continued democratisation within the industrialisation to grow, productivity and country. The reforms were and forcible technology fell considerably opposed by leaders within the collectivisation of behind that of the West. This led Communist Party. agriculture; to shortages in all consumer credited with goods. Food imports increased A coup took place in 1991 that Soviet victory in every year. The Soviet economy was encouraged by Communist the Second World was faltering in the late 1970s and Party hardliners. The people had War; held became stagnant. tasted freedom by then and did not responsible for the want the old-style rule of the Great Terror of the GORBACHEV AND THE Communist Party. Boris Yeltsin 1930s, emerged as a national hero in authoritarian DISINTEGRATION opposing this coup. The Russian functioning and Republic, where Yeltsin won a elimination of Mikhail Gorbachev, who had popular election, began to shake rivals within the become General Secretary of the off centralised control. Power party. Communist Party of the Soviet began to shift from the Soviet Union in 1985, sought to reform centre to the republics, especially this system. Reforms were in the more Europeanised part of necessary to keep the USSR the Soviet Union, which saw abreast of the information and themselves as sovereign states. technological revolutions taking The Central Asian republics did place in the West. However, not ask for independence and Gorbachev’s decision to normalise wanted to remain with the Soviet relations with the West and Federation. In December 1991, democratise and reform the Soviet under the leadership of Yeltsin, Union had some other effects that Russia, Ukraine and Belarus, neither he nor anyone else three major republics of the intended or anticipated. The USSR, declared that the Soviet people in the East European Union was disbanded. The countries which were part of the Communist Party of the Soviet Soviet bloc started to protest Union was banned. Capitalism against their own governments and democracy were adopted as and Soviet control. Unlike in the the bases for the post-Soviet past, the Soviet Union, under republics. 2018-19

20 Contemporary World Politics LEADERS OF THE A Communist Party bureaucrat drives down from Moscow to a collective farm SOVIET UNION to register a potato harvest. “Comrade farmer, how has the harvest been this year?” the official asks. Nikita Khrushchev “Oh, by the grace of God, we had mountains of potatoes,” answers the (1894-1971) farmer. Leader of the “But there is no God,” counters the official. Soviet Union “Huh”, says the farmer, “And there are no mountains of potatoes either.” (1953-64); denounced The declaration on the there may be more general lessons Stalin’s leadership disintegration of the USSR and the to be drawn from this very style and formation of the Commonwealth important case. introduced some of Independent States (CIS) came reforms in 1956; as a surprise to the other There is no doubt that the suggested republics, especially to the Central internal weaknesses of Soviet “peaceful Asian ones. The exclusion of these political and economic institutions, coexistence” with republics was an issue that was which failed to meet the the West; quickly solved by making them aspirations of the people, were involved in founding members of the CIS. responsible for the collapse of the suppressing Russia was now accepted as the system. Economic stagnation for popular rebellion successor state of the Soviet many years led to severe in Hungary and in Union. It inherited the Soviet seat consumer shortages and a large the Cuban missile in the UN Security Council. Russia section of Soviet society began to crisis. accepted all the international doubt and question the system treaties and commitments of the and to do so openly. I am amazed! How Soviet Union. It took over as the could so many only nuclear state of the post- Why did the system become so sensitive people all Soviet space and carried out some weak and why did the economy over the world nuclear disarmament measures stagnate? The answer is partially admire a system like with the US. The old Soviet Union clear. The Soviet economy used this? was thus dead and buried. much of its resources in maintaining a nuclear and WHY DID THE SOVIET UNION military arsenal and the development of its satellite states DISINTEGRATE? in Eastern Europe and within the Soviet system (the five Central How did the second most powerful Asian Republics in particular). country in the world suddenly This led to a huge economic disintegrate? This is a question burden that the system could not worth asking not just to cope with. At the same time, understand the Soviet Union and ordinary citizens became more the end of communism but also knowledgeable about the because it is not the first and may economic advance of the West. not be the last political system to They could see the disparities collapse. While there are unique between their system and the features of the Soviet collapse, systems of the West. After years of being told that the Soviet 2018-19

The End of Bipolarity 21 system was better than Western impossible to control. There were LEADERS OF THE capitalism, the reality of its sections of Soviet society which felt SOVIET UNION backwardness came as a political that Gorbachev should have and psychological shock. moved much faster and were Leonid Brezhnev disappointed and impatient with (1906-82) The Soviet Union had become his methods. They did not benefit Leader of the stagnant in an administrative and in the way they had hoped, or they Soviet Union (1964- political sense as well. The benefited too slowly. Others, 82); proposed Communist Party that had ruled especially members of the Asian Collective the Soviet Union for over 70 years Communist Party and those who Security system; was not accountable to the people. were served by the system, took associated with Ordinary people were alienated by exactly the opposite view. They felt the détente phase slow and stifling administration, that their power and privileges in relations with rampant corruption, the inability were eroding and Gorbachev was the US; involved in of the system to correct mistakes moving too quickly. In this ‘tug of suppressing a it had made, the unwillingness to war’, Gorbachev lost support on all popular rebellion allow more openness in sides and divided public opinion. in Czechoslovakia government, and the centralisation Even those who were with him and in invading of authority in a vast land. Worse became disillusioned as they felt Afghanistan. still, the party bureaucrats gained that he did not adequately defend more privileges than ordinary his own policies. citizens. People did not identify with the system and with the All this might not have led to rulers, and the government the collapse of the Soviet Union but increasingly lost popular backing. for another development that surprised most observers and Gorbachev’s reforms promised indeed many insiders. The rise of to deal with these problems. nationalism and the desire for Gorbachev promised to reform the sovereignty within various economy, catch up with the West, republics including Russia and the and loosen the administrative Baltic Republics (Estonia, Latvia system. You may wonder why the and Lithuania), Ukraine, Georgia, Soviet Union collapsed in spite of and others proved to be the final Gorbachev’s accurate diagnosis of and most immediate cause for the the problem and his attempt to disintegration of the USSR. Here implement reforms. Here is where again there are differing views. the answers become more controversial, and we have to One view is that nationalist depend on future historians to urges and feelings were very much guide us better. at work throughout the history of the Soviet Union and that whether The most basic answer seems or not the reforms had occurred to be that when Gorbachev carried there would have been an internal out his reforms and loosened the struggle within the Soviet Union. system, he set in motion forces and This is a ‘what-if’ of history, but expectations that few could have surely it is not an unreasonable predicted and became virtually 2018-19

22 Contemporary World Politics LEADERS OF THE view given the size and diversity of Ironically, during the Cold War SOVIET UNION the Soviet Union and its growing many thought that nationalist internal problems. Others think unrest would be strongest in the that Gorbachev’s reforms speeded Central Asian republics given their up and increased nationalist ethnic and religious differences with dissatisfaction to the point that the rest of the Soviet Union and their the government and rulers could economic backwardness. However, not control it. as things turned out, nationalist TIMELINE OF DISINTEGRATION OF THE SOVIET UNION Mikhail 1985 March: Mikhail Gorbachev elected as the General Secretary of the Gorbachev Communist Party of the Soviet Union; appoints Boris Yeltsin as the head of the (Born 1931) Communist Party in Moscow; initiates a series of reforms in the Soviet Union Last leader of the Soviet Union 1988: Independence movement begins in Lithuania; later spreads to Estonia (1985-91); and Latvia introduced economic and 1989 October: Soviet Union declares that the Warsaw Pact members are free political reform to decide their own futures; Berlin Wall falls in November policies of perestroika 1990 February: Gorbachev strips the Soviet Communist Party of its 72-year-long (restructuring) monopoly on power by calling on the Soviet parliament (Duma) to permit multi- and glasnost party politics (openness); stopped the arms 1990 March: Lithuania becomes the first of the 15 Soviet republics to declare its race with the US; independence withdrew Soviet troops from 1990 June: Russian parliament declares its independence from the Soviet Union Afghanistan and eastern Europe; 1991 June: Yeltsin, no longer in the Communist Party, becomes the President of helped in the Russia unification of Germany; ended 1991 August: The Communist Party hardliners stage an abortive coup against the Cold War; Gorbachev blamed for the disintegration of 1991 September: Three Baltic republics of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania become the Soviet Union. UN members (later join NATO in March 2004) 1991 December: Russia, Belarus and Ukraine decide to annul the 1922 Treaty on the Creation of the USSR and establish the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS); Armenia, Azerbaijan, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan join the CIS (Georgia joins later in 1993); Russia takes over the USSR seat in the United Nations 1991 December 25: Gorbachev resigns as the President of the Soviet Union; the end of the Soviet Union 2018-19

The End of Bipolarity 23 dissatisfaction with the Soviet Union changed. The end of the Cold War LEADERS OF THE was strongest in the more left open only two possibilities: SOVIET UNION “European” and prosperous part – either the remaining superpower in Russia and the Baltic areas as would dominate and create a Boris Yeltsin well as Ukraine and Georgia. unipolar system, or different (1931-2007) Ordinary people here felt alienated countries or groups of countries The first elected from the Central Asians and from could become important players in President of each other and concluded also that the international system, thereby Russia (1991- they were paying too high an bringing in a multipolar system 1999); rose to economic price to keep the more where no one power could power in the backward areas within the Soviet dominate. As it turned out, the US Communist Party Union. became the sole superpower. and was made Backed by the power and prestige the Mayor of CONSEQUENCES OF of the US, the capitalist economy Moscow by DISINTEGRATION was now the dominant economic Gorbachev; later system internationally. Institutions joined the critics The collapse of the second world like the World Bank and of Gorbachev of the Soviet Union and the International Monetary Fund and left the socialist systems in eastern Europe became powerful advisors to all Communist Party; had profound consequences for these countries since they gave led the protests world politics. Let us note here them loans for their transitions to against the Soviet three broad kinds of enduring capitalism. Politically, the notion of regime in 1991; changes that resulted from it. liberal democracy emerged as the played a key role Each of these had a number of best way to organise political life. in dissolving the effects that we cannot list here. Soviet Union; Third, the end of the Soviet bloc blamed for First of all, it meant the end of meant the emergence of many new hardships Cold War confrontations. The countries. All these countries had suffered by ideological dispute over whether their own independent aspirations Russians in their the socialist system would beat the and choices. Some of them, transition from capitalist system was not an issue especially the Baltic and east communism to any more. Since this dispute had European states, wanted to join the capitalism. engaged the military of the two European Union and become part blocs, had triggered a massive of the North Atlantic Treaty arms race and accumulation of Organisation (NATO). The Central nuclear weapons, and had led to Asian countries wanted to take the existence of military blocs, the advantage of their geographical end of the confrontation demanded location and continue their close ties an end to this arms race and a with Russia and also to establish ties possible new peace. with the West, the US, China and others. Thus, the international Second, power relations in system saw many new players world politics changed and, emerge, each with its own identity, therefore, the relative influence of interests, and economic and political ideas and institutions also difficulties. It is to these issues that we now turn. 2018-19

24 SHOCK THERAPY IN Contemporary World Politics I heard someone say POST-COMMUNIST REGIMES Each of these countries was “The end of the required to make a total shift to Soviet Union does The collapse of communism was a capitalist economy, which not mean the end of followed in most of these meant rooting out completely socialism.” Is that countries by a painful process of any structures evolved during possible? transition from an authoritarian the Soviet period. Above all, it socialist system to a democratic meant that private ownership capitalist system. The model of was to be the dominant pattern transition in Russia, Central Asia of ownership of property. and east Europe that was Privatisation of state assets and influenced by the World Bank corporate ownership patterns and the IMF came to be known were to be immediately brought as ‘shock therapy’. Shock therapy in. Collective farms were to be varied in intensity and speed replaced by private farming and amongst the former second world capitalism in agriculture. This countries, but its direction and transition ruled out any features were quite similar. alternate or ‘third way’, other than state-controlled socialism or capitalism. MAP OF CENTRAL, EASTERN EUROPE AND THE COMMONWEALTH OF INDEPENDENT STATES Locate the Source: https://www.unicef.org/hac2012/images/HAC2012_CEE-CIS_map_REVISED.gif Central Asian Republics on Note: The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply the map. official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. 2018-19

The End of Bipolarity about 90 per cent of its industries 25 were put up for sale to private Shock therapy also involved a individuals and companies. Since I can see the shock. drastic change in the external the restructuring was carried out But where is the orientation of these economies. through market forces and not by therapy? Why do we Development was now envisaged government-directed industrial talk in such through more trade, and thus a policies, it led to the virtual euphemisms? sudden and complete switch to disappearance of entire industries. free trade was considered This was called ‘the largest garage essential. The free trade regime sale in history’, as valuable and foreign direct investment industries were undervalued and (FDI) were to be the main engines sold at throwaway prices. Though of change. This also involved all citizens were given vouchers to openness to foreign investment, participate in the sales, most financial opening up or citizens sold their vouchers in the deregulation, and currency black market because they needed convertibility. the money. Finally, the transition also The value of the ruble, the involved a break up of the existing Russian currency, declined trade alliances among the dramatically. The rate of inflation countries of the Soviet bloc. Each was so high that people lost all state from this bloc was now their savings. The collective farm linked directly to the West and not system disintegrated leaving to each other in the region. These people without food security, and states were thus to be gradually Russia started to import food. The absorbed into the Western real GDP of Russia in 1999 was economic system. The Western below what it was in 1989. The old capitalist states now became the trading structure broke down with leaders and thus guided and no alternative in its place. controled the development of the region through various agencies The old system of social welfare and organisations. was systematically destroyed. The withdrawal of government CONSEQUENCES OF SHOCK subsidies pushed large sections of THERAPY the people into poverty. The middle classes were pushed to the The shock therapy administered in periphery of society, and the the 1990s did not lead the people academic and intellectual into the promised utopia of mass manpower disintegrated or consumption. Generally, it migrated. A mafia emerged in most brought ruin to the economies and of these countries and started disaster upon the people of the controlling many economic entire region. In Russia, the large activities. Privatisation led to new state-controlled industrial disparities. Post-Soviet states, complex almost collapsed, as especially Russia, were divided 2018-19

26 Contemporary World Politics As a result of between rich and poor regions. TENSIONS AND CONFLICTS ‘shock therapy’ Unlike the earlier system, there about half of was now great economic inequality Most of the former Soviet Russia’s 1,500 between people. Republics are prone to conflicts, banks and other and many have had civil wars and finacial institutions The construction of democratic insurgencies. Complicating the went bankrupt. institutions was not given the picture is the growing involvement This image is that same attention and priority as of outside powers. of Inkombank, the demands of economic Russia’s second transformation. The constitutions In Russia, two republics, largest bank, that of all these countries were drafted Chechnya and Dagestan, have went bankrupt in in a hurry and most, including had violent secessionist 1998. As a result, Russia, had a strong executive movements. Moscow’s method of the money of president with the widest possible dealing with the Chechen rebels 10,000 corporate powers that rendered elected and indiscriminate military and private parliaments relatively weak. In bombings have led to many shareholders was Central Asia, the presidents had human rights violations but failed lost, along with the great powers, and several of them to deter the aspirations for money kept in the became very authoritarian. For independence. bank by example, the presidents of customers. Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan In Central Asia, Tajikistan appointed themselves to power witnessed a civil war that went on What is the difference first for ten years and then for ten years till 2001. The region between nationalism extended it for another ten years. as a whole has many sectarian and secessionism? If They allowed no dissent or conflicts. In Azerbaijan’s province you succeed, you are opposition. A judicial culture and of Nagorno-Karabakh, some local celebrated as a independence of the judiciary was Armenians want to secede and nationalist hero, and if yet to be established in most of join Armenia. In Georgia, the you fail you are these countries. demand for independence has condemned for crimes come from two provinces, of secessionism. Most of these economies, resulting in a civil war. There are especially Russia, started movements against the existing reviving in 2000, ten years after regimes in Ukraine, Kyrgyzstan their independence. The reason and Georgia. Countries and for the revival for most of their provinces are fighting over river economies was the export of waters. All this has led to natural resources like oil, natural instability, making life difficult for gas and minerals. Azerbaijan, the ordinary citizen. Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan are major oil and gas The Central Asian Republics are producers. Other countries have areas with vast hydrocarbon gained because of the oil resources, which have brought pipelines that cross their them economic benefit. Central territories for which they get rent. Asia has also become a zone of Some amount of manufacturing competition between outside has restarted. powers and oil companies. The region is next to Russia, China, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, and 2018-19

The End of Bipolarity 27 close to West Asia. After 11 embedded in a history of trust and Make a list of September 2001, the US wanted common interests and are the similarities military bases in the region and matched by popular perceptions. between paid the governments of all Central Indian heroes from Raj Kapoor to India and the Asian states to hire bases and to Amitabh Bachchan are household USSR in their allow airplanes to fly over their names in Russia and many post- political and territory during the wars in Soviet countries. One can hear economic Afghanistan and Iraq. However, Hindi film songs all over the ideologies. Russia perceives these states as its region, and India is part of the ‘Near Abroad’ and believes that they popular memory. should be under Russian influence. China has interests here because Russia and India share a vision of the oil resources, and the Chinese of a multipolar world order. What have begun to settle around the they mean by a multipolar world borders and conduct trade. BOLLYWOOD STIRS UZBEK In eastern Europe, PASSIONS Czechoslovakia split peacefully into two, with the Czechs and the Seven years after the Soviet Union collapsed, the Uzbek Slovaks forming independent passion for Indian films continues. Within months of the countries. But the most severe release of the latest film in India, pirate copies were already conflict took place in the Balkan on sale in the Uzbek capital, Tashkent. republics of Yugoslavia. After 1991, it broke apart with several Mohammed Sharif Pat runs a shop selling Indian films near provinces like Croatia, Slovenia one of Tashkent’s biggest markets. He is an Afghan who and Bosnia and Herzegovina brings videos from the Pakistani frontier town Peshawar. declaring independence. Ethnic “There are many people who love Indian films here. I’d say Serbs opposed this, and a at least 70% of the people in Tashkent buy them. We sell massacre of non-Serb Bosnians about 100 videos a day. I’ve just had to put in an order for a followed. The NATO intervention thousand more,” he says. “The Uzbeks are Central Asians, and the bombing of Yugoslavia they are part of Asia. They have a common culture. That’s followed the inter-ethnic civil war. why they like Indian films.” INDIA AND POST-COMMUNIST Despite the shared history, for many Indians living in COUNTRIES Uzbekistan, the passion the Uzbeks have for their films and film stars has come as a bit of a surprise. “Wherever we go India has maintained good and meet local dignitaries - even ministers or cabinet relations with all the post- ministers - during our conversation it is always mentioned,” communist countries. But the says Ashok Shamer from the Indian embassy in Tashkent. “This strongest relations are still those shows that Indian films, culture, songs and especially Raj between Russia and India. India’s Kapoor have been household names here. Most of them relations with Russia are an can sing some Hindi songs, they may not know the meaning important aspect of India’s foreign but their pronunciation is correct and they know the music,” policy. Indo-Russian relations are he says. “I have found out that almost all my neighbours can sing and play Hindi songs. This was really a big surprise to me when I came to Uzbekistan.” A report by the BBC’s Central Asia Correspondent Louise Hidalgo 2018-19

28 Contemporary World Politics FLASHBACK: INDIA order is the co-existence of several powers in the international system, collective security (in which an AND THE USSR attack on any country is regarded as a threat to all countries and requires a collective response), greater During the Cold War era, India and regionalism, negotiated settlements of international the USSR enjoyed a special conflicts, an independent foreign policy for all countries, relationship which led critics to say and decision making through bodies like the UN that that India was part of the Soviet should be strengthened, democratised, and empowered. camp. It was a multi-dimensional More than 80 bilateral agreements have been signed relationship: between India and Russia as part of the Indo-Russian Strategic Agreement of 2001. Economic: The Soviet Union assisted India’s public sector companies at a India stands to benefit from its relationship with time when such assistance was Russia on issues like Kashmir, energy supplies, difficult to get. It gave aid and sharing information on international terrorism, technical assistance for steel plants like Bhilai, Bokaro, Visakhapatnam, STEPS and machinery plants like Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd., etc. The Soviet Select any five Cold War allies each of the Soviet Union accepted Indian currency for Union and the US. trade when India was short of foreign Divide the class accordingly (10 groups). Allot a exchange. country to each group. Assign the group to collect information on the political, social and Political: The Soviet Union supported economic profile of these countries during the India’s positions on the Kashmir issue Cold War days. in the UN. It also supported India They should also prepare a profile of that during its major conflicts, especially country after the collapse of communism and during the war with Pakistan in 1971. say what difference, if any, the disintegration of India too supported Soviet foreign the second world made to that country. policy in some crucial but indirect Each group is to present its findings to the entire ways. class. Ensure that students talk about how people of these countries felt about themselves Military: India received most of its as citizens. military hardware from the Soviet Union at a time when few other Ideas for the Teacher countries were willing to part with You could link the students’ findings to the working of the military technologies. The Soviet Union democratic system and communist system and highlight entered into various agreements the pros and cons of both these systems. allowing India to jointly produce You could encourage the students to discuss if there is an military equipment. alternative to both communism and capitalism. Culture: Hindi films and Indian culture were popular in the Soviet Union. A large number of Indian writers and artists visited the USSR. 2018-19

The End of Bipolarity 29 access to Central Asia, and imports from Russia and the balancing its relations with republics of Kazakhstan and China. Russia stands to benefit Turkmenistan. Cooperation with from this relationship because these republics includes India is the second largest arms partnership and investment in market for Russia. The Indian oilfields. Russia is important for military gets most of its hardware India’s nuclear energy plans and from Russia. Since India is an oil- assisted India’s space industry by importing nation, Russia is giving, for example, the cryogenic important to India and has rocket when India needed it. repeatedly come to the assistance Russia and India have of India during its oil crises. India collaborated on various scientific is seeking to increase its energy projects. 1. Which among the following statements that describe the nature Exercises of Soviet economy is wrong? a. Socialism was the dominant ideology b. State ownership/control existed over the factors of production c. People enjoyed economic freedom d. Every aspect of the economy was planned and controlled by the State 2. Arrange the following in chronological order: a. Soviet invasion of Afghanistan b. Fall of the Berlin Wall c. Disintegration of the Soviet Union d. Russian Revolution 3. Which among the following is NOT an outcome of the disintegration of the USSR? a. End of the ideological war between the US and USSR b. Birth of CIS c. Change in the balance of power in the world order d. Crises in the Middle East 4. Match the following: i. Mikhail Gorbachev a. Successor of USSR ii. Shock Therapy b. Military pact iii. Russia c. Introduced reforms iv. Boris Yeltsin d. Economic model v. Warsaw e. President of Russia 2018-19

30 Contemporary World Politics Exercises 5. Fill in the blanks. a. The Soviet political system was based on ___________________ ideology. b. _________________ was the military alliance started by the USSR. c. ____________________ party dominated the Soviet Union’s political system. d. ______________________ initiated the reforms in the USSR in 1985. e. The fall of the ____________________ symbolised the end of the Cold War. 6. Mention any three features that distinguish the Soviet economy from that of a capitalist country like the US. 7. What were the factors that forced Gorbachev to initiate the reforms in the USSR? 8. What were the major consequences of the disintegration of the Soviet Union for countries like India? 9. What was Shock Therapy? Was this the best way to make a transition from communism to capitalism? 10. Write an essay for or against the following proposition: “With the disintegration of the second world, India should change its foreign policy and focus more on friendship with the US rather than with traditional friends like Russia”. 2018-19

Chapter 3 US Hegemony in World Politics OVERVIEW The attack on the twin towers of the World Trade Centre in New York on 11 September 2001 has been seen as a We have seen that the end of Cold watershed event in contemporary history. War left the US without any serious rival in the world. The era since then has been described as a period of US dominance or a unipolar world. In this chapter, we try to understand the nature, extent and limits of this dominance. We begin by narrating the story of the rise of the new world order from the First Gulf War to the US-led invasion of Iraq. We then pause to understand the nature of US domination with the help of the concept of ‘hegemony’. After exploring the political, economic and cultural aspects of US hegemony, we assess India’s policy options in dealing with the US. Finally, we turn to see if there are challenges to this hegemony and whether it can be overcome. 2018-19

32 AYESHA, JABU AND ANDREI Contemporary World Politics I’m glad I did not opt Ayesha was doing very well in her forced to study a subject that he for the Science studies at a high school in the has no interest in. In contrast, subjects. Or else I too outskirts of Baghdad, and was Ayesha has lost her leg and is would have been a planning to study medicine in lucky to be alive. How can we even victim of US university. She lost a leg in 2003 discuss their problems in the same hegemony. Can you when a missile slammed into an breath? We can, and must, do so. think how and why? air raid shelter in which she was As we shall see in this chapter, all hiding with her friends. Now she three have been, in different ways, is learning to walk all over again. affected by US hegemony. We will She still plans to become a doctor, meet Ayesha, Jabu and Andrei but only after the foreign armies again. But let us first understand leave her country. how US hegemony began and how it operates in the world today. Jabu is a talented young artist who lives in Durban, South Africa. We will follow the popular His paintings are heavily usage of the word ‘America’ to influenced by traditional tribal art refer to the United States of forms. He wants to go to art school America. But it may be useful to and later open his own studio. remind ourselves that the However, his father wants him to expression America covers the two study for an MBA and then join continents of North and South the family business. The business America and that the US is only is not doing too well; Jabu’s father one of the countries of the feels that with an MBA degree, American continent. Thus, the use Jabu will be able to make the of the word America solely for the family business profitable. US is already a sign of the US hegemony that we seek to Andrei is a young man living understand in this chapter. in Perth, Australia. His parents are immigrants from Russia. His BEGINNING OF THE ‘NEW mother gets very angry every time WORLD ORDER’ Andrei puts on blue jeans to go to church. She wants him to look The sudden collapse of the Soviet respectable in church. Andrei tells Union took everyone by surprise. his mother that jeans are “cool”, While one of the two superpowers that they give him the sense of ceased to exist, the other remained freedom. Andrei’s father reminds with all its powers intact, even his wife how they too used to wear enhanced. Thus, it would appear jeans when they were youngsters that the US hegemony began in in Leningrad, and for the same 1991 after Soviet power reason that their son now invokes. disappeared from the international scene. This is largely correct, but Andrei has had an argument we need to keep in mind two riders with his mother. Jabu may be to this. First, as we shall see in this 2018-19

US Hegemony in World Politics 33 This picture of burned and broken vehicles was taken on the ‘Highway of Death’, a road between Kuwait and Basra, on which the retreating Iraqi army was attacked by American aircraft during the First Gulf War in February 1991. Some commentators have suggested that the US forces deliberately bombed this stretch of highway where fleeing and ‘out of combat’ Iraqi soldiers were stuck in a frenzied traffic jam and that the victims included Kuwaiti prisoners and hostages and Palestinian civilian refugees. Many observers have called it a ‘war crime’ and a violation of the Geneva Convention. chapter, some aspects of US series of diplomatic attempts failed hegemony did not emerge in 1991 at convincing Iraq to quit its but in fact go back to the end of aggression, the United Nations the Second World War in 1945. mandated the liberation of Kuwait Second, the US did not start by force. For the UN, this was a behaving like a hegemonic power dramatic decision after years of right from 1991; it became clear deadlock during the Cold War. The much later that the world was in US President George H.W. Bush fact living in a period of hegemony. hailed the emergence of a ‘new Let us therefore look at this world order’. process by which US hegemony got established more closely. A massive coalition force of 660,000 troops from 34 countries In August 1990, Iraq invaded fought against Iraq and defeated Kuwait, rapidly occupying and it in what came to be known as subsequently annexing it. After a the First Gulf War. However, the 2018-19

34 Contemporary World Politics Is it true that the US has UN operation, which was called campaigned on domestic rather never fought a war on ‘Operation Desert Storm’, was than foreign policy issues. Bill its own land? Doesn’t overwhelmingly American. An Clinton won again in 1996 and that make it easy for American general, Norman thus remained the president of the Americans to get into Schwarzkopf, led the UN coalition US for eight years. During the military adventures? and nearly 75 per cent of the Clinton years, it often seemed that coalition forces were from the US. the US had withdrawn into its Although the Iraqi President, internal affairs and was not fully Saddam Hussein, had promised engaged in world politics. In “the mother of all battles”, the foreign policy, the Clinton Iraqi forces were quickly defeated government tended to focus on and forced to withdraw from ‘soft issues’ like democracy Kuwait. promotion, climate change and world trade rather than on the The First Gulf War revealed the ‘hard politics’ of military power vast technological gap that had and security. opened up between the US military capability and that of other states. Nevertheless, the US on The highly publicised use of so- occasion did show its readiness to called ‘smart bombs’ by the US led use military power even during the some observers to call this a Clinton years. The most important ‘computer war’. Widespread episode occurred in 1999, in television coverage also made it a response to Yugoslavian actions ‘video game war’, with viewers against the predominantly around the world watching the Albanian population in the destruction of Iraqi forces live province of Kosovo. The air forces on TV in the comfort of their of the NATO countries, led by the living rooms. US, bombarded targets around Yugoslavia for well over two Incredibly, the US may months, forcing the downfall of actually have made a profit from the government of Slobodan the war. According to many Milosevic and the stationing of a reports, the US received more NATO force in Kosovo. money from countries like Germany, Japan and Saudi Another significant US military Arabia than it had spent on action during the Clinton years was the war. in response to the bombing of the US embassies in Nairobi, Kenya THE CLINTON YEARS and Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania in 1998. These bombings were Despite winning the First Gulf attributed to Al-Qaeda, a terrorist War, George H.W. Bush lost the organisation strongly influenced by US presidential elections of 1992 extremist Islamist ideas. Within a to William Jefferson (Bill) Clinton of few days of this bombing, President the Democratic Party, who had Clinton ordered Operation Infinite 2018-19

US Hegemony in World Politics 35 This is ridiculous! Does it mean that Sri Lanka can drop a missile on Paris if it suspects that some of the LTTE militants are hiding there? Reach, a series of cruise missile This is how The New York Times reported 9/11 in its edition the strikes on Al-Qaeda terrorist targets following morning. in Sudan and Afghanistan. The US did not bother about the UN write the month first, followed by sanction or provisions of the date; hence the short form ‘9/ international law in this regard. It 11’ instead of ‘11/9’ as we would was alleged that some of the targets write in India). were civilian facilities unconnected to terrorism. In retrospect, this was The attacks killed nearly three merely the beginning. thousand persons. In terms of their shocking effect on Americans, they 9/11 AND THE ‘GLOBAL have been compared to the British WAR ON TERROR’ burning of Washington, DC in 1814 and the Japanese attack on Pearl On 11 September 2001, nineteen Harbour in 1941. However, in terms hijackers hailing from a number of loss of life, 9/11 was the most of Arab countries took control of four American commercial aircraft shortly after takeoff and flew them into important buildings in the US. One airliner each crashed into the North and South Towers of the World Trade Centre in New York. A third aircraft crashed into the Pentagon building in Arlington, Virginia, where the US Defence Department is headquartered. The fourth aircraft, presumably bound for the Capitol building of the US Congress, came down in a field in Pennsylvania. The attacks have come to be known as “9/11”. (In America the convention is to 2018-19

36 Contemporary World Politics Do they also have severe attack on US soil since the Qaeda have remained potent, as political dynasties in founding of the country in 1776. is clear from the number of the US? Or was this the terrorist attacks launched by only exception? The US response to 9/11 was them against Western targets swift and ferocious. Clinton had since. been succeeded in the US presidency by George W. Bush The US forces made arrests of the Republican Party, son of all over the world, often without the earlier President George H. the knowledge of the government W. Bush. Unlike Clinton, Bush of the persons being arrested, had a much harder view of US transported these persons interests and of the means by across countries and detained which to advance them. As a part them in secret prisons. Some of of its ‘Global War on Terror’, the them were brought to US launched ‘Operation Guantanamo Bay, a US Naval Enduring Freedom’ against all base in Cuba, where the those suspected to be behind prisoners did not enjoy the this attack, mainly Al-Qaeda and protection of international law or the Taliban regime in the law of their own country or Afghanistan. The Taliban regime that of the US. Even the UN was easily overthrown, but representatives were not allowed remnants of the Taliban and Al- to meet these prisoners. © Andy Singer, Cagle Cartoons Inc. © Andy Singer, Cagle Cartoons Inc. Suppose you are the Secretary of State in the US (their equivalent of our Minister of External Affairs). How would you react in a press conference to these cartoons? 2018-19

US Hegemony in World Politics 37 THE IRAQ INVASION [Map of Post-Soviet Countries] On 19 March 2003, the US Soldier World Map © Ares, Cagle Cartoons Inc. launched its invasion of Iraq under the codename ‘Operation Iraqi WHAT DOES HEGEMONY Freedom’. More than forty other MEAN? countries joined in the US-led ‘coalition of the willing’ after the UN Politics is about power. Just as refused to give its mandate to the individuals want to gain and invasion. The ostensible purpose of retain power, groups too want to the invasion was to prevent Iraq gain and retain power. We from developing weapons of mass routinely talk of someone destruction (WMD). Since no becoming powerful or someone evidence of WMD has been doing something for power. In the unearthed in Iraq, it is speculated case of world politics too, that the invasion was motivated by countries and groups of countries other objectives, such as controlling are engaged in constantly trying Iraqi oilfields and installing a regime to gain and retain power. This friendly to the US. power is in the form of military domination, economic power, Although the government of political clout and cultural Saddam Hussein fell swiftly, the superiority. US has not been able to ‘pacify’ Iraq. Instead, a full-fledged insurgency against US occupation was ignited in Iraq. While the US has lost over 3,000 military personnel in the war, Iraqi casualties are very much higher. It is conservatively estimated that 50,000 Iraqi civilians have been killed since the US-led invasion. It is now widely recognised that the US invasion of Iraq was, in some crucial respects, both a military and political failure. List the post- Cold War conflicts/wars in which the US played a critical role. 2018-19

38 Contemporary World Politics © Angel Boligan, Cagle Cartoons Inc. system. This appears to be a misapplication of the idea of ‘pole’ Entitled ‘Under US Thumb’, this cartoon captures our derived from physics. It may be commonsensical understanding of what hegemony means. more appropriate to describe an What does this cartoon say about the nature of US hegemony? international system with only one Which part of the world is the cartoonist talking about? centre of power by the term ‘hegemony’. Why use such Therefore, if we wanted to complicated words understand world politics, it is We can identify three very like hegemony? In necessary that we understand the different understandings of what my town they call it distribution of power among the hegemony is. Let us examine each dadagiri. Isn’t that countries of the world. For instance, of these meanings of hegemony better? during the years of the Cold War and relate them to contemporary (1945-91) power was divided international politics. between the two groups of countries, and the US and the Soviet HEGEMONY AS HARD Union represented the two ‘camps’ POWER or centres of power in international politics during that period. The The roots of the word hegemony lie collapse of the Soviet Union left the in classical Greek. The word implies world with only a single power, the the leadership or predominance of United States of America. one state, and was originally used Sometimes, the international system to denote the preponderant dominated by a sole superpower, or position of Athens vis-à-vis the hyper-power, is called a ‘unipolar’ other city-states of ancient Greece. Thus, the first meaning of hegemony relates to the relations, patterns and balances of military capability between states. It is this notion of hegemony as military preponderance that is especially germane to the current position and role of the US in world politics. Do you remember Ayesha, who lost her leg in an American missile attack? It is hard power hegemony that has broken Ayesha’s body, if not her spirit. The bedrock of contemporary US power lies in the overwhelming superiority of its military power. American military dominance today is both absolute and relative. In absolute terms, the US 2018-19

US Hegemony in World Politics 39 US COMMAND STRUCTURE Source: http://www.c6f.navy.mil/about/area-responsibility Note: The representation of boundaries is not necessarily authoritative. today has military capabilities that chasm that no other power can at Most armed forces can reach any point on the planet present conceivably span. in the world divide accurately, lethally and in real their areas of time, thereby crippling the Undoubtedly, the US invasion operation into adversary while its own forces are of Iraq reveals several American various sheltered to the maximum extent vulnerabilities. The US has not ‘commands’ possible from the dangers of war. been able to force the Iraqi people which are into submitting to the occupation assigned to But even more awesome than forces of the US-led coalition. To different the absolute capabilities of the US fully understand the nature of commanders. This is the fact that no other power American weakness, however, we map depicts the today can remotely match them. need to have a historical areas of The US today spends more on its perspective. Imperial powers responsibility of military capability than the through history have used the six Commands next 12 powers combined. military forces to accomplish only of the US armed Furthermore, a large chunk of the four tasks: to conquer, deter, forces. It shows Pentagon’s budget goes into punish and police. As the Iraq that the military research and development, invasion shows, the American commands of the or, in other words, technology. capacity to conquer is formidable. US military are not Thus, the military dominance of Similarly, the US capability to limited to the area the US is not just based on higher deter and to punish is self-evident. of the United military spending, but on a Where US military capability has States; it extends qualitative gap, a technological thus far been shown to have to include the whole world. What does this map tell us about the military power of the US? 2018-19

40 Contemporary World Politics world economy without paying the costs of maintaining its openness. Hegemony in this second sense is reflected in the role played by the US in providing global public goods. By public goods we mean those goods that can be consumed by one person without reducing the Source: The Military Balance 2017 (International Institute for Strategic Studies, London) amount of the good available for someone The US today spends more on its military capability than the next 12 powers combined. else. Fresh air and As you can see here, most of the other countries that are big military spenders are US roads are examples of friends and allies. Thus, balancing US power is not a feasible strategy today. public goods. In the serious weaknesses is in policing context of the world economy, the an occupied territory. best examples of a global public good are sea-lanes of HEGEMONY AS STRUCTURAL communication (SLOCs), the sea routes commonly used by POWER merchant ships. Free trade in an open world economy would not be The second notion of hegemony is possible without open SLOCs. very different from the first. It emerges from a particular understanding of the world economy. The basic idea is that an open world economy requires a hegemon or dominant power to support its creation and existence. The hegemon must © Ares, Cagle Cartoons Inc. possess both the ability and the desire to establish certain norms for order and must sustain the global structure. The hegemon usually does this to its own advantage but often to its relative detriment, as its competitors take advantage of the openness of the Dollar World 2018-19