Human Evolutionary Biology

Acculturation and Health 591 work emphasizing ambiguity and conflict resulting drawn on by individuals in times of need (Kawachi, from discordance between traditions and expectations 2000). In preindustrialized settings social capital may set up during childhood socialization, and a rapidly be a particularly important resource for protecting changing cultural environment encountered in adult- against shocks such as illness or poor foraging/ hood (Scotch and Geiger, 1969; Henry and Cassel, agricultural returns (Godoy et al., 2005a). This has led 1969; Cassel, 1974). Several studies demonstrate sig- to the hypothesis that as markets develop in preindus- nificant effects of acculturation on the frequency of trialized settings and socioeconomic stratification self-reported symptoms of physical and emotional emerges, health may suffer due to an erosion of social distress (Graves and Graves, 1979, 1985; Hanna and capital. Associations are mixed, with market integration Fitzgerald, 1993). Extensive work with Samoan popu- leading to distrust, conflict, and attenuation of norms of lations has associated the “modernization” gradient sharing in some populations (Putsche, 2000; Bury, with increases in blood pressure and catecholamine 2004). In other settings, new market activities work levels (McGarvey and Baker, 1979; Baker et al., 1986; within existing structures of social capital, and norms Pearson et al., 1993; McGarvey, 2001). Similarly, of sharing and reciprocity help distribute the benefits of individual-level measures of stressors associated with market participation and attenuate the negative effects culture change predict increases in blood pressure, of socioeconomic stratification (LeFerrara, 2003). catecholamine concentrations, and reductions in cell-mediated immunocompetence (Dressler et al., 1987; James et al., 1987; McDade, 2002). A recent ACCULTURATION AND HEALTH: MODELS meta-analysis suggests that acculturative distress is a stronger predictor of increases in blood pressure than Investigators have employed a number of conceptual other obvious correlates of lifestyle such as dietary and analytical models in their efforts to evaluate the change and physical activity levels (Steffen et al., 2006). impact of cultural and economic transitions on health. The vast majority of research investigating associ- These models serve as guides for hypothesis testing ations between acculturation and stress has been con- and the interpretation of results, and reveal assump- ducted with adults, with a few noteworthy exceptions. tions regarding how contextual factors relate to health. In rural Samoa, school attendance has been associated Four general classes of models have been used to guide with increases in catecholamine production in young prior research (Figure 34.2). children (Sutter, 1980). Recent work has shown that status inconsistency is associated with psychosocial stress (as indicated by a biomarker of cell-mediated Additive models: more is better (or worse) immune function) in Samoan adolescents (McDade, 2002). In a study of exposure to tourists in Nepal, chil- Of fundamental importance is a meaningful represen- dren living along a trekker’s trail were taller and heavier tation of aspects of the surrounding environment that with greater BMI than rural children. However, these may have implications for individual well-being. Addi- children also had significantly higher blood pressure, tive models (Figure 34.2a) assume that exposure to, or with girls exhibiting greater increases associated with living along the trail than boys (Pollard et al., 2000). (a) (b) In addition to affecting stressor exposure, cultural 1 2 3 and economic changes may alter sources of social sup- port that individuals can draw on to buffer the adverse Health Health health effects of stress. For example, in the Andes, a strong involvement in wage labor, particularly among migrants, impeded access to familial or extra-familial Change → Change → sources of support (Carey and Thomas, 1987). Simi- larly, Polynesian men who retained a more traditional (c) (d) group orientation reaped the benefits of better health C 1 while “modernizing,” as opposed to those men who did inconsistency consistency not retain social contacts (Graves and Graves, 1979). Health Status marker 2 → =↑stress =↓stress Recent research in industrialized countries has underscored the importance of social capital as an 2 consistency inconsistency =↓stress =↑stress attribute of communities that may be protective for health (Kawachi, 1999; Subramanian et al., 2005). Change → Status marker 1 → Social capital refers to institutions, norms of trust 34.2. Four general types of conceptual models (a–d) used to and reciprocity, and social networks that facilitate col- evaluate the association between measures of cultural and eco- lective action for the common good and that can be nomic change and measures of health.

592 Thomas W. McDade and Colleen H. Nyberg engagement with, nontraditional ways of living is that are more proximate to health outcomes than associated with health in a roughly linear fashion in a possible with ecological comparisons. given population, such that a dose–response relation- ship can be detected between environmental changes Curvilinear models and changes in health. The vast majority of these stud- ies employ ecological comparisons, although a signifi- In general, additive models attempt to represent the cant number include individual-level measures of association between change and health in a linear fash- experience as well. ion: cultural and economic transitions lead to rapid Ecological models employ group-level comparisons changes in the local sociocultural landscape, posing of individuals sharing a common history, but currently adaptive challenges that may compromise health. living in divergent geographic locations that differ in A variant of the additive model is an explicit consider- some meaningful way. In these studies, geographic loca- ation of curvilinear or threshold associations (Figure tion provides a proxy for exposure to, and engagement 34.2b). These models are similar in that they investi- in, novel social, cultural, and/or economic systems. This gate the impact of a single dimension of culture change approach has been critical in underscoring the import- on health, but they differ in that they do not assume a ance of acculturation to health in diverse populations linear, dose–response relationship. Within a single around the world, and has provided a solid foundation population, early stages of acculturation may have for future research (Patrick et al., 1983; Jenner et al., negative effects on health, with later stages having 1987; Wessen et al., 1992; Ulijaszek et al., 2005). positive effects (or vice versa). Alternatively, the asso- Ecological studies are easy to implement, but they ciation between acculturation and health may reach are limited in that causation is impossible to ascertain the point of diminishing returns, resulting in a with group-level comparisons, and confounding is pos- J-shaped or threshold pattern. sible as group differences in health may be due to For example, among Filipino immigrants to factors other than acculturation. In addition, assump- Hawai’i, intermediate levels of “culture contact” were tions about the nature of the difference in experience associated with elevated stress hormone levels, while between groups need to be evaluated, and substantial more favorable stress hormone profiles were found in heterogeneity within the comparison groups may be immigrants with low and high levels of contact obscured. (Brown, 1982). Recent research in Brazil reveals a For example, a number of studies use urban resi- curvilinear relationship between body composition dence as an indicator of acculturation, but in the and socioeconomic status that differs between men Philippines, type of neighborhood within an urban area and women: People living in the favela – an impover- is a major determinant of access to basic infrastructure, ished squatter neighborhood – were the smallest and health care services, educational opportunities, and leanest, with adiposity increasing and then leveling off socioeconomic resources (McDade and Adair, 2001; for men with higher levels of socioeconomic resources. Dahly and Adair, 2007). Rural settlement types are Adiposity also increased with socioeconomic status for comparably diverse, with some rural areas looking women in the middle class, but then dropped for more like urban areas on multiple measures of environ- upper-class women, who were lean compared to ment. In this context, a simple urban–rural dichotomy women in the middle class (Dos Santos et al., 2001). fails to capture significant variation in experience, and Findings like these hint at the complexity of cul- would be a poor representation of reality for analyses of tural and economic change, and curvilinear associ- the impact of urbanization on health. ations with health may be more common than often Household- or individual-level measures avoid assumed based on research with additive models. Syn- some of these shortcomings by creating scales that chronically, a linear relationship between accultur- quantify behaviors, attitudes, and/or experiences rele- ation and health may be evident if the range of vant to cultural or economic change that can then be cultural variation is truncated. If Figure 34.2b repre- used as predictors of health. For example, in Samoa, sents the association between acculturation and health a “Western Profile” index – summing information on in a given population at a given point in time, this English language ability, travel, relatives overseas, edu- relationship would look like a negative linear relation- cation, and parental occupation – has been positively ship if analyses were limited to the lowest third of the associated with urinary catecholamine excretion in acculturation distribution. Recent research in the men (James et al., 1987). Similarly, in central Mexico, islands of Samoa underscores this point (Ezeamama higher blood pressures have been reported for adults et al., 2006). In the more economically developed area engaging in behavioral and material aspects of a of American Samoa, individual-level measures of “modern” lifestyle (Dressler et al., 1987). Individual- socioeconomic status were inversely related to risk level assessments recognize the diversity of experience factors for cardiovascular disease, a pattern similar to within communities, and provide measures of experience that found in most Western nations. But in nearby

Acculturation and Health 593 Samoa, where economic development has progressed have divergent effects on different health outcomes. more slowly, socioeconomic resources were positively For example, as noted above, Westernization in the associated with cardiovascular risk. islands of Samoa has been associated with a general Diachronically, a different pattern of relationship pattern of increased burdens of morbidity in adults as between change and health may emerge. If the x axis in indicated by multiple measures of cardiovascular and Figure 34.2b represents cultural change over time, an metabolic disease risk (Baker et al., 1986). This rela- analysis of the association between acculturation and tionship can be represented by line #2 in Figure 34.2c. health in the earliest stages of acculturation (indicated However, these transitions are also associated with by #1) would reveal a negative association. The same declines in mortality – infant mortality in particular – analysis conducted at a later point in time (indicated which are in turn associated with increases in life by #3) would reveal a positive association. Three expectancy, an undisputable indicator of positive decades of data collection in the Samoan islands has health. These improvements in health can be repre- been able to document a shift in the association sented by line #1 in Figure 34.2c, and underscore the between socioeconomic status and cardiovascular dis- point that it cannot be assumed that the implications ease risk, underscoring the value of longitudinal of cultural and economic transitions for health will be research. Unfortunately, few studies have the breadth uniform across health indicators. or time depth to consider the full range of variation in cultural and economic factors that predict health in a Inconsistency models population, and this fact may be a major reason for inconsistency in results drawn from studies conducted Inconsistency models diverge from other approaches in different regions, and at different points in time. in that they simultaneously explore multiple dimen- sions of change in an attempt to capture the tensions, conflicts, and ambiguities that arise within individuals Heterogeneity models living in the context of cultural and economic transi- In their simplest form, additive and curvilinear models tions. These models do not assume that acculturation assume that cultural and economic transitions have is related to health in an additive fashion; instead, it is uniform affects on the health of all individuals in a the social and/or psychological dissonance associated population. Clearly, this need not be the case, and ana- with rapid change that may be causal. Inconsistency lyses vary in the degree to which they explicitly evaluate models rely primarily on psychosocial pathways the degree of heterogeneity in responses to change. linking experience and health, and have therefore been Historically, the emergence of agriculture has been applied most frequently to physiological outcomes a fundamental transition for human populations with related to stress. dramatic implications for health (Cohen, 1989). The Models of status inconsistency recognize that an intensification of agriculture, and related trends individual’s social status is derived from multiple toward population growth, central organization, and sources, and that these status markers are used to labor specialization promote the unequal distribution advertise a certain style of life or social worth (Dressler, of resources, including resources related to health. For 1988). Changes in the sociocultural landscape foster example, paleopathological evidence from Chile circa the emergence of new, locally meaningful markers of 1000 BP indicates that the intensification of agricul- social status. To the extent that these markers are in ture was associated with a general decline in health agreement within individuals, a coherent social iden- (#2 in Figure 34.2c), but this decline was not equally tity is projected. However, disagreement – or status distributed. Shaman men – a privileged class – showed inconsistency – may invalidate an individual’s claim little evidence of poor health (#1 in Figure 34.2c) and to a certain social standing, thereby resulting in stress were much better off than men in general, who in turn (Figure 34.2d). Models of status inconsistency repre- were in better health than women in this population sent more dynamic measures of individual experience (Allison, 1984). This stratification in health is not evi- vis-a `-vis culture change than additive models that may dent in analyses from earlier historical periods when be particularly relevant to the experience of stress. the society was more egalitarian, and emerges only In the context of globalization, Western material with the social and economic transitions associated goods and lifestyles tend to be associated with high with agricultural intensification. It is important to status around the world, while developing economies inspect for within-population heterogeneity in associ- cannot provide enough high-paying jobs to support the ations between change and health since averaging demand for increased levels of consumption. This across subgroups may lead to the mistaken conclusion sets the stage for “lifestyle incongruity,” or inconsist- that change is not associated with health. ency between emerging symbolic signs of prestige Acculturation may lead to stratification in health (e.g., material style of life, travel, etc.) and occupa- across social groups within a population, but it may also tional/educational class. Independent of potentially

594 Thomas W. McDade and Colleen H. Nyberg confounding variables, adults who are incongruent on foundation on which to build more sophisticated these two dimensions of social status have been found models that attempt to capture this variation. There is to have elevated blood pressure in Samoa, St. Lucia, tremendous potential to develop new conceptual and Mexico, and Brazil (Dressler, 1982, 1990; Dressler and analytic models that link context, behavior, and health Bindon, 1997; Dressler et al., 1987a, 1987b). at the individual level, across time. By thinking critic- Other formulations of status inconsistency have ally and creatively about how to define and measure been developed for specific ethnographic settings. For shifting social, cultural, and economic contexts, and by men in American Samoa, having a high status job but linking these measures to physiology and health, we relatively low educational status has been associated greatly enrich our understanding of human biology with elevated blood pressure (McGarvey and Schendel, and processes of adaptation. 1986). Increased blood pressure among young men has also been attributed to increased financial demands from extended family (Bitton et al., 2006), while for DISCUSSION POINTS Samoan women, “living beyond one’s means” has been associated with elevated blood pressure (Chin-Hong 1. Is globalization good or bad for health? Why is a and McGarvey, 1996). For Samoan migrants in Califor- definitive answer to this question elusive? nia, economic status and leadership in the local com- 2. What are the primary mechanisms of human adap- munity have been identified as two important tation, and how do they provide insight into the dimensions of social status, with inconsistency across impact of cultural/economic transitions on human these dimensions associated with increased blood pres- health? sure (Janes, 1990). For Samoan adolescents, discord- 3. What approaches have been applied to model the ance between a traditional marker of social status impact of cultural/economic transitions on human (having a matai chief in the household) and a new biology and health? Which models best capture marker of social status (familiarity with Western life- which types of issues? styles) has been associated with increased Epstein– 4. What are the gaps in current knowledge? What Barr virus (EBV) antibody titers, indicating suppressed future research is needed to address these gaps? cell-mediated immune function (McDade, 2002). 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Index Locators in bold refer to major content Locators in italic refer to figures/tables Locators for headings which also have subheadings refer to general aspects of that topic only. AAAG (American Association of adaptation 17, 21, 25–26; schizophrenia/schizotypal Anthropological Genetics) 41 see also altidudinal adaptation, disorder 552 AAPA (American Association of developmental adaptation, thrifty adaptive radiation 14; Physical Anthropologists) 32, genotypes, thrifty phenotypes see also evolutionary theory 144, 266 acclimation 19 additive genetic variance 4 abdominal fat 102, 430, 432, 518, 520; acclimatization 19 additive models of cultural transition see also adipose tissue, metabolic accommodation 20 591, 592 syndrome, obesity cooperation as 22, 383–384 ADHD (attention-deficit hyperactivity ABO blood groups see blood groups and cortisol 414 disorder) 496 Aboriginals, Australian 497 cost-benefits 25 adipose tissue/adiposity 23, 519, genoclines 222–223 cultural/technological 20, 582–584; 519–520; see also metabolic markers of variation 222 see also cultural transitions syndrome, obesity, size/ microevolutionary processes 233 definition 170 morphology protein hormones 129 discussion points 26 abdominal fat 102, 430, 432, 518, 520 size/morphology 164, 167 domains 171 brain development/function 431 abridged life tables 76 ecological variation 338 endocrinology 135 acclimation 19, 170, 174–175; embodied capital 440–441, 452 fecundity 327 see also altidudinal adaptation endocrinology, behavioral 277 global distributions 166 accommodation 20, 398; epigenetics 24–25 infant 325, 520 see also adaptation fetal 324, 341–342 inflammatory response 523 acculturative stress model 585; functional 19 insulin resistance 499 see also cultural transitions, stress genetic 20–21, 170, 176, 184–185, 491 juveniles/adolescents 400 accuracy, definition 96 habituation 19 natural selection 521 ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme) history of discipline 34, 37–38 pregnancy/lactation 339–340 184–185 immune system 462–463 prenatal nutrition, role 523–524 Ache ´ people 135 individuals vs. populations 20 rebound 400 adolescence 387–388 information processing as 408 aDNA (ancient DNA) research 146–147 consumption/productivity 443 modeling 10 adolescence see juveniles/adolescents demographic transition 590 molecular 253 ADP (air displacement life history theory 441, 441–442 nutritional 37 plethysmography) 118–119 marriage 389 and pollution 566–567 adrenarche 131, 358–359, 410 senescence 360 polygenic inheritance 58–59 adrenocorticotropic hormone survivorship 79 processes 18–19 (ACTH) 414 testosterone levels, male 364 reproductive biology 327–328, aerobic capacity, altitudinal achondroplasia 63, 68–69, 69–70 362–363, 364 adaptations 171, 175–177 acne 496 research directions 23 affection, biology of 287, 411; acromion process measurements size/morphology 166 see also attachment, 106, 107 skin coloration 201 endocrinology, pair bonds ACTH (adrenocorticotropic to stress 17–18, 36, 417, 582 affluence, afflictions of 491, 493; hormone) 414 adaptationist paradigm, evolutionary see also metabolic syndrome, activational effects 280 medicine 459–460 obesity active tissue mass 122 anorexia nervosa 554 aflatoxins in food 399 activity see physical activity depression/mania 553, 554 Africa 252, 587; see also out-of-Africa acute disease, causation 503 evolutionary psychiatry 551, 560 hypothesis acute mountain sickness (AMS) 172 mania/hypomania 553–554 African Ancestry Project 147 603

604 Index African replacement model 250 oxygen transport 172–174, 180 brain energetics 429 African sleeping sickness 467 pulmonary ventilation during differential parental investment 316 Afro-Caribbean peoples 271 exercise 181 DNA markers 253 Age of Exploration 29 pulmonary volume 175, 176, 181, 182 endocrinology 135, 278 age of maximum reproductive reproductive performance 177–180 immune system 465, 466, 467, 468 potential (MRP) 529 research directions 185–186 inbreeding avoidance 312 age-specific fertility rates (ASFR) resting ventilation 180 leptin structure/function 135 80, 381 ventilatory control/chemosensitivity longevity/senescence 533–535, 538, age-specific gene action 529–530 180–181 540–541, 543, 545 age-structured populations 76 altricial offspring 537, 538, 542, major histocompatibility complex 315 aggregate approach, pollution, 543, 544 male reproductive function 572 environmental 567 altruism 11, 12, 22, 278, 555; mate choice 353 aggression, endocrinology of 281, 283, see also co-operation, group pair bonds/parental care 281–282, 413 353–354, 461 selection sex differences in behavior 280 aging 31, 54, 195, 359, 528; alveolar ventilation (V A ) 172 sleep 430 see also late-life stage, longevity/ Alzheimer’s disease 233, 503, 511, 512 social factors and development 358 senescence Amazon, cultural transitions 587 t gene locus 11 agricultural societies 444–445, amenorrhea 136, 325–327 time management 136 445–446, 449, 497; America, human migration/gene ankylosing spondylitis (AS) 230 see also foraging societies, flow 252 Annals of Human Biology 41 Homininae, horticultural societies, American Association of Anthropological Anopheles spp. 474–477 thrifty genotypes, traditional Genetics (AAAG) 41 anorexia nervosa 326, 399, 554, 555, human populations American Association of Physical 559; see also eating disorders cultural transitions 591, 593 Anthropologists (AAPA) 32, 144, 266 anterior cingulate cortex 429 horticultural societies 444–445, 449 American Indians 497 anterior superior iliac spine and life span 540 American Journal of Human Biology 41 measurements 107 AIDS see HIV/AIDS American Journal of Physical anthrax 469 air displacement plethysmography Anthropology (AJPA) 32 anthropological demography 88; (ADP) 118–119 amino acids, gene expression 57 see also demography air pollution 568, 570, 572, 574–575, AMS (acute mountain sickness) 172 anthropological genetics 39; 574–575; see also pollution amygdala 426 see also genetics AJPA (American Journal of Physical amyotrophic lateral sclerosis 41 Anthropological Genetics (Crawford Anthropology)32 anabolic steroids 352 and Workman) 224–225 Al Naskapi 216–217 anatomically modern Homo sapiens anthropology 29, 32, 566–567; albinism 193 (AMHS) 245–250 see also physical anthropology albumins 216–217 ancestry 227; see also race/typology anthropometers 105–106 alcohol burn 115 ancient Egypt/Mesopotamia 446; Anthropometric Standardization alcohol use/abuse 493, 496, 497, 558, see also traditional human Reference Manual (Lohman et al.) 96 588; see also substance abuse populations anthropometry 92; see also body allelic interaction 50 ancient DNA (aDNA) research 146–147 composition studies Allen’s Rule 36, 157, 166, 167, 222 Andean Biocultural Studies project 38 abdominal circumference 102 allergies 460, 464, 539 Andean peoples 177 acceptable error limits 106 allocation principle 9 altidudinal adaptation 170 anthropometers 105–106 allopatric speciation 13 birthweight 178 applications other than child allostatic load 414 fertility/fecundity 177–178 growth 110 altidudinal adaptation 17, 18, 23, 41, juvenile/adolescent growth 401 body composition studies 117–118 170–171 markers of variation 224 buttock/hip circumference 102 acclimatization 174–175 maternal oxygen transport 179 calibration 102 arterial oxygen saturation 181–182 native endurance performance 177 climatic influences on body weight/ blood gases/pulmonary gas psychosocial stress 591 proportions 159 exchange 182–183 pulmonary volumes 129, 175, 176, 182 data handling 97–98 cardiovascular system 183 androgens 131–132; see also males, diameters 104 discussion points 186 steroid hormones, testosterone discussion points 110–111 environmental hypoxia 171–172 andropause 352, 359–360 infant measuring tables 102 genetics 184–185 anemia 179, 218 infantometers 102 hemoglobin 183–184 Angelman syndrome 61 instruments/techniques 93–96, 98, 99 infancy/early childhood growth angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) measurement units 93 176, 399 184–185 measuring procedures 98–99 juvenile/adolescent growth 401 animal studies; see also nonhuman neonatometers 101–102 muscle structure/metabolism 184 primate studies nutritional status assessment 167 native work capacity 175–177 alcohol use 558 reliability 96–97

Index 605 skinfold callipers 37–104 attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder biceps brachii measurements 107 skinfolds 103 (ADHD) 496 bi-iliac diameter 105 stadiometers 100–101 attraction, mate 352 biocultural approaches, human biology stature 99–100 Australia, markers of variation 224; 35–36; see also anthropology, subscapular skinfold 103, 104 see also Aboriginals culture supine/recumbent length 101, 102 Australopithecines 426; biocultural evolution 535, surface landmarks 106–110 see also Homininae 542–543, 544 tape measures 102–103 autistic spectrum disorders 557–558 biodiversity, and emerging diseases 477 technical error of measurement 96, autoimmune diseases 461, 463, 464, bioelectrical impedence analysis (BIA) 106, 106 467, 495, 540 116, 120 technological advances 110 automated data collection, bioethics 144–145; see also ethics terminology 92–93 anthropometry 110 Biological Anthropology and Ethics training 99 auxology 32, 94; see also growth (Turner) 144 triceps skinfold 103 avian flu 479 biological species concept (BSC) 12 weight measurements 99 AVP (arginine-vasopressin) biomagnification 568 antibiotic medication 470–471, 494 see vasopressin biomarkers of disease 492; antibody-mediated immunity 463 Aymara peoples 170 see also markers of variation anti-inflammatory effects, statins 505 Aztec peoples 446 biomedical anthropology 41 antimicrobial effects, garlic 505–506 biomedical models of health 588 antioxidants 493; see also free radicles B cells 462–463 biostatistics, use of 32 The Antiquities of the Jews baby fat 325, 520 bipedalism 389 (Josephus) 268 Baker, Paul T. 35–36 biphenol A 25 anxiety 282–283, 329, 461, 496, 559 balancing selection 7, 69–70 bipolar disorder 553–554 APOE*4gene 536 Bangladeshi women, ovarian bird flu 479 apoptosis 507, 508–509, 529–530, function 325 birth 131, 133, 407 532–533 Barnicot, Nigel A. 34, 37 birthweight appearance-based mate choice basal metabolic rate (BMR) 122–123, altidudinal adaptation 178, 179 297–298 340, 360–361, 383, 520 and disease 24, 341 apple-shaped bodies 499 basophils 461 life span approach 40–41 apprentice hypothesis 387 Bateman’s principle 352 and race/typology 273 archetypes 560 BCM (body cell mass) 117, 118, 123 reproductive hormone levels Arctic peoples 586–587 BDD (body dysmorphic disorder) 110 324–325 arginine-vasopressin see vasopressin BDNF (brain derived neurotrophic bivariate scatter plots 98 arm length measurements 108–109 factor) 432 Blackfeet Indians, markers of arms race, evolutionary 310, 317, 408, behavior/behavioral variation 224 409, 469 ecology/evolutionary ecology 22 blank slate (tabula rasa) theory 551 aromatic hydrocarbons 574–575 evolution 278–279 blending theory of inheritance 48; arousal levels 431; see also fight-or- flexibility 345 see also genetics flight response, stress genetics 267, 270 blood–brain barrier 426, 427 artistic temperament, and mental impacts on health, cultural blood gases 182–183 disorder 552, 561 transitions 588 blood groups 238–239 arterial oxygen saturation 181–182 isolation 13 and disease associations 227–228 artificial formula feeding 588–589 neuroendocrine mechanisms Duffy system 232 AS (ankylosing spondylitis) 230 277–278; see also endocrinology, genetics 51 asexual reproduction 309–311 behavioral incompatibility selection 228–229 ASFR (age-specific fertility rate) 80, 381 The Bell Curve (Herrnstein and and malaria 477 Ashkenazi Jews 218 Murray) 273 markers 214, 215, 220–223, 224, Asian populations, body mass index 164 Belmont Principles 146 225–226 assisted reproductive technology 316 Belmont Report 144, 147 Mendelian genetics 49–50 assortive mating 64–65 benign environments 539–540; MN 63, 66, 67–68 asthma 464, 493, 495, 496, 539 see also stress polymorphism 37 astrocyte-neuron-lactate shuttle Bergmann’s rule 36, 157, 166, 167, 222 race/typology 232, 233 428, 430 Berkeley growth study 95 soluble antigens 215–216 astrocytes 426, 429 The Blood Group Antigen Facts Book asymmetry, fluctuating (FA) 110, 313, b-globin, DNA markers 255–256 (Reid and Lomas-Francis) 216 324–325; see also symmetry blood pressure, high see hypertension atherosclerosis see cardiovascular BIA (bioelectrical impedence analysis) Blumenbach, Johann Friedrich 267 disease 116, 120 BMC (bone mineral content) 117, 119 attachment 302–303, 345, 384, 411, bi-acromial diameter 104–105 BMI see body mass index 417, 555–556; see also affection, Biblical theory of human BMR (basal metabolic rate) 122–123, pair bonds biogeography 268 340, 360–361, 383, 520

606 Index Boas, Franz 30–31 information processing 408, 434 cancer 493, 496; see also breast cancer, Bod Pod® 116, 118–119 measuring procedures 425 skin cancer body cell mass (BCM) 117, 118, 123 and metabolic syndrome 520, and calorie restriction 534 body composition studies 33, 116; 521–522, 522, 522–523, 524–525 causation 503, 506–510 see also anthropometry nonhuman primate studies 534 cervical 495, 503, 512 additional methods 120–121 and pair bonds 413 colon 200 anthropometry 117–118 recent human evolution 492 cultural transitions 585 bioelectrical impedence analysis 120 sleep 429–430 hormone-dependent 330, 332 compartmental models 117 specific brain regions 428–429 and infection 495 densitometry 118–119 stress response mechanisms 414 liver 503, 512 dual energy X-ray absorptiometry 119 substrate specificity 430 longevity/senescence 536–537 and energy metabolism 121–122 and vitamin D 200 lung cancer 498 hydrometry 119–120 Brazil, cultural transitions 592 ovarian 200 log-log regression 122–123 BRCA gene 509 and pollution 574–575 nutritional adaptation 37 breast cancer 200, 332, 511 prevention 493 weight adjustments 122 causation 503, 507–509, 508–509, 512 stomach 228 whole body potassium counting 118 discordance hypothesis 494 vaccines 495 body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) 110 genetics 509 vaginal 570 body fat see adipose tissue/adiposity growth/development 495 candidate genes 253, 255 body mass index (BMI) 116, 117, hormone levels 330 carbohydrate metabolism 430, 499, 499 158, 492 breast-feeding 40, 136, 342–343; carbonic anhydrase, markers of effects of climate/nutrition 164–166, see also childcare, weaning variation 218 167, 168 behavioral impacts of change on cardiovascular disease (CVD) 41, 233, fecundity 327 health 588 492, 493, 496, 511 figures/tables 159, 163, 165, 166 biomedical models of health 588–589 adiposity rebound 400 hypertension 497 brain development 431 causation 503, 504–506 insulin resistance 498 discordance hypothesis 494 gene–environment interactions lactation 344 discussion points 346 518–519 body weight 122–123; see also surface and disease ecology 345 and infection 495, 504, 512 law, three quarter power function female behavior 287 life span approach 40–41 Bolivia 587 immune system 463, 521 thrifty phenotypes 24 bone milk composition 343–345 cardiovascular system 183, 282 growth/maintenance 200, 201, 204 and parental investment theory 296 caries, dental 496, 497–498 mineral content 117, 119 policy implications 345–346 carrier agents, hormones 127–128, 130 typing 232 reproductive suppression 328 carriers of disease, definition 468 borderline personality disorder 556 and skin coloration 204 Cartesian dualism 425 bottlenecks, developmental wet nursing 449 case studies, mental disorders 552, 520–521, 524 breast size, and fecundity 328–329 553, 555 bottlenecks, population 68, 529, breeding see cooperative breeding, castration studies 280 542–543 reproduction catch-up growth 396, 400 Bougainville study 223, 224 bride capture 444, 445 causal triangle model, chronic disease Bowlby, John 555 bride service 444, 445 503–504; see also chronic disease boys see juveniles/adolescents, males bride wealth 445–446; see also marriage causation brain derived neurotrophic factor BSC (biological species concept) 12 cultural transitions 592 (BDNF) 432 bulimia nervosa 326; see also eating Hill’s criteria 567 brain development/growth 383 disorders pollution, environmental 571 adolescence 432–433 Burkitt’s lymphoma 506 primary/secondary causes 503–504; childhood 431–432 bushmeat 473, 478 see also chronic disease, infectious embodied capital 440 buttock circumference causation infants 431 measurements 102 cell biology pregnancy/lactation 339–340, 344 Bwa Mawego 405, 417 adhesion 507, 508–509 stress endocrinology 407 cell replicative ability 531–532 young adults 433 CAESAR (Civilian American and cycle arrest 507, 508–509 brain function 425–426, 433–434 European surface anthropometry death (apoptosis) 507, 508–509, and age 520 resource) 110 529–530, 532–533 astrocyte-neuron-lactate shuttle 428 calcium, and skin coloration 204 longevity/senescence 535–537 discussion points 434 calibration, anthropometry 102 telomeres 532 energy metabolism 407, 426–427, callipers, skinfold 37–104 cellular-mediated immunity 463–464 429, 430–431 calorie restriction 326, 327, 534, 541 Center for the Study of Ethics in the and embodied capital 440 calorimeters 113–114, 114–115 Professions 144 history of discipline 426 camouflage, and skin coloration 196–197 “central dogma” of biology 56

Index 607 centrosomes/centrioles 55 chronic mountain sickness (CMS) 172 competitor derogation 298 cephalic index 31 chronological aging 195 complement system 462 cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) 128 cigarette smoking 492, 493, 498, complementary feeding of infants 343 cerumen (ear wax) types 219 536–537, 585 complementary genes 314 cervical cancer 495, 503, 512 cirrhosis, liver 496 computerized tomography (CT) CF (cystic fibrosis) 219–220, 273 Civil Rights movement 266 scanning 116, 121 challenge hypothesis 354 Civilian American and European confidentiality, research ethics 152 chance processes in evolution surface anthropometry resource conflicts of interest 153 see genetic drift (CAESAR) 110 conformity 555 change, defining 587; see also cultural civilizations, ancient see ancient Egypt/ conscious awareness 24.16, 407, 409 transitions, ecological change Mesopotamia, traditional human consent, informed 145–146, 150–153 character displacement 14 populations conservation of energy, law of 113 characteristic equation, Euler–Lotka 83 class differences 30 constant heat summation, law of 113 cheating behavior 22 classical markers of variation constitutional somatology 34 chemosensitivity 180–181 see markers of variation constrained down-regulation childcare, co-operative 383–384, classifications, racial 30, 220–223, 271 hypothesis 328 385–386, 387–388, 389 climate; see also size/morphology, consumption through life course, childhood; see also infancy effects of climate and nutrition embodied capital hypothesis brain development 431–432 and body weight/proportions 442–443 evolution of 381–382, 385–386, 158–161, 162 contaminants, food 396, 397, 399; 409–410 change, and infectious disease 478 see also pollution growth studies see anthropometry, and ear wax types 219 controlling mates 354 growth extremes, adaptation to 17 Coolidge effect 353 infections 496 Climatic Research Laboratory, co-operation, evolution of 11, 12, 22 and later ovarian function 325 Natick 36 co-operative breeding 384, 408, 443; learning 386 clonal selection 463 see also reproduction sensitivity to stress 406 closed calorimeters 114 evolution 383–384, 385–386, chimpanzees see nonhuman primate clustering populations 268–269 387–388, 389 studies Coale–Demeny model life tables coronary atherosclerosis Chinese farmers, age-specific 78–79, 80 see cardiovascular disease fertility rate 381 coalescent theory 5 cortico-thalamic-striatal circuit 433 Chlamydophila pneumoniae 505, 511,512 coalescent trees 245, 246, 248 corticotrophin-releasing hormone cholera 227–228, 469, 510 Coale–Trussell model fertility (CRH) 338–339, 341 cholesterol 505, 536 schedules 81–83, 84 cortisol 127, 132, 136, 329; chromatin 53 cocaine addiction 558 see also stress endocrinology chromosomes 53–54, 574–575; codons 57 brain development, infant 431 see also genetics, mutations coercion, sexual 300, 301, 354 family environments 397, 416, X chromosome 252–253, 280 coevolution, infectious disease 469 415–417 chronic disease, evolutionary cognitive behavioral therapy 329 pair bonds/parental care 282, 283, 412 perspective 491, 496, 500; cognitive diversity 270; stress response mechanisms 405, see also discordance hypothesis see also behavior: genetics 414–415 dental caries 497–498 cognitive impairment, stress response cost-benefits discussion points 501 mechanisms 414 adaptation 25 hypertension 496–497 Cohen priesthood 536 meiosis 309, 310 insulin resistance 498–500, 499, 500 cold injury hypothesis 198–199 courtship displays 352 lung cancer 498 Cold Spring Harbor Symposium on cousins, marriage between 54, 311–312 objections to evolutionary approach Quantitative Biology 34, 37 craniometric variation 31 491–493 cold stress adaptation 36 creativity, and mental disorder 552, 561 scope/nature 493 colon cancer 200 CRH (corticotrophin-releasing chronic disease, infectious causation color-blindness 221 hormone) 338–339, 341 502, 511, 512–513 color-matching 194 Crohn’s disease 495 atherosclerosis 503, 504–506, 512 coloration, skin see skin coloration cross-sectional data cleaning 97–98 breast cancer 512 Common Rule 145 cryptic female choice 311, 316 cancer 503, 506–510 comparative genomics 205 cryptic ovulation 389, 410 causal triangle model 503–504 compartmental models of body CSF (cerebral spinal fluid) 128 discussion points 513 composition 117 CT (computerized tomography) overview 502–504 compatible genes 312–313, 314, 317 scanning 116, 121 pre-eclampsia 511–512 compensation 147 culture/cultural influences pregnancy sickness 510–511, 512 competition between pathogens 469 adaptation 20, 582–584 primary/secondary causes 503–504 competition for mates 353–354; behavior 278 schizophrenia 511, 512 see also mate choice brain evolution 409

608 Index culture/cultural influences (cont.) quotation 0.1 demographic transition 450, 540, 581, definitions 582 speciation in finches 13 589–590; see also cultural female behavior across menstrual struggle for existence and transitions, epidemiology cycle 285–286 adaptation 21 demography 74–75, 84, 88–89; genetics of mate choice 316 Voyage of the Beagle 30 see also fertility, mortality rates global distributions of human data discussion points 89–90 migration/gene flow 252–253 cleaning 97–98 Euler–Lotka characteristic equation growth variation due to editing 97 83–85 environmental factors 396 security 152 exponential growth 75 human biology 35–36 sharing 147 fitness sensitivities/elasticities 87–88 and information processing 408 databases life tables 75–78, 78–80 longevity/senescence 542–543, 544 human mortality 78 and pollution, environmental 566 mate choice evolution 302–303 IMGT/HLA 229 population projection matrix pair bonds/parental care 284 Dawkins, Richard 529 models 86–87 psychotherapy paradigm 560 DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethan) reproductive value 85–86 race/typology 266–267, 273 401 dendrites/dendritic spines 428, 461 skin coloration 204–205 defense mechanisms 460, 460 dendrograms 225, 226 cultural transitions 581, 582, definitions densitometry 118–119 586–587, 594 acclimatization 170 dental caries 496, 497–498 additive models 591, 592 acculturation 581 Department of Health and Human behavioral impacts on health 588 adaptation 25, 170 Services (DHHS), US 145 change, defining/measuring 587 aging/senescence 528 Department of Health, Education and child growth studies 584 anthropometry 92–93, 96–97 Welfare (DHEW), US 145 culture and adaptation 582–584 biocultural evolution 535 depression/mania 496 curvilinear models 591, 592–593 carriers of disease 468 adaptationist perspective 461 definitions/terminology 581 change 587 attachment theory 556 degenerative diseases 584–585 chronic disease 502 case study 554 demographic transition 589–590 cultural and economic transitions 581 cultural transitions 585 discussion points 594 culture 582 evolutionary psychiatry 553–554, and economic transitions 584, developmental adaptation 170 553–554, 561 587, 588 developmental responses 170 and fatty acids 494 environmental impacts of endemic diseases 469 and loss 560 change 589 epidemics/epidemiology 469 psychotherapy paradigm 560 health care impacts of change genes 52–53 DES (diethylstilbestrol) 570 588–589 genetic adaptation 170 desert physiology study 33 heterogeneity models 591, 593 growth 379 design compromise, evolutionary history of discipline 582 heritability 4 medicine 460–461 inconsistency models 591, 593–594 human biology 42 despotic males 446–447, 544 infectious/parasitic disease 585–586 incubation period 468 deterministic models 74 mental health/substance abuse 585 indigenous 170 development, social 409–410; models 591–592 latency periods 468 see also growth psychosocial stress 590–591 life history theory 528 developmental acclimation 19 regional focus 586–587 maximum reproductive developmental acclimatization 19 research directions 594 potential 529 developmental adaptation 19, 21, 23, curvilinear models 591, 592–593 native 170 26; see also adaptation, altidudinal CVD see cardiovascular disease natural selection 7 adaptation CYP17 gene 330 parental investment theory 529 definition 170 cystic fibrosis (CF) 219–220, 273 pollution 567 epigenetics 24–25 cytokines 464, 522, 523 polymorphism 3 fetal 341 reproductive success 7 and mate choice 303 dairy foodstuffs 219 reservoirs of disease 468 pulmonary volumes 175, 176, 181, 182 dams 477 species 12 size/morphology 167 DARC (Duffy antigen receptor for zoonotic infections 468 stage of development 18 cytokines) 233 deforestation, and emerging thrifty genotypes 23–24 Darkness in El Dorado (Tierney) 145 diseases 477 developmental age 31 Darwin, Charles 9–10 degenerative diseases 20, 41, 584–585; developmental bottlenecks 520–521,524 evolution of cooperation 22 see also chronic diseases developmental inertia 583; evolutionary theory 15, 65 delusions 551, 553; see also imprinting genetics 48, 50 see also schizophrenia/ developmental landmarks 390 longevity/senescence 528 schizotypal disorder developmental responses, natural selection 68 demes 269 definition 170

Index 609 DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) 344 cultural transitions 594 dominant eigenvalues 86 DHEAS (dehydroepiandrosterone) demography 89–90 dominant genes 51, 63 131, 136, 405, 433 DNA markers 257 Dominican peoples, stress DHEW (Department of Health, embodied capital 452 endocrinology 397, 416, 415–417 Education and Welfare), US 145 endocrinology 137–138, 287–288 dopamine 412, 413 DHHS (Department of Health and energy metabolism 123–124 dosage suppression 56 Human Services), US 145 ethics 148 dose–response relationships, organic diabetes 41, 127, 233, 493, 496; evolutionary medicine 479 pollutants 573 see also insulin resistance, evolutionary psychiatry 561–562 doubly labeled water (DLW) 115 metabolic syndrome evolutionary theory 15 dreaming 429 adiposity rebound 400 genetics 71–72, 317 Drosophila spp. 14, 533–534, 540 autoimmune diseases 495 growth 392–393, 402 drug abuse 460–461, 496, 558, 585; evolutionary medicine 461 history of human biology 42–43 see also substance abuse gene–environment interactions longevity/senescence 545–546 DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical 518–519 male reproductive physiology Manual) 551 and pollution 573–574 364–365 dual energy X-ray absorptiometry risk factors 493 markers of variation 234 (DXA) 117, 119 thrifty genotypes 23–24 mate choice 303–304, 317 dual photon absorptiometry 116 thrifty phenotypes 24 metabolic syndrome 525 dualism, Cartesian 425 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual ovarian function 332 Duffy blood group system 232, 233 (DSM) 551 pollution, environmental 575 Dunker isolates 67 diameters, measurement 104 pregnancy/lactation 346 DXA (dual energy X-ray diarrhea 510 race/typology 274 absorptiometry) 117, 119 diet see digestive system, nutrition size/morphology, effects of climate/ diethylstilbestrol (DES) 570 nutrition 168 ear pinna measurements 109 differential parental investment 309, skin coloration 205–206 eating disorders 326, 399, 554, 555, 316; see also parental stress endocrinology 417 559, 588 investment theory disease; see also chronic disease, ecogeographic rules 222 diffusion limitation 173 immune-system, infectious disease ecological change, human-induced digestive system; see also nutrition autoimmune 461, 463, 464, 467, 477, 478–479 and blood group 228 495, 540 ecology gut morphology 538, 542 and blood groups 227–228 cultural transition models 592 Homininae evolution 520 degenerative 20, 41, 584–585 history of human biology 37–38 lactase 219, 491 endemic 469 and immunity 465–466, 466–467, digit length ratio 325 and environmental hypoxia 172 467–468; see also evolutionary dihydrotestosterone 131 and HLA systems 229–230, 233 medicine, immune system dioxins see PAHs (polycyclic aromatic and lactation 345 of reproduction 40 hydrocarbons) markers of variation 233–234 of variation 338, 345 direct calorimetry 114–115 and mate choice 352 economic factors; see also cultural directional asymmetry 110 prevention 450–451 transitions, embodied capital directional selection 7, 8, 63, 68–69 and race/typology 273 and growth variation 396 discordance hypothesis 460, 491, 493, resistance to 474 and race/typology 272–273 500; see also thrifty genotypes and stress 413–414 economy of locomotion 177 breast cancer 507 disposable somas 528, 530–531 ECF/ECS (extra-cellular fluids/solids) chronic disease 496, 502–503 disruptive/diversifying selection 8 117 culture and adaptation 583 diversity see markers of variation, EDB (“evo-devo”) 14 degenerative diseases 585 race/typology, variation educational level, and mate evolutionary psychiatry 558–559,561 division of labor 444, 451; attraction 352 growth/development 495 see also embodied capital, education-based capital 450, 451–452, infection 494–495 extra-somatic wealth 451–452 and insulin resistance 499, 500 divorce 284, 301, 397, 416, 415–417; EEAT2 428, 431 nutrition 493–494 see also fathers (absent) effective size of populations 5, 63 physical exercize 494 DLW (doubly labeled water) 115 Egyptians, ancient 446 psychosocial factors 495–496, 591 DNA (deoxybribonucleic acid) 53 eigenvalues 86 reproduction 494 analysis, history of 38–39 eigenvectors 86 discussion points isolation methodology 58 El Nin ˜o Southern Oscillation effect 478 adaptation 26 markers see markers of variation elasticities, fitness 87–88 altidudinal adaptation 186 structure 51 elephants, alcohol use 558 anthropometry 110–111 docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) 344 embodied capital 386, 439 brain function and energetics 434 dominance, and competition for adaptation 452 chronic disease 501, 513 mates 353 adaptive complex 440–441

610 Index embodied capital (cont.) thyroid hormones 134–135 Eskimo peoples 18, 497 brain as 440 time management 136 estradiol/estrogen 323–324 consumption/productivity through endurance performance 177 animal studies 278 life course 442–443 energy metabolism 113; see also body birth 131 discussion points 452 composition studies, nutrition body fat/fecundity 327 extra-somatic wealth 439, 443–444 and body composition/size 121–122 and breast cancer 507–508 foraging societies/nonhuman body fat/fecundity 327 childhood influences 325 primates 441, 441–442 body weight adjustments 122 energy metabolism 325–327 labor markets, skills-based 450–452 brain function 407, 426–427, 429, evolutionary endocrinology 127, and life history theory 439–440 430–431 128, 131, 132 and life span 543 calorimetry, indirect/direct 114–115 fetal developmental influences modern world 450 and development 358 324–325 premodern period 448–450 discussion points 123–124 genetic variation 329–331 sedentism/horticulture 444–445 doubly labelled water 115 hormone level correlates 331 tribal pastoralism 445–446 and embodied capital 440 hormone level norms 331–332 variation in male quality/marriage endocrinology 130, 134 hourglass figure 328–329 market 447–448 and fertility 40 menopause 127 empathy 407 heart rate/activity monitoring parental care 411–412 emphysema 496 115–116 and physical activity levels 327 encephalization 339–340, 534–535, history of discipline 113–114 population differences 322–323 542; see also brain development/ immune system 466, 521 and senescence in men 360 growth and infection 398 ethics 144–145, 151 ENCODE Project Consortium 53, 56 and lactation 344 bioethics 144–145 endemic diseases, definition 469 and metabolic syndrome 520, compensation 147 endocrine disruptors 355 521–522, 522, 522–523, 524–525 data sharing 147 endocrinology, behavioral 287; and ovarian function 323–324, discussion points 148 see also gender differences, 325–327 group consent 146–147 hormone levels, reproduction, plasticity, phenotypic 524–525 implementing ethical standards 148 stress endocrinology pregnancy 340–341 information resources 150, 151, 153 discussion points 287–288 reproductive suppression 327–328 informed consent 145–146, 150–153 endocrine mechanisms 279 sleep 429–430 and pollution, environmental 575 evolution of behavior 278–279 and sperm production 355 and research 150–153 female behavior across menstrual testosterone costs 360–361, risks/benefits, research 147, 152–153 cycle 284 361–362, 363 ethnicity see race/typology pair bonds/parental care 281–283 environment ethological paradigm, evolutionary sex differences in human behavior and genetics see gene–environment psychiatry 554–555, 560 281, 280–281 interactions euchromatin 53 testosterone levels in males 283–285 human-induced changes 477, eugenics 273; see also racism theoretical frameworks 277–278 478–479 eukaryotes, post-transcriptional endocrinology, evolutionary 127, 137 impacts of change on health 589; processing 50, 57 cortisol/stress 136 see also cultural transitions, Euler–Lotka characteristic equation and development 357–359, 359 pollution 83–85 discussion points 137–138 stressful see stress eumelanin 59, 192–195 energy management 130 enzymes 130, 217, 218, 225–226 Europe and the People Without History female reproductive function eosinophils 461 (Wolf) 269 132–133, 571–572 ephelides (freckles) 193–194 European populations, body mass ghrelin/hunger 135–136 epidemics 469, 496 index 164 growth/organization 130–132 epidemiology 41, 362, 469, 474, 492; The Evolution of Man (Haeckel) 1 hormone form/function/assessment see also demography, mortality evolutionary demography 75 128–130 rates evolutionary developmental biology hormone receptors 130 epigenetics see gene expression (EDB “evo-devo”) 14 insulin/energy sequestration 134 episodic memory 427 evolutionary medicine 459–461, 460, leptin/fat 135 Epstein–Barr virus 506, 508–509, 511 479; see also chronic disease, male reproductive function 133–134, equations immune system, infectious disease 572–573 Euler–Lotka 83–85 evolutionary psychiatry 551, 560–561 measuring procedures 127–128 fitness sensitivities/elasticities 87–88 adaptationist paradigm 551, 560 plasticity, phenotypic 137 Greville 76 anorexia nervosa 554 pollution, environmental 571 late-life stage 531 attachment theory 555–556 protein hormones 129–130 renewal 83 case study 552, 553, 554, 555 senescence 136–137 erection 356, 359 depression/mania 553–554, 556, 561 steroid hormones 128–129 erythropoietin 183 discussion points 561–562

Index 611 ethological paradigm 554–555, 560 sedentism/horticulture 444–445 fetuses/fetal; see also pregnancy innate-module paradigm 556–558, social stratification/nation states/ development, and ovarian function 560–561 despots 446–447 324–325 mismatch paradigm 558–559, 561 tribal pastoralism 445–446 imprinting/programming 61, 324, psychotherapy paradigm 559–560, variation in male quality/marriage 340, 568–571, 583 561 market 447–448 mortality, altidudinal adaptation 178 schizophrenia/schizotypal disorder extrinsic mortality factors 9 nutrition, role in metabolic 551–553, 555, 559, 561 eye color, inheritance 59 syndrome 523–524 evolutionary sources of variation origins hypothesis of adult disease 41 65–67 facial symmetry see symmetry and pollution, environmental evolutionary stable strategies 10 false alarms 556 568–571 evolutionary theory 3; false belief tests 557 protection hypothesis 510–511, 512 see also adaptation, endocrinology, families; see also kin fever as defense mechanism 460 genetic drift, growth, Homininae, demographic transition 450, 540, FFAs see fatty acids natural selection 581, 589–590; see also cultural FFM see free fat body mass baby fat 520 transitions, epidemiology fidelity, sexual 353, 356 behavior 278–279 environments, stress endocrinology fight-or-flight response 556, 590; brain growth/evolution 407 397, 416, 415–417 see also stress childhood 409–410 evolution 409–410; filarial infections 467 components of fitness 9–10 see also embodied capital, finches, speciation 13 consequences of constrained mate extra-somatic wealth fire 542 choice 316–317 stress endocrinology 413–414 Fisher, Sir Ronald A. 59, 71 contemporary developments 15 studies, schizophrenia/schizotypal Fisherian traits 312 cooperation 11, 12, 22 disorder 552; see also twin studies fitness cultural brain evolution 409 famine 519; see also nutrition behavioral evolutionary ecology 22 discussion points 15 fat mass (FM) 119; see also free fat components of 9–10 family evolution 409–410 body mass and demography 74 levels of selection 10–12 fat tissue see adipose tissue/adiposity sensitivities/elasticities 87–88 longevity/senescence 528–529, fathers, absent 301; see also divorce fixation, genetic 5 529–531, 535–537, 543–544 fatty acids 343, 344, 345, 494 flagging outliers 97–98 mate choice 295–296, 302–303 and life span 540 flagging variables 98 metabolic syndrome 522, 522–523 and metabolic syndrome 522, fluctuating asymmetry (FA) 110, 313, micro to macroevolution 14–15 522, 523 324–325 modeling adaptation 10 fear responses 556, 590; see also stress FM (fat mass) 119; see also free fat modes of selection 7–9 feces 128 body mass neutral theory of molecular fecundity see fertility, reproduction fMRI studies 287, 412, 427 evolution 5–7 feedback loops, endocrine 279 folate/folic acid 197–198 origin of variation 3 females follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) recent human evolution 491–492 adolescence in girls 390–391, 432 128, 129, 130, 131, 132 shifting balance theory 69, 71 behavior across menstrual cycle 284 male endocrinology/development 357 skin pigmentation 195, 198–204 demographic dominance 74 and senescence 137, 360 sociality, evolution of 406 in labor force 451 spermatogenesis/erectile function speciation 12–14 reproductive endocrinology 132–133 355, 359 synthesis 3, 14 reproductive effort 351 food see breast-feeding, digestive variation within populations 3–4, reproductive function and pollution system, nutrition 65–67 571–572 foraging societies 383, 384, 441; excitement, stress endocrinology X chromosome 252–253, 280 see also Homininae, thrifty 415, 416 femur epicondyle measurements genotypes, traditional human exercise see physical activity 107, 108 populations expensive tissue hypothesis 426 fertility 39–41; see also reproduction adolescence 387–388 exponential growth 75 adaptive variations 362–363 chronic disease 497 external auditory meatus altidudinal adaptation 177–178 consumption/productivity 442–443 measurements 107 and body fat 327 embodied capital 441, 441–442 extinction 71 and demography 80–81 forensic evidence 232 extra-cellular fluids/solids hourglass figure 328–329 foresight 24.16, 407, 409 (ECF/ECS) 117 and mate choice 353 formula feeding 588–589 extrapair copulation 11 model fertility schedules 81–83 fossil record 14 extra-somatic wealth 439 and phytoestrogen consumption 331 founder-effect speciation 13, 67–68, 529 and adaptation 452 Princeton Indices 81 four compartment model of body labor markets, skills-based 450–452 proximate determinants 83 composition 117 premodern period 448–450 and stress 329 four-field approach to race/typology 30

612 Index frailty and inflammation 540 and pollution, environmental 569 mitosis 55 Frankfurt Agreement 94 post-transcriptional processing 57 modern synthesis 62, 65 Frankfurt plane measurements 107, 108 proteins 57 molecular 52 freckles 193–194 regulation of 56 non-Mendelian see gene expression free fat body mass (FFM) 116 transcription 56, 57 online resources 72 bioelectrical impedence analysis 120 transgenerational 25 particulate theory of inheritance body weight adjustments 122 translation 57 48–49 dual energy X-ray absorptiometry 119 variability 51 polygenic inheritance 58–59 four compartment model 117 gene flow 66–67, 70–71, 250–253, 474 polymerase chain reaction hydrometry 119–120 gene trees 5 technique 58 log-log regression 122–123 geneological clusters, race/typology replication 54–55 three compartment model 117 268–269 sequencing methods 58 two compartment model 117 geneological trees 268 shifting balance theory 69, 71 free fatty acids see fatty acids genes 52–53 Genetics and The Races of Man free living situation, energy genetic adaptation 20–21, 170, 176, (Boyd) 221 metabolism 114 184–185, 491; see also adaptation, The Genetics of Human Populations free radicles 192, 198, 361, 461, 532; altidudinal adaptation (Cavalli-Sforza and Bodmer) 226 see also antioxidants genetic correlation 4 Genghis Kahn 544 frequency distributions 97 genetic diversity see markers of genoclines 222–223 frequency-dependent selection 8–9 variation, race/typology, variation Genographic Project 233 Freud, S. 560, 561 genetic drift 4–5, 55, 63, 67–68; genogroups 227 fruit and vegetables 493, 494, 497, 540 see also neutral theory of molecular genome-wide association (GWA) 185 FSH see follicle stimulating hormone evolution genomics, skin coloration 205 functional adaptation 19; and gene flow 70–71 genotoxicity, air pollution 574–575 see also adaptation, genetic HIV/AIDS 474 genotypes, thrifty see thrifty genotypes adaptation longevity/senescence 529 geography functional imaging studies 287, 412, 427 and selection 70 Biblical theory of human genetic load 64 biogeography 268 G6PD (glucose-6-phosphate genetic markers see markers of human migration/gene flow 250–253 dehydrogenase) deficiency 218, variation and race/typology 267, 268, 270–271 231–232 genetic models 10 size/morphology, effects of climate/ GABA (gamma-butyric acid) 428, 431 genetic quality (good gene hypothesis) nutrition 163–164 Galen (Greek anatomist) 92 9, 11, 312–315 gestation see pregnancy Galton, Sir Francis 59 “Genetic Structure of Human ghrelin 135–136 game theory 10 Populations” (Rosenberg et al.) 270 gingivitis 496 gametes 55 genetic variation see markers of girls see females, juveniles/adolescents garlic 505–506 variation, race/typology, variation glabella measurements 107, 108 gastric ulcer 228, 503, 512 genetics 48, 71; global distributions see geography gastrocnemius measurements 108 see also Hardy–Weinberg global warming 566; see also ecological Gc (group specific component) 217 equilibrium, mate choice genetics, change, pollution, environmental gender differences 29; see also females, population genetics, selection globalization 581; see also cultural males atherosclerosis 504 transitions climatic influences on body weight/ behavior 267, 270 glucose, role in brain function 426; proportions 158, 159–161, 163 chromosome architecture 53–54 see also nutrition endocrinology, behavioral 281, chronic disease 493 glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase 280–281 discussion points 71–72 (G6PD) deficiency 218, 231–232 longevity/senescence 544 DNA isolation methodology 58 glutamate cycling 426, 427 skin coloration 204 DNA/RNA 53 anterior cingulate cortex 429 telomere shortening 532 evolutionary sources of variation astrocyte-neuron-lactate shuttle 428 gene chips 242 65–67 hippocampus 428–429 gene–environment interaction 59–60, heredity and environment 59–60 plasticity, phenotypic 432, 433 60–61 history of human biology 37, 38–39 glutamate dehydrogenase gene atherosclerosis 504–505 HIV/AIDS 474 (GLUD) 428 chronic disease 502, 503 human modes of inheritance 49, glutamate exotoxicity 431 mental disorders 551, 552 50–52 gluteal fold measurements 108 metabolic syndrome 518–519 immune system 463, 464–465 glycemic index 500 ovarian function 331 longevity/senescence 535–537 glycogen stores, brain 427, 429–430 and plasticity, phenotypic 524 malaria 476–477 Gm (immunoglobulin) 217, 220 gene expression, phenotypic 24–25, meiosis 55–56 gold standard methods 56, 61 Mendelian 49–50 anthropometry 117 longevity/senescence 536–537 microevolution 65, 70–71 calorimetry 115

Index 613 gonadotropin-releasing hormone Hadza people 128, 387–388, 441, hemolytic disease of the newborn (GnRH) 131–132, 357–358 441–442, 497 (HDN) 229 gonadotropins see follicle-stimulating hairlessness in humans 195 hepatis B virus 41 hormone, luteinizing hormone hallucinations 551, 553; heritability; see also genetics good gene hypothesis 9, 11, 312–315 see also schizophrenia/schizotypal definition 4 Gould, Stephen Jay 12 disorder mate choice 301–302 gradual evolution/gradualism 14 Hamilton’s rule 11 heroin addiction 558 grandparents 408, 409–410, 543–544 haplotypes 230, 254 Hess’s law of constant heat Graves’s disease 127, 134 haptoglobins 217, 233 summation 113 gray matter 432 Hardy–Weinberg (H-W) equilibrium heterochromatin 53 great depression 32 4, 7, 50, 62–63 heterochrony 385 greenhouse gases 478; effective size of populations 63 heterogeneity models of cultural see also ecological change, microevolution of allele frequency transition 591, 593 pollution, environmental change 65 heteroplasmy 52 Greville equation 76 microevolutionary process heterozygous advantage 7 group behavior, ethological interactions 70–71 hexosaminidase A (HEXA) deficiency paradigm 555 random mating 63 218–219 group consent, ethics 146–147 random mating departures 63–65 HGDP (human genome diversity group selection 12, 22, 469, 529 sickle cell hemoglobin/malarial project) 39, 233, 269 group specific component (Gc) 217 resistance 230 HGP (human genome project) 39, group splitting catalysts 552–553 test 70 52–53, 243, 536 growth 32–33, 379–380; harems 445, 447; see also reproductive HIF-1 (hypoxia inducible factor) see also anthropometry, childhood, strategies system 184, 185–186 infancy, juveniles/adolescents, life Harpenden anthropometer 106 high altitude hypoxia see altidudinal history theory, size/morphology Harpenden growth study 95 adaptation anthropometry 96–97 Harpenden infant measuring table 102 Hill’s criteria of causation 567 Boas, Franz 31 Harpenden infantometer 102 Himalayan peoples childcare, co-operative 383–384, Harpenden neonatometer 101–102 altidudinal adaptation 170 385–386, 387–388, 389 Harpenden skinfold calliper 37–104 fertility/fecundity 177–178 discussion points 392–393, 402 Harpenden stadiometer 101 native endurance performance 177 and cultural transitions 584 Harpenden supine measuring table 102 pulmonary volumes 175 discordance hypothesis 495 Harrison, Geoffrey A. 37 hip circumference/girth and endocrinology 130–132, Harvard growth study 95 measurements 102 357–359, 359 HB (Human Biology) Journal 31–32, 41 hippocampus 136, 414, 426, 427, environmental hypoxia 171 HBA (Human Biology Association) 41 428–429 history of human biology 40–41 HDN (hemolytic disease of the Hispanic race/culture 266, 271 life history theory 384–385 newborn) 229 historical civilizations see ancient nutritional adaptation 37 head form/cephalic index 31 Egypt/Mesopotamia, traditional pelvic growth in females 388–389 health 41 human populations pollution, environmental 571 and birth weight 341 historical perspectives 29 reproduction 380–382 and skin coloration 204–205 adaptation/ecology/international sexual development 389–390 span 528 programs 37–38 span 528 stress endocrinology 417 biomedical anthropology/health/ UK 95 health care services, impacts of change epidemiology 41 US 95 on health 588–589 Boas, Franz 30–31 variation due to environmental hearing loss, high frequency 496 brain function and energetics 426 factors 396, 397, 401–402 heart disease see cardiovascular disease cultural transitions 582 weaning/early childhood 381–382 heart rate monitoring 115–116 definition 42 growth faltering 397, 398, 399 heat shock proteins 462 discussion points 42–43 stress response mechanisms heat stress adaptation 36 DNA analysis/molecular genetics 399, 414 height measurement 99–100 38–39 trade-offs with immunity 466–467 Helicobacter pylori 228, 469, 510–511, 512 energy metabolism 113–114 growth hormone (GH) 130, 132 Helmholtz, Herman 113 extra-somatic wealth 439, 443–444 guidelines, research ethics 150–153 hemoglobins human biology societies/journals gum disease 496 concentration 183–184 41–42 gut morphology 538, 542 DNA markers 255–256 infectious disease, evolutionary GWA (genome-wide association) 185 and malaria 477 perspective 468 markers of variation 215, 216 literacy/numeracy 439 habitat fragmentation 477; oxygen affinity 183 post-mid-twentieth century 36–37 see also ecological change oxygen diffusion curve 173, 174 post-war/mid-twentieth century, habituation 19 polymorphism 7 US/UK 33–36

614 Index historical perspectives (cont.) hormone proliferation hypothesis, hypothyroidism 134 pre-WWII/population biology 31–33 breast cancer 507–508 hypoxia , 171–172; see also altidudinal race/typology 29–30, 271–272 hormone receptors 130 adaptation reproduction/growth studies 39–41 horticultural societies 444–445, 449; acclimatization to 174–175 WWII 33 see also agricultural societies, brain 429 HIV/AIDS 41, 233 traditional human populations growth variation due to and breastfeeding 589 host-pathogen interactions 310, 313, environmental factors 396, 397 immune system function 398 317; see also infectious disease infancy/early childhood growth 399 infectious disease 472–474 hourglass figure 328–329 juvenile/adolescent growth 401 juvenile/adolescent growth 401 Hox gene 14 hypoxia inducible factor (HIF-1) and poverty 398–399 HPA see hypothalamus-pituitary- system 184, 185–186 Hiwi peoples 441, 441–442 adrenal axis HLA (human leukocyte antigen) HPV (human papillomavirus) 504, 507, IAHB (International Association of systems 65, 215, 216, 220, 508–509, 511 Human Biologists) 41 229–230, 233 human adaptability project 146, 224 IBP see International Biological Holtain (Tanner–Whitehouse) skinfold Human Biology Association (HBA) 41 Program calliper 104 Human Biology (HB) Journal 31–32, 41 Iceland, human migration/gene flow 252 homeostasis 17–18; see also stress human biology societies/journals ICSU (International Council of Homininae 203, 249–250, 380; 41–42 Scientific Unions) 37–38 see also agricultural societies, human genome diversity project IGF (insulin-like growth factor) 130, 132 foraging societies, horticultural (HGDP) 39, 233, 269 iliac crest measurements 106, 107, 108 societies, thrifty genotypes, human genome project (HGP) 39, imagination 407, 409 traditional human populations 52–53, 243, 536 IMGT/HLA Database 229 adolescence, reason for evolution 392 human leukocyte antigen (HLA) 65, imitation 408 Australopithecines 426 215, 216, 220, 229–230, 233 immediate pigment darkening baby fat 520 human mortality database 78 (IPD) 194 brain function and energetics 426 human papillomavirus (HPV) 504, 507, immortal genomes 530–531 brain growth/evolution 407 508–509, 511 immune system 461; childhood evolution 385 human remains 146–147 see also autoimmune diseases, developmental landmarks 390 humeral epicondyle measurements evolutionary medicine, infectious diet 538 107, 108 disease digestion 520 hunger 135–136 adaptive immunity 462–463 famine 519 hunter-gatherers see foraging societies, antibody-mediated immunity 463 indigenous populations 170, 581 Homininae, traditional human breastmilk antibodies 343, 345 industrial societies 364 populations cellular-mediated immunity 463–464 infectious disease, evolutionary Huntington’s disease 51 comparative aspects 464–465 perspective 469 Hutterite community 65, 81, 381 discussion points 479 juvenile/infant dependence 407 Huxley, Julian 267 ecological/evolutionary immunity modern human origins 245–250 H-W equilibrium see Hardy–Weinberg 465–466 muscle/fat ratios 499 equilibrium energy metabolism 521 Neanderthal man 203, 249–250 hydrometry 119–120 evolutionary medicine 461 recent human evolution 491–492 hygiene hypothesis 495 immunity as evolved reaction homosexuality 297 hypertension 41, 492, 496 norm 466 horizontal gene transfer 50 adiposity rebound 400 innate immunity 461–462 hormonal priming 131 chronic disease, evolutionary juvenile/adolescent growth 401 Hormonally Active Agents in the perspective 496–497 mate choice 467–468 Environment (US Research psychosocial stress 591 and schizophrenia/schizotypal Council) 575 and race/typology 273 disorder 554 hormone levels 128, 322–323, thrifty phenotypes 24 and skin coloration 197 323–324; see also endocrinology, hyperventilation 174 and stress 413–414 ovarian function, testosterone hypoglycemia 429 trade-offs 466–467 correlates 331 hypogonadism/hypogonadotropism and undernutrition 398, 399 environment-gene interactions 331 467 and vitamin D 200 fetal developmental influences hypomania see depression/mania immunoglobulins 217, 256 324–325 hypothalamus 134, 135 immunological hypothesis, blood norms 331–332 hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) groups 228 population differences 322–323, axis 279, 357, 359, 414 immunosuppression 351, 361–362, 323–324 impacts of change on health 590 508–509 steroids 128–129, 352 neuroendocrinology of affection 411 Imperial units 93 hormone mimics 570, 571–572; pair bonds/parental care 282, 412 imprinting, fetal 61, 324, 340, 568–571, see also pollution stress response mechanisms 414–415 583

Index 615 in vivo neutron activation analysis mate choice 310 International Council of Scientific (IVAA) 121 pregnancy sickness 510–511 Unions (ICSU) 37–38 inbreeding 64, 311–312 and sedentism/agricultural international programs, human Inca peoples 446, 447 societies 581 biology 37–38 incest 312; see also inbreeding and sexual reproduction 351 International Studies of Circumpolar income/education- based capital 450, sexually transmitted 352 Peoples 38 451–452, 451–452 and skin coloration 197 intersexual selection see mate choice incompatibility selection, blood group and stress 413–414 intrasexual competition 353 markers 228–229 testosterone level variations 363–364 intrasexual selection 310 incomplete penetrance, genetics 51 tuberculosis 471–472 intraspecific studies see animal studies, inconsistency models, cultural and undernutrition 398, 399 nonhuman primate studies transitions 591, 593–594 virulence/antibiotic resistance intrauterine environment 341; incubation period, definition 468 469–471 see also fetuses, pregnancy Indians, American 497 inference see theory of mind intrinsic brain activity 427 indigenous, definition 170; infertility, male 198 intrinsic rates of increase 83 see also traditional human inflammation 464, 467, 523,539, 540,543 intrinsic senescence 9 populations influenza 479 introgression, genome 13 indirect calorimetry 115 information processing 408, 434; Inuit peoples 164, 167, 586–587 individual differences see variation see also brain function Inupiat Eskimos, markers of individual selection 7 information resources, demographic variation 224 industrial pollution see pollution 74–75; see also websites investing reproductive strategy 302 industrial societies, testosterone levels informed consent 145–146, 150–153 iodine 135 in males 364 inguinal crease measurements 108 IPD (immediate pigment darkening) 194 infancy 397, 401–402; inheritance; see also genetics IRB (Institutional Review Board) see also childhood human modes of 49, 50–52 144, 145 altitude 399 non-Mendelian 61 iron binding proteins 462 brain development 431 particulate theory of 48–49 iron deficiency 398 contaminants, food 399 polygenic 58–59 isolated populations 12–13, 251, 269 discussion points 402 innate behavior 440 isotopes of oxygen 115 formula feeding 588–589 innate immunity 461–462 IVAA (in vivo neutron activation infection and undernutrition 398, 399 innate-module paradigm, evolutionary analysis) 121 poverty 398–399 psychiatry 556–558, 560–561 stress, psychological 399 Institutional Review Board (IRB) journals, human biology 41–42 infant measuring tables, Harpenden 102 144, 145 Jung, C. G. 560 infanticide 11, 354, 410 insulin 127 junk DNA 6, 50, 254 infantometers, Harpenden 102 insulin resistance 492, 498–500, 518, juveniles/adolescents 397, 400, infectious disease 460, 468–469; 520; see also diabetes, metabolic 401–402; see also puberty see also evolutionary medicine, syndrome altitude 401 immune system as brain protection strategy 522–523 as apprenticeship 387 accommodation 20 endocrinology 134 in boys 391–392, 432 acute disease 503 figures/tables 499, 500 brain development 431–432, 432–433 atherosclerosis 495, 504 life history theory 521–522, 522 diet 400–401 and cancer 495, 506–510 risk factors 493, 498 discussion points 402 and chronic disease 493, 503–504; insulin-like growth factor (IGF) 130, 132 evolutionary theory 379, 385, see also chronic disease, infectious insulinotropic foodstuffs 500 386–387, 392 causation intelligence, and mate attraction 352 in girls 390–391, 432 coevolution 469 interdemic (group) selection 12, 22, infection 401 and cultural transitions 585–586 469, 529 life history theory 384 discordance hypothesis 494–495 interferon 462 natural selection for 387–388 discussion points 479 intergenerational inertia 583; pollution, environmental 401 emerging diseases 477–479 see also transgenerational factors sexual selection 388 energy metabolism 521 International Association of Human stress endocrinology 407 epidemics 496 Biologists (IAHB) 41 growth variation due to 396, 397 International Biological Program (IBP) Kalahari bushmen 497 hemoglobins 217 96, 582, 38 Kalahari Research Group 38 HIV/AIDS 472–474 cultural transitions 586 karyotype 49,50 host-pathogen interactions 310, and ethics 147, 148 keratinocytes 193, 201 313, 317 human adaptability project 146, 224 ketones 427, 430, 431 impacts of change on health 589 International Children’s Centre kibbutz, Israeli 312 juvenile/adolescent growth 401 Coordinated Longitudinal Growth kin/kinship 279, 386; see also families, malaria 474–477 Studies 95 twin studies

616 Index kin/kinship (cont.) life expectancy 492 evolution 440–441, 528–529, 543–544 altruism, ethological paradigm 555 life history theory 40–41, 88, 316; fitness sensitivities/elasticities 87 evolution 409–410; see also longevity/senescence, and growth/development 495 see also embodied capital, reproductive strategies humans 535 extra-somatic wealth childhood 409–410 inflammation/frailty 540 recognition 356, 406 chronic disease 503 life history traits, human selection 11, 278, 470 in context of pregnancy/lactation 537–538, 544 !Kung hunter gatherers 81, 84 see breast feeding, pregnancy life span/reproduction 538–539 adolescence, natural selection for definition 528 male reproductive physiology 387–388 and demography 74 359–360 age-specific fertility rate 381 ecological/evolutionary immunity modern synthesis 531 life history theory 441, 441–442 465–466 niches, human 541, 544 marriage 389 and embodied capital hypothesis plasticity, phenotypic 538, 541–542 survivorship 79 439–440 telomeres 54, 532 Kuru 41 energy metabolism 425 longitudinal data cleaning 97–98 kinship 279, 386 foraging societies/nonhuman longitudinal studies, anthropometry 95 primates 441, 441–442 loss, and depression 560 labor markets, skills-based 450–452 growth, evolution of 384–385 loss of function (LOF) mutation 57 lactase digestion 491 human traits 538 Lotka equation 83–85 lactase deficiency markers 219 immunityasevolvedreactionnorm466 love, biology of 287, 411; lactate 184, 427, 428, 430, 431 insulin resistance 521–522, 522 see also attachment, lactation see breast-feeding and mate choice 302 endocrinology, pair bonds lactoferrin 462 longevity/senescence 528–529, 535, low back pain 496 lactose intolerance 496 537–538, 544 lung cancer 498 Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste 49 reproductive ecology, male 362–363 luteinizing hormone (LH) 128, 129, Lamarkian inheritance 61 lifelong demographic heterogeneity 533 130, 131, 132 Lange calliper 104 life span 538–539; see also longevity/ male endocrinology/development 357 language 392, 407–408, 409–410, 556 senescence and senescence 137, 360 Lasker, Gabriel W. 35 lifestyles, Western 493, 592; Lyme disease 478 late-life stage 531, 540; see also aging, see also cultural transitions, lymphocytes 462–463 longevity/senescence discordance hypothesis latency periods, definition 468 life tables 75–78 MaB (Man and the Biosphere Program) Latin America, cultural transitions 587 model 78–80 38, 586 latitude, and skin coloration 195 light skin coloration, evolution of macro to microevolution 14–15 law of conservation of energy 113 198–204 macrophages 461 law of constant heat summation 113 linkage disequilibrium 4, 249 Madagascar 87 LCPUFA (long-chain polyunsaturated Linnaeus, C. 265, 267 magical thinking 551; fatty acids) 343, 344 literacy, history of 439 see also schizophrenia/schizotypal lead pollution 399, 568 liver cancer 503, 512 disorder endocrinology 571 LOF (loss of function) mutation 57 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) environmental impacts of change on log-log regression, body composition/ 116, 121 health 589 size 122–123 major histocompatibility complex prenatal growth/fetal long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (MHC) 216, 309, 314–315, 316, programming 570 (LCPUFA) 343, 344 317, 463 sperm counts/spermatogenesis 573 longevity/senescence 528, 540–541, Makiritare peoples 224 learning, childhood 386 544–545; see also aging, late-life malaria 469, 470, 583 legumes stage, menopause cultural transitions 586 blood group antigens 215 age-specific gene action/pleiotropy DNA markers 255–256 Mendelian genetics 48–50 529–530 evolutionary perspective 474–477 length measurement, animal studies 533–535, 538, and genetic selection 69 supine/recumbent 101 540–541, 543, 545 history of human biology 37 leprosy 398 apoptosis 532–533 immune system function 398 leptin 127, 130, 131, 135 benign environments 539–540 and poverty 398–399 Leslie matrix 86, 87,89 cell biology/genetics 535–537 resistance 230–231, 231–232, 233 leukemia 461, 495 cell replicative ability 531–532 males 351, 357 Lewontin, R. C. 266, 270 cultural influences 542–543, 544 competition for mates 281, 353–354 Lexis diagrams 76 definitions/terminology 528–535 controlling mates/coercion 354 Leydig cells 359, 363 discussion points 545–546 discussion points 364–365 LH see luteinizing hormone disposable somas/immortal genomes endocrinology/development libido, male 134, 355–356 530–531 357–359, 359 life events 414 endocrinology 136–137 erection 356

Index 617 infertility, and folate levels 198 malarial resistance, other markers good/compatible genes 312–315 libido 355–356 231–232 inbreeding/inbreeding depression life history theory 362–363 methodological advances/polymerase 311–312 male reproductive effort 351–352 chain reaction 240–241 sexual selection/reproduction 309–311 mate choice 352–353 modern human origins 245–250 mate poaching 298 mate seeking/attraction 352 natural selection 226–227, 253–256 mate seeking vs. parenting 136 paternal behavior 356–357 phenylalanine hydroxlase maternal depletion syndrome 328; paternal care in multimale groups deficiency 219 see also oocyte depletion 406–407 population relationships/history 233 mathematical models, altruism 22 quality/marriagiability 447–448; population studies/ mating, random 63–65 see also despotic males microevolutionary processes MATLAB software 89 reproductive ecology 364 223–226 matrix models, population projection reproductive effort 351–352 practical applications 232 86–87 reproductive endocrinology 133–134 PTC tasting 220 maximum reproductive potential reproductive function, and pollution recent human evolution 492 (MRP) 529 572–573 serum proteins 216 Mayan peoples 445, 497 senescence 359–360 sickle cell hemoglobin/malarial MCIR (melanocortin 1 receptor) gene sperm 354–355 resistance 230–231 locus 195, 202–203 spermatogenesis/erectile function 359 soluble antigens 215–216 measles, and immune system testosterone level variations 363–364 transferrin 218 function 398 testosterone negative costs 351, 352, types 241–243 The Measurement of Human Growth 360–362 market integration 581 (Cameron) 96 Y chromosomes 247–248, 248, marriage 64, 386, 389, 391, 447–448; measures of central tendency 97 252–253, 280 see also mate choice, monogamy, measuring procedures, anthropometric malformations, prenatal 569 reproductive strategies 98–99 malleoli measurements 107, 108 Mars climate orbiter 93 medial malleolus measurements mammalian genetics 52 Martin anthropometer 105 107, 108 Man and the Biosphere Program (MaB) Masai people 497 Medical College Admission Test 38, 586 mass media influences on health 588 (MCAT) 329 mania see depression/mania Massachusetts Quartermaster Corps medicine see chronic disease, Manual of Physical Anthropology Climatic Research Laboratory 36 evolutionary medicine, immune (Comas) 29 mastoid process measurements system, infectious disease maps, synthetic 225 107, 108 meiosis 55–56, 309, 310 markers of variation 214–215, mate choice 295, 299, 303, 352–353; melanin 59, 192–195 238–240, 256; see also blood see also marriage, monogamy, melanoma 193, 194, 196; see also skin groups, variation reproductive strategies cancer albumins 216–217 attachment theory 302–303 memory 282, 427 apportionment of human variation discussion points 303–304 menarche 256–257 ecological/evolutionary immunity developmental landmarks 390 carbonic anhydrase 218 467–468 fetal developmental influences 324 cerumen (ear wax) types 219 evolution of cultural differences pelvic growth in females 388–389 choice of 244 302–303 pollution, environmental 571–572 cystic fibrosis 219–220 evolutionary theory 295–296 sexual selection for 388 discussion points 234, 257 individual differences between men Mendel, George 48–49 disease associations 233–234 299–301 Mendelian genetics 49–50,59 enzymes 217, 218 individual differences between menopause 41, 137, 352 genetic diversity assessment 244–245 women 301–302 and breast cancer 508 global distributions of human male reproductive physiology 352 endocrinology 133 migration/gene flow 250–253 monogamy/long-term mating estrogens 127 glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase 297–298 fetal developmental influences 324 deficiency 218 parental investment theory 296–297 life history traits 544 group specific component 217 promiscuity/short-term mating and wealth/resources 539 haptoglobins 217 298–299 menstrual cycle 132–133, 323–324; hemoglobins 215, 216 sex ratios 302 see also ovarian function hexosaminidase A deficiency sexual strategies theory 297 and energy metabolism 325–327 218–219 mate choice genetics 309, 310, 317 female behavior across 284 HLA systems 65, 215, 216, 220, consequences of free mate choice population differences in hormone 229–230, 233 316–317 levels 322–323 human genome regions 243 differential parental investment mental disorders, and cultural immunoglobulins 217 309, 316 transitions 585; lactase deficiency 219 discussion points 317 see also evolutionary psychiatry

618 Index Mesopotamia 446 mirror neurons 557–558 and pollution, environmental 574 messenger RNA 56 mismatch hypothesis see discordance pre/postnatal 178 metabolic regulation 134–135 hypothesis mosaic evolution 14 metabolic syndrome 20, 134, 161; mitochondria, genetics 51–52, 243 mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) see also adipose tissue, diabetes, mitochondrial Eve 5, 39, 245, 246, 248; 508–509, 511 insulin resistance, metabolic see also out of Africa hypothesis MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) syndrome, thrifty genotypes mitosis 53, 55 116, 121 as brain protection strategy 522–523 MMTV (mouse mammary tumor virus) MRP (maximum reproductive developmental bottlenecks 508–509, 511 potential) 529 520–521,524 MN blood group 63, 66, 67–68 Mu ¨llerian inhibiting hormone (MIH) discussion points 525 MNLS (minimum necessary life 131, 280, 357 as life history strategy 521–522, 522 span) 537 Muller’s ratchet 310 longevity/senescence 536–537 model fertility schedules 81–83 multidisciplinary research 38 plasticity, phenotypic 524–525 model life tables 78–80 multifactorial inheritance see polygenic prenatal nutrition, role 523–524 modern human origins 245–250 inheritance thrifty phenotypes 24, 519, 520, 583 modern synthesis 62, 65 multigenerational factors 25, 408, metastasis, cancer cells 507 modernization/modern world 581; 409–410, 417, 538, 583 methylation 24–25, 56, 61; see also gene see also cultural transitions, multilevel selection 22 expression discordance hypothesis multimodel distributions 247 metric system of measurement 93 embodied capital 450 multiple sclerosis 461, 495 Mexican Indian peoples 165 gradients 586 multiregional continuity model Mexico, cultural transitions 592 lifestyles 493, 592 245–250 MHC (major histocompatibility psychosocial stress 591 muscle structure/metabolism 184 complex) 216, 309, 314–315, 316, modes of selection 7–9 muscle/fat ratios 499 317, 463 molecular adaptation 253 musical ability 61 mice, t gene locus 11; see also animal molecular clocks 6 mutation 65–66 studies molecular evolution, neutral theory air pollution 574–575 microcephalin gene locus 249 of 5–7 evolution of light skin coloration 199 microevolutionary processes molecular genetics genetics of mate choice 310 allele frequency change 65 definition 52 longevity/senescence 529–530 Australian Aboriginals 233 DNA isolation methodology 58 loss of function 57 interacting 70–71 genes 52–53 as origin of variation 3 markers of variation 222, history of human biology 38–39 and selection, 70 223–226,227 polymerase chain reaction and sexual reproduction 317 micro to macroevolution 14–15 technique 58 variance 8 race/typology 269 sequencing: Sanger method 58 Mycobacterium spp. 471–472, 503 shifting balance theory 69, 71 sequencing: shotgun 58 myopia 496 microsatellite DNA regions 242–243, monogamy 297–298; see also marriage, 247–248, 249, 251 mate choice, reproductive NAGPRA (Native American Graves and mid-point of arm measurements strategies Repatriation Act) 147 108–109 individual differences between men Natick Climatic Research Laboratory 36 mid-axillary line measurements 108 299–301 nation states/despots, extra-somatic mid-inguinal point measurements 108 individual differences between wealth 446–447 migration women 301–302 National Center for Biotechnology cultural transitions 592 mate choice 295–296 Information (NCBI) website 214 gene flow 66–67 and sex ratios 302 National Commission for the global distributions 250–253 monogeism 29 Protection of Human Subjects of and schizophrenia/schizotypal mood states Biomedical and Behavioral disorder 559 adaptationist perspective 461 Research 144 and skin coloration 204 innate-module paradigm 556–557 National Research Act 144 studies 31, 33 morality 409 National Science Foundation (NSF) 147 MIH (Mu ¨llerian inhibiting hormone) morphological environmental effects Native American Graves and 131, 280, 357 see size/morphology Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) 147 military personnel 33 morphological symmetry see symmetry native, definition 170; milk mortality rates; see also epidemiology see also traditional human artificial formula 588–589 and disease prevention 450–451 populations composition 343–345; human mortality database 78 natural fertility 81; see also fertility, see also breastfeeding inbreeding/inbreeding depression reproduction minimum necessary life span 311–312 Natural History, General and Particular (MNLS) 537 males 360 (Buffon) 267 Minnesota semi-starvation study 33 and mate choice 302, 303 natural killer cells 461

Index 619 natural resources, environmental neural plasticity 428; see also glutamate paternal care in multimale impacts of change on health 589 cycling groups 406 natural selection 68; see also evolution, neural tube defects (NTDs) 197–198 population growth 75 sexual selection, variation neuroendocrine responses pregnancy/lactation 338–339, and adaptation 21, 462–463 see endocrinology, stress 342–343 adiposity 521 endocrinology sexual development 389–390 adolescence 379, 387–388 neuronal-lactate shuttle 428, 430 sperm competition 353 altidudinal adaptation 170, 185 neurons, energy storage 429 testosterone levels in males 364 balancing selection 69–70 neuroplasticity see plasticity, time management 136 and culture 583 phenotypic total fertility rate 380–381 definition 7 neurotransmitters 428 non-Mendelian inheritance 61 and demography 89 dopamine 412, 413 norms, hormone levels 331–332 directional selection 63, 68–69 and drug abuse 558 norms of reaction 4 and DNA markers 253–256 GABA 428, 431 Norway 78 evolution of light skin coloration 199 neutral DNA markers 238, 251, 254; NRR (net reproduction ratio) 80, 84 genetic drift 70 see also markers of variation NSF (National Science Foundation) 147 genetic markers 226–227 neutral theory of molecular evolution NTDs (neural tube defects) 197–198 group selection 12, 22, 469, 529 3, 5–7; see also genetic drift nuclear genome 243; see also human growth 379 New World 39, 203–204, 225–226 genome project HIV/AIDS 474 niches, human 541, 544 nucleotide diversity 245 infectious disease 462–463, 469, 474 Nipah virus 478–479 Nucleotide Sequence Database 147 levels of 10–12, 22 NMDA (N-methyl-d-aspartate) numeracy, history of 439 longevity/senescence 529–530, receptors 428 Nuremberg Code 144, 145 543–544, 545 noise pollution 568, 570 nutrition 167; see also breast feeding, metabolic syndrome 524–525 Nomina Anatomica 92 digestive system, energy modes of selection 7–9 noncoding regions 6, 50, 254 metabolism, size/morphology, and mutation 70 nonhuman primate studies; stress and pollution, environmental see also animal studies, embodied adaptation 37 566–567 capital hypothesis and atherosclerosis 504–505 pregnancy sickness 510 adolescence, natural selection for brain function and energetics 426 pregnancy/lactation 338–339 387–388 contaminants, food 396, 397, 399; schizophrenia/schizotypal disorder age-specific fertility rate 381 see also pollution 552; see also adaptationist alcohol use 558 and development 358 paradigm altruism 22 discordance hypothesis 493–494 skin coloration 195–198 attachment theory 555 foraging societies/nonhuman and skin coloration 205 behavioral evolutionary ecology 22 primates 442 social selection 409 blood groups 227 and growth variation 396, 397, stabilizing selection 8 brain growth 383 400–401 thrifty genotype hypothesis 520 consumption/productivity through and immune system 464, 466 Y chromosome studies 248 life course 442–443 and infection 398, 399 nature nurture issue developmental landmarks 390 longevity/senescence 536–537, see gene–environment interaction DNA markers 253, 254, 257 542–543 nausea 460, 510–511, 512 embodied capital 441, 441–442 metabolic syndrome 523–524 Nazi ideology 265, 273; see also racism genetic variation 272 and ovarian function 325 NCBI (National Center for growth 379–380, 380–382 plasticity, phenotypic 538 Biotechnology Information) HIV/AIDS 473 prenatal 523–524 website 214 immune system, evolutionary and prostate cancer 362 Neanderthal man 203, 249–250; perspective 465, 468 testosterone level variations 363 see also Homininae intraspecific variation, nutritional status assessment Neel, James 146 endocrinology 135 standards, anthropometric 167 neodarwinian theory 3, 14, 62 infant care 383 neonatometers, Harpenden 101–102 kin recognition 356 obesity 23, 41, 161, 492, 496; neotony 385 leptin structure/function 135 see also adipose tissue, insulin Nepal 591 longevity/senescence 137, 359, resistance, metabolic syndrome, nested family social structures 534–535, 537 nutrition 409–410, 445; see also families, mate choice 352 and body mass index 166 kin/kinship milk composition 343 degenerative diseases 585 net maternity rate 84 mirror neurons 557–558 developmental bottlenecks 520 net reproduction ratio (NRR) 80, 84 neural plasticity 428 effects of climate/nutrition 167 neural correlates of love 287; pair bonds 410 and fecundity 327, 328–329 see also endocrinology, behavioral pair bonds/parental care 281 and hypertension 497

620 Index obesity (cont.) stress see hypoxia pastoral societies 445–446; and insulin resistance 498 oxygen transport 180 see also agricultural societies Pima Indian people 23–24 altidudinal adaptation 172–174, 179 patella measurements 107, 109 and pollution, environmental arterial oxygen saturation 181–182 paternal behavior 356–357, 406–407, 573–574 blood gases/direct measures of 412–413, 560 and socioeconomic status 396 pulmonary gas exchange 182–183 pathogen-host interactions 310, 313, object-relations theory 560 cardiovascular system 183 317; see also infectious disease occiput measurements 107, 109 hemoglobin concentration 183–184 PBBs (polybrominated biphenyls) 401 odor, human uses of 312, 314–315, 353 hemoglobin-oxygen affinity 183 PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) 401 oestrogen see estradiol/estrogen muscle structure/metabolism 184 PCR (polymerase chain reaction) offsetting impacts of pollution 567 pulmonary ventilation during technique 58, 240–241 Okazaki fragments 54 exercise 181 Pea Pod® 116 Old Order Amish 64 pulmonary volumes 175, 176, 181, 182 pear-shaped bodies 499 Old Order Dunkers 67 resting ventilation 180 Pearl, Raymond 31–32 olecranon measurements 107, 109 ventilatory control/chemosensitivity peas, Mendelian genetics 48–50 omega 3/6 fatty acids see fatty acids 180–181 pelvic growth in females 388–389 one gene one enzyme hypothesis 52 oxytocin (OT) 127, 279 penicillin 470 one-sex deterministic models 74 interventions based on 287 penis 295 online resources see websites neuroendocrinology of affection 411 peptic ulcer 228, 503, 512 oocyte depletion 537, 544 pair bonds/parental care 281–282, period central death rates 76 open calorimeters 114 411–412, 413 peripatric speciation 13, 67–68, 529 opportunistic reproductive strategy 302 paternal care 412–413 peripheral vascular disease 496 optimism/pessimism 556–557 persistent organic pollutants see POPs optimization 10 Pacific Islands 252, 581 personality disorder 556 organizational effects, sex differences PAH (phenylalanine hydroxlase) pessimism/optimism 556–557 in behavior 280 deficiency 219 pH, body 494 origins of replication 4.43 PAHs (polycyclic aromatic phenotype matching 356 osteoporosis 494, 496 hydrocarbons) 574–575 phenotypes, thrifty 24, 519, 520, 583; OT see oxytocin pair bonds, human 279 see also gene expression Our Stolen Future (Colborn, endocrinology 281–283, 413 phenotypic inertia 582 Dumanoski and Myers) 575 paternal care in multimale groups phenotypic variation 4 out of Africa hypothesis 39, 245–250; 406–407 phenylalanine hydroxlase (PAH) see also mitochondrial Eve and social development 410 deficiency 219 outliers, data 97–98 pairwise mismatch distributions 247 phenylketonuria (PKU) 61 ovarian cancer 200 Paleo-Indians 146–147 phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) 220, 221 ovarian function; see also fertility, pangenesis 49 Philippines, cultural transitions 592 hormone levels, menstrual cycle, PAP (pulmonary artery pressure) 183 phototype classification 194 reproduction Papua New Guinea 586 phthalates 568, 573 body fat/fecundity 327 parapatric populations 13 phylogenetic species concept (PSC) 12 childhood influences 325 parasitism see infection/infectious phylogenetic trees 225, 226 discussion points 332 disease physical activity energy metabolism 323–324, 325–327 parent–offspring conflict 12, 133, 310 altidudinal adaptation 172, 175–177 environment–gene interactions 331 in pregnancy 338, 339, 340, 341–342 discordance hypothesis 494 fetal developmental influences parental care and environmental hypoxia 172 324–325 endocrinology, behavioral 281–283 and estradiol 327 genetic variation 329–331 neuroendocrine responses to social and hypertension 497 hourglass figure 328–329 environment 411–412 mate seeking/attraction 352 oocyte depletion 537, 544 vs. mate seeking 136 monitoring 115–116 reproductive suppression 323–324, parental investment theory 296–297 and ovarian function 325–327 327–328 altricial offspring 538 pulmonary ventilation during 181 stress/fecundity 329 definition 529 and sperm production 355 suppression 323–324, 327–328 differential 309, 316 testosterone level variations 363 synchronised ovulation 354 and mate choice 300, 302 physical anthropology 29, 32, 221 overzealous response hypothesis 510 nonhuman primate studies 534 cultural transitions 582 ovulation, cryptic 389, 410 senescence - historical models 529 post-war/mid twentieth century 33–36 Oxford Child Health Survey 95 Parkinsonian dementia 41 and race/typology 265, 269 oxygen particulate theory of inheritance physiological age 31 isotopes 115 48–49; see also genetics phytochemicals 493, 494 radicles 192, 198, 361, 461, 532; particulates, pollution 568 phytoestrogens 331 see also antioxidants parturition 131, 133, 407; see also birth pigmentation, skin 195 saturation, arterial 181–182 weight Pima Indian peoples 23–24, 518

Index 621 pinna of ear measurements 109 and sperm production 355 effective size of populations 63 PKU (phenylketonuria) 61 variation in succeptibility 575 markers of variation 226–227 placenta 178, 463 polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) 401 microevolution of allele frequency plague 474 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) change 65 Plasmodium spp. 474–477, 506 399, 569 microevolutionary process plasticity, phenotypic 15, 128, 338; and diabetes/obesity 573–574 interactions 70–71 see also catch-up growth endocrinology 571–572 and race/typology 269 and adaptation 18, 23 environmental impacts of change on random mating 63 adipose storage 520 health 589 random mating departures adolescence 432 genetic variation in succeptibility 575 63–65 brain function 425, 426–427, 428, juvenile/adolescent growth 401 population/s 430, 433 sperm counts/spermatogenesis biology 31–33 childhood 432 572–573 bottlenecks 68, 529, 542–543 and culture 583, 584 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons global 20; see also demographic diet 538 (PAHs) 574–575 transition and environmental stress 582 polygeism 29 hormone level differences 322–323, hormones 128, 130, 137 polygenic inheritance 58–59 323–324 immune system 466, 467 polygenic variation 4 increases, historical 448 and information processing 408 polygyny 295; see also despotic males markers of variation 223–226 longevity/senescence 538, 541–542 competition for mates 353 mutation parameter/rate 244 metabolic syndrome 524–525 harem 445, 447 projection 75, 86–87 prenatal 61, 340, 523–524, individual differences between men and race/typology 233, 269–270 568–571, 583 299–300 selection see group selection racial 30, 31 mate choice 302 Porphyromonas gingivalis 511–512 stress endocrinology 406 premodern period 448 postnatal synaptic connections/plasticity 428 resource defense 447 behavior in females 287 play, rough-and-tumble 281 sedentism/horticulture 444 depression 553 pleiotropy 4, 59, 529–530 testosterone 284 mortality 178 plow/plough, invention 447 variation in male quality/marriage postzygotic barriers 12 pneumonia 398 market 447–448 potassium 116, 117, 118 Polish women 324, 326–327, 326 polymerase chain reaction (PCR) poverty, and growth 396, 398–399 political construct, race/typology as technique 58, 240–241 Prader–Willi syndrome 61 271–272, 272–273 polymorphism; see also single nucleotide precision, definition 96 political despots, and extra-somatic polymorphisms, variation predation, and life span 540 wealth 446–447 blood groups 227–228, 228–229 predictive adaptive response political–economic factors, cultural definition 3 hypothesis 324; transitions 582 DNA markers 244 see also imprinting, fetal pollution, environmental 20, 569, hemoglobin 7 pre-eclampsia 511–512 575, 589 HLA systems 229–230 pregnancy 133, 338, 340–342; air pollution 568, 570, 572, 574–575, immune system genes 464–465 see also breastfeeding, fertility, 574–575 and malaria 476–477 reproduction anthropological study 566–567 markers of variation 226 adolescent 388 diabetes/obesity 573–574 and neutral theory of molecular assisted reproductive discussion points 575 evolution 6 technology 316 endocrinology 571 restriction fragment length 225, breast cancer 507–508 environmental impacts of change on 241–242, 243, 245, 246, 257 discussion points 346 health 589 variation within groups 270 fat storage/brain growth 339–340 female reproductive function 571–572 Polynesia 591 female behavior 286–287 genotoxicity 574–575 polyploidy 13 gestation length 537 growth variation due to polytypy 270 and life span 539 environmental factors 396, 397 ponderal index 324 policy implications 345–346 hormone-like effects 25 POPs (persistent organic pollutants) preterm delivery 341 juvenile/adolescent growth 401 567–568 primate reproductive strategy male reproductive function 572–573 and diabetes/obesity 573–574 338–339, 342–343 nature of industrial pollutants endocrinology 571–572 reproductive suppression 328 567–568 prenatal growth/fetal programming sickness 460, 510–511, 512 prenatal growth/fetal programming 570 and skin coloration 204 568–571 sperm counts/spermatogenesis prenatal period see fetuses prereproductive mortality 574 572–573 preprogrammed behavior 440 research methodology 567 population genetics 62–63; prestige see status/prestige research problems/limitations 566 see also genetics, selection prezygotic barriers 12

622 Index primary causes, chronic disease psychotic symptoms 551; random mating 63–65 503–504; see also chronic disease, see also schizophrenia/schizotypal random genetic changes see genetic drift infectious causation disorder random walks 5 primates see nonhuman primates PTC (phenylthiocarbamide) 220, 221 range, data 97 Princeton Indices, fertility 81 PTEN gene 509 rape 300, 301, 354 principle of allocation 9 puberty 131–132, 133, 280, 358–359; rapid replacement model principle of autonomy 145 see also juveniles/adolescents see mitochondrial Eve principle of independent assortment brain function/energetics 432 rates of change 584; see also cultural 48, 49–50 delayed 414 transitions principle of segregation 49–50 fetal developmental influences 324 reaction norms, immunity as 466 probable mutation effect 199 life history theory 384 reactive oxygen species 192, 198, 361, productivity pollution, environmental 571 461, 532; see also antioxidants embodied capital hypothesis 442–443 public display, female behavior 285 reading/writing 558 labor markets, skills-based 450–452 Pueblo Indians 40 recessive genes 51 progesterone 133, 323–324 pulmonary artery pressure (PAP) 183 reciprocal altruism 11, 278 aggression 281 pulmonary gas exchange, direct recombination 50, 55–56 birth 131 measures 182–183 recumbent length measurement 101 breast cancer 507–508 pulmonary ventilation (V E ) 172, 181 red blood cell markers, identifying 215 childhood influences 325 pulmonary volumes 175, 176, 181, 182 Red Queen hypothesis 310, 469 energy metabolism 325–327 purebred humans 269 referrals, ethics 147 fetal developmental influences purifying selection 7, 201, 204, 205 reflectance spectrophotometry 194 324–325 pyroxidine deficiency, and infection 398 reinforcement, reproductive isolation 14 hourglass figure 328–329 relational life tables 79–80 parental care 411–412 quantitative inheritance 58–59 relationships, stress endocrinology 417; population differences in hormone quantitative trait loci (QTL) analysis 59 see also families, psychosocial levels 322–323 Quechua people 167, 170, 181, factors, stress programming, fetal 61, 324, 340, 184–185, 224 relative sitting height see RSH 568–571, 583 quinquennia 76 reliability, anthropometry 96–97 prolactin 133, 279 religious isolates 67 pair bonds/parental care 281–282, rabies 469 REM sleep 429 283, 411–412 race/typology 227, 265–266, 271, 273; renewal equation 83 and paternal behavior 357 see also skin coloration repetitive hyperinsulinemia plasticity, phenotypic 137 blood groups 220–223, 232 499–500, 500 proliferation, cell 507, 508–509 classifications 30 replication, genetics 54–55 promiscuity/short-term mating clustering populations 268–269 reproduction; see also fertility, 298–299 continuous biological variation 267 hormone levels, ovarian function, individual differences between men cultural distinctions 266–267 pregnancy 299–301 cultural transitions 582 altidudinal adaptation 172, 174 individual differences between discussion points 274 birth weight 178, 179 women 301–302 DNA markers 244–245, 256 discordance hypothesis 494 mate choice 295–296 genetic variation 226–227, 272 growth, evolution of 380–382 and sex ratios 302 geography 270–271 history of human biology 39–40 propensity state antedating language in history of 29–30, 271–272 life history theory 362–363 communication (PSALIC) 553 human genome diversity project 39 and life span 539 prostate cancer 200, 351, 362, 461 pollution, environmental 567 male 364 proteasome 537 population genetics 269 maternal oxygen transport 179 proteins population relationships/history 233 placenta 178 deficiency, and infection 398 populations as constructions 269–270 pre/postnatal mortality 178 gene expression, phenotypic 57 recent human evolution 491–492 and skin coloration 204 hormones 129–130 social/political/economic testosterone level variations 363–364 serum markers of variation 216, 217 constructions 272–273 reproductive isolating barriers proximate determinants 89 variation within groups 270 (RIBs) 12, 13 disease 502, 503 The Races of Europe (Coon) 30, 267 reproductive isolation (RI) 12–13, fertility 83 racism 265, 272, 273; see also Nazi 251, 269 PSALIC (propensity state antedating ideology reproductive strategies 352; language in communication) 553 radial styloid measurements 107, 109 see also mate choice, monogamy, PSC (phylogenetic species concept) 12 radioactivity 498 promiscuity/short-term mating psychoactive drugs 460–461 radius measurements 107, 108 demographic transition 450 psychosocial factors see social radix 77 despotic males 446–447 perspectives, stress radon 498 and extra-somatic wealth 446 psychotherapy 559–560, 561 ragged distributions 247 genetics of mate choice 310

Index 623 modern world 450 sample size 97 sexual conflict 10, 11 premodern period 448–450 sampling error 5 sexual development, humans/ primate 338–339 San Juan Pueblo Indians 40 chimpanzees 389–390; short/long-term trade-offs 340 Sanger method, sequencing 58 see also juveniles/adolescents, trade-offs with immunity 467 sarcasm 409 puberty variation in male quality/marriage SARS (severe acute respiratory sexual dimorphism, skin coloration 204 market 447–448 syndrome) 478 sexual reproduction, evolution of reproductive success 7, 324–325; scale of being 29 309–311, 317, 351; see also fertility, see also fertility scapula measurements 107, 109 reproduction reproductive suppression 323–324, schistosomiasis 465, 467, 586 sexual selection 9–10 327–328 schizophrenia/schizotypal disorder 511 adolescence 379, 387, 388, 392 reproductive value 85–86 case study 552, 553 behavioral evolutionary ecology 22 research 150–153 causation 503 brain growth/evolution 407 research methodology, environmental evolutionary psychiatry 551–553, 561 good/compatible genes 312–315 pollution 566, 567 and group behavior 555 mate choice 302, 310–311, 317 reservoirs of disease, definition 468 infectious causation 511, 512 monogamy/long-term mating 298 resistance to disease 474; migration 559 parental investment theory 296 see also evolutionary medicine, mismatch paradigm 559 promiscuity/short-term mating immune system, infectious disease seasonality in growth 400 298–299 resource-based mate choice 297–298 secondary causes, chronic disease skin coloration 204 resource defense polygyny 445, 447 503–504; see also chronic disease, sexual strategies theory (SST) 297; resting metabolic rate (RMR) 122–123, infectious causation see also reproductive strategies 340, 360–361, 383, 520 secular trend in growth 31, 161–164, SHBG (sex hormone binding resting ventilation 180 396–397 globulin) 128, 130 restriction fragment length sedentism 444–445, 581; shifting balance theory 69, 71 polymorphisms (RFLPs) 225, see also agricultural societies short tandem repeat loci (STRs) 241–242, 243, 245, 246, 257 segregationism 273 242, 243 rhesus (Rh) blood groups 229; seizures, infant 431 short-term mating see promiscuity/ see also blood groups selection see natural selection, sexual short-term mating rheumatoid arthritis 461 selection shotgun sequencing 58 RI (reproductive isolation) 12–13, selectively neutral mutations 3, 5–7; SI units 93 251, 269 see also genetic drift sickle-cell hemoglobin 7, 41, 496 RIBs (reproductive isolating barriers) self-awareness 407, 409 blood group markers in classification 12, 13 self-esteem, and mate choice 300 of race 221 rickets 200, 201, 204 selfish genes 529 blood polymorphism 37 risk factors, chronic disease 493 semen displacement 295 cystic fibrosis markers 220 risks/benefits, research 147, 152–153 semi-conservative base pairs 54 history of human biology 37 risk-taking, and testosterone 461 semispecies 13; see also speciation malaria 230–231, 255, 476–477 RMR (resting metabolic rate) 122–123, semi-starvation study 33; pleiotropy 59 340, 360–361, 383, 520 see also calorie restriction recent human evolution 491 RNA 53, 56 senescent span 528; see also aging, late- signaling, depression/mania 553 Rochester Desert unit 33 life stage, longevity/senescence Silent Spring (Carson) 575 rodents, t gene locus 11; see also animal sensitive information, data security 152 simple sequence repeat loci studies sensitivities, fitness 87–88 (SSRs) 242 rough-and-tumble play 281 sensitivity to stress 406, 416 single nucleotide polymorphisms RSH (relative sitting height) 159, 163 sequencing, gene 52–53, 58 (SNPs) 242, 244, 254 and body mass index (BMI) 158, 161, serial founder effect model 251 size/morphology, effects of climate and 164–166 serum 25(OH) D 200 nutrition 157–158, 159, 166–167, effects of climate/nutrition serum proteins 216–217, 225–226 167–168; see also body mass index, 167, 168 severe acute respirator syndrome growth runaway sexual selection 10 (SARS) 478 body weight/proportions 158–161, 162 sex allocation theory 316 discussion points 168 saliva 128, 415 sex chromosomes 247–248, 248, global distributions 163–164 Salmonella typhi 469 252–253, 280 sampling/methodology 158 saltatory growth 40 sex differences in human behavior secular trend in body weight/ SAM (sympathetic adrenal medullary see gender differences proportion 161–164 system) 414, 590 sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) skewness, data 97 Samoan Studies Project 165, 586 128, 130 skills-based labor markets 450–452 cultural transitions 591, 593 sex ratios, and mate choice 302 skin cancer 193, 203, 205, 511 psychosocial stress 591 sex-specific gene flow 252–253 causation 504, 507 status inconsistency models 594 sexual coercion 300, 301, 354 melanoma 193, 194, 196

624 Index skin coloration 192, 205; see also race/ South Pacific Islands 518 accommodation 20 typology Soviet Union, alcohol abuse 588 adaptation 25 and cancer 504, 507 speciation 12–14 benign environments 539–540 in classification of race 222 species, definition 12 cultural transitions 582 discussion points 205–206 species selection 12, 22, 469, 529 and cultural/technological evolution of light color 198–204 sperm/ spermatogenesis 134, adaptation 20 evolution of skin pigmentation 195 354–355, 359 fecundity 329 and health in modern humans competition 10, 353 genetic adaptation 21 204–205 counts 353, 355 growth variation due to 166, 396, melanin 192–195 and pollution, environmental 397, 399 natural selection 195–198, 199 572–573 and habituation 19 sexual dimorphism 204 spina bifida 198 heat/cold stress 36 skinfold callipers 37–104 spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) 57 homeostasis 17–18 skinfold measurements 97, 103, 104 sports participation 325–327, 352; hypobaric hypoxia 171 skull vertex measurements 107, 109 see also physical activity mate choice 302–303 skydiving 363 SSHB (Society for the Study of Human military personnel 33 SLC24A5 gene locus 203 Biology) 41 pregnancy 341, 345 sleep 429–430 SSRs (simple sequence repeat loci) 242 schizophrenia/schizotypal SMA (spinal muscular atrophy) 57 SST (sexual strategies theory) 297; disorder 552 smallpox 227–228, 474 see also reproductive strategies testosterone level variations 363 smoke detector metaphor 556 stabilizing selection 8 stress endocrinology 136, 405, 406, smoking 492, 493, 498, 536–537, 585 stable equivalent population 84 417, 590–591; see also cortisol, SNPs (single nucleotide stable population models 75, 83 endocrinology polymorphisms) 242, 244, 254 stadiometers 100–101 brain growth/evolution 407, 409 social perspectives 411, 414; staff training, anthropometry 99 child sensitivity to 406, 416 see also stress standard deviation checks 97–98 discussion points 417 anxiety 559 standard deviation of differences family environments 397, 416, capital 591 (SD) 96, 97 415–417 cognitive research 560 standard error of measurement family evolution 409–410 constructs, race/typology as 272–273 (S meas )96 fight-or-flight response 556, 590 Darwinism 273 standards information processing 408 deficitmodelsofmentaldisorders558 anthropometric 167 juvenile/infant dependence 407 degenerative disease 585 ethical 148 kinship 408 development 358 starvation, Minnesota study 33; neuroendocrinology of affection 411 discordance hypothesis 495–496 see also calorie restriction oxytocin 282 family evolution 409–410 statins 505 pair bonds 413 growth variation due to stationary populations 83 parental care 411–412 environmental factors 396 statistical clustering of populations 269 paternal care 406–407, 412–413 human biology 35–36 statistics, use of 32 social environmental responses 411 impacts of change on health 590–591 stature measurement 99–100 social mind/family 413–414 memory 282 status/prestige social selection 409 mind 413–414 cultural transitions 591, 593–594 sociality, evolution of 406 neuroendocrine responses 411 extra-somatic wealth 446–447 stress response mechanisms 136, scenario building 407, 409 mate choice 300, 303 414–415, 590–591 selection 409 psychosocial stress 591 strokes 496; see also cardiovascular stratification, and extra-somatic stepfathers 301 disease wealth 446–447 sternum measurements 107, 109 structural reduction hypothesis 199 status/prestige 591 steroid hormones 128–129, 352; Structure computer program 270 threat detection, innate-module see also endocrinology, hormone struggle for existence 21; paradigm 556 levels, ovarian function, see also natural selection sociality, evolution of 406, 407–408 testosterone subscapular skinfold measurements societies/journals, human biology 41–42 stigma, and ethics 147 103, 104 Society for the Study of Human stochastic models 74 subspecies 267 Biology (SSHB) 41 stomach 228, 503, 512 substance abuse 460–461, 496, 558, socioeconomic status 396, 451 STRs (short tandem repeat loci) 242, 243 585; see also alcohol use/abuse, sodium intake, and hypertension 497 strategic pluralism theory 300 drug abuse soft tissue measurements, stratum corneum 195 sugar consumption 497–498 anthropometry 97, 103, 104 stress, environmental 168; suicide 585 solar lentigenes (freckles) 193–194 see also cultural transitions, social Sultan of Morocco 351 Solomon Islands 146, 223, 224, perspectives sun reactive type classification 194 497, 586 acclimatization 19 sunburn 194, 196

Index 625 supine length measurement 101 differential parental investment 316 TOM see theory of mind supine measuring tables, Harpenden 102 evolution of behavior 278 tooth decay 496, 497–498 surface area/mass ratio 157, 158, evolutionary medicine 461 total body electrical conductivity 159, 161, 163; see also size/ hormonal priming 131 (TOBEC) 121 morphology immune system 467, 468 total body potassium (TBK) 116, surface landmarks, anthropometry interventions based on 287, 361 117, 118 106–110 libido 355–356 total body water (TBW) 117, surface law 121–122 mate choice 136, 300–301 119–120 survivorship 67, 68, 77, 79 negative costs 351, 352, total fertility rate (TFR) 80, 380–381 sweat glands 195 360–362 Toxoplasma gondii 511 sweet peas, Mendelian genetics 48–50 other metabolic functions 137 toxoplasmosis 467 symmetry/asymmetry 110, 285 pair bonds/parental care 136, trade-offs fluctuating asymmetry 110, 313, 283–285, 413 disposable somas/immortal genomes 324–325 paternal behavior 357, 412 530–531 and mate choice 300, 301, 303, 468 replacement therapy 361 immunity 466–467 sympathetic adrenal medullary system senescence 137, 360 prenatal growth/fetal (SAM) 414, 590 sex differences in human programming 569 sympatric speciation 13 behavior 280 traditional human populations 41, 170, synapses sperm production 355, 359 581; see also agricultural societies, plasticity 428 stress endocrinology 405 foraging societies, Homininae, pruning 432 variation 363–364 horticultural societies, thrifty synaptophysin 428 TFR (total fertility rate) 80, 380–381 genotypes synchronised ovulation 354 thalassemia 231–232, 233 acculturative stress model 585 synthetic maps 225 theory of mind (TOM) 407–408, 417 altidudinal adaptation 172, innate-module paradigm 557–558 175–177 T cells 462–463, 463–464 social selection 409 ancient Egypt/Mesopotamia 446 t gene locus 11 thermogenesis in pregnancy 340 chronic disease, evolutionary Tanner, James M. 32,37 threat detection, innate-module perspective 500 Tanner–Whitehouse skinfold paradigm 556 dental caries 497–498 calliper 104 three-compartment model of body despotic males 446–447 tanning response 194–195 composition 117 endurance performance 177 tape measures 102–103 three-dimensional photonic images extra-somatic wealth 446–447, Tay–Sachs disease 218, 220, 492 (3DPS) 121 448–450 TBK (total body potassium) 116, three-quarter power function 122 fire 542 117, 118 thrifty genotypes 23–24, 519, growth/development 495 TBW (total body water) 117, 119–120 518–520; see also metabolic life span 538–539 technical error of measurement (TEM) syndrome nutrition 493–494 96, 106, 106 insulin/energy sequestration 134 physical exercize 494 technology metabolic syndrome 524–525 psychosocial factors 495–496 adaptation 20 pregnancy 340 population increases 448 advances, anthropometry 110 prenatal nutrition, role 524 senescence 545 television, impact on health 588 thrifty phenotypes 24, 519, 520, 583 tribal pastoralism 445–446 telomerase 507, 508–509 thyroid function 220, 426 variation in male quality/marriage telomeres 54, 532 thyroid hormone 127, 130, 131, 132, market 447–448 TEM (technical error of measurement) 134–135 training, anthropometry staff 99 96, 106, 106 Tibetan plateau 177, 178, 179, 200; traits, human evolutionary 406 temperature and body mass 157–158; see also altidudinal adaptation brain growth/evolution 407 see also size/morphology, time management 136 cryptic ovulation 410 thermogenesis time to the most recent common juvenile/infant dependence 407 tempo of growth 31 ancestor (TMRCA) 245 kinship 408 Terminologia Anatomica 93 Tinbergen, Niko 405 transcranial magnetic stimulation terminology see definitions tissue typing 232 (TMS) 557 testosterone 127, 128, 131; Title 45 Public Welfare, Code of Federal transcription, genes 56, 57; see also androgens, males, steroid Regulations, Part 46) 145(45 CFR see also gene expression hormones Part 150 transferrin 218, 462 adaptive mechanisms 364 TMS (transcranial magnetic transformational grid, growth/ aggression 281, 353–354 stimulation) 557 reproduction 380 animal studies 278 Toba people 136 transgenerational factors 25, 408, brain function 432, 433 tobacco smoking 492, 493, 498, 409–410, 417, 538, 583 competition for mates 353 536–537, 585 transitions see cultural transitions, development 357–358 Tokelau Islands Study 586 demographic transition

626 Index translation, genes 57; see also gene UVR (ultraviolet radiation) 192, 195, Viagra 356 expression 197–198, 199–202; see also skin Vibrio cholerae 510 transsexuals 281 coloration Viking Fund Summer Seminars in trapezius measurements 109 Physical Anthropology 34 trauma VA (alveolar ventilation) 172 violence, endocrinology of 281, 283, brain development, infant 431 vaccines 470, 494, 495, 512 353–354, 461 family environments 397, 416, vaginal cancer 570 virulence, infectious disease 415–417 validity, definition 96 469–471,494 treatment, disease 494; Van Luschen scale 194 viruses, and cancer 507; see also antibiotic medication variance see also infectious disease trees, geneological/phylogenetic 225, data 97 visceral fat see abdominal fat 226, 268, 269 genetic 5 vitamins 493; see also antioxidants coalescent tree 245, 246, 248 mutational 8 A 398, 399 Tregs (induced regulatory variation 266; see also evolutionary B group 197–198, 344 T cells) 464 theory, gender differences, gene D 132, 199–202, 204, 205 triangle model, chronic disease expression, markers of variation, vole species, pair bonds 413 503–504; see also chronic disease natural selection, plasticity, Voyage of the Beagle (Darwin) 30 tribal pastoralism 445–446; polymorphism, race/typology, Vytorin 505 see also agricultural societies size/morphology triceps measurements 109 and adaptation 21 wager, life span 539 triceps skinfold measurements 103 apportionment of 256–257 waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) 328–329 Tristan da Cunha 68, 70 continuous biological Wales, markers of variation 224 trochanter measurements 107, 109 variation 267 warfare 444, 445, 446–447 trust, oxytocin levels 282 and culture 583 Washburn, Sherwood L. 33–34 trypanosomiasis 398 describing see anthropometry Watson and Crick 54 tuberculosis 219, 471–472, 503 ecological 338, 345 Watson strand 57 cultural transitions 586 evolutionary sources 3–4, 65–67 weak Garden of Eden model 247 cystic fibrosis markers 220 fecundity 362–363 wealth/resources poverty 398–399 gene flow 66–67 and life span 539 Turkana project 587 genetic 48, 51, 272, 329–331 and menopause 539 Tuskegee Syphilis Study 145 within groups 270 weaning 381–382, 432, 542–543; twin studies 60, 552 insulin/energy sequestration 134 see also breast feeding, twinning, parental investment 535 intraspecific, leptin structure/ child care two compartment model of body function 135 websites composition 117 leptin structure/function 135 ethics 150, 151, 153 typhoid fever 469 longevity/senescence 545 genetics 72 typology see race/typology male quality/marriage market IMGT/HLA Database 229 447–448; malaria 474 UK (United Kingdom) 33–36,95 male reproductive endocrinology 134 National Center for Biotechnology ulcerative colitis 495 mate choice 299–301, 301–302 Information 214 ulcers, gastric/duodenal 228, 503, 512 Mendelian genetics 50 pollution 567, 568 ulna styloid measurements 107, 109 mutation 8, 65–66 weighing scales 99 ultimate determinants of disease 502 origin of 3 weight; see also body mass index, ultraviolet radiation (UVR) 192, 195, ovarian function 329–331 obesity 197–198, 199–202; see also skin phenotypic 4 normal, and hypertension 497 coloration within populations 3–4 measurement 99 umbilicus measurements 109 and sexual reproduction 317 Weiner, Joseph S. 34–35, 37 UNESCO (United Nations, succeptibility to pollution 575 Weismann, F. L. A. 528 Educational, Scientific and testosterone levels in males Wenner-Gren Foundation for Cultural Organization) 38 363–364 Anthropological Research unimodel mismatch distributions 247 thyroid hormones 135 36, 38 United Kingdom 33–36,95 vasopressin 279, 281–282, 282–283 Westermarck effect 312 United States 33–36,95 neuroendocrinology of affection 411 Western lifestyles 493, 581 units of measurement, pair bonds 413 hormone level norms 331–332; anthropometry 93 parental care 411–412, 412–413 see also discordance hypothesis, urbanization 559, 586; see also cultural VE (pulmonary ventilation) 172, 181 metabolic syndrome, thrifty transitions, pollution vegan diets 401 genotypes urine, hormone form/function/ vegetarian diets 401 Western Profile index 592 assessment 128 ventilatory control, altidudinal wet nursing 449 US (United States) 33–36,95 adaptation 180–181 whales, longevity/senescence usufruct 444 vertex of skull measurements 107, 109 536, 538

Index 627 whole body potassium counting 116, World War II 33 Yanomami peoples 145, 146, 224, 117, 118 Wright, Sewall 71 497, 536 WHR (waist-to-hip ratio) 328–329 writing 558 Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 34 Wilson, E. O. 529 yusho disease 570 women see females X chromosome 252–253, 280 work capacity see physical activity Xavante peoples 224 Zaire 326 work efficiency (WE) 177 Zetia 505 World Ethnographic Sample 390 Y chromosome 247–248, 248, zinc deficiency, and infection 398 World Health Organization 146, 252–253, 280 Zocor 505 161, 164 Y chromosome Adam 248 zoonotic infections, definition 468