BAQ103-History and Culture of Punjab

94 History and Culture of Punjab - I are supposed to have been pushed down towards south of India. The Aryans were also victim of infighting and inter-tribal wars. There is an interesting reference to the inter-tribal conflicts in Rigveda. The most famous being the Battle of the Ten Kings. Sudas, we are told, was the king of the Bharat tribe settled in western Punjab, and Vishwamitra was his chief priest, who had conducted successful campaigns for the king. But Sudas wished to dismiss Vishwamitra and appoint another chief priest in his place, Vasishtha, since the latter was supposed to have greater priestly knowledge. This infuriated Vishwamitra, who formed a confederacy of ten tribes and attacked Sudas, but Sudas was victorious. Cattle stealing and land disputes were probably a frequent cause of inter-tribal wars. Wars were not confined to inter-tribal fighting alone. The Aryans had still to contend with the indigenous people of northern India, who were of non-Aryan origin. The enemies were described by Aryans as Panis and Dasas. The Panis were troublesome, as they were cattle thieves and cattle were the main wealth of the Aryans. The fight with the Dasas were more prolonged as they were well settled in the land. The Dasas were defeated is clear from the fact that the word Dasa later came to be mean a slave. The Dasas were held to be inferior because of their darker skin and flat features quite unlike theirs. The Aryans pushed their way along the river Ganga and Yamuna from SaptSindhu and by and by occupied the whole of Northern India from the Himalayas to the Vindhayas. The area was called as Aryavartha or ‘the land of the Aryans’. The period between 100 BC and 600 BC during which the Aryans settled in the Gangetic valley, was known as the later Vedic age. During this period, the Aryans occupied vast areas in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Bengal and other parts of North India. The events relating to Ramayana and Mahabharata took place during the later part of the Vedic period. The life of a man in the Aryan society was divided into four stages of 25 years each, assuming that a man lived for 100 years. The first part of his life span, that is from birth till the age of 25 years was supposed to be the period of Brahmacharya (celibacy). During this period, he was supposed to be busy in studies. The Vedic Aryans did not know the art of writing. However, they possessed a literature handed down in a particular school by word of mouth. Therefore, the Aryans sent their sons to the house of CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 The  Indo-Aryans 95 the teacher where they lived as members of his family. The word gurukula means the family of the teacher. The young people lived with the Guru till he learnt enough to lead a decent life. The Gurukula was situated in a secluded area far away from the cities. The Guru was also a religious teacher under whom a pupil lived in complete obedience. Besides learning, the pupil helped the Guru’s family in gathering wood or tending animals. There was no distinction of high or low caste in a Gurukul all lived like brothers and shared the same food. Education was free but students from well-to-do families payed Gurudakshina, a sought of voluntary contribution after the completion of their studies. At the Gurukulas, the teacher imparted knowledge not only of religion, but also in arts of warfare, statecraft, medicine and astrology. Sometimes, the Gurukulas were very large institutions and the name of the Guru attracted many students. Ashramas The term ashrama means a stage in the long journey of life of a man. Bhramacharya was a first stage of life from birth to twenty-five years of age. And in this period, he acquired knowledge by leading the life of a student. After the education in the Gurukula, the man entered the second stage of his life that is Grihasthaashrama (householder’s life) till the age of fifty. During this stage, a man was supposed to marry and lead a family life following a set of customs and traditions. After this, he entered vanaprasthaashrama (life of service to others) till the age of seventy five. During this third period, he was supposed to break the family ties and serve the community. This stage was followed by Sanyasa (a renounced life in the forest) where a person had to abandon his complete social life and devote all his time in the service of God to attain salvation. The unit of society was the family, which was patriarchal. A number of families constituted a sept, grama, which word was later used for village, suggesting that the families in the early settlements were related. The family unit was a large one, generally extending over three generations and with the male offspring living together. Very early marriages were not customary, and there was a fair amount of choice in the selection of a mate. Both dowry and bride-price were recognised. The birth of a son was especially welcome in an Aryan family for the son’s presence was essential at important CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

96 History and Culture of Punjab - I ceremonies. The position of women was on the whole free, but it is curious that, unlike the Greeks, the Indo-Aryans did not attribute much power to their goddesses, who remained gentle figures in the background. A widow had to perform a symbolic self-immolation at the death of her husband. Although it is not clear whether the rite was restricted to the aristocracy alone. It may have been the origin of the practice of Sati when in later centuries a widow actually burnt herself on her husband’s funeral pyre. The Sati was merely symbolic during the Vedic period seems evident from the fact that later Vedic literature refers to the remarriage of widows, generally to the husband’s brother. Monogamy appears to have been the accepted pattern, although polygamy was known and polyandry is mentioned in later writings. Marriage within related groups was strictly regulated. The Aryans had a terror of incestuous relationships. The house was a large all-inclusive structure with family and animals living under the same roof. The family hearth was particularly venerated and the fire was kept burning continuously. Houses were built round a wooden framework. The room was held by a pillar at each of the four corners and by cross beams around which were constructed walls of reed stuffed with straw. The roof was made of bamboo ribs supporting thatch. This continued to be the method of construction of villages until the change to mud walls in later centuries, when the climate became dry. The staple diet was milk and ghi (clarified butter), vegetables, fruit, and barley in various forms. On ceremonial occasions – as a religious fest or the arrival of a guest – a more elaborate meal was customary, including the flesh of ox, goat, and sheep, washed down with sura or madhu, both highly intoxicating, the latter being a type of mead. Clothes were simple, most people wearing only a lower garment or a cloak, but ornaments were more elaborate and clearly a source of pleasure to their owners. Leisure hours were spent mainly in playing music, singing, dancing and gambling and chariot racing for the more energetic ones. Agriculture was the main occupation of the people. Agricultural products were wheat, rice, cotton and oil seeds. Farmers depended on rain. However, they had some irrigation system using canals; wells and lakes. Besides agriculture, people engaged themselves in weaving, tanning and metallurgy. Artisans such as carpenters, potters, blacksmiths and goldsmiths too made living. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 The  Indo-Aryans 97 Agricultural products led to trade. Rivers were used for transportation and many commercial towns came into existence on the banks of rivers. Bullocks, horses and camels were used for transportation. In those days, the barter system was practiced in trade. People also domesticated animals. Some of them were used for ploughing or drawing carts. Horses, bulls, cows, dogs and goats were the main animals domesticated by the Aryans. Political Life of Aryans When Aryans came to India, they came in the form of tribes, this tribal system survived for many centuries. The tribes were organised in patriarchal groups, and in the early stages the chief of the tribe was merely a tribal leader. As the need for protection grew, the most capable protector was elected chief, and he gradually began to assume privileges generally associated with kingship. The rapid development of monarchies was kept in check, by the two tribal assemblies, the sabha and the samiti. The sabha was an exclusive council of the tribal elders, whereas the samiti may have been a general assembly for the entire tribe. Among tribes which had no elected monarchs, these assemblies played the pivotal role. Soon the status of the king became hereditary. Consequentially, the position of the sabha and the samiti underwent a change; they could act as a check on the king but king was the final authority. A rudimentary administrative system was introduced, with the king as the pivot. The tribal kingdom (rashtra) contained tribes (jana), tribal units (vish), and villages (grama). The nucleus was the family (kula), with the elsdest male member as its head (kulapa). The king was assisted by a court of the elders of the tribe and by the village headmen. Even closer to him were two officers: the purohita or chief priest, who combined the function of priest, astrologer, and adviser; and the senani or military commander. Spies and messengers completed his entourage. Later sources mention a more elaborate group surrounding the king: the charioteer, the treasurer, the steward, and the super- intended of dicing. The central feature of Aryan religious life was, however, sacrifice. Small oblations were restricted to the domestic sacrifice, but from time to time larger sacrifices were organised in which not only the entire village but also the entire tribe participated. The goodwill of the Gods was necessary to the continually warring tribes, and the Aryans felt that the sacrifice persuaded the god into granting them boons. The Gods were believed to participate unseen by the humans. The sacrifice was CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

98 History and Culture of Punjab - I certainly a solemn institution, but its also served purpose of releasing energies and inhibitions, through the general conviviality which followed at the end of the sacrifice and particularly after the liberal drinking of soma. One aspect of the ritual of sacrifice was the important role of the priests, hence the description Brahman, applied to him who possessed the mysterious and magical power Brahma; another aspect was the gradual acceptance that the God, the Priests, and the offering passed through a moment of complete identity. The ritual of sacrifice resulted in some interesting by-products. Mathematical knowledge grew, since elementary mathematics was necessary for the elaborate calculations required to establish the positions of the various objects in the sacrificial arena. The frequent sacrifice of animals led to some knowledge of animal anatomy, and for a long time anatomy was more advanced than physiology or pathology (although sacrifices in the early Vedic period consisted of offering of milk, juice of the soma plant, grains ghee and flesh, only in the later Vedic period did animal sacrifices have prominence). Ritualism In the later part of the Vedic period, the powerful priestly class emerged and they transformed the simple Vedic religion into a complicated ritual religion filled with superstitions. The emphasis was placed more on rituals than on religious chanting of the sacred hymns of the Vedas. Complicated mantras were composed to make the sacrifices more effective. On account of this, Brahmins emerged as an important class in the society. Besides, the complicated rituals resulted in growth of superstitions. A small error during the yajnas was said to bring the wrath of the gods on the person for whom the sacrifice was offered. Gradually, the performance of sacrifices became costly and beyond the reach of an average man. This brought in discontent among the masses which gave rise to various religious reformers like Bhagwan Mahavira and Gautam Buddha, in the 6th century BC. New Gods The nature gods like Indra and Varuna of the early Vedic period lost their importance in the later Vedic times. In their place, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva became prominent. Brahma was the creator of life. Ram and Krishna were believed to be the incarnations of Vishnu. Shiva was considered CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 The  Indo-Aryans 99 to be the destroyer of the universe. During the later Vedic period, Ganesh too was worshipped. Besides, the female energy as represented by Shakti, Durga, Kali and Parvati came into prominence. The caste system, in those days had some advantages. It reduced friction within the society. Marriages within the caste reduced maladjustments in family life. It ensured continuity of occupation as the sons usually followed the father’s occupation. This reduced unemployment and brought about perfection of several arts and crafts. Furthermore, since the caste system was based on the principle of division of labor, the Aryans were able to establish and maintain a sound economy. But soon, caste system became a social evil. It suppressed an individual’s talent and became an obstacle for his personal development. It gave rise to untouchability and acted against the feeling of common brotherhood. Because of the mutual jealousies among the various castes, the Hindu society disintegrated and fell an easy prey to foreign invaders and alien religions. 4.4 Fundamentals of Indo-Aryan Migration Theory The Indo-Aryan Migration theory is part of a larger theoretical framework. This framework explains the similarities between a wide range of contemporary and ancient languages. It combines linguistic, archaeological and anthropological research. This provides an overview of the development of Indo-European languages, and the spread of these Indo-European languages by migration and acculturation. Linguistics: Relationships between Languages The linguistic part traces the connections between the various Indo-European languages, and reconstructs the proto-Indo-European language. This is possible because the processes that change languages are not random, but follow strict patterns. Sound shifts, the changing of vowels and consonants, are especially important, although grammar (especially morphology) and the lexicon (vocabulary) may also be significant. Historical-comparative linguistics thus makes it possible to see great similarities between languages which at first sight might seem very different. Various characteristics of the Indo-European languages argue against an Indian origin of these languages, and point to a steppe origin of these languages. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

100 History and Culture of Punjab - I Archaeology: Migrations from the Steppe Urheimat The archaeological part posits an “Urheimat” on the Pontic steppes, which developed after the introduction of cattle on the steppes around 5200 BCE. This introduction marked the change from foragist to pastoralist cultures, and the development of a hierarchical social system with chieftains, patron-client systems, and the exchange of goods and gifts. The oldest nucleus may have been the Samara culture (late 6th and early 5th millennium BCE), at a bend in the Volga. A wider “horizon” developed, called the Kurgan culture by Marija Gimbutas in the 1950s. She included several cultures in this “Kurgan Culture”, including the Samara culture and the Yamna culture, although the Yamna culture (36th-23rd centuries BCE), also called “Pit Grave Culture”, may more aptly be called the “nucleus” of the proto-Indo-European language. From this area, which already included various subcultures, Indo-European languages spread west, south and east starting around 4000 BCE. These languages may have been carried by small groups of males, with patron- client systems which allowed for the inclusion of other groups into their cultural system. Eastward emerged the Sintashta culture (2100-1800 BCE), where common Indo-Iranian was spoken. Out of the Shintashta culture developed the Andronovo culture (1800-1400 BCE), which interacted with the Bactria-Margiana Culture (2300-1700 BCE). This interaction further shaped the Indo-Iranians, which split at c. 1800-1600 BCE into the Indo-Aryans and the Iranians. The Indo- Aryans migrated to the Levant, northern India, and possibly South Asia. The migration into northern India was not a large-scale immigration, but may have consisted of small groups which were genetically diverse. Their culture and language spread by the same mechanisms of acculturalisation, and the absorption of other groups into their patron-client system. Anthropology: Elite Recruitment and Language Shift Indo-European languages probably spread through language shifts. Small groups can change a larger cultural area, and elite male dominance by small groups may have led to a language shift in northern India. David Anthony, in his “revised Steppe hypothesis” notes that the spread of the Indo-European languages probably did not happen through “chain-type folk migrations”, but by the introduction of CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 The  Indo-Aryans 101 these languages by ritual and political elites, which were emulated by large groups of people, a process which he calls “elite recruitment”. According to Parpola, local elites joined “small but powerful groups” of Indo-European speaking migrants. These migrants had an attractive social system and good weapons, and luxury goods which marked their status and power. Joining these groups was attractive for local leaders, since it strengthened their position, and gave them additional advantages. These new members were further incorporated by matrimonial alliances. According to Joseph Salmons, language shift is facilitated by “dislocation” of language communities, in which the elite is taken over. According to Salmons, this change is facilitated by “systematic changes in community structure”, in which a local community becomes incorporated in a larger social structure. Genetics: Ancient Ancestry and Multiple Gene Flows The Indo-Aryan migrations form part of a complex genetic puzzle on the origin and spread of the various components of the Indian population, including various waves of admixture and language shift. There is “general agreement” that north and south Indians share a common maternal ancestry. A series of studies show that the Indian subcontinent harbours two major ancestral components, namely the Ancestral North Indians (ANI) which is “genetically close to Middle Easterners, Central Asians, and Europeans”, and the Ancestral South Indians (ASI) which is clearly distinct from ANI. These two groups mixed in India between 4,200 and 1,900 years ago (2200 BCE-100 CE), whereafter a shift to endogamy took place, possibly by the enforcement of “social values and norms” during the Hindu Gupta rule. Moorjani describe three scenarios regarding the bringing together of the two groups: migrations before the development of agriculture (before 8,000-9,000 years before present (BP); migration of western Asian people together with the spread of agriculture, maybe up to 4,600 years BP; migrations of western Eurasians from 3,000 to 4,000 years BP. While Reich notes that the onset of admixture coincides with the arrival of Indo-European language, according to Moorjani these groups were present “unmixed” in India before the Indo- CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

102 History and Culture of Punjab - I Aryan migrations. Gallego Romero propose that the ANI component came from Iran and the Middle East, less than 10,000 years ago, while according to Lazaridis ANI is a mix of “early farmers of western Iran” and “people of the Bronze Age Eurasian steppe”. Several studies also show traces of later influxes of maternal genetic material and of paternal genetic material related to ANI and possibly the Indo-Europeans. Literary Research: Similarities, Geography and References to Migration The oldest inscription in Old Indic is found in northern Syria in Hittite records regarding the Hurrian-speaking Mitanni. The religious practices depicted in the Rigveda and those depicted in the Avesta, the central religious text of Zoroastrianism, show similarities. Some of the references to the Sarasvati in the Rigveda refer to the Ghaggar-Hakra River, while the Afghan river Haraxvaiti/ Harauvati Helmand is sometimes quoted as the locus of the early Rigvedic river. The Rigveda does not explicitly refer to an external homeland or to a migration, but later Vedic and Puranic texts do show the movement into the Gangetic plains. Ecological Studies: Widespread Drought, Urban Collapse and Pastoral Migrations Climate change and drought may have triggered both the initial dispersal of Indo-European speakers, and the migration of Indo-Europeans from the steppes in south central Asia and India. Around 4200-4100 BCE a climate change occurred, manifesting in colder winters in Europe. Steppe herders, archaic Proto-Indo-European speakers, spread into the lower Danube valley about 4200-4000 BCE, either causing or taking advantage of the collapse of Old Europe. The Yamna horizon was an adaptation to a climate change which occurred between 3500 and 3000 BCE, in which the steppes became drier and cooler. Herds needed to be moved frequently to feed them sufficiently, and the use of wagons and horse-back riding made this possible, leading to “a new, more mobile form of pastoralism”. In the second millennium BCE widespread aridification led to water shortages and ecological changes in both the Eurasian steppes and the Indian subcontinent. On the steppes, humidification led to a change of vegetation, triggering “higher mobility and transition to nomadic cattle breeding”. Water shortage also had a strong impact in the Indian subcontinent, “causing the collapse of sedentary urban cultures in south central Asia, Afghanistan, Iran, and India, and triggering large-scale migrations”. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 The  Indo-Aryans 103 4.5 Summary The Indo-Aryan peoples or the Indic peoples are a diverse collection of ethno linguistic groups speaking Indo-Aryan languages, a subgroup of the Indo-European language family. There are over one billion native speakers of Indo-Aryan languages, most of them native to the Indian subcontinent and presently found all across South Asia, where they form the majority. The Indo-Aryan migrations were the migrations into the Indian subcontinent of Indo-Aryan peoples, an ascribed ethnolinguistic group that spoke Indo-Aryan languages, the predominant languages of today’s North India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indo-Aryan population movements into the region and Anatolia (ancient Mitanni) from Central Asia are generally considered to have started around 1500 BCE, as a slow diffusion during the Late Harappan period, which led to a language shift in the northern Indian subcontinent. The Iranian languages were brought into Iran by the Iranians, who were closely related to the Indo-Aryans. The Proto-Indo-Iranian culture, which gave rise to the Indo-Aryans and Iranians, developed on the Central Asian steppes north of the Caspian Sea as the Sintashta culture (2100-1800 BCE) in present-day Russia and Kazakhstan, and developed further as the Andronovo culture (1800-1400 BCE), around the Aral Sea. The proto-Indo-Iranians then migrated southwards to the Bactria- Margiana Culture, from which they borrowed their distinctive religious beliefs and practices. The Indo-Aryans split off around 1800 BCE to 1600 BCE from the Iranians, whereafter the Indo- Aryans migrated into Anatolia and the northern part of the South Asia (modern Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Nepal), while the Iranians moved into Iran, both bringing with them the Indo-Iranian languages. In the 1850s, Max Müller introduced the notion of two Aryan races, a western and an eastern one, who migrated from the Caucasus into Europe and India respectively. Müller dichotomised the two groups, ascribing greater prominence and value to the western branch. Nevertheless, this “eastern branch of the Aryan race was more powerful than the indigenous eastern natives, who were easy to conquer”. By the 1880s, his ideas had been “hijacked” by racist ethnologists. For example, as an exponent of race science, colonial administrator Herbert Hope Risley (1851-1911) used the ratio of the width of a nose to its height to divide Indian people into Aryan and Dravidian races, as well as seven castes. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

104 History and Culture of Punjab - I Müller’s work contributed to the developing interest in Aryan culture, which often set Indo- European (‘Aryan’) traditions in opposition to Semitic religions. He was “deeply saddened by the fact that these classifications later came to be expressed in racist terms”, as this was far from his intention. For Müller the discovery of common Indian and European ancestry was a powerful argument against racism, arguing that “an ethnologist who speaks of Aryan race, Aryan blood, Aryan eyes and hair, is as great a sinner as a linguist who speaks of a dolichocephalic dictionary or a brachycephalic grammar” and that “the blackest Hindus represent an earlier stage of Aryan speech and thought than the fairest Scandinavians”. In his later work, Max Müller took great care to limit the use of the term “Aryan” to a strictly linguistic one. The term ashrama means a stage in the long journey of life of a man. Bhramacharya was a first stage of life from birth to twenty five years of age. And in this period he acquired knowledge by leading the life of a student. After the education in the Gurukula, the man entered the second stage of his life that is Grihasthaashrama (householder’s life) till the age of fifty. During this stage a man was supposed to marry and lead a family life following a set of customs and traditions. After this he entered vanaprasthaashrama (life of service to others) till the age of seventy five. During this third period, he was supposed to break the family ties and serve the community. This stage was followed by Sanyasa (a renounced life in the forest) where a person had to abandon his complete social life and devote all his time in the service of God to attain salvation. The Indo-Aryan Migration theory is part of a larger theoretical framework. This framework explains the similarities between a wide range of contemporary and ancient languages. It combines linguistic, archaeological and anthropological research. This provides an overview of the development of Indo-European languages, and the spread of these Indo-European languages by migration and acculturation. The linguistic part traces the connections between the various Indo-European languages, and reconstructs the proto-Indo-European language. This is possible because the processes that change languages are not random, but follow strict patterns. Sound shifts, the changing of vowels and consonants, are especially important, although grammar (especially morphology) and the lexicon (vocabulary) may also be significant. Historical-comparative linguistics thus makes it possible to see CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 The  Indo-Aryans 105 great similarities between languages which at first sight might seem very different. Various characteristics of the Indo-European languages argue against an Indian origin of these languages, and point to a steppe origin of these languages. 4.6 Key Words/Abbreviations  The Indo-Aryans: The Indo-Aryan peoples or the Indic peoples are a diverse collection of ethno linguistic groups.  Aryan race: In the 1850s, Max Müller introduced the notion of two Aryan races.  Aryan invasion: The excavation of the Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and Lothal sites of the Indus Valley Civilisation.  Aryan migration: An early 20th century depiction of Aryans settling in agricultural villages in India.  Ashramas: The term ashrama means a stage in the long journey of life of a man.  Indo-Aryan Migration Theory: The Indo-Aryan migrations were the migrations into the Indian subcontinent of Indo-Aryan peoples.  Linguistics: The linguistic part traces the connections between the various Indo-European languages.  Archaeology: The archaeological part posits an “Urheimat” on the Pontic steppes.  Anthropology: Indo-European languages probably spread through language shifts.  Genetics: The Indo-Aryan migrations form part of a complex genetic puzzle on the origin. 4.7 Learning Activity 1. You are suggested to brief about the original home and settlement of Indo-Aryan in Punjab. _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

106 History and Culture of Punjab - I 2. You are required to identify the fundamentals of Indo-Aryan Migration Theory. _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ 4.8 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) A. Descriptive Type: Short Answer Type Questions 1. Explain in details about the Indo-Aryans. 2. Discuss in details about original home and settlement in Punjab. 3. Explain in brief about fundamentals of Indo-Aryan Migration Theory. 4. Write a note on Aryan migration and Ashramas. 5. Discuss about political life of Aryans. 6. Explain about Linguistics the relationships between languages. 7. Discuss about Archaeology and migrations from the steppe Urheimat. 8. Explain about Anthropology the elite recruitment and language shift. B. Multiple Choice/Objective Type Questions 1. Indo-Aryan population movements into the region and Anatolia from Central Asia are generally considered to have started around __________. (a) 1600 BCE (b) 1500 BCE (c) 1400 BCE (d) 1700 BCE 2. Migration by an Indo-European people was first hypothesised in the late __________. (a) 18th century (b) 17th century (c) 19th century (d) 16th century CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 The  Indo-Aryans 107 3. Which of the following has introduced the notion of two Aryan races, a western and an eastern one, who migrated from the Caucasus into Europe and India respectively? (a) Max Müller (b) Max Weber (c) Philip Kotler (d) John Bradman 4. Which of the following person’s work contributed to the developing interest in Aryan culture? (a) Max Müller (b) Max Weber (c) Philip Kotler (d) John Bradman 5. Which of the following the family of the teacher? (a) Vedic (b) Gurukula (c) Ashrama (d) Yoga Answers 1. (b), 2. (a), 3. (a), 4. (a), 5. (b) 4.9 References “References of this unit have been given at the end of the book”.  CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

108 History and Culture of Punjab - I UNIT 5 RIG VEDIC AGE Structure: 5.0 Learning Objective 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Early Vedic Period (c. 1500-c 1200 BCE) 5.3 Social Life during the RigvedicAge 5.4 Economic Life during the RigvedicAge 5.5 Religious Life during the RigvedicAge 5.6 Indian Culture in the RigvedicAge 5.7 Vedic Culture and the Indus Civilization 5.8 Vedic Period: The Rituals and Practices Observed during the Vedic Period 5.9 Summary 5.10 Key Words/Abbreviations 5.11 LearningActivity 5.12 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 5.13 References CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Rig Vedic Age 109 5.0 Learning Objective After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Make student familiar with the pastoral economy and the changes that came with the discovery of iron 5.1 Introduction The Vedic period or Vedic age (c. 1500-c. 500 BCE), is the period in the history of the northern Indian subcontinent between the end of the urban Indus Valley Civilisation and a second urbanisation which began in the central Indo-Gangetic Plain c. 600 BCE. It gets its name from the Vedas, which are liturgical texts containing details of life during this period that have been interpreted to be historical and constitute the primary sources for understanding the period. These documents, alongside the corresponding archaeological record, allow for the evolution of the Vedic culture to be traced and inferred. The Vedas were composed and orally transmitted with precision by speakers of an Old Indo- Aryan language who had migrated into the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent early in this period. The Vedic society was patriarchal and patrilineal. Early Vedic Aryans were a Late Bronze Age society centred in the Punjab, organised into tribes rather than kingdoms, and primarily sustained by a pastoral way of life. Around c. 1200-1000 BCE, Vedic Aryans spread eastward to the fertile western Ganges Plain and adopted iron tools which allowed for clearing of forest and the adoption of a more settled, agricultural way of life. The second half of the Vedic period was characterised by the emergence of towns, kingdoms, and a complex social differentiation distinctive to India, and the Kuru Kingdom’s codification of orthodox sacrificial ritual. During this time, the central Ganges Plain was dominated by a related but non-Vedic Indo-Aryan culture. The end of the Vedic period witnessed the rise of true cities and large states (called mahajanapadas) as well as srama movements (including Jainism and Buddhism) which challenged the Vedic orthodoxy. Origins Archaeological cultures associated with Indo-Iranian migrations (after EIEC). The Andronovo, BMAC and Yaz cultures have often been associated with Indo-Iranian migrations. The GGC, CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

110 History and Culture of Punjab - I Cemetery H, Copper Hoard and PGW cultures are candidates for cultures associated with Indo- Aryan movements. The commonly accepted period of earlier Vedic age is dated back to the second millennium BCE. After the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation, which ended c. 1900 BCE, groups of Indo- Aryan people migrated into north-western India and started to inhabit the northern Indus Valley. The Indo-Aryans were a branch of the Indo-Iranians, which according to the most widespread hypothesis originated in the Andronovo culture in the Bactria-Margiana area, in present northern Afghanistan. Some writers and archaeologists have opposed the notion of a migration of Indo-Aryans into India. Edwin Bryant and Laurie Patton used the term “Indo-Aryan Controversy” for an oversight of the Indo-Aryan Migration theory, and some of its opponents. These ideas are outside the academic mainstream. Mallory and Adams note that two types of models “enjoy significant international currency” as to the Indo-European homeland, namely the Anatolian hypothesis, and a migration out of the Eurasian steppes. According to Upinder Singh, “The original homeland of the Indo-Europeans and Indo-Aryans is the subject of continuing debate among philologists, linguists, historians, archaeologists and others. The dominant view is that the Indo-Aryans came to the subcontinent as immigrants. Another view, advocated mainly by some Indian scholars, is that they were indigenous to the subcontinent.” The knowledge about the Aryans comes mostly from the Rigveda-samhita, i.e., the oldest layer of the Vedas, which was composed c. 1500-1200 BCE. They brought with them their distinctive religious traditions and practices. The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion, and the Indo-Iranian religion. According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the Zeravshan River (present-day Uzbekistan) and (present-day) Iran. It was “a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements”, which borrowed “distinctive religious beliefs and practices” from the Bactria–Margiana culture. 5.2 Early Vedic Period (c. 1500-c 1200 BCE) The Rigveda contains accounts of conflicts between the Aryas and the Dasas and Dasyus. It describes Dasas and Dasyus as people who do not perform sacrifices (akratu) or obey the commandments of gods (avrata). Their speech is described as mridhra which could variously mean CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Rig Vedic Age 111 soft, uncouth, hostile, scornful or abusive. Other adjectives which describe their physical appearance are subject to many interpretations. However, some modern scholars such as Asko Parpola connect the Dasas and Dasyus to Iranian tribes Dahae and Dahyu and believe that Dasas and Dasyus were early Indo-Aryan immigrants who arrived into the subcontinent before the Vedic Aryans. Accounts of military conflicts between the various tribes of Vedic Aryans are also described in the Rigveda. Most notable of such conflicts was the Battle of Ten Kings, which took place on the banks of the river Parushni (modern-day Ravi). The battle was fought between the tribe Bharatas, led by their chief Sudas, against a confederation of ten tribes. The Bharatas lived around the upper regions of the river Saraswati, while the Purus, their western neighbours, lived along the lower regions of Saraswati. The other tribes dwelt north-west of the Bharatas in the region of Punjab. Division of the waters of Ravi could have been a reason for the war. The confederation of tribes tried to inundate the Bharatas by opening the embankments of Ravi, yet Sudas emerged victorious in the Battle of Ten Kings. Purukutsa, the chief of the Purus, was killed in the battle and the Bharatas and the Purus merged into a new tribe, the Kuru, after the war. Later Vedic Period (c. 1100-c. 500 BCE) After the 12th century BCE, as the Rigveda had taken its final form, the Vedic society, which is associated with the Kuru-Pancala region but were not the only Indo-Aryan people in northern India, transitioned from semi-nomadic life to settled agriculture in north-western India. Possession of horses remained an important priority of Vedic leaders and a remnant of the nomadic lifestyle, resulting in trade routes beyond the Hindu Kush to maintain this supply as horses needed for cavalry and sacrifice could not be bred in India. The Gangetic plains had remained out of bounds to the Vedic tribes because of thick forest cover. After 1000 BCE, the use of iron axes and ploughs became widespread and the jungles could be cleared with ease. This enabled the Vedic Aryans to extend their settlements into the western area of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. Many of the old tribes coalesced to form larger political units. The Vedic religion was further developed with the emergence of the Kuru kingdom, systematising its religious literature and developing the Srauta ritual. It is associated with the Painted Grey Ware culture (c. 1200-600 BCE), which did not expand east of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. It differed from CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

112 History and Culture of Punjab - I the related, yet markedly different, culture of the Central Ganges region, which was associated with the Northern Black Polished Ware and the Mahajanapadas of Kosala and Magadha. In this period the varna system emerged, state Kulke and Rothermund, which in this stage of Indian history were a “hierarchical order of estates which reflected a division of labor among various social classes”. The Vedic period estates were four: Brahmin priests and warrior nobility stood on top, free peasants and traders were the third, and slaves, labourers and artisans, many belonging to the indigenous people, were the fourth. This was a period where agriculture, metal, and commodity production, as well as trade, greatly expanded, and the Vedic era texts including the early Upanishads and many Sutras important to later Hindu culture were completed. The Kuru Kingdom, the earliest Vedic “state”, was formed by a “super-tribe” which joined several tribes in a new unit. To govern this state, Vedic hymns were collected and transcribed, and new rituals were developed, which formed the now orthodox Srauta rituals. Two key figures in this process of the development of the Kuru state were the king Parikshit and his successor Janamejaya, transforming this realm into the dominant political and cultural power of northern Iron Age India. The most well-known of the new religious sacrifices that arose in this period were the Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice). This sacrifice involved setting a consecrated horse free to roam the kingdoms for a year. The horse was followed by a chosen band of warriors. The kingdoms and chiefdoms in which the horse wandered had to pay homage or prepare to battle the king to whom the horse belonged. This sacrifice put considerable pressure on inter-state relations in this era. This period saw also the beginning of the social stratification by the use of varna, the division of Vedic society in Kshatriyas, Brahmins, Vaishyas and Shudras. The Kuru kingdom declined after its defeat by the non-Vedic Salva tribe, and the political centre of Vedic culture shifted east, into the Panchala kingdom on the Ganges, under King Kesin Dalbhya (approximately between 900-750 BCE). Later, in the 8th or 7th century BCE, the kingdom of Videha emerged as a political centre farther to the East, in what is today northern Bihar of India and southeastern Nepal, reaching its prominence under the king Janaka, whose court provided patronage for Brahmin sages and philosophers such as Yajnavalkya, Uddalaka Aruni and Gargi Vachaknavi; Panchala also remained prominent during this period, under its king Pravahana Jaivali. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Rig Vedic Age 113 Towards Urbanisation By the 6th century BCE, the political units consolidated into large kingdoms called Mahajanapadas. The process of urbanisation had begun in these kingdoms, commerce and travel flourished, even regions separated by large distances became easy to access. Anga, a small kingdom to the east of Magadha (on the doorstep of modern-day West Bengal), formed the eastern boundary of the Vedic culture. Yadavas expanded towards the south and settled in Mathura. To the south of their kingdom was Vatsa which was governed from its capital Kausambi. The Narmada River and parts of North Western Deccan formed the southern limits. The newly formed states struggled for supremacy and started displaying imperial ambitions. The end of the Vedic period is marked by linguistic, cultural and political changes. The grammar of Paini marks a final apex in the codification of Sutra texts, and at the same time the beginning of Classical Sanskrit. The invasion of Darius I of the Indus valley in the early 6th century BCE marks the beginning of outside influence, continued in the kingdoms of the Indo-Greeks. Meanwhile, in the Kosala-Magadha region, the shramana movements (including Jainism and Buddhism) objected the self-imposed authority and orthodoxy of the intruding Brahmins and their Vedic scriptures and ritual. According to Bronkhorst, the sramana culture arose in “greater Magadha,” which was Indo-European, but not Vedic. In this culture, kshatriyas were placed higher than Brahmins, and it rejected Vedic authority and rituals. 5.3 Social Life during the Rigvedic Age Food and Drink Vedic Aryans were very simple in their eating habit. Their diet was both balanced and enriching which included vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes. Wheat, barley, rice, fruits and vegetables comprised of their main diet. Milk and milk products like curd, cheese, butter and ghee were quite favorite. On festive occasions and social gatherings, they preferred non-vegetarian dishes of mutton, fish and birds. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

114 History and Culture of Punjab - I The drinking water of the Aryans used to be drawn from rivers, streams and wells. The Vedas give reference to some intoxicating drinks like somarasa and sura which were consumed during festival and religion occasion of sacrifice. Somaras was a type of liquor extracted from Soma plant and other wines were prepared from different types of corns. In spite of these beverages, in general, the food and drinking habits of the Vedic people were rather simple and wholesome. Dress and Ornaments In any civilized society, the use of dress and ornaments are given equal importance along with food and drinking habits. The Aryans generally used cotton and woollen garments which were of both single and multi colours. The apparel had three divisions. (i) Nivi or nivibasa, used for the lower part of the body. (ii) Vasa or paridhan for the upper portion of the body. (iii) Adhivasa or atkaor drapi the head dress. There was not much of difference between the dress habits of males and females. However, the rich people wore more attractive, embroided and colourful silken and clothes than the common people who wore coarse cotton garments. Equally interesting was the Aryans habit of wearing ornaments. Both men and women were fond of ornaments which were made of gold, coral and semi-precious stones. Ornaments were worn on various parts of the body like ear, nose, wrist, neck, etc. stylish combing of the hair was quite common. Man used to grow moustache or beard while the ladies used to decorate their hair with flora braids. Education For the noble-minded Vedic Aryans, education was a very essential part of human life, their education centered round gurkula (literally meaning the home of the teacher) where a pupil was sent to stay and receive education. The acharya or the teacher taught the pupil Vedic text which the pupils learnt by heart. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Rig Vedic Age 115 The primary aim of vedic education was building of character. Education on different branches of knowledge like ethics, grammar, philosophy, religion and warfare, etc. was given to the pupil. Education was knowledge-oriented. It is mainly due to labourious and systematic way of imparting such knowledge that huge mass of Vedic literature has been saved for posterity. Recreation and Amusement The Vedic Aryans were very supportive and entertainment loving people. They used to spend their leisure and replace their mind in various ways. Since they live in villages, they were fond of outdoor games. Hence, past times like gambling, dancing, Chariot racing, hunting and war-dances were very popular. Along with singing and dancing, they play different musical instrument like flute, lute and drums. Female folk were equally enthusiastic about singing, dancing and other forms of merrymaking. We also find reference to the holding of Samana (fairs) at different periods of the year where people exhibited their feats of bravery in Sporting events. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

116 History and Culture of Punjab - I Knowledge of Medicine The Vedic Aryans at sufficient knowledge about plants and herbs having medicinal qualities. There were Vedic physicians who used to prepare curative medicines. At times, they also perform some preliminary surgical operations. Miraculous cures over attributed to Ashwini kumaras – the divine doctors who were great healers of fatal diseases. Caste System In the beginning of the Vedic age caste system, as a formulated on the basis of persons birth, was very much absent. Members of one family took two different professions. They used to perform their own duties and preferred to lead a happy and contented life. It is quite clear that there was a freedom and mobility in the adoption of professions. Concept of hereditary trade and occupation was not there. In later Vedic age, with the increase in number of professions, the society was divided into four distinct varnas. It means brahmins were the head of the human race, the Kshatriyas the hand, vaisyas the thighs and the sudras were born out of feet. During this period, the four varnas such as a Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaisya and Sudra came into existence which was not strictly hereditary and rigid. This system had provided for stability to be maintained in the society. 5.4 Economic Life during the Rigvedic Age Vedic culture was primarily village centric. Village was the yardstick for civilization and culture. The Aryans had preference for village life setting aside the luxurious comforts of urbanization. So naturally, the rural economy was the key factor for maintaining proper fiscal standard. And the base of rural economy was agriculture and animal husbandry. In addition, craft and technology along with trade activities said major contribution for early Vedic economic system. Agriculture The primary focus of Aryan economy was agriculture. It was the prime occupation of the people. The cornfield was called ‘urbara’ or ‘kshetra’ which was cultivated by Bullock drawn ploughs. System of irrigation and application of manure was not unknown. Several Vedic hymns were composed in honor of Gods and Goddesses praying for good harvest, timely rainfall or well- being of the domestic animals. Barley and wheat were the major products. At the same time, oil CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Rig Vedic Age 117 seed and cotton plantation were familiar. Paddy was produced in life Limited scale. In fact, Aryans were the real agriculturists who regarded agriculture as their chief source of economic strength. Animal Husbandry In the early Vedic age, economy was agro-pastoral in character. It means agriculture along with animal husbandry played equally important role in strengthening the economic standard of the people. Cattle rearing was an important occupation and the cow was treated by the Aryans with veneration and respect as the source of wealth and economic prosperity. Gauda and Gopa were in charge of daily pasture feeding of cows, buffaloes, sheep, etc. The Aryans had also domesticated other animal like horse, dog, donkeys, goat, etc. The animals specially stamped by their owners for their identity among large herds of cattle. Craft and Technology The Vedic Aryans were not indifferent to the other branches of economic growth that is craft and Technology. In fact, they had exhibited great expertise in woodwork, Metallurgy, earthenware and tannery. Chariots, cars and boats were the chief products for carpenters. Metal smiths used to prepare different types of ornaments and weapons. The waver community was in charge of spinning and weaving. Special class of artisans were there for preparing leather goods, mat stitching and CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

118 History and Culture of Punjab - I horn works. Vedic literature affirms the existence of physicians who had the knowledge for preparing medicines from various herbal plants. Trade and Commerce Trade and Commerce constituted important features of early Vedic economy where equal importance was attached to both internal and external trade. We come across special prayers in Rigveda to achieve Fortune through Maritime activities. pani as a specific group of Merchants controlled and regulated business activities. Car was used as an important unit of exchange and Mana was the medium of weight. The Vedic description related to sea voyages and trade activities of the Aryans are the evidence of their commercial profession. Transport Proper transportation system is an index of advanced economy. In the land route, horse or bullock drawn chariots were the means of transport while boats and ships were in vogue for sea route. The use of Mana is fiscal activities both by the Aryans and Babylonians stand as a concrete proof of economic activities between the people of two cultures. Thus, domestic as well as a foreign trade helped to maintain a healthy economic growth. 5.5 Religious Life during the Rigvedic Age Aryans lead a simple religious life. They continued to follow the faith and rituals which were prevalent among them before they arrived in India. They worshipped forces of nature. The number and importance of the goddesses was less as compared to the gods. The deities worshipped by the Rigvedic Aryans were fairly numerous and they have been grouped under three heads: CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Rig Vedic Age 119 1. Terrestrial Gods: Prithvi, Agni and Soma 2. Celestial Gods: Dyaus, Varuna, Surya 3. Atmospheric Gods: Indra, Vayu, Parjanya To please these Gods, Rigvedic Aryans offered prayers and sacrifices. Milk, grain and ghee were offered in Yajnas. In these yajnas, animal sacrifices were performed. Each sacrifice was performed by a Hotri priest who used to chant the Vedic hymns. The Aryans did not build temples to worship their gods; nor did they prepare idols of these gods. The Rigvedic people believed in life after death. The origin of Hinduism can be traced to the Vedas which depict the Divine Truth revealed by the rishis and sages in their state of supernormal consciousness. The heart of the Vedic culture was their religion which manifested itself with the chanting of Vedic mantras. Nature Worship The religion of the Vedic people was very simple in nature. The Aryans led pastoral life and spent their time amid the bounties of nature. The towering peaks of the mountains, vast green fields, boundless seas encircling the land on three sides, the splendor of changing seasons all these produced a purifying effect on them. These lustrous natural phenomena inspired the Vedic Aryans to worship nature with awe and reverence. They were conscious of both the creative and destructive aspects of natural forces. So, they wanted to please these forces to receive their blessings and keep away their wrath and destruction. The Vedic gods worshipped by the Aryans were generally personified powers of nature. These gods can be classified into three categories corresponding to three orders. Following are the gods of the three orders: 1. Terrestrial sphere (Prithvi sthana): Prithui, Agni, Soma, Brihaspati and the rivers. 2. Intermediate sphere (Antariksha sthana): Indra, Apamnapad, Vayuvata, Parjanya, Apah and Matarisvan. 3. Celestial sphere (Dyu sthana): Dyaus, Varuna, Mitva, Suiya, Pushan, Vishnu, Aditya, Usha and Ashvini. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

120 History and Culture of Punjab - I This classification is founded on the basis of natural forces that the deities represent. Hence, such a division is quite practical and is least open to objection. All the gods worshipped by the Aryans numbered thirty-three divided into the above three groups. The gods are described to have been born, though not simultaneously, but are immortal, unlike human beings. In appearance, however, they are humans, though sometimes they are conceived as having figures of animals. For example, Dyaus appears as a bull and Surya as a swift horse. These gods usually travel in the air by chariots driven by steeds and occasionally by other animals. Human food articles like milk, grain, flesh, etc. becomes the food of the gods when offered during sacrifice. On the whole, the Aryan gods were benevolent. But some of them had malevolent traits like Rudra (Fire) and Marut (Air or Wind). Splendor, strength, knowledge and truth were common attributes of the deities. It was the firm belief of the Aryans that gods subdued forces of evil, regulated the natural and social order, rewarded the righteous and punished the sinner. 5.6 Indian Culture in the Rigvedic Age Although the Rigveda deals with devotional work of religious nature, yet it gives a vivid picture of the early Vedic civilization. The Vedic Civilization is best understood from the social life, political organisation, economic life and religious beliefs. 5.6.1 Political Organisation 5.6.2 Administrative Divisions The lowest unit of the Rigvedic society was the patriarchal family. A number of families bound together by ties of blood formed a clan, several classes formed a district, and a number of districts composed a tribe, the highest political unit. From the Rigveda we come to know about some administrative units termed as ‘grama’, ‘vis’ and the ‘jana’. The ‘grama’ consisted of several families. It was under a headman known as ‘gramani’. During war or battle, he used to lead the soldiers from his village. He attended the meetings of the ‘Sabha’ and ‘Samiti’. Several villages formed a ‘vis’. It was placed under a ‘visapati’. He was a military leader. A group of ‘vishes’ formed a ‘jana’ (tribe) whose members were bound together by real or supposed ties of kinship. ‘Gopa’ was the head of one ‘jana’. Rigveda mentions about various tribes CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Rig Vedic Age 121 such as Bharatas, Matsyas, Krivis, Tritsus. But the tribes which acquired great importance are the Purus, Trigvasas, Yadus, Aus and Drahyus. Several janas formed a ‘janapada’ or ‘kingdom’. The ‘Rajan’ or the king was the head of the Janapada. 5.6.3 Form of Government Monarchy was the normal form of Government. Kingship was hereditary. But there was a sort of hierarchy in some states, several members of the royal family exercising the power in common. There were references of democratic form of government and their chiefs were elected by the assembled people. 5.6.4 The King The kingdom was small in extent. The king enjoyed a position of pre-eminence in the tribe. Kingship was hereditary. He was anointed by the priest as king in the ‘Abhishka’ Ceremony. He wore gorgeous robes and lived in a splendid palace, gaily decorated than a common building. The king had the duty to protect the life and property of his people. He was required to be ‘Indra’ in valour, ‘Mitra’ in kindness and ‘varuna’ in virtues. The sacred duty of the king was the protection of the tribes and the territory and maintenance of priests for the performance of sacrifices. Maintenance of law and order was his principal duty. He maintained justice with the help of Purohitas. He collected tributes known as “Bali” in kind from his subjects. 5.6.5 Officials In the work of administration, the king was assisted by a number of functionaries like the Purohita (priest), the senani (general), the Gramani (village headman) and the spsa (spies). Purohita was the most important officer of the state. 5.6.6 The Army The army was mainly consisting of Patti (infantry) and Rathins (chariots). The weapons used by the soldiers were bows, arrows, swords, axes and spears. These weapons were made up of irons. The soldiers were organised into units known as Sardha, Vrata and Gana. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

122 History and Culture of Punjab - I 5.6.7 Popular Assemblies The Rigveda mentions the names of two popular assemblies known as Sabha and Samiti. Though the king enjoyed substantial power, yet he was not an autocrat. In the work of administration, he consulted these two bodies and act according to their decision. Sabha was a select body of elders. The head of the sabha was known as ‘Sabhapati’. The Sabha advised the king on administration. It also functioned as a court of law and tried the cases of criminals and punished them. The Samiti was the most popular assembly and included common people. The head of Samiti was known as ‘Pati’. The Samiti mainly dealt with the political business of the state. It also used to elect the king. In the early Vedic Age, the Sabha and Samiti had a commendable role to play as the political organisation of the aryans. 5.6.8 Social Life The family was regarded as the social and political unit. It was the nucleus of the social life of the early Aryans. The father was the head of the family and he was known as “grihapati”. The Aryans had joint families. The father had great authority over the children. Though the father was kind and affectionate yet at times he became cruel towards his children. From Rigveda, we come to know about a father who blinded his son for his extravagance. 5.6.9 Position of Women In the early Vedic age, women enjoyed an honored place in the society. The wife was the mistress of the household and authority over the slaves. In all religious ceremonies, she participated with her husband. Prada system was not prevalent in the society. Sati system was also not prevalent in the Vedic society. The education of girls was not neglected. The Rigveda mentions the names of some learned ladies like Viswavara, Apala and Ghosa who composed mantras and attained the rank of Rishis. The girls were married after attaining puberty. The practice of ‘Swayamvara’ was also prevalent in the society. Monogamy was the general practice. Polygamy was, of course, practiced and it was confined only to rings and chiefs. Remarriage of widows was permitted. The women were not independent persons in the eye of the law. They had to remain under the protecting care of their male relations. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Rig Vedic Age 123 5.6.10 Economic Life In the Rigvedic Age, people lived in villages. The houses were made of wood and bamboo. They had thatched roof and clay floors. The hymns of Rigveda refer to Pura. It seems that Puras were fortified places and served as places of refuge during danger of invasion. There was absence of word nagara (city) in the hymns of Rigveda. Gramani was the chief of the village. He looked after the affairs of the village, both civil and military. There was another officer known as Vrajapati who led Kulapas or heads of families to battle. Reference in Rigveda shows, that agriculture was the principal occupation of the people. They ploughed the field by means of a pair of oxen. Rigveda even mentions that twenty four oxen were attached to a plough share at the same time to plough the land. The ploughed land was known as Urvara or Kshetra. Water was supplied into the fields by means of irrigation canal. Use of manure was known to them. Barley and wheat were mainly cultivated. Cotton and oilseeds were also grown. Rice was perhaps not extensively cultivated. Agriculture was their main source of income. 5.6.11 Domestication of Animals Besides agriculture, cattle breeding were another means of living. There are prayers in the Vedas for Gosu (cattle). Cows were held in great respect. Cows were symbols of wealth and prosperity of the Aryans. Sometimes cow was the medium of exchange. The Aryans had also domesticated animals like horse, draught ox, dog, goat, sheep, buffalo and donkey. Apart from agriculture and animal husbandry, Aryans had also other occupation. Weaving was the most important occupation. We learnt about weavers of wool and cotton together with the workers in the subsidiary industries of dying and embroidery. The carpenters built houses, chariots, wagons and supplied household utensils and furniture. Then there were blacksmiths who supplied various necessaries of life, from fine needles and razors to the sickles, ploughshares, spears and swords. The gold smiths made ornaments like earrings, bangles, necklaces, bands, etc. The leather workers made bow strings and casks for holding liquor. The physicians cured diseases. The priests performed sacrifices and composed hymns and taught them to the disciples. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

124 History and Culture of Punjab - I There were trade and maritime activity. Sometimes, traders made journey to distant lands for larger profits in trade. There was probably commercial intercourse with Babylon and other countries in Western Asia. The principal media of trade was barter. Cow was used as unit of value. Gradually, pieces of gold called “mishka” were used as means of exchange. Trade and commerce was regulated and managed by a group of people called “Pani”. 5.6.12 Transport and Communication The chief means of transport by land were rathas (chariots) and wagons drawn by horses and oxen. Riding on horseback was also in vogue. Travelling was common though roads were haunted by taskara (highway men) and forests were infested by wild animals. The religious life of the Aryans was simple and plain. They worshipped various manifestations of nature such as the sun, the moon, the sky, the Dawn, the thunder, the wind and the Air. Vedic hymns were composed in praise of nature. Rigveda mentions that thirty three gods and goddesses were worshipped by the Aryans. These divinities were placed under three categories namely: 1. The terrestrial gods such as Prithvi, Agni, Brihaspati (Prayer) and Soma; 2. The atmospheric gods such as Indra, Rudra (probably lightning), Maruts, Vayu (wind) and Parjanya; and 3. Celestial gods such as Dyaus (the sky), Varuna (vault of Heaven), Ushas (dawn), Asvins (probably twilight and morning stars) and Surya, Mitra, Savitri and Vishnu all associated with the most glorious phenomenon of nature, viz., the sun. Among the Vedic gods, Indra occupied the chief place, was given the largest number of hymns— about one-fourth of the total number of hymns in the Rigveda Samhita. He was also known as Purandara and the destroyer of forts. He was also the god of rain. Varuna was regarded as the good of truth and moral order. He was conceived as the omniscient ruler of the cosmic waters. Maruta was the god of storm. He helped Indra in scattering away the demons. Usha was the goddess of dawn. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Rig Vedic Age 125 Prithvi was regarded as the goddess of grain and of procreation. Agni was second in importance only to Indra. He acted as the coordinator among all deities. He conveyed to the gods the oblations offered by the devotees. He received special homage by the people as no sacrifice could be performed without offering to him. Vishnu was worshipped as the god of three worlds. Surya was regarded as the destroyer of darkness. Apart from these deities, others like Savitri, Saraswati, Brihaspati and Prajnya were also worshipped. The mode of worship was simple. The Vedic worship meant primarily only oblation and prayer. A great value was attached to the hymns. The Aryans chanted hymns to appease the various divinities. Yajna or sacrifice was another mode to appease the gods and goddesses. They offered milk, ghee, grains, wine, fruits, etc. as offering into fire. Animals like horses, buffaloes, rams, bulls and even cows were also sometimes sacrificed. The process of sacrifice was simple. EveryAryan family took part in the offering of prayers and performing of fire sacrifice. There was no priestly class for performing these religious sites. No shrine or temple was built. Image worship was unknown in those days. The theory of reincarnation or rebirth was not completely formed. The Rigvedic hymns had no consistent theory regarding life after death. The Rigvedic idea of life after death was very vague. The soul departed to “Land of fathers”, pitralok was received by Yama and rewarded or punished according to its deeds. So, the conception of rebirth was there. The doctrine of transmigration of soul was not properly developed. Inspite of worshipping various deities, the Vedic age saw the prevalence of monotheism. The hymns of Rigveda, Mandal x, 82 express the belief that God is one although. He bears many names. The idea of single supreme power governing and controlling the universe seems to have emerged. The spiritual life of Vedic Aryans was simple. They worshipped nature through prayer and sacrifice which later on formed the basis of Hindu religion. 5.7 Vedic Culture and the Indus Civilization Vedic culture and Indus civilization form two distinct groups in the history of Indian civilization. Of course, there are scholars like Dr. A.D. Pusalkar who contend that the Rigvedic Aryans, probably, formed an important part of the populace of Indus valley and contributed their share to the evolution of that civilization. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

126 History and Culture of Punjab - I Further, there is unanimity among scholars that the Dravidians who were the chief architects of the Indus valley civilization participated in building up the Vedic culture, particularly that of the later Vedic age. Inspite of this, we hardly find any similarity between these two cultures except that we can say that the basis of both civilizations was primarily their thriving agricultural economy and both worshipped nature in its different forms. But the distinctions between the two are very much clear and that is the reason why these two have been regarded as two distinct groups of civilization in Indian history. A few differences mentioned below are clear between these two: 1. The Indus valley civilization was a city civilization while the Aryan civilization was a village civilization. 2. The people of both civilizations were, of course, agriculturists, but the Indus valley people were certainly more industrialised and commercialised than the Aryans and carried on brisk trade within the sub-continent as well as with distant countries of the West. And, that was the primary cause of their thriving economy resulting in city culture. 3. Iron was not known to the Indus valley people while the Aryans used it. The Indus valley made use of only copper and probably bronze as well. That is why, their culture belonged to what is called Chalcolithic age (when man used both copper and stone implements) while the Iron age started with the Vedic period. 4. While horse was well known to the Aryans and they used it in their chariots, it was unknown to the Indus valley people and became known to them only when they came in contact with the Aryans. 5. Nandi bull (humped bull) was probably a sacred animal to the Indus valley people while cow occupied a sacred place among the Aryans. 6. While the gods of the Aryans were mostly males and goddesses occupied only a subordinate position, and that too much later, the Indus valley people certainly provided a high place to the worship of Mother Goddess. 7. The Indus valley people buried their dead while the Aryans burnt them. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Rig Vedic Age 127 8. Fish was included in the diet of the Indus valley people while it was discarded by the Aryans. 9. The script of the Indus valley people was mainly phonetic while the Aryans succeeded in developing Sanskrit literature and its script as well. 10. Performance of Yajnas was a necessary part of the religious life of the Aryans while we find no such religious rituals among the Indus valley people. 11. Probably, idol worship in some rudimentary form was accepted by the Indus valley people but it was absolutely absent among the Vedic Aryans. 12. Hereditary caste system and Varna Asram Dharma constituted an essential part of the social system of the later Aryans while these were non­existent among the Indus valley people. 13. It has been suggested by many scholars that the nature of the state among the Indus valley people was theocratic while the state of the Aryans was purely secular, though, of course, the rulers observed Rajya Dharma. 14. The Indus valley people were not artistic as a whole yet they succeeded in producing fine pottery and a few pieces of sculpture whereas the Aryans though they possessed an artistic temperament failed to leave any signs of such craftsmanship. 5.8 Vedic Period: The Rituals and Practices Observed during the Vedic Period 5.8.1 Worship of the Nature’s God The Ancient Aryans were highly religious but their religion was simple. They were impressed by the forces of nature such as the Sun, the Fire, the Wind, the Dawn, the Water, the Rain God Indra and Earth whom they worshipped as Gods. Every natural phenomenon was regarded as a separate God, whom they worshipped and prayed for their own prosperity. Varuna and Indra were their chief Gods. Varuna was their chief God who knew all the mysteries of the universe. God Indra was worshipped so that he may protect his devotees from the holocaust of wars and fill their granaries by sending timely rains. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

128 History and Culture of Punjab - I 5.8.2 Knowledge of One God Though the Aryans worshipped several Nature gods yet they believed in one God who is the source of all powers vested with the Nature gods. The Rigveda has several hymns in praise of the Omnipotent God who is variously called as Indra, Mitra, Varuna and Agni. 5.8.3 Singing of Hymns The Aryan way of worship was very simple. They had not built any temples as is done these days nor did they worship idols. They recited mantras of hymns in the open air. All the members of their families took part in chanting the hymns. 5.8.4 Yajnas and Sacrifice Yajna or Havana (burning incense) was the major part of their religious duty. The daily Yajnas were very simple and were performed by the family members themselves. Besides, these daily Yajnas they performed special Yajnas on festival days. Sometimes animals were sacrificed on these occassions. Special care was taken in performing the Yajnas lest the Gods should get displeased. First of all, fire was kindled and offerings of ghee, milk and rice were made. The Soma was also offered to Gods and it was not considered evil. They thought that Gods themselves are fond of the Soma. The Yajnas or sacrifices were performed to propitiate the Gods who in turn would bless their people with peace and prosperity. 5.9 Summary The Vedic period or Vedic age (c. 1500-c. 500 BCE), is the period in the history of the northern Indian subcontinent between the end of the urban Indus Valley Civilisation and a second urbanisation which began in the central Indo-Gangetic Plain c. 600 BCE. It gets its name from the Vedas, which are liturgical texts containing details of life during this period that have been interpreted to be historical and constitute the primary sources for understanding the period. These documents, alongside the corresponding archaeological record, allow for the evolution of the Vedic culture to be traced and inferred. The Vedas were composed and orally transmitted with precision by speakers of an Old Indo- Aryan language who had migrated into the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent early in this period. The Vedic society was patriarchal and patrilineal. Early Vedic Aryans were a Late CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Rig Vedic Age 129 Bronze Age society centred in the Punjab, organised into tribes rather than kingdoms, and primarily sustained by a pastoral way of life. Around c. 1200-1000 BCE, Vedic Aryans spread eastward to the fertile western Ganges Plain and adopted iron tools which allowed for clearing of forest and the adoption of a more settled, agricultural way of life. The second half of the Vedic period was characterised by the emergence of towns, kingdoms, and a complex social differentiation distinctive to India, and the Kuru Kingdom’s codification of orthodox sacrificial ritual. During this time, the central Ganges Plain was dominated by a related but non-Vedic Indo-Aryan culture. The end of the Vedic period witnessed the rise of true cities and large states (called mahajanapadas) as well as srama movements (including Jainism and Buddhism) which challenged the Vedic orthodoxy. Archaeological cultures associated with Indo-Iranian migrations (after EIEC). The Andronovo, BMAC and Yaz cultures have often been associated with Indo-Iranian migrations. The GGC, Cemetery H, Copper Hoard and PGW cultures are candidates for cultures associated with Indo- Aryan movements. The commonly accepted period of earlier Vedic age is dated back to the second millennium BCE. After the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation, which ended c. 1900 BCE, groups of Indo- Aryan people migrated into north-western India and started to inhabit the northern Indus Valley. The Indo-Aryans were a branch of the Indo-Iranians, which according to the most widespread hypothesis originated in the Andronovo culture in the Bactria-Margiana area, in present northern Afghanistan. The Rigveda contains accounts of conflicts between the Aryas and the Dasas and Dasyus. It describes Dasas and Dasyus as people who do not perform sacrifices (akratu) or obey the commandments of gods (avrata). Their speech is described as mridhra which could variously mean soft, uncouth, hostile, scornful or abusive. Other adjectives which describe their physical appearance are subject to many interpretations. However, some modern scholars such as Asko Parpola connect the Dasas and Dasyus to Iranian tribes Dahae and Dahyu and believe that Dasas and Dasyus were early Indo-Aryan immigrants who arrived into the subcontinent before the Vedic Aryans. Accounts of military conflicts between the various tribes of Vedic Aryans are also described in the Rigveda. Most notable of such conflicts was the Battle of Ten Kings, which took place on the banks of the river Parushni (modern day Ravi). The battle was fought between the tribe Bharatas, led by their chief Sudas, against a confederation of ten tribes. The Bharatas lived around the upper CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

130 History and Culture of Punjab - I regions of the river Saraswati, while the Purus, their western neighbours, lived along the lower regions of Saraswati. The other tribes dwelt north-west of the Bharatas in the region of Punjab. Division of the waters of Ravi could have been a reason for the war. The confederation of tribes tried to inundate the Bharatas by opening the embankments of Ravi, yet Sudas emerged victorious in the Battle of Ten Kings. Purukutsa, the chief of the Purus, was killed in the battle and the Bharatas and the Purus merged into a new tribe, the Kuru, after the war. Vedic Aryans were very simple in their eating habit. Their diet was both balanced and enriching which included vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes. Wheat, barley, rice, fruits and vegetables comprised of their main diet. Milk and milk products like curd, cheese, butter and ghee were quite favorite. On festive occasions and social gatherings, they preferred non-vegetarian dishes of mutton, fish and birds. The primary aim of vedic education was building of character. Education on different branches of knowledge like ethics, grammar, philosophy, religion and warfare, etc. was given to the pupil. Education was knowledge oriented. It is mainly due to labourious and systematic way of imparting such knowledge that huge mass of Vedic literature has been saved for posterity. The Vedic Aryans were very supportive and entertainment loving people. They used to spend their leisure and replace their mind in various ways. Since they live in villages, they were fond of outdoor games. Hence, past times like gambling, dancing, chariot racing, hunting and war dances were very popular. Along with singing and dancing, they play different musical instrument like flute, lute and drums. Female folk were equally enthusiastic about singing, dancing and other forms of merrymaking. We also find reference to the holding of Samana (fairs) at different periods of the year where people exhibited their feats of bravery in sporting events. The Vedic Aryans at sufficient knowledge about plants and herbs having medicinal qualities. There were Vedic physicians who used to prepare curative medicines. At times, they also perform some preliminary surgical operations. Miraculous cures over attributed to Ashwini kumaras – the divine doctors who were great healers of fatal diseases. In the beginning of the Vedic age caste system, as a formulated on the basis of person’s birth, was very much absent. Members of one family took two different professions. They used to perform their own duties and preferred to lead a happy and contented life. It is quite clear that there was a CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Rig Vedic Age 131 freedom and mobility in the adoption of professions. Concept of hereditary trade and occupation was not there. In later Vedic age, with the increase in number of professions, the society was divided into four distinct varnas. It means brahmins were the head of the human race, the Kshatriyas the hand, vaisyas the thighs and the sudras were born out of feet. During this period, the four varnas such as a Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaisya and Sudra came into existence which was not strictly hereditary and rigid. This system had provided for stability to be maintained in the society. Vedic culture was primarily village centric. Village was the yardstick for civilization and culture. The Aryans had preference for village life setting aside the luxurious comforts of urbanization. So, naturally, the rural economy was the key factor for maintaining proper fiscal standard. And the base of rural economy was agriculture and animal husbandry. In addition, craft and technology along with trade activities said major contribution for early Vedic economic system. The Vedic Aryans were not indifferent to the other branches of economic growth that is craft and Technology. In fact, they had exhibited great expertise in woodwork, Metallurgy, earthenware and tannery. Chariots, cars and boats were the chief products for carpenters. Metal smiths used to prepare different types of ornaments and weapons. The waver community was in charge of spinning and weaving. Special class of artisans were there for preparing leather goods, mat stitching and horn works. Vedic literature affirms the existence of physicians who had the knowledge for preparing medicines from various herbal plants. Trade and Commerce constituted important features of early Vedic economy where equal importance was attached to both internal and external trade. We come across special prayers in Rigveda to achieve Fortune through maritime activities. pani as a specific group of merchants controlled and regulated business activities. Car was used as an important unit of exchange and Mana was the medium of weight. The Vedic description related to sea voyages and trade activities of the Aryans are the evidence of their commercial profession. Aryans lead a simple religious life. They continued to follow the faith and rituals which were prevalent among them before they arrived in India. They worshipped forces of nature. The number and importance of the goddesses was less as compared to the gods. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

132 History and Culture of Punjab - I The religion of the Vedic people was very simple in nature. The Aryans led pastoral life and spent their time amid the bounties of nature. The towering peaks of the mountains, vast green fields, boundless seas encircling the land on three sides, the splendor of changing seasons all these produced a purifying effect on them. The lowest unit of the Rigvedic society was the patriarchal family. A number of families bound together by ties of blood formed a clan, several class formed a district, and a number of districts composed a tribe, the highest political unit. From the Rigveda we come to know about some administrative units termed as ‘grama’, ‘vis’ and the ‘jana’. The ‘grama’ consisted of several families. It was under a headman known as ‘gramani’. During war or battle he used to lead the soldiers from his village. He attended the meetings of the ‘Sabha’ and ‘Samiti’. Several villagers formed a ‘vis’. It was placed under a ‘visapati’. He was a military leader. 5.10 Key Words/Abbreviations  The Vedic period: The Vedic period or Vedic age (c. 1500 – c. 500 BCE).  Archaeological cultures: Archaeological cultures associated with Indo-Iranian migrations (after EIEC).  Rigvedic age: The Rigveda contains accounts of conflicts between the Aryas and the Dasas and Dasyus.  Food and drink: Vedic Aryans where very simple in their eating habit.  Dress and ornaments: In any civilized society, the use of dress and ornaments are given equal importance along with food and drinking habits.  Education: For the noble-minded vedic Aryans, education was a very essential part of human life.  Recreation and Amusement: The Vedic Aryans were very supportive and entertainment loving people.  Knowledge of Medicine: The Vedic Aryans at sufficient knowledge about plants and herbs having medicinal qualities. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Rig Vedic Age 133  Caste System: In the beginning of the Vedic age caste system, as a formulated on the basis of person’s birth.  Agriculture: The primary focus of Aryan economy was agriculture. It was the prime occupation of the people.  Animal husbandry: In the early Vedic age, economy was agro-pastoral in character.  Craft and Technology: The Vedic Aryans were not indifferent to the other branches of economic growth that is craft and technology. 5.11 Learning Activity 1. You are required to identify the Early Vedic period and prepare a report. _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2. You are suggested to prepare the project report on “Social Life during the Rigvedic Age”. _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 5.12 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) A. Descriptive Type: Short Answer Type Questions 1. Explain in details about the Vedic period. 2. Discuss in details about Vedic age and Archaeological cultures. 3. Explain in brief about Early Vedic and Later Vedic period. 4. Discuss in details about the social life during the Rigvedic age. 5. Explain in details about the economic life during the Rigvedic age. 6. Discuss about religious life during the Rigvedic age. 7. Explain in brief about Indian culture in the Rigvedic Age. 8. Discuss about Vedic Culture and the Indus Civilization. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

134 History and Culture of Punjab - I B. Multiple Choice/Objective Type Questions 1. Which of the following period is the period in the history of the northern Indian subcontinent between the ends of the urban Indus Valley Civilisation? (a) The Vedic period (b) Indo-aryan period (c) Urbanization (d) All the above 2. Early Vedic Aryans were a Late Bronze Age society centered in the __________. (a) Tamil Nadu (b) Punjab (c) Buddhism (d) None of the above 3. Which of the following cultures is associated with Indo-Iranian migrations? (a) Geological (b) Archaeological (c) Indus Valley Civilization (d) None of the above 4. The Rigveda contains accounts of conflicts between __________. (a) The Aryas (b) The Dasas (c) The Dasyus (d) All the above 5. Which of the following were used to spend their leisure and replace their mind in various ways? (a) The Vedic Aryans (b) The Indo-Aryans (c) The Chariot racing (d) All the above Answers 1. (a), 2. (b), 3. (b), 4. (d), 5. (a) 5.13 References “References of this unit have been given at the end of the book”.  CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Caste System 135 UNIT 6 CASTE SYSTEM Structure: 6.0 Learning Objective 6.1 Introduction to Caste System 6.2 Origin of the Caste System 6.3 Evolution of the Caste System 6.4 Merits of the Caste System 6.5 Demerits of Caste System 6.6 Summary 6.7 Key Words/Abbreviations 6.8 LearningActivity 6.9 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 6.10 References 6.0 Learning Objective After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Make student aware about the Varna System and also about the division of the society on the bases of their work CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

136 History and Culture of Punjab - I 6.1 Introduction to Caste System The caste system in India is the paradigmatic ethnographic example of caste. It has origins in ancient India, and was transformed by various ruling elites in medieval, early-modern, and modern India, especially the Mughal Empire and the British Raj. It is today the basis of educational and job reservations in India. The caste system consists of two different concepts, varna and jati, which may be regarded as different levels of analysis of this system. Caste is a form of social stratification characterised by endogamy, hereditary transmission of a lifestyle which often includes an occupation, status in a hierarchy, customary social interaction, and exclusion. It is an extreme evolution of a system of legally-entrenched social classes, also endogamous and hereditary, such as that of feudal Europe. Although caste systems exist in various regions, its paradigmatic ethnographic example is the division of Indian society into rigid social groups, with roots in India’s ancient history and persisting until today; it is sometimes used as an analogical basis for the study of caste-like social divisions existing outside India. In biology, the term is applied to role stratification in eusocial animals like ants and termites, though the analogy is imperfect as these also involve extremely stratified reproduction. The caste system in India is the paradigmatic ethnographic example of caste. It has origins in ancient India, and was transformed by various ruling elites in medieval, early-modern, and modern India, especially the Mughal Empire and the British Raj. It is today the basis of educational and job reservations in India. It consists of two different concepts, varna and jati, which may be regarded as different levels of analysis of this system. The caste system as it exists today is thought to be the result of developments during the collapse of the Mughal era and the British colonial regime in India. The collapse of the Mughal era saw the rise of powerful men who associated themselves with kings, priests and ascetics, affirming the regal and martial form of the caste ideal, and it also reshaped many apparently casteless social groups into differentiated caste communities. The British Raj furthered this development, making rigid caste organisation a central mechanism of administration. Between 1860 and 1920, the British segregated Indians by caste, granting administrative jobs and senior appointments only to the upper castes. Social unrest during the 1920s led to a change in this policy. From then on, the colonial CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Caste System 137 administration began a policy of positive discrimination by reserving a certain percentage of government jobs for the lower castes. Caste-based differences have also been practised in other regions and religions in the Indian subcontinent like Nepalese Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, Judaism and Sikhism. It has been challenged by many reformist Hindu movements, Islam, Sikhism, Christianity, and also by present-day Indian Buddhism. New developments took place after India achieved independence, when the policy of caste- based reservation of jobs was formalised with lists of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Since 1950, the country has enacted many laws and social initiatives to protect and improve the socioeconomic conditions of its lower caste population. These caste classifications for college admission quotas, job reservations and other affirmative action initiatives, according to the Supreme Court of India, are based on heredity and are not changeable. Discrimination against lower castes is illegal in India under Article 15 of its Constitution, and India tracks violence against Dalits nationwide. 6.1.1 Meaning of Caste Caste is the system of dividing people in a society into different social classes. This is a social group that includes people of the same economic status, occupation or rank. In India, the rigid caste system divides people by social distinctions into hereditary groups that have specific limitations and privileges, depending on where the person is on the social strata. 6.1.2 Caste System in India The caste system is the bane for the Indian society. It divides the Indian society into sectarian groups and classes. Even today, it plays a predominant role in our society despite the growth of culture and civilisation. The terms ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes’ (SC/ST) are the official terms used in government documents to identify former untouchables and tribes. However, in 2008, the National Commission for Scheduled Castes, noticing that the word ‘Dalit’ was used interchangeably with the official term ‘Scheduled Castes’, asked the State Governments to end the use of the word ‘Dalit’ in official documents by calling the term ‘unconstitutional’ and to replace it with the term ‘Scheduled Caste’ instead. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

138 History and Culture of Punjab - I The roots of the caste system are traced back to the ancient ages. While one view discriminates between the castes as upper and lower castes on the basis of their origin, another view traces the origin of the castes to varnas which classifies the caste system on the basis of their functions. Since then, it was found that undue advantage was taken by the section of people having an upper hand and a say in the community, leading to discrimination and exploitation of the weaker sections of community. The people from Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, referred to as ‘untouchables’ form one-sixth of India’s population or 160 million; they endure discrimination and segregation. Evil Faces of Caste System Untouchability Many villages are separated by caste and they may not cross the line dividing them from the higher castes. They also may not use the same wells or drink in the same tea stalls as higher castes. They often do not have the facility to electricity, sanitation facilities or water pumps in lower caste neighbourhoods. Access to better education, housing and medical facilities than that of the higher castes is denied. Division of Labour They are restricted to certain occupations like sanitation work, plantation work, leather works, cleaning streets, etc. Slavery They are subjected to exploitation in the name of debt, tradition, etc. to work as labourers or perform menial tasks for generations together. Government Initiatives The Indian Government has enacted laws to remove untouchability and has also brought in many reforms to improve the quality of life for the weaker sections of society. Few among them are: CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Caste System 139 Right to Equality The fundamental fights are guaranteed to protect the basic human rights of all citizens of India and are put into effect by the courts, subject to some limitations. One of such fundamental rights is the Right to Equality. Right to Equality refers to the equality in the eyes of law, discarding any unfairness on grounds of caste, race, religion, place of birth sex. It also includes equality of prospects in matters of employment, abolition of untouchability and abolition of titles. Articles 14, 15, 16, 17 and 18 of the Constitution of India highlight the Right to Equality in detail. This fundamental right is the major foundation of all other rights and privileges granted to Indian citizens. It is one of the chief guarantees of the Constitution of India. Thus, it is imperative that every citizen of India has easy access to the courts to exercise his/her Right to Equality. Various articles under the Right to Equality are explained as follows: Equality before Law Equality before law is well defined under the Article 14 of the Constitution which ensures that every citizen shall be likewise protected by the laws of the country. It means that the State will not distinguish any of the Indian citizens on the basis of their gender, caste, creed, religion or even the place of birth. The State cannot refuse equality before the law and equal defense of the law to any person within the territory of India. In other words, this means that no person or groups of people can demand for any special privileges. This right not only applies to the citizens of India but also to all the people within the territory of India. Social Equality and Equal Access to Public Areas The right of Social Equality and Equal Access to Public Areas is clearly mentioned under the Article 15 of the Constitution of India stating that no person shall be shown favouritism on the basis of colour, caste, creed language, etc. Every person shall have equal admittance to public places like public wells, bathing ghats, museums, temples, etc. However, the State has the right to make any special arrangement for women and children or for the development of any socially or educationally backward class or scheduled castes or scheduled tribes. This article applies only to citizens of India. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

140 History and Culture of Punjab - I Equality in Matters of Public Employment Article 16 of the Constitution of India clearly mentions that the State shall treat everyone equally in the matters of employment. No citizen shall be discriminated on the basis of race, caste, religion, creed, descent or place of birth in respect of any employment or office under the State. Every citizen of India can apply for government jobs. However, there are some exceptions to this right. The Parliament may pass a law mentioning that specific jobs can only be filled by candidates who are residing in a particular area. This requirement is mainly for those posts that necessitate the knowledge of the locality and language of the area. Apart from this, the State may also set aside some posts for members of backward classes, scheduled castes or scheduled tribes which are not properly represented in the services under the State to uplift the weaker sections of the society. Also, a law may be passed which may entail that the holder of an office of any religious institution shall also be a person professing that specific religion. Though, this right shall not be granted to the overseas citizens of India as directed by the Citizenship (Amendment) Bill, 2003. 6.1.3 Characteristics of Caste The principal characteristics of Caste are as follows: (a) Segmental Division of Society The society is divided into various small social groups called castes. Each of these castes is a well-developed social group, the membership of which is determined by the consideration of birth. The children belong to the caste of their parents. Caste membership is an indisputable and unalterable fact by which a man’s position in the social structure is wholly determined. The membership of an individual does not undergo any change even if changes in his status, occupation, education, wealth etc. take place. Since membership is normally life long, there is practically no social mobility. However, as pointed out by M.N. Srinivas, a low-caste has been able in a generation or two, to raise itself in the hierarchy, after acquiring economic and political power, by adopting the Brahmanic customs and ways. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Caste System 141 (b) Hierarchy Hierarchy is a ladder of command in which the lower rungs are encompassed in the higher ones in regular succession. The castes teach us a fundamental social principle of hierarchy. Castes form a hierarchy, being arranged in an order of superiority and inferiority. At the top of this hierarchy is the Brahmin caste and at the bottom is the untouchable caste. In between are the intermediate castes, the relative positions of which are not always clear. As such disputes among the members of these castes over the social precedence of their respective castes are not very uncommon. Hierarchy is viewed as the principle by which the elements of a whole are ranked in relation to the whole, it being understood that in the majority of societies it is religion which provides the view of the whole. Hence, ranking assumes religious dimension. (c) Endogamy The most fundamental characteristic of the caste system is endogamy. All the thinkers are of the opinion that the endogamy is the chief characteristic of caste, i.e., the members of a caste or sub-caste should marry within their own caste or sub-caste. The violation of the rule of endogamy would mean ostracism and loss of caste. Although endogamy is the common rule for a caste, Anomie and Pratiloma marriage, i.e., hypergamy and hypogamy were also prevalent in exceptional cases. (d) Hereditary Status Generally speaking, the membership of a caste is determined by birth and the man acquires the status of a caste in which he is born. In this connection, Ketkar has written that the caste is limited to only those persons who are born as the members of that caste. Thus, membership in the caste is hereditary and once membership does not undergo any change even if change takes place in his status, occupation, education, wealth, etc. (e) Hereditary Occupation The traditional caste system is characterised by hereditary occupation. Members of a particular caste are expected to follow the occupation meant for the caste. Traditionally, a Brahmin was allowed to function as a priest. In some castes, the name of caste is dependent upon the very occupation as for instance, Napita (barber), Dhobi, Mochi, Mali, etc. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

142 History and Culture of Punjab - I (f) Restriction on Food and Drink There are rules, for example, what short of food or drink can be accepted by a person and from what castes. Usually, a caste would not accept cooked food from any other caste that stands lower than itself in the social scale. A person belonging to a higher caste believes that he gets polluted even by the shadow of a person belonging to the low caste or by accepting food or drink from him. (g) Cultural Difference Since each caste has its own set of rules and regulations with regard to endogamy, pollution- purity, occupational specialisation, each caste develops its own subculture since the behaviour of the individual is governed by the requirements of his caste. The doctrine says that it is better for a person to follow the ‘dharma’ (religious obligation) of his own caste, no matter how low, than the ‘dharma’ of another caste, no matter how illustrious. The result has been different ‘style of life’ for different castes. “Hence, castes are”, to quote Prof. Gharya, “small and complete social worlds in themselves, marked off definitely from one another, though subsisting within the larger society. (h) Social Segregation Social segregation is an aspect of caste differentiation. According to Ghurye, “Segregation of individual castes or of groups of castes in village is most obvious mark of civil privileges and disabilities, and it has prevailed in a more or less definite form all over India”. Segregation is more severe in South than in the North. In some parts of the country such as Marathi, Telugu and Kanarese speaking regions, it is only the impure castes that are segregated and made to live on the outskirts of villages. In the Tamil and Malayalam regions, very frequently different castes occupy distinctly different quarters or sometime the village is divided into three parts occupied by the dominate caste or by Brahmins, allotted to the Shudras and the third reserved for the Panchamas or untouchables. (i) The Concept of Pollution The concept of pollution plays a crucial part in maintaining the required distance between different castes. “A high caste man may not touch a low caste man, let alone accept cooked food and water from him. Where the two castes involved belong to either extreme of the hierarchy, the lower caste man may be required to keep a minimum distance between himself and the high caste man”. The pollution distance varies from caste to caste and from place to place. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Caste System 143 (j) A Particular Name Every caste has a particular name though which we can identify it. Sometimes, an occupation is also associated with a particular caste. We can know the profession or occupation of a caste with the help of the name of the caste. (k) Jati Panchayat The status of each caste is carefully protected, not only by caste laws but also by the conventions. These are openly enforced by the community. In every region of India, there is a governing body or board called Jati Panchayat. These Panchayats in different regions and castes are named in a particular fashion such as Kuldriya in Madhya Pradesh and Jokhila in South Rajasthan. Some of the offences dealt with by it are adultery, violation of any of the prescribed taboos, the killing of sacred animals (the cow), insulting a Brahmin and the punishments awarded are out casting, fines, feasts to be given to the caste men, etc. (l) Taboo Another important characteristic of the caste system is the taboo (prohibition) by which the superior castes try to preserve their ceremonial purity and endeavour to neutralise the potentialities for evils believed to exist in every person. These potentialities are supposed to be more active and harmful to others at certain crises of life. The most current taboos whose observance by the orthodox Hindus often entailed a number of cumbersome observances are the following: the food taboo which prescribes the kinds of food that a man may eat. The cooking taboo, which defines the persons who may cook the food. The eating taboo which may lay down the ritual to be followed at meals. The commensal taboo which is concerned with the person with whom one may take food. Finally, the taboo which has to do with the nature of the vessel (whether made of earth, copper or brass) that one may use for drinking or cooking. A particular name, a particular occupation, hereditary membership, of commensality etc. are the essential features of a caste group. There are sociologists who have defined caste in terms of closed social system which means that there is no freedom of mobility. Caste has been described both as a ritual and an ideology which means that we are referring to the cultural aspect of castes. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)