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["flowering in long-day plants and leaf expansion, which increases the available surface area to capture photons for photosynthesis. There have also been recent reports that far- red can increase efficiency of the PAR waveband associated with photosynthesis. It\u2019s important to consider how phytochromes, a class of photoreceptors, perceive the ratio of red to far-red radiation (R:FR). Phytochrome-mediated regulation is a complex process that can have a profound impact on extension growth and flowering. The ratio of blue to red light present can also impact how plants respond to far-red radiation . BRIEF INFORMATION ON LUMENS \/ LUX The lumen (symbol: lm) is the SI derived unit of luminous flux, a measure of the total quantity of visible light emitted by a source per unit of time. One lux is one lumen per square meter. The lumen can be thought of casually as a measure of the total amount of visible light in some defined beam or angle, or emitted from some source. The number of candelas or lumens from a source also depends on its spectrum, via the nominal response of the human eye as represented in the luminosity function. The difference between the units lumen and lux is that the lux takes into account the area over which the luminous flux is spread. A flux of 1000 lumens, concentrated into an area of one square metre, lights up that square metre with an illuminance of 1000 lux. The same 1000 lumens, spread out over ten square metres, produces a dimmer illuminance of only 100 lux. Mathematically, 1 lx = 1 lm\/m2. A source radiating a power of one watt of light in the color for which the eye is most efficient (a wavelength of 555 nm, in the green region of the optical spectrum) has luminous flux of 683 lumens. So a lumen represents at least 1\/683 watts of visible light power, depending on the spectral distribution. For your information Plants require: 15,000-30,000+ Lux in the vegetative growth stage and 40,000-70,000 Lux for flowering\/fruiting stage. The direct sun light has a lux of 108,000+. The Lumens\/Lux can be measured with the help of LUX meters. (Refer, Picture Lux meters) 97","CONVERTING PPFD TO LUX \/ VISE-VERSA PPFD (\u00b5mol m-2 s-1) to Lux Light Source Conversion Factor Sunlight 54 74 Cool White Fluorescent Lamps 82 77 Mogul Base High Pressure Sodium Lamps 71 65 Dual-Ended High Pressure Sodium (DEHPS): ePapillion 1000 W Metal Halide 59 Ceramic Metal Halide (CMH942): standard 4200 K color temperature Ceramic Metal Halide (CMH930-Agro): 3100 K color temperature, spectrum shifted to red wavelengths Multiply the PPFD by the conversion factor to get Lux. For example, full sunlight is 2000 \u00b5mol m-2 s-1 or 108,000 Lux (2000 \u2217 54). Lux to PPFD (\u00b5mol m-2 s-1) Light Source Calibration Factor Sunlight 0.0185 Cool White Fluorescent Lamps 0.0135 Mogul Base High Pressure Sodium Lamps 0.0122 Dual-Ended High Pressure Sodium (DEHPS): ePapillion 1000 W 0.0130 Metal Halide 0.0141 Ceramic Metal Halide (CMH942): standard 4200 K color temperature 0.0154 Ceramic Metal Halide (CMH930-Agro): 3100 K color temperature, spectrum 0.0170 shifted to red wavelengths Multiply the Lux by the conversion factor to get PPFD. For example, full sunlight is 108,000 Lux or 2000 \u00b5mol m-2 s-1 (108,000 \u2217 0.0185). 98","TYPES OF GROW LIGHTS\t INCANDESCENT BULBS cost just a few dollars and are the cheapest option. Although they may do just fine for a few plants or used in conjunction with natural light in a sunny room, the heat of these bulbs requires a distance of two feet or more to prevent heat damage and should be used cautiously. FLUORESCENT LIGHTS \/ T5 are the most popular choice for home growers. Some newer types offer a wider light spectrum for all-purpose use, but traditional fluorescent bulbs lack the appropriate range for flowering and are best suited for germination and vegetative growth. Because they produce less heat, fluorescent lights are safer, more versatile and more effective than incandescent bulbs while remaining budget-friendly. HIGH INTENSITY DISCHARGE SOLUTIONS like Metal Halide (MH) and High Pressure Sodium (HPS) lights are good choices, though expensive to purchase and operate. Extremely efficient, high energy discharge throw a lot of light and the blue light of MH lights will promote vegetative growth, but produce less flowering. The red to orange hue of HPS lights are powerhouses when it comes to producing buds and flowers, but plants will be less sturdy. Used in tandem, MH lights are often used to promote leafy growth before swapping in HPS lights to encourage plants to flower. LED (LIGHT EMITTING DIODE) lights are the new kid on the block and are finding some popularity. Emitting virtually no heat and requiring little power to operate, LEDs can be programmed to accurately simulate the 5700K color temperature of sunlight and can simultaneously produce the red and blue band spectrums needed for both vegetative growth and flowering. LED grow lights are expensive, but prices are likely to fall as the technology develops. PICTURE: GROW LIGHT COMPARISION Criteria HPS MH CMH CFL LED Cost Medium Medium High Low High Light spectrum Short Short Long Short Full spectrum Heat Output High High High Low Low Size Large Large Large Small Small Lifespan 15,000 15,000 20,000 10,000 50,000 While selecting the grow light one should carefully know\/read, Wattage, PPFD\/PPF, PPE, DLI, CRI, Kelvin rating and type of LED\u2019s used. Recent years LED are manufactured with phosphor coating to attain more efficacy, CoB (Chip on board) \/ Quantum board \/ Dimmable, grow lights are very economical and efficient too. Samsung and Osram are manufacturing highest quality LED lights for grow light. 99","BEST LED GROWLIGHTS The following is the list of best LED grow lights \u2022 Mars Hydro FC 8000 (800 W, 2.26 \u00b5mol \/J efficacy, 5x5) \u2022 Photontek X2 1000W CO2 Pro (Ultra high ppfd, 1000W, 2.3 \u00b5mol\/J efficacy (5x5)) \u2022 Medic grow EZ-8 (1000 W, 2.1 \u00b5mol \/J efficacy (5x5)) \u2022 Geek Light Beast Plus : (611 W, 2.4 \u00b5mol \/J efficacy (5x5)) \u2022 Spider farmer SF7000 (605 W, 2.1 \u00b5mol \/J efficacy (5x5)) \u2022 Growers Choice ROI \u2013 E720 (780 W, 2.1 \u00b5mol \/J efficacy) \u2022 HLG Scorpion Diablo (650W, 2.9 \u00b5mol \/J efficacy, GrowFlux wifi control) \u2022 Spectrum King Phoenix (680 W, 2.7 \u00b5mol \/J efficacy) \u2022 Scynce LED Raging Kush 2.0 (680 W, 2.5 \u00b5mol \/J efficacy) \u2022 Kind LED X750 (750 W, 2.5 \u00b5mol \/J efficacy) \u2022 Gavita Pro 1700E (645 W, 2.6 \u00b5mol \/J efficacy (4x4)) \u2022 Viparspectra KS5000 (500 W, 2.3 \u00b5mol \/J efficacy (4x4)) Most of the above grow lights are equipped with SAMSUNG LM301H\/ LM301B\/ LM301Z+ (White) LED; OSRAM-OSLAN\u00ae 450 (Deep blue)\/ 660 (Hyper\/deep red) \/ 730 (Far-red); PHILIPS-lumiled \/ SEOUL \/ BRIDGELUX LED lights. The Drivers for the grow lights are MEANWELL (MW)- HVG\/HLG \/ MOSO \/ PHOTONTEK (Lumatek) \/ INVENTRONICS \/ SOSEN etc\u2026, Chip-on-Board (COB) \/ Quantum board, Dimmable light options onboard \/ Apps (eg., GrowFlux (Wifi \/ Bluetooth)), is also incorporated. One can detach \/ attach LED bars\/Strips with great ease. Using Fans\/ Airconditioning, Supplemental Co2, Exhaust fans, Reflectors \/ Light coloured wall paintings, the light efficiency is more. In india there are only handful of grow light manufacturers are there, among them NEXSEL, from Narhe, PUNE, MAHARASHTRA is one of the best manufacturers, for commercial projects. Photontek X2 1000W CO2 Pro HLG Scorpion\u00ae Diablo 100","WATER is a critical input for agricultural production and plays an important role in food security. Irrigated agriculture represents 20 percent of the total cultivated land and contributes 40 percent of the total food produced worldwide. Irrigated agriculture is, on average, at least twice as productive per unit of land as rainfed agriculture, thereby allowing for more production intensification and crop diversification. Farm water, also known as agricultural water, is water committed for use in the production of food and fiber and collecting for further resources. some 80% of the fresh water withdrawn from rivers and groundwater is used to produce food and other agricultural products. Farm water may include water used in the irrigation of crops or the watering of livestock. Water is one of the most fundamental parts of the global economy. In areas without healthy water resources or sanitation services, economic growth cannot be sustained. Without access to clean water, nearly every industry would suffer, most notably agriculture. As water scarcity grows as a global concern, food security is also brought into consideration. With modern advancements, crops are being cultivated year-round in countries all around the world. As water usage becomes a more pervasive global issue, irrigation practices for crops are being refined and becoming more sustainable. While several irrigation systems are used, these may be grouped into two types: high flow and low flow. These systems must be managed precisely to prevent runoff, overspray, or low-head drainage. IRRIGATION AND TYPES Irrigation is a system\/process, of providing clean water, to an agriculture farmland, to cater the needs of crop\u2019s water requirement. Irrigation requires a source for the water ie., Natural sources: Streams, Small perennial canals, Natural tanks , ponds, lakes, Rivers etc.,; Artificial sources: Open wells, Tube wells, Farm ponds, Check dams, Reservoirs etc\u2026 From the sources, water needs to be lifted by a Pumping system, the pumped water then allowed to flow through Pipes (Metallic \/ PVC) to farmland. Later In the agriculture farmland, different methods of irrigation is adopted, to irrigate. Basically, there are 2 methods of irrigation, ie., Traditional and Modern. TRADITIONAL METHOD: As an age-old practice a flood irrigation was very much adopted method of irrigation, in these days too, more than 60% of the farmers are practicing the same method. This method uses a lot of water and not considered as an effective and efficient irrigation method. Picture: Flood Irrigation (Below) MODERN IRRIGATION METHOD: This method is further categorized as Surface, Sprinkler and Sub- surface irrigation. Surface irrigation : A Drip irrigation is one of the popular surface irrigation methods. These days most of the farmers are started adopting the same for its efficiency and effectiveness. One should maintain the pressure of 1.0-1.5 Kg\/Cm2 (14-21+ PSI), for the effective functioning of the drip laterals. 101","The drip irrigation system comprises the following Pumping system : An irrigation pump (Monoblock \/ Submersible (Depends on source of the water and its availability (depth \/ distance)) is required to pump the water from its source, the capacity of the pump is based on the Distance of the source \/ Depth of the source ( in case of Wells) \/ Area to irrigate etc..,. PICTURE: Drip Irrigation filtering system (L-R, Motor Pump, Hydrocyclone filter, Gravel\/Sand filter, Header assembly \/Venturi and Disk\/Screen filter) Filtering system: As the water from any source, comprises sediments, dust particles etc., it is very important to have a filtering system. This prevents drip lateral lines, from getting blocked\/clogged. The filtering system comprises, Hydro- cyclone filters, Gravel\/Sand filters, Pressure gauges, Header assembly \/ Venturi, Pressure release valves, Disc\/Screen filters etc.,. These days filters are coming with auto cleaning feature, but they are bit expensive, regular, manual cleaning of the filters is highly recommended, this can be done based on Pressure reading variation of an Inlet and an outlet, pressure gauges. PVC Piping Network: The filtered water from the filter system needs a carrier\/media to flow and reach the farmland\/field, this can be done by Piping system. In generally PVC pipes are used to accomplish this. Depending on the land layout\/size these pipes are further divided as Main lines and Sub-line(s), for even and effective water distribution. Dripline lateral pipes: From the sub lines to the cultivable land \/ Grow beds, drip lines are laid, Drip lines are called as Laterals. Laterals are fixed to sub-main water soppy lines by GTO assembly (Grommet-takeoff). Drip lines are of two types Inline and online, both are again having a feature of Pressure compensating (PC) (Regulates and maintain the pressure evenly in the pipe to facilitate same amount of water emission\/discharge from all the drippers during irrigation despite of undulate surface\/ \/ Non-pressure compensating (NPC) Due to non-regulation of pressure, water emission will differ among drippers, if surface is undulate). Drip laterals comes in 12mm, 16mm, 20mm etc., sizes, in both flat and round pipes, these days Drip pipes are coming with few great features ie., Anti-Siphon( AS, clog resistance) and compensated non-leakage (CNL, Anti-drain). Inline dripper, the drippers are pre-inserted along the length of the pipe during the extrusion process at fixed intervals. So, to operate efficiently, inline drippers are ideal for equally spaced plants to avoid a lot of connections with plain pipe for areas that may not require irrigation. Since the dripper insertion process is done during the extrusion process, inline drippers can be installed quickly and easily, and will begin dripping reliably as soon as one end of the pipe is connected to a water supply. This makes them an ideal choice for large farms and crop fields, where the plants are equally spaced, and the size of the drip irrigation system calls for a cost-efficient method of installation and maintenance. 102","Online dripper, the PE pipe is supplied without any drippers inserted, and typically requires manual insertion of the drippers to the outside wall of the pipe. The advantage of this method is that it can work with plants that are not equally spaced, since drippers are manually inserted exactly at the point needed. Another advantage is that since the drippers are accessible from the outside of the pipe, many online drip emitter types offer manual adjustment of each dripper flow, the ability to clean or even easily replace a dripper if necessary. These features generally allow for more dripper control and a customized experience. Sub-surface irrigation : It is same as the surface drip irrigation, but the dripline lateral pipes are laid under the soil (Sub-surface) rather than exposed on the surface. For, Perennial crops, Horticulture crops, Sugarcane etc\u2026. this is one of the best methods of irrigation. As lines are laid in the soil, evaporation rate of the water is low comparatively to the surface drip irrigation. Sprinkler irrigation : It is same as the surface drip irrigation, but the Sprinklers are peplaced drippers, so that water drizzles on the crop\/plants like a rain droplet. Micro sprinklers are available in different types and capacity for different purposes. One should maintain the pressure 2.5 Kg\/Cm2 (35+ PSI), for the effective functioning. As an economical alternative to the micro sprinklers, Rain pipes and Rain guns are now used by the farmers. One should maintain 2.0 Kg\/Cm2 to 10.0 Kg\/Cm2, Pressure, depending on the size and capacity of the Rain gun, for its effective functioning. Pictures (Below L-R: Rain-gun. Rain pipe, Center pivot and Boom Sprayer) In an advanced irrigation methods one can use Center Pivot irrigation (Open field) and Boom sprayers (In protected farming). The working principle of these two are like the sprinklers \/ Rain pipes \/Rain guns. 103","IRRIGATION WATER LOSSES: Irrigation water losses reasons are listed as following Reasons Solution Excessive application Water should be applied in such a manner that the soil\/substrate should be moist up to 50-70%. Excess water FYI Drip-Sub-Surface application is completely a wastage. Usage of Moisture irrigation \/ Deep root meters, Installation of a micro-weather stations or adoption of drip irrigation methods smart agriculture (Sensor based automated system) will make are verry effective to sure the appropriate time and quantity of the water save the water application. Smart agriculture: It is a sensor based with Lora-wan and IoT tech-based, an advanced, automated, irrigation and fertigation system. It comprises, various sensors atmospheric Temperature and Humidity, Soil\/Substrate Moisture, Rootzone temperature (primary and secondary). PH, EC, Co2, Light Intensity, Rain sensors etc\u2026. The complete system can be controlled from your mobile phone, soon after one time configuration. Evaporation Moisture sensors: Volumetric sensors, Tensiometer sensors and Solid-State sensors. Among these Volumetric sensors are Wind drift and loss costly, incredibly accurate and provide data instantly. Usage of organic mulch of dry leaves, Arecanut outer shells, Transpiration from the paddy straw, wheat straw, coconut fiber etc\u2026.\/ synthetic leaves mulch ie., Mulching sheet or weed mats. Mulching prevents Run-off evaporation to larger extent. Growing larger forestry plants along the borders of the land Deep percolation and mulching minimizes the effect of water loss due to wind losses drift. Spraying kaolin clay, Multilayer farming or installation of shade nets during heating hours. Application of the appropriate quantity of the water, Increasing the organic matter of the soil to make it capable of increase the water holding capacity. Application of the appropriate quantity of the water. 104","IRRIGATION WATER PARAMETERS Electrical conductivity and pH are two characteristics of water quality that can be tested periodically at the growing facility. This helps the grower get an indication of the consistency of the water supply and check the results of treatments to reduce pH or soluble salts. pH \/ EC meters range from inexpensive pen types to more sophisticated units, However, they are very useful for testing water quality and media fertilizer levels during crop growth. Target Range Acceptable Range in ppm (parts per million) (in ppm except for pH and EC) except for pH and EC pH 5.5 to 7.0 4 to 10 EC 0.2 to 0.5 mS (milliSiemen) 0 to 1.5 mS (milliSiemen) Sodium 0 to 20 < 50 Chloride 0 to 20 < 140 Alkalinity X 40 to 160 0 to 400 Ammonia N NA < 10 Boron < 0.1 < 0.5 Nitrate N Y NA < 75 Phosphate 0 to 3 < 5.0 z Potassium 10 < 100 Magnesium 10 to 30 < 50 Calcium 25 to 75 < 150 Sulfate 0 to 40 < 100 Manganese < 1.0 < 2.0 Iron < 1.0 < 4.0 Boron < 0.1 < 0.5 Copper < 0.1 < 0.2 Zinc < 0.5 < 0.3 Fluoride < 0.1 < 1.0 Molybdenum < 0.1 < 1.0 * Note: The target range is desirable levels, while acceptable levels are broader. ERMA, HANNA , HM etc\u2026 are good handheld portable PH\/EC \/ Temperature meters to use. Picture: HM: pH \/ EC \/ Temperature meter (3in1) 105","UNDERSTANDING WATER ANALYSIS PARAMETERS pH: Denoting \\\"potential of hydrogen\\\" (or \\\"power of hydrogen\\\"), is a scale used to specify the acidity or basicity (alkalinity) of an aqueous solution. Acidic solutions (solutions with higher concentrations of H+ ions) are measured to have lower pH values than basic or alkaline solutions. The pH of aqueous solutions can be measured with a pH meter, or a color-changing indicator. Measurements of pH are important in chemistry, agronomy, medicine, water treatment, and many other applications. Recommended values of pH Agriculture water pH: 5.5-7.0 Agriculture soil pH: 6.0-7.5 Nutrient solution (Soilless):5.0-6.0 (5.5) Root zone environment: pH 6.0-6.5. The pH scale runs from 0 to 14. Any pH reading below 7 is acidic and any pH above 7 is alkaline. A pH of 7 indicates a neutral soil. The pH is important because it influences the availability of essential nutrients. Most horticultural crops will grow satisfactorily in soils\/substrate having a pH between 6 (slightly acid) and 7.5 (slightly alkaline). The soil pH can be lowered by incorporating elemental sulfur (S) into the soil. Canadian sphagnum peat into the soil is another method to lower pH. Acid soils need to be limed to raise the pH levels. ground limestone which is mainly calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and dolomitic limestone which contains CaCO3 and some magnesium carbonate (MgCO3). Picture : Nutrient\u2019s availability to the plants and pH relation Maximum number of nutrients availability at higher levels can be seen in the range of pH 6.5-7.5, meanwhile the neutral 7.0 pH is the best for plants to have nutrients. 106","EC\/TDS: Electrical conductivity \/ Total Dissolved Solids is the measure of the amount of electrical current a material can carry or it's ability to carry a current. Electrical conductivity is also known as specific conductance. Electrical conductivity or \\\"EC\\\" is a measure of the \u201ctotal salts\u201d concentration in the water \/ nutrient solution (drip, slab or drain). It is expressed in milliSiemens per linear centimeter (mS\/cm) or microSiemens per linear centimeter (\u00b5S\/cm) where 1mS = 1000\u00b5S. TDS is measured in mg\/L (ppm). The higher the \u201ctotal salts\u201d concentration in a substrate the higher the EC. The EC will only be registered when inorganic ions are present in solution. Examples of inorganic fertiliser ions are N, P, K, Ca, Mg, etc. Urea, an organic molecule, will not contribute to the EC of a solution because it cannot conduct electricity the way a calcium (Ca) ion or a nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) ion can. The EC of most natural waters, including seawater, increases with temperature 1-3% per degree Celsius. Measured EC values are usually referred to 25\u00b0C \u2013 indicated by EC25. For this purpose the program converts the calculated EC (valid for the given water temperature T) to EC25 at 25\u00b0C. The conversions of \u00b5S\/cm (micro Siemens per centimeter) and other EC units are: 1 mS\/m = 10 \u00b5S\/cm 1 dS\/m = 1000 \u00b5S\/cm 1 dS\/m = 1 mS\/cm 1 \u00b5mho\/cm = 1 \u00b5S\/cm 1 mS\/Cm = 1000 \u00b5S\/cm The Recommended EC value of Agriculture\/Farm water is: 0.2-1.5 mS\/Cm (128-960 ppm); Excellent 0.25 mS\/Cm (640 ppm) Nutrient solution water EC value is: 1.5-2.5\/3.0 mS\/Cm (960-1600\/1920 ppm) CONVERTING EC TO PPM (PARTS PER MILLIONS) Different countries and manufacturers use different standards and conversion factors\/units to convert EC to PPM . Country Manufacturer EC (mS\/Cm) TDS (ppm) USA Hanna, Milwaukee 1 500 Europe Eutech 1 640 Australian (Gravimetric PPM) Truncheon 1 700 Eg, lets convert EC to PPM, if EC is 0.2-1.5 mS\/Cm then the ppm is 0.2x640 \u2013 1.6x640 = 128-960 ppm (Europe\u2019s standard conversion factor ie., 640 is used) FYI: Excess of EC causes toxicity, resulting Leaf and stem wilting, Tip burn, Stunted growth, dropping leaves etc\u2026. (Use RO water, if the water you are getting has EC more than 0.5 mS\/Cm , dS\/m) 107","ALKALINITY is a measure of the dissolved materials in water that can buffer or neutralize acids. These include carbonates (CO32-), bicarbonates (HCO3-), and hydroxides (OH-, rarely present in that form). Alkalinity is typically reported as mg\/L of calcium carbonate (CaCO\u2083). Alkalinity can originate from carbonates or bicarbonates that dissolve from the rock where the groundwater is stored (e.g., rainwater dissolving limestone). While the separate carbonate and bicarbonate alkalinity test results are helpful in understanding the source of the alkalinity and the potential for other contaminants in the water, from an irrigation perspective the total alkalinity is the most important water test result. The ideal range for total alkalinity is approximately 30 to 100 mg\/L but levels up to 150 mg\/L may be suitable for many plants. High alkalinity above 150 mg\/L tends to be problematic because it can lead to elevated pH of the growth media which can cause various nutrient problems (e.g., iron and manganese deficiency, calcium, and magnesium imbalance). Low alkalinity (below 30 mg\/L) provides no buffering capacity against pH changes. This is especially problematic where acid fertilizers are used. HARDNESS is determined by the calcium and magnesium content of water. Since calcium and magnesium are essential plant nutrients, moderate levels of hardness of 100 to 150 mg\/L are considered ideal for plant growth. These levels of hardness also inhibit plumbing system corrosion but are not high enough to cause serious clogging from scale formation. High concentrations of hardness above 150 mg\/L will build up on contact surfaces, plug pipes and irrigation lines and damage water heaters. These levels can also cause foliar deposits of scale. Removal of hardness by using a water softener is necessary only if the water is causing problems. Extremely soft water below 50 mg\/L may require fertilization with calcium and magnesium as discussed below. Calcium (Ca) concentrations in water are most often a reflection of the type of rock where the water originates. Groundwater and streams in limestone areas will have high calcium levels while water supplies from sandstone or sand\/gravel areas of the state will typically have low calcium concentrations. Calcium levels below 40 mg\/L will typically need fertilizer additions of calcium to prevent deficiency while high levels of calcium above 100 mg\/L may lead to antagonism and resulting deficiency in phosphorus and or magnesium. High levels of calcium may also lead to clogged irrigation equipment due to scale formation (CaCO3 and other compounds precipitating out of solution). Water softening (cation exchange) is typically used to reduce calcium levels in water but softening for irrigation should use potassium for regeneration rather than sodium to prevent damage by excess sodium in the softened water. Magnesium (Mg) in water tends to originate from the rock and generally only causes problems when it is below 25 mg\/L necessitating the addition of magnesium in fertilizer. Magnesium can also cause scale formation at high concentrations which may require softening. 108","SODIUM ADSORPTION RATIO (SAR) is used to assess the relative concentrations of sodium, calcium, and magnesium in irrigation water and provide a useful indicator of its potential damaging effects on soil structure and permeability. Typically, a SAR value below 2.0 is considered very safe for plants especially if the sodium concentration is also below 50 mg\/L. Sodium (Na)\thas many sources in water including road salt applications, wastewaters, water softening wastes and naturally high pH waters dominated by sodium bicarbonate. High levels of sodium can damage the growth media and cause various plant growth problems.\t If water with excess sodium and low calcium and magnesium is applied frequently to clay soils, the sodium will tend to displace calcium and magnesium on clay particles, resulting in breakdown of structure, precipitation of organic matter, and reduced permeability. Sodium in excess of 50 mg\/L may cause toxicity in sensitive plants, particularly in recirculating irrigation systems. Sodium can be further evaluated based on the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) which is described below. Sodium is difficult to remove from water requiring reverse osmosis, distillation, or dilution. SALINE SOILS (resulting from salinity hazard) normally have a pH value below 8.5, are relatively low in sodium and contain principally sodium, calcium and magnesium chlorides and sulfates. These compounds cause the white crust which forms on the surface and the salt streaks along the furrows. The compounds which cause saline soils are very soluble in water; therefore, leaching is usually quite effective in reclaiming these soils. SODIC SOILS (resulting from sodium hazard) generally have a pH value between 8.5 and 10. These soils are called \u201cblack alkali soils\u201d due to their darkened appearance and smooth, slick looking areas caused by the dispersed condition. In sodic soils, sodium has destroyed the permanent structure which tends to make the soil impervious to water. Thus, leaching alone will not be effective unless the high salt dilution method or amendments are used. Boron (B) is a micronutrient needed in small amounts. Boron toxicity may occur if the concentration in irrigation water or fertigation solution exceeds 0.5 to 1.0 mg\/L, particularly with long-term slow-growing crops. High boron levels can be treated using anion exchange or reverse osmosis treatment. Boron helps cell wall formation and stability, maintenance of structural and functional integrity of biological membranes, movement of sugar or energy into growing parts of plants, and pollination and seed set. Nitrogen fixation and nodulation in legume crops. Boron deficiency commonly results in empty pollen grains, poor pollen vitality and a reduced number of flowers per plant. Low boron can also stunt root growth. BORON TOXICITY: inhibited pollen germination and tube growth and led to the morphological abnormality of pollen tubes. Boron toxicity could decrease [Ca2+]c and induce the disappearance of the [Ca2+]c gradient, which are critical for pollen tube polar growth. (Boron likely plays a structural and regulatory role in relation to [Ca2+]c, actin cytoskeleton and cell wall components and thus regulates Malus domestica pollen germination and tube polar growth). 109","Ways to Improving water quality There are several methods and technologies evaluated in changing \/ improving the water quality. Ie., Reverse osmosis(RO), Water softening (Cation exchange), Deionization, Anion exchange, Activated carbon, Activated alumina, Oxidation, Chelation, Filtration and Acid injection etc., Reverse Osmosis (RO) This type of system removes 95 to 99 percent of the total dissolved salts. The system works by osmosis, which is the passage of a solvent (water) through a semi-permeable membrane separating two solutions of different salts concentrations. A semi-permeable membrane is one through which the solvent can pass but the solutes (salts) can not. If pressure is applied on the solution with a high salt content (the irrigation source water), the solvent (water) is forced to move through the membrane leaving behind the salts. Relatively pure water accumulates on the other side of the membrane. Maintenance and replacement of membranes are a significant part of the cost of reverse osmosis systems. Less efficient and less costly membranes are available that require less energy because of their lower operating pressures. The amount of purified water delivered in a given time and the degree of salts removed depends on the pressure of the system, membrane type, total dissolved solids of the water being purified and temperature. Efficiency is strongly dependent on the integrity and cleanliness of the membranes. Chlorine can cause rapid degradation of the membranes and sediments cause clogging. For this reason, water to be purified by RO is usually pretreated to remove suspended solids, calcium carbonates and chlorine, and the pH is adjusted down if it is above 7. Although total salts removal can be 95 to 99 percent, individual salts are removed with varying efficiency. In general, calcium, magnesium and sulfate are removed more efficiently than potassium, sodium, lithium, nitrate, chloride and borate. A disadvantage of reverse osmosis systems is that salty wastewater is produced. Disposal of this waste may fall under government regulation. PICTURES: RO System Picture: Water Softening system 110","Calculation of the irrigation water There are two distinct types of applications that must be considered for an irrigation system. The first includes the instantaneous and average application rates in inches per hour, and the second is the total application over the irrigated area in inches. Both method calculations are given for your reference. One acre-foot is defined as the volume of water that would occupy one acre of land to a uniform depth of 1 foot. Thus, since one acre of land is defined as an area with cross-sectional dimensions of 208.7 feet \u00d7 208.7 feet, the total area would equal 43,555.69 square feet. AVERAGE APPLICATION METHOD: With the knowledge there are 28.31 Ltrs (7.48 gallons) of water per cubic foot, one acre-foot of water would therefore equal 43,555.69 ft2 \u00d7 28.31 Ltrs\/ft3 = 1,233,274.13 Ltrs. For convenience, this is often rounded to 1,233,274 Ltrs of water per acre-foot. Conversely, if working in units of acre-inches, the unit commonly used for determining application depth equals 102,772 Ltrs of water per acre- inch (1,233,274.13 Ltrs \/12 inches per foot), (One foot = 12 inches). INSTANTANEOUS APPLICATION METHOD Up-taking by plants (evapotranspiration): In general, the plants daily water uptake requirement varies from place, season, crop , climate etc\u2026. its approximately 0.30 to 0.40 acre-inches \/ day. Ie., 102,772 Ltrs, Acre-inch x 0.3 inch uptake = 30,831 Ltrs, acre- inch\/day or 102,772 Ltrs, Acre-inch x 0.4 inch uptake = 41,108 Ltrs, acre-inch\/day. Losses during irrigation: Water loss due to wind drift, evaporation, leakages and poor distribution uniformity, etc., overall Net losses in this case may be as low as 2% to 3% (Well designed and maintained irrigation system) or as high as 15% to 20% under extreme adverse conditions. Considering 20% overall loss ie., 0.20 inch-acre\/day (102,772 Ltrs acre-inch\/day x 0.20 inch-acre (Loss) = 20,554 Ltrs, acre-inch\/day (Loss). By considering the above Uptake and loss acre-inch water quantity\/day requirement Acre water requirement\/acre, @ 1.0 inch-acre = 102,772 Ltrs acre-inch we need everyday water application to the plants @ 0.30 acre-inch\/day (uptake)+ 0.20 acre-inch\/day (loss) 30,831 ltrs acre-inch\/day (uptake) + 20,554 acre-inch\/day (loss) = 51,385 Ltrs\/Acre-inch\/day @ 0.40 acre-inch\/day (uptake)+ 0.20 acre-inch\/day (loss) 41,108 ltrs acre-inch\/day (uptake) +20,554 acre-inch\/day (loss) = 61,662 Ltrs\/Acre-inch\/day Water application per the above observations to the acre land required at every 2-3 days interval @ 102,772 Ltrs acre-inch. Or can be done every day @ 51,385 Ltrs \/Acre- inch\/day to 61,662 Ltrs \/Acre-inch\/day. The water application interval (Days) vary depending on the water loss, importantly water holding capacity and Moisture retaining capacity of the growing media\/soil. 111","NUTRIENTS Plants are unique organisms that can absorb nutrients and water through their root system, as well as carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Soil quality and climate are the major determinants of plant distribution and growth. The combination of soil nutrients, water, and carbon dioxide, along with sunlight, allows plants to grow. The Chemical Composition of Plants Figure 1. Water is absorbed through the root hairs and moves up the xylem to the leaves. Since plants require nutrients in the form of elements such as carbon and potassium, it is important to understand the chemical composition of plants. The majority of volume in a plant cell is water; it typically comprises 80 to 90 percent of the plant\u2019s total weight. Soil is the water source for land plants, and can be an abundant source of water, even if it appears dry. Plant roots absorb water from the soil through root hairs and transport it up to the leaves through the xylem. As water vapor is lost from the leaves, the process of transpiration and the polarity of water molecules (which enables them to form hydrogen bonds) draws more water from the roots up through the plant to the leaves (Figure 1). Plants need water to support cell structure, for metabolic functions, to carry nutrients, and for photosynthesis. Plant cells need essential substances, collectively called nutrients, to sustain life. Plant nutrients may be composed of either organic or inorganic compounds. An organic compound is a chemical compound that contains carbon, such as carbon dioxide obtained from the atmosphere. Carbon that was obtained from atmospheric CO2 composes the majority of the dry mass within most plants. An inorganic compound does not contain carbon and is not part of, or produced by, a living organism. Inorganic substances, which form the majority of the soil solution, are commonly called minerals: those required by plants include nitrogen (N) and potassium (K) for structure and regulation. There are Twenty (20) essential elements for plant nutrition, each with their own functions in the plant, levels of requirement, and characteristics. For an element to be regarded as essential, three criteria are required: 1) a plant cannot complete its life cycle without the element; 2) no other element can perform the function of the element; and 3) the element is directly involved in plant nutrition. 112","These essential nutrients further classified as the following MACRONUTRIENTS MICRONUTRIENTS STRUCTURAL NUTRIENTS Iron (Fe) Carbon (C) Manganese (Mn) Hydrogen (H) Boron (B) Oxygen (O) Molybdenum (Mo) PRIMARY NUTRIENTS Copper (Cu) Nitrogen (N) Zinc (Zn) Phosphorus (P) Chlorine (Cl) Potassium (K) Nickel (Ni) SECONDARY NUTRIENTS Cobalt (Co) Calcium (Ca) Sodium (Na) Magnesium (Mg) Silicon (Si) Sulfur (S) NUTRIENTS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS Nutrient % in Atomic Absorption Uptake form Mobility in Plant Mobility in Soil Plants Weight Carbon 12.01 CO2, H2CO3 Mobile Mobile as NO3-, Hydrogen 45 01.00 H+, OH-, H2O Somewhat immobile as NH4+ Oxygen 06 15.99 45 14.00 O2 mobile Immobile Nitrogen 1.75 Very mobile Somewhat mobile 30.97 Rapid NO3-, NH4+ Somewhat mobile Immobile Phosphorus 0.25 39.09 Moderate HPO42-, Somewhat Immobile 40.08 H2PO4- Mobile Potassium 1.5 24.30 Rapid mobile Calcium 0.50 Moderate K+ Mobile Very mobile 0.20 32.06 Immobile Immobile Magnesium 10.81 Ca2+ Immobile Immobile 63.54 Immobile Mobile 55.84 Moderate Mg2+ Immobile Immobile 54.93 Immobile Sulfur 0.03 65.38 Moderate SO4- Immobile Somewhat mobile 95.94 Moderate H3BO3, BO3- Mobile Mobile Boron 0.0001 35.45 Immobile 58.93 Slow Cu2+ Mobile Somewhat mobile Copper 0.0001 58.70 Slow Fe2+, Fe3+ Somewhat mobile 22.98 Slow Iron 0.01 28.08 Rapid Mn2+ Slow Zn2+ Manganese 0.005 MoO4- Cl- Zinc 0.002 Co2+ Ni2+ Molybdenum 0.000001 Na+ Si(OH4) Chlorine 0.01 Cobalt Nickel Sodium Silicon 113","THE PLANT NUTRIENT UPTAKE AND PH The rhizosphere is the narrow region of soil that is directly influenced by root secretions and associated soil microorganisms. Plants respond to nutrient deficiency by altering their root morphology, recruiting the help of microorganisms and changing the chemical environment of the rhizosphere. Components in root exudates help plants to access nutrients by acidifying or changing the redox conditions within the rhizosphere or chelating directly with the nutrient. Exudates can liberate nutrients via the dissolution of insoluble mineral phases or desorption from clay minerals or organic matter, whereby they are released into the soil in solution and can then be taken up by the plant. Figure 2: Each soil particle contains a net negative electrical charge and therefore has the ability to attract and hold positively charged elements like potassium and calcium. These elements are attracted and held to the surface of the soil particles like a magnet. Clay and organic matter have a higher net negative electrical charge and therefore have more capacity to hold positively charged ions or cations. Negatively charged ions such as nitrate and phosphate will normally be repelled. When preparing a nutrient solution, a grower ensures that the pH of the water is within a certain range. This range will preferably be that at which most nutrients are available to the plant, which is 5.2 - 6.2. If necessary the pH of the fertilizer solution can simply be adjusted by adding an acid to lower the pH or a base to increase it (read more about it in pH acidity: what it does to your plants). But in the rhizosphere, the direct surrounding of the living roots, things become very different. The roots excrete many substances that alter the pH in the substrate. The pH in the rhizosphere can be very different from the pH which is measured in the nutrient solution. The principal cause of this is that the plant has to remain \u2018neutral\u2019. When they are dissolved in water, all nutrients are present as ions. Those ions always have a positive or a negative charge. Positively charged ions, like K+, are called cations. Negatively charged ions, like NO3-, are called anions. Some nutrients can be present in multiple forms. For example phosphates, which can occur as PO4 3- , HPO4 2- and H2PO4 -. However, only this last form can be taken up by the roots. The surface of the root is negatively charged. In this state, the negatively charged ions such as H2PO4 - will be repelled from the root surface like two magnets that have the same pole. 114","Plants have developed several ways of facilitating anion uptake. For every anion the plant takes up, it excretes an anion such as a hydroxide (OH-) or bicarbonate ion (HCO3 -). Similarly, for every cation it takes up, the plant excretes a cation as a H+. In this way, the plant\u2019s charge remains balanced. However, a side-effect of this is that the excreted ions influence the pH of the rhizosphere in the substrate. By excreting a cation, the pH near the roots decreases (it becomes more acid). The excretion of anions will raise the pH near the roots (it becomes more alkaline). Figure 3: This image shows you that for every cation (blue) that a plant takes up, it excretes a cation as H+. For every anion (red) a plant takes up, it releases a hydroxide (e.g. OH-) ion. In this way, the plant\u2019s net charge always remains in balance. A side-effect of this is that the excreted ions influence the pH of the rhizosphere in the substrate. When the plant excretes a cation, the pH near the roots decreases. The excretion of anions will raise the pH near the roots. It is well-known that nitrogen fertilizers have an effect on the pH near the roots. That insight is important because the plant takes up so much nitrogen that the effect can be considerable. But this effect occurs with every nutrient or fertilizer. As a grower, you can add nitrogen in different forms. Ammonium (NH4 +) has an acidic effect in the soil. Nitrate (NO3 -) has an alkaline effect. One might easily assume that the answer to this is to fertilize with ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3). But it isn\u2019t that simple. The ammonium will be taken up much faster by the plant compared to nitrate, and the result in the end will be acidification of the soil. All these reactions need to be taken into account because every nutrient has its own optimum pH-range in the soil with respect to plant availability. For some elements, this is a narrow pH-range and simply measuring the pH in the nutrient solution will not tell you what is really happening down in the rhizosphere. 115","INTERACTIONS BETWEEN NUTRIENTS Most growers know the importance of applying the right amount of macro- and micro- nutrients, and there are several ways of knowing whether a plant is lacking any of these elements. However, some of these deficiencies (or excesses on occasion) are not caused by a shortage of the element in question but rather by a poor combination with other nutrients, either in the potting mix, in the plant or both. Lets see and understand the importance of the interaction between various nutrients and how it can affect the final crop. Mulder's Chart. The Mulder\u2019s Chart shows how elements interact. The dotted lines show which elements enhance each other (Stimulation) . The solid lines show which elements antagonize each other. For example, calcium can cause a magnesium deficiency (ie. , calcium antagonizes magnesium) while nitrogen enhances Magnesium level (ie., nitrogen stimulates Magnesium). 116","RELATIVE PROPORTIONS OF PLANT NUTRIENTS The relative proportions of different nutrients has a direct effect not only on plant nutrition, but also on the substratum in which the plant grows. Cations (positively charged elements) are to a greater or lesser extent retained by the negative charges in certain soil components, such as clay and organic matter. Cations include Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, NH4+ and H+ (sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, ammonium and hydrogen). Plants absorb elements that are dissolved in water, which means that elements trapped in the soil cannot be used directly. In some cases, however, these elements can filter into the water in the substratum and thus be assimilated by the plant. The more cations that the soil or substratum can hold, the greater its \u2018Cation Exchange Capacity\u2019 (or CEC). The proportion of cations in the soil directly influences the texture of the soil or substratum. Nitrogen When in the form of ammonium, NH4+, nitrogen interacts negatively with the plant\u2019s uptake of calcium, magnesium and potassium, particularly when the NO3- (nitrate)\/ NH4+ (ammonium) ratio is low. As a result, excess NH4+ can lead to a deficiency in any of these three elements. This is an important problem in hydroponic growing, which normally uses an inert growing medium with a low or zero CEC index; here the quantity of available calcium, magnesium and potassium depends solely on what is in the nutrient solution, unlike soils or substrata with high CECs which normally hold a large quantity of these elements. There is also an antagonistic interaction between the anions Cl- and NO3- . Excess Cl- (very common in saline and\/or sodic water) can reduce the plant\u2019s absorption of NO3- The N\/K ratio is also crucial when plants are passing from the growth (vegetative) phase to the generative (flowering or fruit-bearing) phase. The primary stimulus for a short-day or long-day plant to go from vegetative to generative is the number of consecutive hours of darkness. However, other stimuli, such as the N\/K ratio, also affect these phenological states to some extent. Fruit contains an abundance of potassium, and it is therefore essential to ensure a proper supply of potassium during generative periods. Yet regardless of how much potassium there is, if the ratio to nitrogen is too low, this can lead to a reduction in flower formation and plants with many vegetative parts (leaves and branches) and few generative parts (flowers and fruit). 117","Potassium It is essential to get the proportion of potassium right, since it interacts both in the soil and in the plant with phosphorus, sodium, calcium and magnesium. In clay soils with a high CEC, when the plants are irrigated with fertilizer solutions in which the potassium is dissolved in its ionic form, some of the potassium is adsorbed by the mineral and humic parts of the soil. If you irrigate with a low-potassium solution, the potassium held in the soil is released for uptake by the plant. This exchangeable potassium and the solution are known as available potassium. As its name suggests, it is this kind that the plant absorbs most readily. However, the potassium also comes in non-exchangeable forms which are strongly fixed to the soil components. In this case, it is not directly available to the plant and only enters into the solution when levels of exchangeable potassium are very low. The problem of using this potassium is that it takes a long time to go from its fixed state to the interchangeable state, which means that it is not readily absorbed by the plant. Applying too much calcium and magnesium can cause a potassium deficiency; the K\/Ca and K\/Mg ratio should always be kept above 2 (but below 10, since too much K can hinder the absorption of calcium and magnesium). Too much potassium can also prevent the absorption of certain micro-elements, such as zinc. It is particularly important to take account of this interaction when using very hard water with a high calcium and magnesium content. Phosphorus An excess of phosphorus interacts negatively with the majority of micro-elements (Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu). In some cases, this is due to the formation of insoluble precipitates and in other cases, to metabolic processes in the plant which prevent the transfer of the nutrient from the root to other parts of the plant. This is the case, for example, with the P\/Zn interaction. The P\/Fe interaction appears to be negatively regulated at the cellular level and by the formation of insoluble complexes. The P\/Cu interaction normally involves the formation of precipitates in the root area. Genetic interactions can vary from one species to another and even between different varieties of the same species. For example, in some species a positive effect has been observed between the amount of available phosphorus and the plant\u2019s resistance to salinity, meaning that an increase in this element leads to greater resistance. Other studies, however, conclude that the effect is negative. There have also been reports of a reduction in the availability of sulphur and calcium when large quantities of phosphate are applied. In the case of calcium, this is caused by the formation of insoluble phosphates. In contrast, phosphorus favours the 118","absorption of magnesium, so a shortage of phosphorus could also lead to a magnesium deficiency if the latter is present in small quantities. Both NO3- and NH4+ facilitate the absorption of phosphorus. In the case of NH4+, the reason appears to be the excretion of H+ ions by the plant when nitrogen is administered in this form in significant quantities. These H+ ions cause a slight acidification of the root area, which can favour the solubility of some phosphorus salts which would otherwise be trapped or remain in an insoluble form. Magnesium It is also important to take account of the Ca\/Mg ratio. Its most important effect is its influence on the soil structure. Calcium in the soil tends to improve aeration, while Mg favours the adhesion of soil particles. Thus, if the Ca\/Mg ratio is very low, which means that much of the exchange complex will be occupied by these Mg ions, the soil becomes less permeable, harming the development of the crops. Because of this, the Ca\/Mg ratio should always be kept above 1. This ratio is also important for the mineral balance within the plant. The Ca\/Mg ratio in the leaves of some plants is about 2:1, which means that it is necessary to apply greater quantities of calcium than magnesium via the nutrient solution. Magnesium uptake is also influenced by Zn and Mn levels in the growing medium; an overdose of these micro-elements, as well as being toxic, could also reduce the plant\u2019s absorption. Interaction of Sodium with Calcium, Magnesium and Potassium Sodium has a negative effect on most plants due to its toxicity, when it accumulates in certain tissues of the plant, and its capacity to harm the soil structure by competing with other cations for adsorption (the adhesion of the cation to the surface of some soil components). When a soil contains a level of sodium that might prove harmful to crops, it is said to be sodic. Soil sodicity should not be confused with soil salinity, which refers to the total quantity of salts in the soil, without specifying which salts are more prevalent. There are two ways of determining where there is a risk of harm from excess sodium. One is by calculating the ratio between the sodium and other dissolved cations that will be absorbed by the plant. This is known as the sodium adsorption ratio or SAR. The formula is SAR = Na+\/((1\/2(Ca2+ + Mg2+))1\/2 ), where Na+, Ca2+ and Mg2+ are all measured in meq\/L (milliequivalents per liter). 119","NUTRIENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS Nitrogen (N) is an essential constituent of proteins and is present in many other compounds of great physiological importance in plant metabolism Uptake form e.g. nucleotides, phosphatides, alkaloids, enzymes, hormones, NO3-, NH4+ vitamins, etc. It is, therefore, a basic constituent of \u201clife.\u201d Atomic weight Is an integral part of chlorophyll, which is the primary absorber of light 14.00 energy needed for photosynthesis. The basic unit of chlorophyll\u2019s structure is the porphyrin ring system, composed of four pyrrole rings, each containing one nitrogen and four carbon atoms. A single magnesium atom is bonded in the centre of each porphyrin ring. Imparts vigorous vegetative growth dark green colour to plants. It produces early growth and also results delay in maturity of plants. It governs the utilization of potassium, phosphorus and other elements. The supply of nitrogen is related to carbohydrate utilization. When nitrogen supplies are insufficient, carbohydrates will be deposited in vegetative cells, which will cause them to thicken. When nitrogen supplies are optimum and conditions are favourable for growth, proteins are formed from the manufactured carbohydrates. Phosphorus (P) Phosphorus has a great role in energy storage and transfer. Uptake form Phosphorus is a constituent of nucleic acid, phytin and phospho- HPO42-, H2PO4- lipids. An adequate supply of phosphorus early in plant life is important for the reproductive parts of the plants. Atomic weight 30.97 It is also an essential constituent of majority of enzymes which are of great importance in the transformation of energy, in carbohydrate metabolism, in fat metabolism and also in respiration of plants. It is closely related to cell division and development. Phosphate compounds act as \u201cenergy currency\u201d within plants. The most common phosphorus energy currency is that found in adenosine di and triphosphate (ADP and ATP). Donation or transfer of the energy-rich phosphate molecules from ATP to energy-requiring substances in the plant is known as phosphorylation. In this reaction ATP is converted back to ADP or ADP back to adenylic acid, with a phosphate molecule being left attached to the phosphorylated compound. The compounds ADP and ATP are formed and regenerated in the presence of sufficient phosphorus at sites of energy production. It stimulates early root development and growth and there by helps to establish seedlings quickly. 120","Potassium (K) It gives rapid and vigorous start to plants, strengthens straw and decreases lodging tendency. Uptake form It brings about early maturity of crops, particularly the cereals, and K+ counteracts the effects of excessive nitrogen. Atomic weight Large quantities of phosphorus are found in seed and fruit and it is 39.09 considered essential for seed formation. Phytin composed of calcium and magnesium salts of phytic acid, is the principal storage form of phosphorus in seeds. The supply of phosphorus improves the quality of certain fruit, forage, vegetable, and grain crops and increases the disease resistance of crops. It enhances the activity of rhizobia and increases the formation of root nodules and thereby helps in fixing more of atmospheric nitrogen in root nodules. Excess of phosphorus may cause deficiency of certain micro- nutrients especially zinc and iron. On the other hand, phosphorus alleviates the detrimental effects of over-liming. Potassium exists in mobile ionic (K+) form and its function appears to be primarily catalytic in nature. Enzyme activation, \u201dOver 60 enzymes have been identified that require potassium for their activation. These enzymes are involved in so many important plant physiological processes that enzyme activation is regarded as potassium\u2019s single most important function. Water relations, The pre-dominance of potassium over other cations, in plants makes its role in osmotic regulation particularly important. Potassium provides much of the osmotic \u201cpull\u201d that draws water into plant roots. Plants that are deficient in potassium are less able to withstand water stress, mostly because of their inability to make full use of available water. The deficiency of potassium imparts the malfunctioning of stomata which are related to lower rates of photosynthesis and less efficient use of water. So potassium can affect the rate of transpiration and water uptake through regulation of stomatal opening. The potassium has some roles in energy relations. Plants require potassium for the production of high-energy phosphate molecules (ATP), which are produced due to photosynthesis and respiration. The deficient of potassium leads to the decreased assimilation of sugars from carbon-dioxide during photosynthesis. It imparts winter hardiness to legumes and other crops. It counteracts the harmful effects to excess nitrogen in plants. Translocation of assimilates, The translocation of assimilated sugars from leaves is greatly reduced in potassium deficient plants. Potassium helps in formation of proteins and chlorophyll. Potassium is required for the activation of starch synthetase enzyme which controls the rate of incorporation of glucose into long-chain 121","Sulphur (S) starch molecules. Conversion of soluble sugars into starch is a vital step in the grain-filling process. Uptake form SO4- Potassium is reported to have a beneficial effect on symbiotic Atomic weight N2 fixation by leguminous plants. High potassium supply has 32.06 increased nodule mass, N2 fixation rate, nitrogenase activity and plant growth. Calcium (Ca) Potassium enhances carbohydrate assimilate transport to nodules Uptake form and utilization for the synthesis of amino acids. Ca2+ Atomic weight Potassium produces strong stiff straw in cereals and thereby reduces 40.08 lodging in cereals. Potassium imparts increased vigour and disease resistance to plants. Potassium deficiencies greatly reduce quality and crop yields. Serious yield reductions may occur without the appearance of deficiency symptoms. This phenomenon is known as \u201chidden hunger\u201d and this phenomenon occurs not only for potassium but also for other nutrient elements. Sulphur is required for the synthesis of the sulphur-containing amino acids cystine, cysteine and methionine. One of the main functions of sulphur in proteins or polypeptides is the formation of disulphide bonds between polypeptide chains. Disulphide linkages are important in stabilizing and determining the configuration of proteins. Sulphur is needed for the synthesis of other metabolites, including coenzyme A, biotin, thiamin or vitamin B1 and glutathione. It is a vital part of ferredoxins, a type of non-heme iron sulphur protein occurring in the chloroplasts which is important for the light and dark reactions of photosynthesis. Although not a constituent, sulphur is required for the synthesis of chlorophyll. It occurs in volatile compounds responsible for the characteristic taste and smell of plants in the mustard and onion families. Sulphur activates a number of proteolytic enzymes such as the papainases. It increases root growth and stimulates seed formation. Sulphur promotes nodule formation on roots of leguminous plants. Calcium is a constituent of the cell wall and it increases stiffness of plants. Calcium has an essential role in cell elongation and division. Calcium accumulates during respiration by mitochondria and it increases their protein content. It promotes early root development and growth of plants. 122","A deficiency of calcium manifests itself in the failure of terminal buds of plants to develop. So it is essential to activate growing, especially root tips. Calcium influences the water-economy of the plant, protein- carbohydrates ratio in fat metabolism as well as many other physiological processes. It improves the uptake of other plant nutrients like nitrogen and other micro-nutrients viz. iron, boron, zinc, copper and manganese. Calcium plays an important role in the structure and permeability of cell membranes. Calcium enhances uptake of nitrate-nitrogen and therefore is interrelated with nitrogen metabolism. Calcium has a specific function in the organization of chromatin or of the mitotic spindle. It is directly involved in chromosome stability and that it is a constituent of chromosome structure. It also affects the translocation of carbohydrate in plants. Calcium is generally considered to be an immobile element and so it cannot move freely from the older to younger parts of plants and that is why calcium deficiency symptoms are manifested at the tips of shoots and roots. Calcium encourages seed production. Magnesium (Mg) Magnesium is a constituent of chlorophyll, because chlorophyll formation usually accounts for about 15 to 20 per cent of the total Uptake form magnesium content of plants. Mg2+ It imparts dark green colour in leaves. Atomic weight 24.30 Serves as a structural component in ribosomes. It appears to stabilize the ribosomal particles in the configuration necessary for protein synthesis. Activates the formation of polypeptide chains from amino acids. Is a mobile element and is readily trans-located from older to younger plant parts during its deficiency. Plays an important role for the formation of carbohydrates, fats and vitamins etc. Involved in a number of physiological and biochemical functions. It is associated with transfer reactions involving phosphate-reactive groups. It is required for maximal activity of almost every phosphorylating enzyme in carbohydrate metabolism. It forms a chelated structure with the phosphate groups which allow maximal activity in the transfer reactions. Acts as a cofactor for certain enzymes other than those involved in phosphate transfer. It has a vital role in the activation of enzyme RuDP carboxylase which is found in chloroplast. It increases the affinity of the enzyme for carbon dioxide. 123","Increases in the oil content of several crops. Iron (Fe) Regulates the uptake of other nutrients and the base economy of plants. Uptake form Helps in the formation of chlorophyll. A deficiency of iron causes Fe2+, Fe3+ chlorosis between the veins of leaves and the deficiency symptom show first in the young leaves of plants. It does not appear to be trans- Atomic weight located from older tissues to the tip meristem and as a result growth 55.84 ceases. Helps in absorption of other nutrient elements. Is a structural component of porphyrin molecules like cytochromes, hemes, hematin, ferrichrome and leghemoglobin. These substances are involved in oxidation-reduction in respiration and photosynthesis. Is also a structural component of nonheame molecules like ferredoxins (stable Fe-S proteins). Ferredoxin is the first stable redox compound of the photosynthetic electron transport chain. Is a constituent of enzyme systems and so it helps for carrying out different enzymatic reactions in plants like, cytochrome oxidase, catalase, peroxidase, acotinase, nitrogenase etc. Molybdenum(Mo) Is an essential component of the major enzyme nitrate reductase in plants. Uptake form MoO4- The molybdenum requirement of plants is influenced by the form of inorganic nitrogen supplied to plants, with either nitrate (NO3\u2013) or Atomic weight ammonium (NH4+) effectively lowering its need. 95.94 Is also a structural component of nitrogenase, the enzyme actively involved in nitrogen fixation by root-nodule bacteria of leguminous crops, by some algae and actinomycetes, and by free-living- nitrogen fixing organisms such as Azotobacter. Reported to have an essential role in iron absorption and translocation in plants. Boron (B) It affects flowering and fruiting, pollen germination, cell division, and active salt absorption. Uptake form H3BO3, BO3- The metabolism of amino acids, proteins, carbohydrates, calcium, and water are strongly affected by boron. Atomic weight: 10.81 Many of those listed functions may be embodied by its function in moving the highly polar sugars through cell membranes by reducing their polarity and hence the energy needed to pass the sugar. If sugar cannot pass to the fastest growing parts rapidly enough, those parts die. Increases the solubility of calcium as well as mobility of calcium in the plant. Acts as a regulator of K\/Ca ratio in the plant. Helps in the absorption of nitrogen. 124","Concerned with precipitating excess cations, buffer action, regulatory effect on other nutrient elements etc. Required for the development of new cells in meristematic tissue. Necessary for proper pollination and fruit or seed setting. Necessary for the translocation of sugars, starches, phosphorus etc. Required for the synthesis of amino acids and proteins. Helps for the formation of nodules in leguminous plants. Regulates carbohydrate metabolism. Copper (Cu) Forms various compounds with amino acids and proteins in the plant. Uptake form Helps in the utilization of iron during chlorophyll synthesis. Lack of Cu2+ copper causes iron to accumulate in the nodes of plants. Atomic weight Has some indirect effects on nodule formation. 63.54 Has an unique involvement in enzyme systems of plants like, oxidase enzymes, terminal oxidation by cytochrome oxidase, photosynthetic electron transport mediated by plastocyanin etc. Acts as \u201celectron carrier\u201d in enzymes which bring about oxidation- reduction reactions in plants. Manganese (Mn) The role of manganese is regarded as being closely associated with that of iron. Manganese also supports the movement of iron in the Uptake form plant. Mn2+ Helps in chlorophyll formation. Atomic weight 54.93 Takes part in oxidation-reduction processes and decarboxylation and hydrolysis reactions. Needed for maximal activity of many enzyme reactions in the citric acid cycle. Influences auxin levels in plants and high concentrations of Mn favour the breakdown of indole acetic acid (1AA). It takes part in electron transport in photosystem II. Has some roles for the maintenance of chloroplast membrane structure. It also takes part in enzyme systems like, chromatin-bound RNA polymerase, synthesis of tRNA-primed oligoadenylate, inactivation of indole acetic acid protectors, NAD malic enzyme of aspartate type C4 plants. 125","Sodium (Na) An optimum manganese supply sometimes helps in counteracting the bad effect of poor aeration. Uptake form Na+ Deficiency also shows interveinal chlorosis of plants. Atomic weight 22.98 This element is essential for halophytic plant species which accumulate sufficient of its salts in vacuoles to maintain turgor and Zinc(Zn) growth. Many plants that possess the C4 dicarboxylic photosynthetic pathway require sodium as an essential nutrient. Sodium helps in Uptake form oxalic acid accumulation in plants and also influences potassium Zn2+ sparing action. It has some roles in stomatal opening and it can Atomic weight regulate the activity of nitrate reductase. 65.38 Influences the formation of some growth hormones in the plant. Nickel (Ni) Helpful in reproduction of certain plants. Associated with water uptake and water relations in the plant. Uptake form Involved in auxin metabolism like, tryptophan synthetase, Ni2+ tryptamine metabolism. Atomic weight 58.70 Influences the activity of dehydrogenase enzymes e.g. pyridine nucleotide, glucose-6 phosphate and triose phosphate etc. Chlorine(Cl) Stabilizes ribosomal fractions. Uptake form The other roles attributed to zinc include phosphodiesterase, Cl- carbonic anhydrase, synthesis of cytochrome c etc. Atomic weight 35.45 In higher plants, nickel is absorbed by plants in the form of Ni2+ ion. Nickel is essential for activation of urease, an enzyme involved Cobalt (Co) with nitrogen metabolism that is required to process urea. Without nickel, toxic levels of urea accumulate, leading to the formation of Uptake form necrotic lesions. In lower plants, nickel activates several enzymes Co2+ involved in a variety of processes, and can substitute for zinc and iron Atomic weight as a cofactor in some enzymes 58.93 as compounded chloride, is necessary for osmosis and ionic balance; it also plays a role in photosynthesis. Silicon(Si) Cobalt is essential for micro-organisms fixing atmospheric nitrogen. Cobalt forms vitamin B12 during growth and development of symbiotic micro-organisms like ihizobia, cyanobacteria etc. Cobalt forms a complex with nitrogen atoms in a porphyrin ring structure which provides a prosthetic group for association with a nucleotide in the B12 coenzyme. \u2018This cobalt- complex is termed the cobamide coenzyme. Cobalt also takes part in leghemoglobin metabolism and ribonucleotide reductase in rhizobium. It also influences the growth of the plant, transpiration, photosynthesis etc. Silicon is not considered an essential element for plant growth and development. It is always found in abundance in the environment 126","Uptake form and hence if needed it is available. It is found in the structures of Si(OH4) plants and improves the health of plants. Atomic weight In plants, silicon has been shown in experiments to strengthen cell 28.08 walls, improve plant strength, health, and productivity. There have been studies showing evidence of silicon Vanadium (V) improving drought and frost resistance,decreasing lodging potential and boosting the plant's natural pest and disease fighting systems. Uptake form Silicon has also been shown to improve plant vigor and physiology VO2+ ,VO3+ by improving root mass and density, and increasing above ground Atomic weight plant biomass and crop yields. 50.94 Low concentrations of vanadium are beneficial for the growth of Selenium (Se) microorganisms, animals and higher plants. Vanadium may partially substitute for Mo in fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by micro- Uptake form organisms such as the rhizobia. It plays a role in biological oxidation- SeO42- reduction reactions. Atomic weight 78.96 is probably not essential for flowering plants, but it can be beneficial; it can stimulate plant growth, improve tolerance of oxidative stress, and increase resistance to pathogens and herbivory 127","FERTILIZERS Fertilizer may be defined as materials having definite chemical composition with a higher analytical value and capable of supplying plant nutrients in available forms. TYPES OF FERTILIZERS Straight fertilizers: Straight fertilizers are those which supply only one primary plant nutrient, namely nitrogen or phosphorus or potassium. eg. Urea, ammonium sulphate, potassium chloride and potassium sulphate. Complex\/Mixed fertilizers: Complex fertilizers contain two or three primary plant nutrients of which two primary nutrients are in chemical combination. These fertilisers are usually produced in granular form. eg. Diammonium phosphate, nitrophosphates and ammonium phosphate. Complete fertilizers: Is one which comprises all N:P:K primary plant nutrients.. Fertilizers can also be classified based on physical form: ie., Solid and Liquid. Solid fertilizers further produced in Powder, Granule, Crystal, Prills, Briquette etc\u2026 Fertilizers Nitrogenous, Phosphatic, Potassic or Complex. Few fertilizers widely used in agriculture\/horticulture. TABLE - FERTILIZER Formula N:P:K + Percentage Name Composition Nitrogenous CO(NH2)2 46:00:00 N:46% Urea Ca(NO3)2 15.5:00:00:18.8(Ca) N:15.5%, Ca:18.8% Calcium Nitrate (CN) Na(NO3) 16:00:00 N:16% Sodium Nitrate (NH4)2 SO4 20:00:00 N:20% Ammonium sulphate NH4Cl 24-26:00:00 N:24-26% Ammonium Chloride NH4NO3 33-34:00:00 N:33-34% Ammonium Nitrate CaNH4NO3 25-27:00:00:8-10(Ca) N:25-27, Ca:8-10% Calcium Ammonium Nitrate(CAN) (NH4)3NO3 SO4 26:0:0: 32.5(S) N:26%, S:32.5% Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate(ASN) Phosphatic NH4H2PO4 12:61:00 N:12%,P:61% Mono Ammonium Phosphate (MAP) (NH4)2HPO4 18:46:00 N:18%, P:46% Di Ammonium Phosphate (DAP) Ca(H2PO4)2 00:16:00:11(S):21(Ca) P:16%, S:11%, Ca:21% Single Super Phosphate (SSP) KH2PO4 00:52:34 P:52%, K:34% Mono Potassium Phosphate (MKP) Potassic K2SO4 00:00:50:17.5(S) K: 50%, S:17.5% Sulphate of Potash (SOP) KNO3 13:00:45 N: 13%, K:45% Potassium Nitrate (PN) K2SO4 2MgSO4 00:00:23:11(Mg):15(S) K:23%,Mg:11%, S:15% Potassium Schoenite (KMS) Magnesium Sulphate MgSO4 00:00:00: 9.6(Mg):12(S) Mg:9.6%, S:12% FYI: % of nutrients may vary between manufacturers \/ brand \/Nation. Read MSDS\/Product details\/catalogue carefully. FYI: Most of the companies has started rolling out Nano fertilizers, Neem coated fertilizers etc\u2026 128","CHELATED MICRONUTRIENTS Plant nutrients are one of the environmental factors essential for crop growth and development. Nutrient management is crucial for optimal productivity in commercial crop production. Those nutrients in concentrations of = 100 parts per million (ppm) in plant tissues are described as micronutrients and include iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), boron (B), chlorine (Cl), molybdenum (Mo), and nickel (Ni) etc... Micronutrients such as Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu are easily oxidized or precipitated in soil, and their utilization is, therefore, not efficient. Chelated fertilizers have been developed to increase micronutrient utilization efficiency. Chelated micronutrients are fertilizers where the micronutrient ion (for example Fe or iron) is surrounded by \/ Coated by a larger molecule called a LIGAND OR CHELATOR. Ligands can be natural or synthetic chemicals. These compounds combined with a micronutrient forms a chelated micronutrient. Chelated micronutrients are protected from oxidation, precipitation, and immobilization in certain conditions with soil. Examples of ligands are in Table Ligand. These chelates have different effective pH ranges. The effective pH range for Fe-EDTA is 4 to 6.5, Fe-DTPA is 4 to 7.5, and Fe-EDDHA is 4 to 9. Fe-EDDTA is effective when pH is greater than 7 but it is costlier. There are also many naturally occurring chelating agents such as amino acids, organic acids, humic and fluvic acids, ligninosulfonates, ligninipolycarboxylates, sugar acids, phenols, polyphosphates, flavonoids, and siderophores. These are generally less expensive, functional over a wider pH range, and less toxic to plants. WHY CHELATED FERTILIZER Because soil is heterogeneous and complex, traditional micronutrients are readily oxidized or precipitated. Chelation keeps a micronutrient from undesirable reactions in solution and soil. The chelated fertilizer improves the bioavailability of micronutrients such as Fe, Cu, Mn, and Zn, and in turn contributes to the productivity and profitability of commercial crop production. Chelated fertilizers have a greater potential to increase commercial yield than regular micronutrients if the crop is grown in low- micronutrient stress or soils with a pH greater than 6.5. To grow a good crop, crop nutrient requirements (CNRs), including micronutrients, must be satisfied first from the soil. If the soil cannot meet the CNR, chelated sources need to be used. This approach benefits the plant without increasing the risk of eutrophication. Several factors reduce the bioavailability of Fe, including high soil pH, high bicarbonate content, plant species (grass species are usually more efficient than other species because they can excrete effective ligands), and abiotic stresses. Plants typically utilize iron as ferrous iron (Fe2+). Ferrous iron can be readily oxidized to the plant-unavailable ferric form (Fe3+) when soil pH is greater than 5.3 (Morgan and Lahav 2007). Iron 129","deficiency often occurs if soil pH is greater than 7.4. Chelated iron can prevent this conversion from Fe2+ to Fe3+. Applying nutrients such as Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu directly to the soil is inefficient because in soil solution they are present as positively charged metal ions and will readily react with oxygen and\/or negatively charged hydroxide ions (OH-). If they react with oxygen or hydroxide ions, they form new compounds that are not bioavailable to plants. Both oxygen and hydroxide ions are abundant in soil and soilless growth media. The ligand can protect the micronutrient from oxidization or precipitation. In the soil, plant roots can release exudates that contain natural chelates. The nonprotein amino acid, mugineic acid, is one such natural chelate called phytosiderophore (phyto: plant; siderophore: iron carrier) produced by graminaceous (grassy) plants grown in low-iron stress conditions. The exuded chelate works as a vehicle, helping plants absorb nutrients in the root-solution-soil system (Lindsay 1974). A plant-excreted chelate forms a metal complex (i.e., a coordination compound) with a micronutrient ion in soil solution and approaches a root hair. In turn, the chelated micronutrient near the root hair releases the nutrient to the root hair. The chelate is then free and becomes ready to complex with another micronutrient ion in the adjacent soil solution, restarting the cycle. Table-Ligand (Types of Ligands \/ Chelators) Abbreviation Name CDTA Cyclohexane Diamine Tetraacetic Acid CIT Citric Acid DTPA Diethylene Triamine Penta-Acetic Acid EDDHA Ethylene Diamine Di (O-Hy phenyl Acetic Acid) ETDA Ethylene Diamine Tetra-Acetic Acid EGTA Ethylene Glycol Bis (2 Aminoethyl ether) Tetra-Acetic Acid HEDTA Hydroxy Ethylene Diamine Tri-Acetic Acid NTA Nitro Tri-Acetic Acid OX Oxalic Acid PPA Pyro Phosphoric Acid TPA Tri Phosphoric Acid FYI: Chemical reactions between micronutrient chelates and soil can be avoided by using a foliar application. Chelated nutrients also facilitate nutrient uptake efficiency for foliar application because crop leaves are naturally coated with wax that repels water and charged substances, such as ferrous ions. The organic ligand around the chelated micronutrient can penetrate the wax layer, thus increasing iron uptake Compared to traditional iron fertilization, chelated iron fertilization is significantly more effective and efficient (FYI: Before application, read product operation manual\/ MSDS and use the prescribed quantity. The quantity may vary from manufacturer to manufacturer(. Chelated nutrient % (Ligands \/ Chelators: EDTA \/ EDDHA \/ Amino) Chelated Magnesium (Mg 6%), Chelated Manganese (Mn 8% \/ 9% \/12%), Chelated Ferrous\/Iron (Fe 6% \/ Fe 12%), Chelated Copper (Cu 7.5% \/15%), Chelated Boron (B 20%), Chelated Calcium (Ca 10%), Chelated Zinc (Zn 12%); 130","TABLE: Micronutrients and their % of availability in different solutions. SI. Name Formula Element\/Forms Contents(%) No 1. Zinc Sulphate* ZnSO4.7H2O Zn 21.0 2. Mangnese Sulphate* MnSO4 Mn 30.5 3. Ammonium Molybdate (NH4)5 Mo7)244H2O Mo 52.0 4. Borax(for soil Na2B4O7.5H2O B 10.5 application) 5. Solubor(foilar spray) Na2B4O7.5H2O + B 19.0 Na2B10O16.10H2O 6. Copper Sulphate* CuSO4.5H2O Cu 24.0 7. Ferrous Sulphate* FeSO4.7H2O Fe 19.5 8. Chelated Zn as Zn-EDTA Zn 12.0 9. Chelated Fe as Fe-EDTA Fe 12.0 10. Zinc Sulphate ZnSO4.H2O Zn 33.0 monohydrate Criteria for Evaluation of Fertilizers for Fertigation: Based on the physiochemical characteristics a wide range of solid as well as liquid chemical fertilizers are suitable for fertigation. For large scale application solid fertilizers are cheaper and offer a good alternative to the commonly available liquid fertilizers. While selecting fertilizers for the purpose of fertigation following key factors should be considered: Solubility Solubility of a chemical fertilizer indicates the relative degree to which given fertilizer dissolves in water. Solubility of the subjected chemical fertilizers is most important factor while preparing stock solutions for fertigation. Based on their relative degree of being soluble in water, following chemical fertilizers were identified for efficient fertigation and their comparative performance is given in the following Table. Table. Solubility Spec. of some commercial fertilizers used for fertigation Fertilizer Grade Solubility pH (g\/L at (N:P2O5:K2O) (g\/L) @ 20\u00b0C 20\u00b0C) Urea 5.8 Ammonium nitrate 46-0-0 1100 5.7 Ammonium sulphate 34-0-0 1920 5.5 Calcium nitrate 21-0-0 5.8 Magnesium nitrate 16-0-0 750 5.4 Potassium nitrate 11-0-0 1290 7 Potassium sulphate 13-0-45 3.7 Mono Ammonium Phosphate (MAP) 0-0-50 - 4.9 Potassium chloride 12-61-0 133 7 Orthophosphoric acid 0-0-60 110 2.6 Mono Potassium Phosphate (MKP) 0-52-0 230 4.7 Phosphoric Acid 0-52-34 340 1.5 Magnesium Sulphate 00:61:00 457 6-7 00:00:00: 9.6(Mg):12(S) 230 Liquid (N\/A) 360 131","Compatibility Mixing of multiple fertilizers for the purpose of fertigation may sometimes leads to formation of solid precipitate. The prime cause of this problem is non-compatibility of the subjected chemical fertilizers with each other in the final solution. To avoid this problem while preparing fertilizer solutions for fertigation, one should consider the following compatibility chart (Following page) of different commonly used fertilizers. The Jar Test Growers can implement the jar test to determine fertilizer compatibility and unpredicted chemical reactions from other water-soluble additives, minerals, pesticides, and water treatments. Before conducting a jar test (Fig. Jar test), one will need to gather clear 1 liter, jars or containers. To perform a jar test, follow these simple steps to determine fertilizer compatibility: \u2022 Calculate desire concentrations of fertilizer to be dissolve in 1 to 2 Liters of water. \u2022 Obtain clear jar. \u2022 Add water. \u2022 Add fertilizers and dissolve. \u2022 Mix and cap jar. Let stand for 12- to 24-hours. Observe the jar for any cloudiness or if precipitation or solids formed. By following these steps, one will be able to determine fertilizer compatibility and unpredicted chemical reactions before they occur and mitigate the likelihood nutritional disorders or equipment damage. Precipitation Water sources that contain high quantity calcium, magnesium and bicarbonates are generally known as hard water and reaction of these water sources is alkaline in nature with pH values 7.2 to 8.5 or more. When water soluble fertilizers are mixed with these alkaline water sources, the interaction can leads to a wide of problems, such as formation of precipitates in the fertilizer tank and clogging of the drippers and filters of micro-irrigation systems. This problem mostly observed with phosphorus fertilizers because presence of high calcium and magnesium ions and high pH values of these fertilizers in the irrigation system and fertilizer tank as well lead to the precipitation phosphorus as calcium and magnesium phosphates. To avoid this while preparing the fertilizer solutions the solubility and compatibility of the mixing fertilizers should be considered. 132","FERTLIZER \/ NUTRIENTS MIXING COMPATIBILITY CHART Urea Ammonium Ammonium Calcium Potassium Potassium Potassium Ammonium Mono Diamm Fe, Zn, Fe, Zn, Mg So4 Phosphoric Sulphuric Nitric Potassium onium Cu,Mn Cu, Mn Acid Acid Acid Nitrate Sulphate Nitrate Nitrate Chloride Sulphate phosphate Phosphate Phosph (Sulphate) Chelate ate Urea 133 Ammonium Nitrate Ammonium Sulphate Calcium Nitrate Potassium Nitrate Potassium Chloride Potassium Sulphate Ammonium phosphate Mono Potassium Phosphate Diammonium Phosphate Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn (Sulphate) Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn (Chelate) Magnesium Sulphate Phosphoric Acid Sulphuric Acid Nitric Acid Compatible Little Compatible Not Compatible","THE SOIL Plants obtain inorganic elements from the soil, which serves as a natural medium for land plants. Soil is the outer loose layer that covers the surface of Earth. Soil quality is a major determinant, along with climate, of plant distribution and growth. Soil quality depends not only on the chemical composition of the soil, but also the topography (regional surface features) and the presence of living organisms. In agriculture, the history of the soil, such as the cultivating practices and previous crops, modify the characteristics and fertility of that soil. Soil develops very slowly over long periods of time, and its formation results from natural and environmental forces acting on mineral, rock, and organic compounds. Soils can be divided into two groups: organic soils are those that are formed from sedimentation and primarily composed of organic matter, while those that are formed from the weathering of rocks and are primarily composed of inorganic material are called mineral soils. Mineral soils are predominant in terrestrial ecosystems, where soils may be covered by water for part of the year or exposed to the atmosphere. Soil Composition Soil consists of these major components (Ref above Figure): \u2022 Inorganic mineral matter : 40% to 45% of the soil volume \u2022 Organic matter, 5% of the soil volume \u2022 Water and Air, 50 percent of the soil volume The amount of each of the four major components of soil depends on the amount of vegetation, soil compaction, and water present in the soil. A good healthy soil has sufficient air, water, minerals, and organic material to promote and sustain plant life. The organic material of soil, called HUMUS, is made up of microorganisms (dead and alive), and dead animals and plants in varying stages of decay. Humus improves soil structure and provides plants with water and minerals. The inorganic material of soil consists of rock, slowly broken down into smaller particles that vary in size. Soil particles that are 0.1 to 2 mm in diameter are sand. Soil particles between 0.002 and 0.1 mm are called silt, and even smaller particles, less than 0.002 mm in diameter, are called clay. Some soils have no dominant particle size and contain a mixture of sand, silt, and humus; these soils are called loams. 134","HUMUS is the dark organic matter in soil that is formed by the decomposition of plant and animal matter. It is a kind of soil organic matter. It is rich in nutrients and retains moisture in the soil. Humus is the Latin word for \\\"earth\\\" or \\\"ground\\\". Humus has many nutrients that improve the health of soil, nitrogen being the most important. The ratio of carbon to nitrogen (C:N) of humus commonly ranges between eight and fifteen with the median being about twelve. It also significantly affects the bulk density of soil. Humus is amorphous and lacks the \\\"cellular cake structure characteristic of plants, micro-organisms or animals\\\". The primary material needed for the process of humification are plant materials. The composition of humus varies dependent on the composition of the primary materials and the secondary microbial and animal products. The decomposition rate of the different compounds will affect the composition of the humus. It is difficult to define humus precisely because it is a very complex substance which is not fully understood. Humus is different from decomposing soil organic matter. The latter looks rough and has visible remains of the original plant or animal matter. Fully humified humus, on the contrary, has a uniformly dark, spongy, and jelly-like appearance, and is amorphous; it may gradually decay over several years or persist for millennia. It has no determinate shape, structure, or quality. However, when examined under a microscope, humus may reveal tiny plant, animal, or microbial remains that have been mechanically, but not chemically, degraded. This suggests an ambiguous boundary between humus and soil organic matter. While distinct, humus is an integral part of soil organic matter. Humification Microorganisms decompose a large portion of the soil organic matter into inorganic minerals that the roots of plants can absorb as nutrients. This process is termed \\\"mineralization\\\". In this process, nitrogen (nitrogen cycle) and the other nutrients (nutrient cycle) in the decomposed organic matter are recycled. Depending on the conditions in which the decomposition occurs, a fraction of the organic matter does not mineralize and instead is transformed by a process called \\\"humification\\\". Prior to modern analytical methods, early evidence led scientists to believe that humification resulted in concatenations of organic polymer resistant to the action of microorganisms, however recent research has demonstrated that microorganisms are capable of digesting humus. Humification can occur naturally in soil or artificially in the production of compost. Organic matter is humified by a combination of saprotrophic fungi, bacteria, microbes and animals such as earthworms, nematodes, protozoa, and arthropods. Plant remains, including those that animals digested and excreted, contain organic compounds: sugars, starches, proteins, carbohydrates, lignins, waxes, resins, and organic acids. Decay in the soil begins with the decomposition of sugars and starches from carbohydrates, which decompose easily as detritivores initially invade the dead plant organs, while the remaining cellulose and lignin decompose more slowly. Simple proteins, organic acids, starches, and sugars decompose rapidly, while crude proteins, fats, waxes, and resins remain relatively unchanged for longer periods of time. Lignin, which is quickly transformed by white-rot fungi, is one of the primary precursors of humus, together with by-products of microbial and animal activity. The humus produced by humification is thus a mixture of compounds and complex biological chemicals of plant, animal, or microbial origin that has many functions and benefits in soil. Some judge earthworm humus (vermicompost) to be the optimal organic manure. 135","Benefits of soil organic matter and humus The importance of chemically stable humus is thought by some to be the fertility it provides to soils in both a physical and chemical sense, though some agricultural experts put a greater focus on other features of it, such as its ability to suppress disease. It helps the soil retain moisture by increasing microporosity, and encourages the formation of good soil structure. The incorporation of oxygen into large organic molecular assemblages generates many active, negatively charged sites that bind to positively charged ions (cations) of plant nutrients, making them more available to the plant by way of ion exchange. Humus allows soil organisms to feed and reproduce, and is often described as the \\\"life-force\\\" of the soil. \u2022 The process that converts soil organic matter into humus feeds the population of microorganisms and other creatures in the soil, and thus maintains high and healthy levels of soil life. \u2022 The rate at which soil organic matter is converted into humus promotes (when fast) or limits (when slow) the coexistence of plants, animals, and microorganisms in the soil. \u2022 Effective humus and stable humus are additional sources of nutrients for microbes: the former provides a readily available supply and the latter acts as a long term storage reservoir. \u2022 Decomposition of dead plant material causes complex organic compounds to be slowly oxidized (lignin-like humus) or to decompose into simpler forms (sugars and amino sugars, and aliphatic and phenolic organic acids), which are further transformed into microbial biomass (microbial humus) or reorganized, and further oxidized, into humic assemblages (fulvic acids and humic acids), which bind to clay minerals and metal hydroxides. The ability of plants to absorb humic substances with their roots and metabolize them has been long debated. There is now a consensus that humus functions hormonally rather than simply nutritionally in plant physiology. \u2022 Humus is a colloidal substance and increases the cation-exchange capacity of soil, hence its ability to store nutrients by chelation. While these nutrient cations are available to plants, they are held in the soil and prevented from being leached by rain or irrigation. \u2022 Humus can hold the equivalent of 80\u201390% of its weight in moisture, and therefore increases the soil's capacity to withstand drought. \u2022 The biochemical structure of humus enables it to moderate, i.e. buffer, excessive acidic or alkaline soil conditions. \u2022 During humification, microbes secrete sticky, gum-like mucilages; these contribute to the crumby structure (tilth) of the soil by adhering particles together and allowing greater aeration of the soil. Toxic substances such as heavy metals and excess nutrients can be chelated, i.e., bound to the organic molecules of humus, and so prevented from leaching away. \u2022 The dark, usually brown or black, color of humus helps to warm cold soils in spring. \u2022 Humus can contribute to climate change mitigation through its carbon sequestration potential. Artificial humic acid and artificial fulvic acid synthesized from agricultural litter, can increase the content of dissolved organic matter and total organic carbon in soil. 136","Soil Formation Soil formation is the consequence of a combination of biological, physical, and chemical processes. Soil should ideally contain 50 percent solid material and 50 percent pore space. About one-half of the pore space should contain water, and the other half should contain air. The organic component of soil serves as a cementing agent, returns nutrients to the plant, allows soil to store moisture, makes soil tillable for farming, and provides energy for soil microorganisms. Most soil microorganisms\u2014 bacteria, algae, or fungi\u2014are dormant in dry soil, but become active once moisture is available. Soil distribution is not homogenous because its formation results in the production of layers; together, the vertical section of a soil is called the soil profile. Within the soil profile, soil scientists define zones called horizons. A horizon is a soil layer with distinct physical and chemical properties that differ from those of other layers. Five factors account for soil formation: parent material, climate, topography, biological factors, and time. Parent Material The organic and inorganic material in which soils form is the parent material. Mineral soils form directly from the weathering of bedrock, the solid rock that lies beneath the soil, and therefore, they have a similar composition to the original rock. Other soils form in materials that came from elsewhere, such as sand and glacial drift. Materials located in the depth of the soil are relatively unchanged compared with the deposited material. Sediments in rivers may have different characteristics, depending on whether the stream moves quickly or slowly. A fast-moving river could have sediments of rocks and sand, whereas a slow-moving river could have fine-textured material, such as clay. Climate Temperature, moisture, and wind cause different patterns of weathering and therefore affect soil characteristics. The presence of moisture and nutrients from weathering will also promote biological activity: a key component of a quality soil. Topography Regional surface features (familiarly called \u201cthe lay of the land\u201d) can have a major influence on the characteristics and fertility of a soil. Topography affects water runoff, which strips away parent material and affects plant growth. Steeps soils are more prone to erosion and may be thinner than soils that are relatively flat or level. Biological factors The presence of living organisms greatly affects soil formation and structure. Animals and microorganisms can produce pores and crevices, and plant roots can penetrate into crevices to produce more fragmentation. Plant secretions promote the development of microorganisms around the root, in an area known as the rhizosphere. Additionally, leaves and other material that fall from plants decompose and contribute to soil composition. Time Time is an important factor in soil formation because soils develop over long periods. Soil formation is a dynamic process. Materials are deposited over time, decompose, and transform into other materials that can be used by living organisms or deposited onto the surface of the soil. 137","Physical Properties of the Soil Figure: This soil profile shows the different soil layers (O horizon, A horizon, B horizon, and C horizon) found in typical soils. Soils are named and classified based on their horizons. The soil profile has four distinct layers: 1) O horizon; 2) A horizon; 3) B horizon, or subsoil; and 4) C horizon, or soil base The O horizon has freshly decomposing organic matter HUMUS at its surface, with decomposed vegetation at its base. Humus enriches the soil with nutrients and enhances soil moisture retention. Topsoil the top layer of soil is usually two to three inches deep, but this depth can vary considerably. For instance, river deltas have deep layers of topsoil. Topsoil is rich in organic material; microbial processes occur there, and it is the \u201cworkhorse\u201d of plant production. The A horizon consists of a mixture of organic material with inorganic products of weathering, and it is therefore the beginning of true mineral soil. This horizon is typically darkly colored because of the presence of organic matter. In this area, rainwater percolates through the soil and carries materials from the surface. The B horizon is an accumulation of mostly fine material that has moved downward, resulting in a dense layer in the soil. In some soils, the B horizon contains nodules or a layer of calcium carbonate. The C horizon (soil base), includes the parent material, plus the organic and inorganic material that is broken down to form soil. The parent material may be either created in its natural place, or transported from elsewhere to its present location. Beneath the C horizon lies bedrock. FERTILIZER APPLICATION AND MEASUREMENT Application of the Fertilizers \/ Nutrients to the Soil \/ Growing media is done by 2 methods Quantitative Application (Conventional irrigation\/fertigation) Proportional Application (Drip fertigation \/ Hydroponics) Quantitative Application: in this method a fixed amount of nutrients as per the prescribed quantity and applications (Basal dose and Multiple applications) will be done. This is an easy method of fertigation but not efficient and effective. Proportional Application: In this method application of the nutrients is very precise, it requires a good knowledge of Plants nutrient requirement and other parameters ie., EC, pH, TDS, Temperature, Nutrient interaction and computability of Water, Soil and Nutrient solution. This is high precision, effective and efficient method of fertigation used in Hi-Tech precision farming. 138","The Quantitative application of the fertilizers \/ Nutrients: When we need to apply fertilizers \/ nutrients to our farmland \/ Growing media, we need to have clear information of the following \u2022 Volume of the Area, of the application (Cubic Meter, Cum) \u2022 Bulk density of the growing media (Soil \/ Cocopeat etc\u2026 (Kgs\/Cum)) \u2022 Nutrients and their forms and the percentage in the fertilizer \u2022 Compatibility of the nutrients \u2022 Time, method, and quantity of the application VOLUME CALCULATION: Whether it is the farmland or any growing area, The total volume is calculated in the Cubic meters. Ie., Volume = Length , width, and Height\/Thickness of the area. Generally, 15 cm to 20 cm (0.15 \/ 0.20 mtrs \/ 150-200mm) is what the height \/thickness (Horizon A, Soil profile) of the soil \/ growing media, considered for the calculation. Eg 01., if we wanna apply fertilizers to 1 acre (Acre land is approximately 4047 Sqm, length-63.62 mtrs x Width-63.62 mtrs) as per the above consideration the height\/thickness is 0.15 mtrs, then The Volume is: Length : 63.62 Mtrs x width = 63.62 Mtrs x Height\/Thickness 0.15 Mtrs = 607.12 Cum. Eg 02., A trough\/Bed of Length : 10 mtr, Width : 0.3 mtr and growing media thickness 0.15 mtrs 10 meter (1000 Cm, 32.8 feet) length, 0.3 mtr (30 Cm, 1feet)), Thickness 0.15 mtr (15 Cm, 0.5 feet) The Volume is= Length: 10 mtr x Width: 0.3 mtr x Height\/Thickness: 0.15 mtr = 0.45 Cum. BULK DENSITY OF POTTING MIX \/ GROWING MEDIA SUBSTANCES. It is a weight of the substance in one cubic meter (Cum), Few examples of the substances are Soil: 1500 Kgs - 2000 Kgs \/ Cum; Cocopeat: 280 Kgs-360 Kgs \/ Cum ; Perlite: 80 Kgs-120 Kgs \/ Cum; Vermiculite: 140 Kgs-200 Kgs\/Cum; Vermicompost: 500 Kgs -600 Kgs\/Cum. FYM dried: 600 Kgs-900Kgs\/Cum. FYI: in case one doesn\u2019t have any idea of Bulk density of the soil, then 9 Lakh Kgs\/Acre is to be considered as the Volume of the Soil for the calculation. Per the above example Eg -01: The volume for the acre land is 607.12 Cum. Considering the soil as a substance for the acre land, the bulk density as aforementioned 1500kgs -2000 kgs (Consider 1500 Kgs\/Cum). The quantity of the soil in the one acre is = 607.12 Cum. X 1500 Kgs\/Cum = 910,680 Kgs. Similarly, if cocopeat is used as the substance then the quantity of cocopeat required is =607.12 Cum. X 280 Kgs \u2013 360 Kgs\/Cum (Consider 360 Kgs\/Cum) =607.12 Cum. X 360 Kgs\/Cum = 218,563.20 Kgs Per the above example Eg -02: The volume for the trough is 0.45 Cum. Considering the soil as a substance for the trough, the bulk density as aforementioned 1500kgs -2000 kgs (Consider 1500 Kgs\/Cum). The quantity of the soil in the trough is = 0.45 Cum. X 1500 Kgs\/Cum = 675 Kgs. Similarly, if cocopeat is used as the substance then the quantity of cocopeat required is =0.45 Cum. X 280 Kgs \u2013 360 Kgs\/Cum (Consider 360 Kgs\/Cum) =0.45 Cum. X 360 Kgs\/Cum = 162 Kgs 139","Let,s say 40 Kg Nitrogen (N) is required for the acre (Volume :607.12 Cum; 910,680 Kgs of Soil quantity), and Urea is used as the source for nitrogen, In Urea Nitrogen availability is 46% (Refer TABLE-FERTILIZER) The requirement is 100% Nitrogen @ 40 Kgs\/Acre. 40 Kgs\/Acre, 100% nitrogen is the requirement, We have in hand 46% Nitrogen (Urea) as the fertilizer. The total urea is required to equalize the 100% Nitrogen @ 40kg\/Acre is Urea = 46% \/100 = 0.46 Urea requirement = 40 Kgs (100% N) \/ 0.46 = 86.9 Kgs (86.90 Kgs of Urea is applied to 910,680 Kgs of Soil, (ie., One Acre land soil volume) Similarly, we can calculate for the Urea application to the trough (Volume : 0.45 Cum; 675 Kgs of Soil quantity) \/trough = (675 Kgs Soil\/Trough x 86.90 Kgs Urea\/Acre ) \/ 910,680 Kgs Soil\/Acre = 0.064 Kgs Urea\/Trough (64 grams) Let us do the calculation with UREA and POTASSIUM NITRATE. Assume the requirement for the acre is 100% Nitrogen (N) = 40 Kgs\/Acre and 100% Potash(K) = 80 kgs\/Acre In Urea : N= 46% In Potassium Nitrate (KNO3)= K=45% and N=13% (FYI: Potassium Nitrate is the mixed fertilizer the source of Primarily Potash and Nitrogen as well ) Urea= 46% Nitrogen\/100 = 0.46 Nitrogen Potassium Nitrate= 45% Potash \/ 100 = 0.45 Potash When you have mixed fertilizer (ie., Potassium Nitrate) Do the calculation of its quantity first Potash required is 80Kgs\/ Acre (100% K) 45% K, in Potassium Nitrate quantity requirement is = 80 kgs (100% K) \/ 0.45 (45% K, in Potassium Nitrate) = 177.77 Kgs of Potassium Nitrate\/Acre. That is, we need 177.77 Kgs of Potassium Nitrate, that equals to 80 Kgs\/Acre of 100% Potash. We know that 13% Nitrogen (N) is available with Potassium Nitrate, Per the above calculation 177.77 kgs of Potassium Nitrate is applied in one acre. Nitrogen from Potassium nitrate is 13% (ie., 13\/100) = 0.13 Nitrogen. Total potassium nitrate applied is 177.77 kgs x 0.13 Nitrogen = 23.11 Kgs Nitrogen (N). That is 23.11 kgs of Nitrogen is available with the quantity of Potassium Nitrate application. As per previous calculations, 40kgs of 100% Nitrogen in the form of Urea application is calculated as 86.90 Kgs\/Acre (Urea). Per the previous calculation Nitrogen from Potassium Nitrate application, we got 23.11 Kgs (N). The total urea application required after taking Nitrogen from Potassium Nitrate is 86.90 Kgs (Urea) \u2013 23.11 Kgs (Potassium Nitrate) = 63.79 Kgs, UREA\/ACRE By the above calculations to fulfil 100% Nitrogen and 100% Potash @ 40Kgs and 80 Kgs\/Acre, respectively, 63.79 Kgs, UREA and 177.77 Kgs, POTASSIUM NITRATE, is required. 140","BIO FERTLISERS AND CONTROLS BIOFERTILIZERS Biofertilizers are commonly called microbial inoculants which are capable of mobilizing important nutritional elements in the soil from non-usable to usable form through biological processes. The term \u2018biofertilizer\u2019 include selective micro-organism like bacteria, fungi and algae which are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen or convert soluble phosphate and potash in the soil into forms available to the plants. Soil microorganisms play an important role in soil processes that determine plant productivity. Bacteria living in the soil are called free living and some bacteria support plant growth indirectly, by improving growth restricting conditions either via production of antagonistic substances or by inducing resistance against plant pathogens. The interactions among the rhizosphere, the roots of higher plants and the soil borne microorganisms have a significant role in plant growth and development. The organic compounds, released by roots and bacteria, play an important role in the uptake of mineral nutrient. The hormones produced by the rhizosphere bacteria have direct effects on higher plants. Biofertilizer is most commonly referred to the use of soil microorganisms to increase the availability and uptake of mineral nutrients for plants ADVANTAGES OF BIOFERTILIZERS Biofertilizers have definite advantage over chemical fertilizers. \u2022 The use of biofertilizers effectively enrich the soil and cost less than chemical fertilizers, which harm the environment and deplete non-renewable energy sources.. \u2022 Chemical fertilizers supply over nitrogen whereas biofertilizers provide in addition to nitrogen certain growth promoting substances like hormones, vitamins , amino acids, etc.,. \u2022 On the other hand biofertilizers supply the nitrogen continuously throughout the entire period of crop growth in the field under favorable conditions. \u2022 Continuous use of chemical fertilizers adversely affect the soil structure whereas biofertilizers when applied to soil improve the soil structure. \u2022 The effects of chemical fertilizers are that they are toxic at higher doses. Biofertilizers, however, have no toxic effects. 141","The utilization of microbial products has several advantages over conventional chemicals for agricultural purposes: \u2022 Microbial products are considered safer than many of the chemicals now in use. \u2022 Neither toxic substances nor microbes themselves will be accumulated in the food chain. \u2022 Self-replication of microbes circumvents the need for repeated application. \u2022 Target organisms seldom develop resistance as is the case when chemical agents are used to eliminate the pests harmful to plant growth. \u2022 Properly developed biocontrol agents are not considered harmful to ecological processes or the environment. The following common types of biofertilizers available \u2022 Nitrogen fixing biofertilizers: Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Acetobacter, Azospirillum, Azoarcus, Herbaspirillum, Cyanobacteria, Rhodobacter, Klebsiella, Frankia \u2022 Phosphorous solubilising biofertilizers (PSB): Bacillus, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Aspergillus, Micrococcus, Flavobacterium, Penicillium, Fusarium, Sclerotium etc., \u2022 Potassium solubilising \/ mobilizing biofertilizer : Frateuria aurentia, Acidothiobacillus ferrooxidans, Pae-nibacillus spp., Bacillus mucilaginosus, B. edaphicus, B. circulans, Agrobacterium, Arthrobacter, Aspergillus, Bacillus, Burkholderia, Enterobacter Pantoea, Flectobacillus, Klebsiella, Microbacterium, Myroides, Paenibacillus, Pseudomonas, and Stenotrophomonas. \u2022 Phosphate and Micronutrients provider: Arbuscular Mycorrhiza fungi (AM \/ VAM), SL # Name of the Bacteria \/ Fungus Classification Function Nitrogen fixing biofertilizers N-fixer N-fixer Azotobacter vinelindii Biofertiizer N-fixer N-fixer Azotobacter chroococcum Biofertiizer N-fixer Azotospirillum lipoferum Biofertiizer Acetobacter xylinum Biofertiizer Rhizobium Biofertiizer Phosphorous solubilising biofertilizers (PSB) Pseudomonas putida Bacillus megatherium Potassium solubilising \/ mobilizing biofertilizer (KSB \/ KMB) Frateuria Aurentia The Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria, Phosphorous solubilizing bacteria and Potassium Solubilizing\/mobilizing bacteria available differently and in consortia. These are available in Talc (Powder) and Liquid forms. Always try to procure after reading the technical data, particularly The CFU (Colony formation unit), higher the CFU higher effectiveness. 142","BIO CONTROLS Biological control is a component of an integrated pest management(IPM) strategy. Biological control can be used against all types of pests, including vertebrates, plant pathogens, and weeds as well as insects, but the methods and agents used are different each type of pest. Natural enemies of insect pests, also known as biological control agents, include predators, parasitoids, and pathogens. Biological control of weeds includes insects and pathogens. Biological control agents of plant diseases are most often referred to as antagonists. The three categories of natural enemies of insect pests are: predators, parasitoids, and pathogens. Predators: Many different kinds of predators feed on insects. Insects are an important part of the diet of many vertebrates, including birds, amphibians, reptiles, fish, and mammals. These insectivorous vertebrates usually feed on many insect species, and rarely focus on pests unless they are very abundant. Insect and other arthropod predators are more often used in biological control because they feed on a smaller range of prey species, and because arthropod predators, with their shorter life cycles, may fluctuate in population density in response to changes in the density of their prey. (Eg., Important insect predators include lady beetles, ground beetles, rove beetles, flower bugs and other predatory true bugs, lacewings, and hover flies. Spiders and some families of mites are also predators of insects, pest species of mites, and other arthropods). Parasitoids: Parasitoids are insects with an immature stage that develops on or in a single insect host, and ultimately kills the host. The adults are typically free-living, and may be predators. They may also feed on other resources, such as honeydew, plant nectar or pollen. Because parasitoids must be adapted to the life cycle, physiology and defenses of their hosts, they are limited in their host range, and many are highly specialized. Thus, accurate identification of the host and parasitoid species is critically important in using parasitoids for biological control. (Eg, Trichogramma: Yellow stem borer (YSB), Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker) is considered as major pest of rice. An egg parasitoid (Trichogramma) is used for management of Lepidoptera pests of rice across the world). Pathogens: Natural enemy pathogens are microorganisms including certain bacteria, fungi, viruses, and nematodes that can infect and kill the host. Populations of some aphids, caterpillars, mites, and other invertebrates are sometimes drastically reduced by naturally occurring pathogens, usually under conditions such as prolonged high humidity or dense pest populations. Some pathogens have been mass produced and are available in commercial formulations for use in standard spray equipment. (Eg., Entomophaga maimaiga (Fungus), a pathogen of the Gypsy\/Spongy moth insect). 143","BIOLOGICAL INSECTICIDES \/PESTICIDE (PATHOGENS) Pathogens as the pesticide\/insecticide is the best, effective, eco-friendly, and economical method of controlling pest and diseases. When released in quantities, they knock down the pest population. Generally, these pathogens, when comes to the contact of the pest\/insects they start effecting on them in various ways, which gradually impacts their functioning resulting their death. In the recement years usage of biocontrol is increasing, the availability and production of the same is also increased. List of most widely used biological controls (Pathogens) in Agriculture. Sl # Name Function (Target, Pests \/ Insects \/ Diseases) 01 TRICHODERMA Root rot \/ Stem rot (Pythium spp); Collar rot Damping off, Wire VIRIDE , HARZIANUM Stem (Rhizoctonia Saloni spp); Wilt (Fusarium spp); White mold (Sclerotinia spp ); Fruit rot, Brown spot, Anthracnose grey mold, Head blight, Sheath blight, Web blight; seedling blight, Charcoal rot, Basal stem rot, Stem rot, Root rot, Damping off (Macrophomina phaseolina spp) etc., Vascular wilt disease (Cephalosporium spp); Stem rot, Southern blight (Sclerotium rolfsii); root rot, foot rot or gummosis, fruit brown rot, canopy blight, and damping-off of seedlings (Phytophthora spp), Root Rots. Varnish fungus rot (Ganoderma spp); Blossom blight , Grey mold (Botrytis cinerea spp); ,Smut Disease (Ustilogo spp) and root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp) Trichoderma also used as PGPR and Decomposing agent. 02 PSEUDOMONAS FLUORESCENS Effective control of Damping off, Root rot, Collar rot, Sheath blight, Fruit rot, Leaf spot, Wilts, Pod rot, Cucumber Mosaic Virus; Powdery mildew, Wilt, Blossom end rot, Blister blight, Sugarcane red rot, Tobacco Mosaic Virus, Leaf miner insect, Leaf folder pest, and Paddy blast. Highly effective to the plant pathogens like Fusarium spp, Wilt (Verticillium spp)., Phytopthora spp, Pythium spp., Rhizoctonia spp., Botrytis spp, Sclerotium spp, Sclerotinia sp., Leaf spot (Xanthomons spp) .etc., Produces plant growth promoting hormones like IAA, GA and cytokinens. Increases resistance against diseases and increases mineral and water uptake. 03 METARIZIUM ANISOPLIAE Promotes root development and vegetative growth. Improves soil and crop health. 04 BEAUVERIA BASSIANA Root weevils, Black vine weevil, Spittlebug, white grubs, BEAUVERIA BRONGNIARTII Termites, Japanese beetle, caterpillar, semi toppers, Beetle grubs, Borers, cutworms; Sucking pests like Pyrilla Perpusilla (Plant hooper), Mealy bugs, Aphids. Weevils, Borers, Leafhoppers, Jassids, Whitefly, Aphids, Thrips, Mealybug, fungus gnats, Mites, May beetle Grub and cock chafer, Caterpillars of yellow stem borer and leaf folder of rice, White grub of groundnut, Sugarcane pyrilla, Coconut Rhinoceros Beetle, Caterpillars of pulses, tomato and cotton, Diamond back moth, leaf eating caterpillars of tobacco and sunflower etc. 144","05 Plant parasitic nematodes in soil, Examples include PAECILOMYCES LILACINUS, Meloidogyne spp.(Root knot nematodes); Radopholus similis (Burrowing nematode); Heterodera spp. and Globodera spp. POCHONIA (Cyst nematodes); Pratylenchus spp. (Root lesion nematodes); CHLAMYDOSPORIA Rotylenchulus reniformis (Reniform Nematode); Nacobbus spp.(False Root knot Nematodes). 06 BACILLUS THURINGIENSIS(BT) Gypsy moth, Cabbage looper, Tomato hornworm, European corn borer, Southwestern corn borer, Tobacco budworm, Cotton bollworm, Pink bollworm, Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Diptera, coddling moth and Colorado potato beetle. and other leaf eating caterpillars on trees, shrubs, tomatoes and other vegetables. 07 BACILLUS SUBTILIS (BS) Downey Mildew, Powdery Mildew, Leaf blight, Double rot, Gray mold, Root rot, Root wilt, Seedling rot, Early blight, Late blight, Leaf spot, Stem rot and Mildew diseases in crops. 08 HIRSUTELLA THOMPSONII SPP Insects, Mites , Mango hoopers and Nematodes 09 VERTICILLIUM (LECANICILLIUM) Whiteflies, Aphids, Thrips, Jassids, Brown plant hopper, Scale LECANII insects, Mealy bugs and other sucking insect pests. 10 AMPELOMYCES QUISQUALIS Powdery Mildew prevention 11 NOMURAEA RILEYI Pod borers, Cut worms, Cabbage borers, Green semilooper Tobacco Caterpillar, Armyworm, American Bollworm, Stem borer etc. FYI: These bio controls is available in both Talcum (powder) and Liquid forms. Always refer product description and use accordingly. These can be either used with drip irrigation or as a foliar spray. The best time to apply these are in the early morning or late afternoon-evening. In the early morning, after the irrigation, with a gap of 1-2 hours, apply bio controls \/ fertilizers etc\u2026. irrigation in the morning hours like a warmup to the plants, after getting irrigation and afterwards plants engage themselves to their routine activities\u2026 without irrigation, the application of fertilizers \/ pesticides is not recommended, this will greatly impact plants routine functioning and immunity. This leads to decrease in quality and quantity of the produce in the long run. While choosing, bio fertilizer \/ controls, always see the CFU (Colony formation unit), Higher the CFU, More the effectiveness. 145","OTHER NATURAL METHODS OF PEST AND DISEASE CONTROL \u2022 Pheromone traps \u2022 Yellow\/Blue sticky pad\/paper traps \u2022 Solar light insect traps \u2022 Insect \/ bird nets \u2022 Trap crops Pheromone trap: is a device used for monitoring pest insects in the crop field using a Pheromone lure. As there is no use of any kind of toxins in this trap, it is an eco- friendly replacement for chemical insecticides. Nowadays, many farmers are adopting this trap for its economic and ecological benefits. A Pheromone trap attracts insects towards it using pheromone ( chemicals for attracting insects) and traps them in an inescapable trap. As pheromones are non-toxic and biodegradable chemicals, these traps are highly popular among farmers. and are also an integral part of integrated pest management ( IPM ) systems. Types of Traps: Bucket Trap, Fennel Trap, Water Trap, Delta Trap, Moth \/ McPhail Trap etc\u2026 Delta Trap Water Trap Moth \/ Bucket Trap McPhail Trap Fennel Trap Few widely used lures: American Bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera), Tobacco Caterpiller (Spodoptera litura), Brinjal Fruit & Shoot Borer (Leucinodes orbonalis), Cocoa Pod Borer (Conopomorpha cramerella), Codling Moth (Cydia pomonella), Coffee White Stem Borer (Xylotrechus quadripes), Sugarcane Stalk Borer (Chilo auricilius), Diamond Back Moth (Plutella xylostella), Melon Fruit Fly (Bactrocera cucurbitae), Oriental Fruit Fly (Bactrocera dorsalis), Tomato Leaf Miner\/Tomoto Pin Worm (Tuta absoluta), Sweet Potato Weevil (Cylas formicarius), Pink Bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella), Sugarcane Internode Borer (Chilo sacchariphagus indicus), Black headed caterpillar (Opisina arenosella), Red Palm Weevil (Rhynchophorus ferrugineus), Rice Yellow Stem Borer (Scirpophaga incertulas), Rhinoceros Beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros), Spiny Bollworm (Earias insulana), Spotted Bollworm (Earias vittella), Sugarcane Early Shoot Borer (Chilo infuscatellus), Sugarcane Top Borer (Scirpophaga excerptalis), Beet army worm (Spodoptera exigua), Legume pod borer (Maruca vitrata) FYI: First fix the standing poles at selected locations in the field having a length 1 ft more than the crop canopy. Now, place the traps in the pole and tie them together. These traps can also be placed on tree branches or other similar places. 146"]