BAQ103-History and Culture of Punjab

44 History and Culture of Punjab - I with brick platforms, a citadel on elevated platform, a supposed workmen’s quarter, vanity case, furnaces, crucibles for bronze smelting etc. have also been found. Harappa also is the only site which yields the evidence of coffin burial. A copper bullock cart is another notable finding. Mohenjo-daro Mohenjo-Daro (mound of dead) was excavated by a team led by R.D. Banerjee in 1922. It is located in the Larkana District of Sindh Pakistan on bank of Indus River. Important Findings of Mohenjo-daro Notable findings at Mohenjo-daro are the magnum opus Great Bath, uniform buildings and weights, hidden drains and other hallmarks of the civilisation. This is the site where most unicorn seals have been found. Mohenjo-daro is also sometimes known as largest urban centre of the civilisation. The famous bronze dancing girl, seal of supposed Pashupati, steatite statue of bearded priest, numerous terracotta figurines are another notable findings of Mohenjo-daro. Great Bath The most famous building found at Mohenjo-daro is a great bath. It is a 6 × 12 meter specimen of beautiful brick work. The water for the bath was provided from a well in an adjacent room. The floor was made up of bricks. Floor and outer walls were bituminised so that there is no leakage of water. There are open porch’s on four sides of the bath. There is use of Burnt bricks, Mortar and Gypsum in the Great bath but NO use of stone is there. Kalibangan Kalibangan (black bangles) is in Hanumangarh district of Rajasthan. It was located on the banks of now dried up Sarwaswati River; and flourished for at least 5 centuries. The site was first discovered by Italian Luigi Pio Tessitori and was later excavated extensively by A Ghosh. Important Findings at Kalibangan The oldest ploughed field, evidence of earliest recorded Earthquake (which might have ended this city itself), Fire-Altars, Charging bull, tiled floor, two kinds of burials (circular and rectangular graves), bones of camels etc. are important findings of Kalibangan. Further, this site was different from Harappa and Mohenjo-daro in the following respects: CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Harappan Culture: Part - I 45 The bricks in other sites were baked ones, while Kalibangan bricks are earthen ones. There was no drainage system in Kalibangan. Due to these, Kalibangan is not considered a well planned city as comparable to other important sites of Indus Valley. Dholovira Dholavira is located in Rann of Katch of Gujarat. It is relatively a new discovery, excavated in 1990s by a team led by R.S. Bisht. It had several large reservoirs, an elaborate system of drains to collect water from the city walls and house tops to fill these water tanks. Dholavira versus Harappa and Mohenjo-daro Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and Dholavira are called the nucleus cities of the civilisation. Unlike the Harappa and Mohenjo-daro where there are two settlements, in Dholavira 3 citadels or principal divisions have been found which have been duly protected by fortifications. There is an open ground out of the fortifications. In Dholavira, there has been found the inner enclosure of the citadel too which has not been found in any other cities of the Harappan culture. Important Findings of Dholavira One of the most important findings of Dholavira has been a signboard with Indus Script. Lothal Lothal is located in Ahmadabad, Gujarat. It was a coastal town {three important coastal towns of IVC are Lothal, Suktagendor and Balakot} and had different type of town planning. The city was divided into six sections and each section was built on a wide platform of unripe bricks. Entry to the houses were on Main Street while other sites of IVC have lateral entry. Important Findings of Lothal Important findings of Lothal include an artificial dockyard {which makes it an important sea link}, rice husk {rice husk has been found only at Lothal and Rangpur}, bead making factory etc. Lothal is thought to have direct sea trade links with Mesopotamia because of finding of an Iranian seal from there. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

46 History and Culture of Punjab - I Suktagendor Suktagendor was located around 55 kms from the shore of Arabian Sea on the Bank of Dasht River near the Iran Border. It was an important coastal town along with Lothal and Balakot (in Pakistan) and is considered to be the western border of Indus Valley Civilisation. It was originally a port and later cut off from the sea due to coastal upliftment. The conclusion has been drawn up that Suktagendor had trade relationships with Babylon. Other Kot Diji Kot Diji was a pre-harappan site and located on the left bank of River Sindh. This city was destructed by Force or some fire. A tar is the major object found here. Statues of bull and mother goddess are other things found in Kot Diji. Ropar Ropar in Punjab was excavated under Y.D. Sharma. There is another site Bara near Ropar, which shows an evidence of the decaying culture of pre harappan era. Mittathal Mittathal is located in the Bhiwani district of Haryana. A terracotta cartwheel has been found. Weights of stones have also been found. The evidence of residence outside a Citadel have been found in Mittathal. The site gives evidences of rise, flourishing and fall of Harappa civilisation. Chanhu Daro Chanhu Daro is situated 130 kms south of Mohenjo-daro in Sindh and is the only Harappan city which does not have a fortified citadel. The Chanhu Daro has given evidence of factories of various figurines, seals, toys, bone implements so it has been interpreted that it was a settlement with lots of artisans and was an industrial town. Banawali Banawali is located in Hissar district of Haryana. High quality barley has been found at Banawali. Alamgirpur Alamgirpur is located in Meerut in Uttar Pradesh and is considered to be easternmost boundary of Indus Valley. Important findings of Alamgirpur include pottery, plant fossils, animal bones and copper tools. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Harappan Culture: Part - I 47 Surkotda Surkotda is located in the Bhuj area of Gujarat and has provided evidence of the first actual remains of the horse bones. Rangpur Rangpur is located 50 kms from Ahmadabad in Gujarat. This along with Lothal are two sites where rice husk has been found by archaeologists. Rakhigarhi Rakhigarhi in Hissar, Haryana is one of the largest sites of Indus Valley. Bhagatrav Bhagatrav is located in Bharuch district of Gujarat along the Arabian Sea coast and seems to have remained an important port of the Indus valley. 2.4 Town Planning Town planning is the unique feature of Indus valley civilisation. Their town planning proves that they lived a highly civilised and developed life. Indus people were the first to build planned cities with scientific drainage system. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

48 History and Culture of Punjab - I Harappan city sites, including Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Kalibangan, and Surkotada were having large gateways at various entry points of the city. These gateways are seen even in the inner fortification areas also. At Dholavira, a fallen signboard was found close to the main gateway. It is a large inscription having ten symbols each measuring approximately 37 cm high and 25 to 27 cm wide proclaimed some name or title. The town planning of Harappan culture is one of its most impressive aspects, as though it was the handiwork of a genius of an architect. Immaculate was the arrangement of the city. In every aspect like roads, houses, drainage, bath, granary, the Harappan people have left an imprint of originality and brilliance. Given below is an account of their town planning. Settlement Pattern Town planning was the prime specialty of the Harappan culture. Each town was divided into two main parts. On higher ground was built the fort that housed the ruling class and the priestly class. From the foot of the fort area was spread the human settlements of other classes. People of many communities lived there. The town was encircled by a high wall made of burnt bricks. The intention was probably to ward off invaders. The town planning of Mohenjo-daro, Harappa and Kalibangan was styled as per this pattern. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Harappan Culture: Part - I 49 Houses The Harappan people used burnt bricks for constructing their house. The bricks had a general proportion of 4 : 2 : 1. These burnt bricks were used in building the towns of Harappa, Mohenjo- daro, Rupar and Mehergarh, etc. Of course exceptions are found in certain cases. For examples, bricks dried in the sun were used in building houses at Kalibangan. Normally, each house had a drawing room, bed-room and kitchen. Each had a spacious verandah, a bath room and a well nearby. The waste-water was drained out of the house into the main drain of the town. It speaks of their sense of health and hygiene. There are instances of double-storied buildings with stair-cases made of burnt bricks. Each house was protected by high compound walls, probably, keep off wild animals. All these are enough to show how praiseworthy their house-building plans were. Roads Roads were very wide in Harappan townships, crisscrossing the town from east to west and north to south. Each crossing was vertical, with provision of lightpost on the crossing. The houses were built on either side of the roads. The drains were connected to the main drain that stretched to the farthest extent of the town. Commenting on the Harappan roads, E.J.H. Mackay appreciated the fact that the straight wide roads with vertical crossings acted as ventilators for the town and kept the town free of pollution thereby. The Great Bath The main attraction of the Harappan culture was the Great Bath, situated in the Fort area. The Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro comes as an interesting object of discovery of 12 metres in length, 7 metres in breadth and 3 meters deep, the bath was located in a hall 55 metres long and 33 metres wide. The sides and floor were rock-hard. A stairway led to the bath. In an adjacent room was a big well, meant to supply water to the bath-pool. Separate sets of drains were connected to the bath for in-let and outlet of water. A ring of rooms, both big and small, as well as corridors were around the bath. On three sides of the bath were galleries for spectators. This has led historians to believe that the Great Bath was for the exclusive use of the ruling and priestly classes for extraordinary occasions like coronation and different rituals. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

50 History and Culture of Punjab - I General Conference Hall or VIP Quarters Adjacent to the Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro was discovered a sprawling house, 230 feet long and 78 feet wide, and with a 33 feet verandah attached to it. The house was propped up by wooden pillars. Historians differ as to the purpose for which the house was built. While some of them term it as the general conference hall, others describe it as the residential quarters of high officials. Great Granary Prominent among the Harappan buildings was the large granary. It was located in the fort- area. Many stone floors formed it together. Each stone-floor was 16 metres long and 6 metres wide. To the south of the floor were rows of circular floors meant for harvesting. No doubt, the granary was immensely useful in times of flood, storms and droughts. Hearth Discovery of many hearths at Kalibangan is very significant. Seven ovens in a row on a brick- laden floor are found there. Various opinions have been expressed by historians about these. May be, these were used for general auspicious occasions. It is also possible that it was the community- kitchen for the residents of the town. Yet its exact purpose still remains a mystery. Drainage The drainage system was the principal attraction of the Indus civilisation. The people put a lot of emphasis on hygiene. They took particular steps to drain out the waste water and refuges out of the town. Big drains were dug on either side of the roads and burnt bricks were used in making these drains. The drains were covered, not exposed. These drains passed through the town to the outskirts where they terminated in a big well. The small drains of each house were connected to the big drain across the front of the house. Thus the waste-water and refuges of each house were drained out finally to the big well outside the town. The system helped to prevent foul smell and pollution. Seldom is seen such modem method of drainage in any other ancient civilisation. In deed the town planning of Harappan culture was highly modem and dignified. Big wide roads and lighting system speak of their healthy civic life. The house building, the Great Bath, granary and drainage speak of the developed mode of living of the people of Harappa. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Harappan Culture: Part - I 51 2.5 Materials Used in Buildings Materials used in buildings are as follows: (a) Most settlements were situated in the alluvial plains where the most common building materials were mud-bricks and kiln-fired-bricks, wood and reeds. (b) In the foothills and on the Islands of Kutch and in Saurashtra, dressed stone replaced bricks (due to an abundance of stone). (c) The sizes of bricks have been found identical proportions 1:2:4, that the width is double the thickness and the length four times, the thickness. (d) Doors and windows were made up of wood and mats. (e) Floors of houses were generally hard-packed earth that was often plastered. (f) Drains and bathing areas were made with baked bricks or stone. (g) Roofs were probably made of wooden beams covered with reeds and packed clay. 2.6 Types of Buildings Excavations have uncovered many types of houses and public buildings at both large and small settlements. The architecture may be grouped into three categories with some variations as: (a) Private houses, (b) Large houses surrounded by smaller units, and (c) Large public structures. Doorways and windows rarely opened out into the main street, but faced side lanes. The view into the house was blocked by a wall or a room around the front door. This was done to protect the activities in the central courtyard from the view of passers-by. The doors were made with wooden frames and a brick socket set in the threshold served as door pivot. Some of the doors seem to have been painted and possibly carved with simple ornamentation. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

52 History and Culture of Punjab - I The windows were small at first and second stories. The adjacent houses were separated by a narrow space of “no man’s land”. Some large and distinct structures have been found in several cities designed especially for the public purpose. The Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro is the most remarkable feature of any Harappan site. The Great Bath was a brick structure, which measured 12 m by 7 m and is nearly 3 m deep from the surrounding pavement. Water was evidently supplied by 3 large well placed in an adjacent room. Surrounding the bath, there were porticos and sets of rooms, while a stairway led to an upper storey. The bath was linked with some sort of ritual bathing, which was very common in Indian life right from the ancient times to till date. Immediately to the west of the Great Bath (at Mohenjo-daro) was a group of 27 blocks of brickwork crisscrossed by narrow lanes. This structure measures 50 m. east-west and 27 m. north- south. These structures have been identified as granaries, which were used for storing grains. Similar structures have been also found at Harappa, Kalibangan and Lothal. The dockyard found at Lothal was another important structure. It was a large structure measuring 223 m. in length, 35 m. in width and 8 m. in depth, provided with an inlet channel (12.30 m. wide) in the eastern wall and a spillway. The inlet channel was connected to a river. By its side, it was 240 m. long and 21.6 m wide wharf. This was a dockyard where ships and boats used to come for loading and unloading of trading goods. Lothal was a major trading center of the Harappan civilisation. The most outstanding features of the Harappan civilisation were the streets and side lanes equipped with drains system. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Harappan Culture: Part - I 53 The streets cut each other on the right angles and the width of these streets was in a set ratio. No encroachment on the streets was to be seen. Even smaller towns and villages had impressive drainage systems. This indicates that people had a great civic sense of sanitation and care for health and hygiene. Burnt bricks were used to make drains. Small drains connected with bathing platforms and latrines of private houses were joined with the medium sized drains in the side streets then these drains ran into larger sewers in the main streets which were covered with bricks or dressed stone blocks. 2.7 Causes of Disappearance of Town Planning in Harappan City Sites The succession of rise and fall is a law of nature. After 1500 years of prominence, the Harappan culture gradually declined to the point of extinction. Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Kalibangan and other centres of Harappan culture were no exception. The decline of Harappan culture has evoked the historians to find out its causes. 2.7.1 Law of Nature Renowned historian Arnold Joseph Toynbee has categorised the decay of a culture as its final stage after a culture is born and grows to its highest point of efficacy. The Harappan culture was no exception to this general law of nature. Its decline set in around 800 BC and in course of time came its extinction. 2.7.2 Floods The massive floods in the Indus must have been a potent cause for the extinction of the Harappan culture. The point is proved by the silt-clay that covers the collapsed houses at Mohenjo- Daro. Repeated floods must have forced the people to flee the inundated places and set up permanent habitat elsewhere. As a consequence came the decline of Harappa. 2.7.3 Earthquakes Geographically, the Harappan culture occupied an area that was prone to earthquakes as it came under a seismographic zone. Repeated seismographic vibrations must have led to erosion that CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

54 History and Culture of Punjab - I brought down the buildings. Earthquakes constitute an important reason for the decline of Harappan culture. 2.7.4 Change of the Course of the Indus Some historians attribute the decline of the Harappan culture to the river Indus changing its course frequently. As such, the Indus delta shifted away from Mohenjo-daro and water became scarce. Water scarcity must have led to the exodus of the Harappan people to other places. Yet, the change of course of the Indus is not reason enough for the decline in Lothal, Kalibangan, Rupar, etc. because the Mohenjo-daro situation did not occur in these regions. 2.7.5 Plague Outbreak of the plague epidemic is shown as a reason for the decline of Harappan civilisation. Skeletal remains from the main roads of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro as found out through archaeological efforts tell a sad story. When an epidemic like plague visits a human habitation, it leaves its trail of death everywhere. The scattered skeletal remains therefore lead some to attribute it to epidemic like plague, though there is no concrete proof of outbreak of plague in the region. 2.7.6 Foreign Invasion Sir Mortimer Wheeler however is of the opinion that the Aryan invasion is the reason for the decline of Harappan culture. There is archaeological proof of genocide and unburied skeletal remains scattered everywhere in Mohenjo-daro. An autopsy on these skeletons reveals damages that must have been caused by sharp objects or weapons. Knowledge and use of iron as weapons was known to the Aryans, not to the Harappan people. Defeat and death of the Harappan people must have come at the hands of the invading Aryans. The Aryan cavalry must have been an adverse point for the Harappans who did not know the use of horses. Prof. D.D. Kosambi holds this view also. Further, the Vedas speak of the forest of the ‘dasa’ or ‘dasyu’. The god Indra of the Vedas is also known as Purandara or destroyer of the forts. The view of Kosambi is fairly acceptable in the context of the forts of the Harappan culture. Areas of Harappan culture which were not invaded by the Aryans might have perished due to barbaric conflicts with rural and forest people. Anyway, foreign invasion goes a long way to account for the decline of the Harappan culture. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Harappan Culture: Part - I 55 The multiple causes, enumerated above, were responsible for the decline of Harappan culture. Thanks to archaeological efforts, we now know a lot about this oldest urban culture of India. Indeed their town-planning, social and religious life, the Lothal port, the unique art and architecture, artifacts and pottery have led everybody to look upon them with awe and admiration. India and the world marvels at the wonder of Harappan culture. Yet, this culture could not defeat the law of nature and was, as such, not imperishable. Most of the rich traditions left behind were later on retained by the Aryans and others. 2.8 Summary The Indus civilisation is also known as the Harappan Civilisation, after its type site, Harappa, the first of its sites to be excavated early in the 20th century in what was then the Punjab province of British India and now is Pakistan. The discovery of Harappa and soon afterwards Mohenjo-Daro was the culmination of work beginning in 1861 with the founding of the Archaeological Survey of India during the British Raj. There were however earlier and later cultures often called Early Harappan and Late Harappan in the same area; for this reason, the Harappan civilisation is sometimes called the Mature Harappan to distinguish it from these other cultures. By 2002, over 1,000 Mature Harappan cities and settlements had been reported, of which just under a hundred had been excavated. Mehrgarh is a Neolithic (7000 BCE to c. 2500 BCE) site to the west of the Indus River valley near the Bolan Pass. The Indus civilisation's economy appears to have depended significantly on trade, which was facilitated by major advances in transport technology. The IVC may have been the first civilisation to use wheeled transport. These advances may have included bullock carts that are identical to those seen throughout South Asia today, as well as boats. Most of these boats were probably small, flat-bottomed craft, perhaps driven by sail, similar to those one can see on the Indus River today; however, there is secondary evidence of sea-going craft. Archaeologists have discovered a massive, dredged canal and what they regard as a docking facility at the coastal city of Lothal in western India (Gujarat state). An extensive canal network, used for irrigation, has however also been discovered by H.P. Francfort. The Indus Valley Civilisation is the earliest known culture of the Indian subcontinent of the kind now called “urban” (or centered on large municipalities), and the largest of the four ancient civilisations, which also included Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China. The society of the Indus River Valley has been CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

56 History and Culture of Punjab - I dated from the Bronze Age, the time period from approximately 3300-1300 BCE It was located in modern-day India and Pakistan, and covered an area as large as Western Europe. Harappa and Mohenjo-daro were the two great cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation, emerging around 2600 BCE along the Indus River Valley in the Sindh and Punjab provinces of Pakistan. Their discovery and excavation in the 19th and 20th centuries provided important archaeological data regarding the civilisation’s technology, art, trade, transportation, writing, and religion. The people of the Indus Valley, also known as Harappan (Harappa was the first city in the region found by archaeologists), achieved many notable advances in technology, including great accuracy in their systems and tools for measuring length and mass. Harappans were among the first to develop a system of uniform weights and measures that conformed to a successive scale. The smallest division, approximately 1.6 mm, was marked on an ivory scale found in Lothal, a prominent Indus Valley city in the modern Indian state of Gujarat. It stands as the smallest division ever recorded on a Bronze Age scale. Another indication of an advanced measurement system is the fact that the bricks used to build Indus cities were uniform in size. Indus Valley excavation sites have revealed a number of distinct examples of the culture’s art, including sculptures, seals, pottery, gold jewelry, and anatomically detailed figurines in terracotta, bronze, and steatite more commonly known as Soapstone. Among the various gold, terracotta, and stone figurines found, a figure of a “Priest-King” displayed a beard and patterned robe. Another figurine in bronze, known as the “Dancing Girl,” is only 11 cm. high and shows a female figure in a pose that suggests the presence of some choreographed dance form enjoyed by members of the civilisation. Terracotta works also included cows, bears, monkeys, and dogs. In addition to figurines, the Indus River Valley people are believed to have created necklaces, bangles, and other ornaments. The Harappan culture blossomed as the first urban civilisation of ancient India. Each of its facets was unique in artistic creativity. The uniqueness of its art and architecture is traceable in everything ranging from the fort and buildings up to its earthenware and metal products. A developed sculptural standard of exquisite beauty is discernible in the Harappan culture. The civilisation’s economy appears to have depended significantly on trade, which was facilitated by major advances in transport technology. The Harappan Civilisation may have been the first to use CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Harappan Culture: Part - I 57 wheeled transport, in the form of bullock carts that are identical to those seen throughout South Asia today. It also appears they built boats and watercraft a claim supported by archaeological discoveries of a massive, dredged canal, and what is regarded as a docking facility at the coastal city of Lothal. Trade focused on importing raw materials to be used in Harappan city workshops, including minerals from Iran and Afghanistan, lead and copper from other parts of India, jade from China, and cedar wood floated down rivers from the Himalayas and Kashmir. Other trade goods included terracotta pots, gold, silver, metals, beads, flints for making tools, seashells, pearls, and colored gem stones, such as lapis lazuli and turquoise. Harappans are believed to have used Indus Script, a language consisting of symbols. A collection of written texts on clay and stone tablets unearthed at Harappa, which have been carbon dated 3300-3200 BCE, contain trident-shaped, plant-like markings. This Indus Script suggests that writing developed independently in the Indus River Valley Civilisation from the script employed in Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. Mohenjo-daro (mound of dead) was excavated by a team led by R.D. Banerjee in 1922. It is located in the Larkana District of Sindh Pakistan on bank of Indus River. Notable findings at Mohenjo-daro are the magnum opus Great Bath, uniform buildings and weights, hidden drains and other hallmarks of the civilisation. This is the site where most unicorn seals have been found. Mohenjo-daro is also sometimes known as largest urban centre of the civilisation. The famous bronze dancing girl, seal of supposed Pashupati, steatite statue of bearded priest, numerous terracotta figurines are another notable findings of Mohenjo-daro. Town planning is the unique feature of Indus valley civilisation. Their town planning proves that they lived a highly civilised and developed life. Indus people were the first to build planned cities with scientific drainage system. Harappan city sites, including Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Kalibangan, and Surkotada were having large gateways at various entry points of the city. These gateways are seen even in the inner fortification areas also. The town-planning of Harappan culture is one of its most impressive aspects, as though it was the handiwork of a genius of an architect. Immaculate was the arrangement of the city. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

58 History and Culture of Punjab - I Town planning was the prime specialty of the Harappan culture. Each town was divided into two main parts. On higher ground was built the fort that housed the ruling class and the priestly class. From the foot of the fort area was spread the human settlements of other classes. People of many communities lived there. The town was encircled by a high wall made of burnt bricks. The intention was probably to ward off invaders. The town planning of Mohenjo-daro, Harappa and Kalibangan was styled as per this pattern. Doorways and windows rarely opened out into the main street, but faced side lanes. The view into the house was blocked by a wall or a room around the front door. This was done to protect the activities in the central courtyard from the view of passers- by. The doors were made with wooden frames and a brick socket set in the threshold served as door pivot. Some of the doors seem to have been painted and possibly carved with simple ornamentation. The windows were small at first and second stories. The adjacent houses were separated by a narrow space of “no man's land”. Some large and distinct structures have been found in several cities designed especially for the public purpose. The Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro is the most remarkable feature of any Harappan site. The Great Bath was a brick structure, which measured 12 m by 7 m and is nearly 3 m deep from the surrounding pavement. Water was evidently supplied by 3 large well placed in an adjacent room. Surrounding the bath, there were porticos and sets of rooms, while a stairway led to an upper storey. The bath was linked with some sort of ritual bathing, which was very common in Indian life right from the ancient times to till date. The succession of rise and fall is a law of nature. After 1500 years of prominence, the Harappan culture gradually declined to the point of extinction. Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Kalibangan and other centres of Harappan culture were no exception. 2.9 Key Words/Abbreviations  Indus civilisation: The Indus civilisation is also known as the Harappan Civilisation.  Mehrgarh: Mehrgarh is a Neolithic (7000 BCE to c. 2500 BCE) site to the west of the Indus River valley near the Bolan Pass.  Arts and crafts: Various sculptures, seals, bronze vessels pottery, gold jewellery, and anatomically detailed.  Trade and transportation: Trade focused on importing raw materials to be used in Harappan city workshops. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Harappan Culture: Part - I 59  Agriculture: According to Jean-Francois Jarrige, farming had an independent origin at Mehrgarh, despite the similarities.  Aryan invasion: In 1953 Sir Mortimer Wheeler proposed that the invasion of an Indo- European tribe from Central Asia, the \"Aryans\".  Harappan culture: The Harappan culture blossomed as the first urban civilisation of ancient India.  Mohenjo-daro: Mohenjo-daro (mound of dead) was excavated by a team led by R.D. Banerjee in 1922.  Kalibangan: Kalibangan was styled as per this pattern. 2.10 Learning Activity 1. You are suggested to identify the Harappan Civilisation and preapare a report on the same. _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ 2. You are required to make a team of 5 members and prepare a live project on “Harappan Culture”. _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ 2.11 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) A. Descriptive Type: Short Answer Type Questions 1. Explain in details about Harappan culture. 2. Discuss the extent principal places in Harappan culture. 3. Discuss the pictorial presentation of Town Planning in Harappan culture. 4. Explain in brief about materials used in buildings of Harappan. 5. Discuss various types of buildings of Harappan Culture. 6. Explain in details about causes of disappearance of Town Planning in Harappan city sites. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

60 History and Culture of Punjab - I B. Multiple Choice/Objective Type Questions 1. The Indus civilisation is also known as the __________. (a) Harappan Civilisation (b) Indian Civilisation (c) Industrial Revolution (d) All the above 2. Harappa, the first of its sites to be excavated early in the __________. (a) 19th Century (b) 20th century (c) 21st Century (d) 18th Century 3. Which of the following is a Neolithic (7000 BCE to c. 2500 BCE) site to the west of the Indus River valley near the Bolan Pass? (a) Mehrgarh (b) Medieval India (c) Culture of the Punjab (d) None of the above 4. The Harappa town was encircled by a high wall made of __________. (a) Mud (b) Burnt bricks (c) Cement (d) All the above 5. The Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro is the most remarkable feature of any __________. (a) Harappan site (b) Mehrgarh (c) Medieval India (d) Culture of the Punjab Answers 1. (a), 2. (b), 3. (a), 4. (b), 5. (a) 2.12 References “References of this unit have been given at the end of the book”.  CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Harappan Culture: Part - II 61 UNIT 3 HARAPPAN CULTURE: PART - II Structure: 3.0 Learning Objective 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Life of the Harappan People 3.3 Features of Social Life of the Harappan People 3.4 Economic Life of the Harappan People 3.5 Religious Life of the Harappan People 3.6 Summary 3.7 Key Words/Abbreviations 3.8 LearningActivity 3.9 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 3.10 References 3.0 Learning Objective After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Become familiar with the society of the Harappans and what we have inherited from them and how rich and glorious was our past CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

62 History and Culture of Punjab - I 3.1 Introduction The social and economic life of the people of Harappan Civilisation was systematic and organised. The Indus valley population consisted of Australoid, Mediterranean, Mongoloid and Alpine races. The approximate population of Mohenjo-daro was 35000. The Indus civilisation is also known as the Harappan Civilisation, after its type site, Harappa, the first of its sites to be excavated early in the 20th century in what was then the Punjab province of British India and now is Pakistan. The discovery of Harappa and soon afterwards Mohenjo-daro was the culmination of work beginning in 1861 with the founding of the Archaeological Survey of India during the British Raj. There were however earlier and later cultures often called Early Harappan and Late Harappan in the same area; for this reason, the Harappan civilisation is sometimes called the Mature Harappan to distinguish it from these other cultures. By 2002, over 1,000 Mature Harappan cities and settlements had been reported, of which just under a hundred had been excavated. However, there are only 5 major urban sites: Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, Ganeriwala in Cholistan, and Rakhigarhi. The CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Harappan Culture: Part - II 63 early Harappan cultures were preceded by local Neolithic agricultural villages, from which the river plains were populated. 3.2 Life of the Harappan People The Indus Valley civilisation was mainly an urban culture sustained by surplus agricultural production and commerce, the latter including trade with Sumer in southern Mesopotamia. Both Mohenjo-daro and Harappa are generally characterised as having “differentiated living quarters, flat-roofed brick houses, and fortified administrative or religious centers.” Although such similarities have given rise to arguments for the existence of a standardised system of urban layout and planning, the similarities are largely due to the presence of a semi-orthogonal type of civic layout, and a comparison of the layouts of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa shows that they are in fact, arranged in a quite dissimilar fashion. Food The food of the Harappans was supplied from extensive areas cultivated in vicinity of the city. Rice was probably grown in the Indus valley. The staple food of the people comprised wheat, barley, rice, milk and some vegetables like peas, sesamums and fruits like date palms. Beef, mutton, pork, poultry, fish etc. were also eaten by the Indus people. Agriculture appears to be the main occupation of the Indus people. The discovery of a granary at Harappa lends support to this. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

64 History and Culture of Punjab - I Clothing The discovery of large number of spindles proves the use of cotton for weaving social cloths. Wool was also used. The garments might have been sewn. Both men and women used two pieces of cloth. The men folk wore some lower garment like dhoti and upper garment like shawl. The upper garment wrapped the left shoulder. Female attire was the same as that of men. Men wore long hair, parted in the middle and kept tidy at the back. The women of Indus valley usually wore long hair in a braid with fan-shaped bow at the end. The females of the Indus valley had a taste for culture like their modern sisters. The “vanity case” and the toilet jars found at Harappa consisted of ivory powder, face-paint and many other varieties of cosmetics. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Harappan Culture: Part - II 65 Decoration Most of the household articles were made of pottery or of metals like copper and bronze. The art of pottery attained a wonderful excellence at Mohenjo-daro. Utensils and Tools Most of the kitchen utensils including jars, vessels, dishes, etc. were made of earth and stone. There is lack of defensive weapons like sword. Chairs and tools were used for decorating rooms and for sitting comfortably. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

66 History and Culture of Punjab - I Pastimes Hunting of wild animals, bull fighting, fishing and clay modeling were general social amusements of people. It is suggested by scholars that there was strong family organisations among them. The craftsmen taught their skill in crafting to their children. The toys were used by children of the family. Communication and Intelligence The large number of seals engraved with letters presents the idea that there was high percentage of literacy among the Indus people. The drainage system also speaks of their cleanliness and public hygiene. The seals, the terracotta figurines and the images of dancing girls prove the artistic taste of the Indus men. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Harappan Culture: Part - II 67 3.3 Features of Social Life of the Harappan People The ruins and various evidences of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro along with other sites reveal a great deal about the socio-cultural life of the people of Indus valley. An analysis of the findings gives us sufficient information about their highly developed social life. The civilisation itself was a glorious conglomeration of people of various origins. As the civilisation centered on city culture, the social life of the people bore touches of an urban influence. Their civic life was highly disciplined and quite scientific. The inhabitants preferred to live in a proper hygienic atmosphere, as is proved by their town planning systems. Origin of Race On examination of skulls and bones discovered during excavation it is known that people owing their origin to Proto-Austroloid, Mongoloid, Mediterranean and Alpine stock lived in the Harappan cities. These town-dwellers lived a life of ease, peace and prosperity. S.R. Sharma states that “the social system of the Indus people was even superior to that of Egypt and Babylon.” In fact, their social life was far better than that of their contemporaries anywhere in the world. As the people of Harappan culture maintained a high standard of social life, they obviously enjoyed a good number of amenities of city life. The chief characteristics of their social organisations are given below. Food The diet of the Harappan people consisted of both vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes. Wheat was their staple foodgrain. Barley, date-palm, maize and rice were also popular foodstuff. Fish was commonly used. Non-vegetarian food also included mutton, poultry, chicken, pork, turtles, etc. Milk was a favorite drink. Different types of vegetables and fruits seemed to have been known to the people of Harappan culture. Dress and Ornament Since the climate of the area was tropical, naturally people preferred to use garments conductive to tropical climate. Several figurines of males and females have been found at the excavation sites that give us a clear idea about their costumes. Cotton fabrics were in common use though use of wool was not unknown to them. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

68 History and Culture of Punjab - I Ornaments Their dress habits were simple. One statue shows the use of two pieces of cloth—one for the upper portion and the other for the lower portion of the body. The upper garment was like a modern shawl that was drawn over the left shoulder and under the right so as to leave the right arm free and in the sitting posture it came down up to the feet. The lower garment was like a modern dhoti. There was very little difference in the garments worn by males and females. Specimens of Art from Harappan Civilisation: (A) Bronze Statue – ‘Dancing Girl’, (b) Terracotta Bulls, (c) Terracotta Female Figurine, (d) Head of a Yogi and (e) Painted Jar. Both men and women of the Harappan society were fond of wearing ornaments. There were some common ornaments that were used by both. They included necklaces, fillets, armlets, rings and bangles. Ladies used some specific ornaments like girdles, nose studs, earrings and anklets. There was a great variety in the shape and design of these ornaments. The wealthy people used ornaments made of gold, silver, ivory and other semi-precious stones whereas ornaments of the poor were made of copper, bronze, shell and terracotta. Beads of various designs and metals were also used in large numbers. Attire The Harappan people were fond of luxury and comfort. The discovery of ivory combs, bronze mirrors and razors shows the interest of people in the use of their own attire. Both men and women liked stylish combing of hair. They combed their hair into different braids and men kept short beards and long whiskers and sometimes the upper lip was shaved. Their hair was combed backwards and was either cut short or coiled into a knot on the top of the head. People knew the art of toilet and cosmetics. Various toilet jars made of ivory, metal, pottery and stone have been discovered at Harappan sites. Ladies were well-acquainted with toilet culture. It appears that they knew the use of collyrium, powder, cream and possibly lipstick too. All these go on to prove that the Harappans were quite conscious of their own beauty. Amusement and Recreation Since the people of Harappan culture were city-dwellers, they had various pastimes for useful recreation of their leisure. They entertained themselves by playing indoor games like dicing, dancing and singing. Further, hunting, fishing, arranging animal and bird fights formed other sources of amusement. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Harappan Culture: Part - II 69 From the excavation sites, a number of toys made of copper, ivory, clay and other materials have come to light. These toys were made in the shape of human beings and animals like bulls, monkeys, etc. Clay modeling was another major pastime of the Harappans. The Harappans used to engage themselves through these constructive hobbies. Household Items A number of household items used by the Harappans have been unearthed at different sites. These items were made of gold, silver, copper and bronze. One interesting thing to be noted is that these people did not know the use of iron. Earthen vessels of exquisite designs prepared by the potter’s wheel show the technical skill of the people. The surface of these articles was fine and polished and they were at times ornamented with the figures of birds, animals, trees and clay-knobs. Among the earthen pots the commonly used articles included plates, dish with stand, bowls, goblets, pans, saucers, jars, pitchers, jars with covers, etc. Many tools of practical utility like needle, axe, saw, sickle, knife, fishing hook, bed-stead, stool and chair have been found. This shows that they used cots, mats and reeds. For children clay figures of men, women and clay-carts with wheels were made in large numbers. These household items show the Harappans artistic bent of mind. They made paintings of black on red ware. Several seals of terracotta with artistic designs bear evidence of their refined taste and skill. Pictorial motifs and geometrical designs found on various articles point out the artistic skill of Harappan inhabitants. Weapons of War Although the Harappans were a peace loving people they used various weapons for self- defence. These weapons included axes, spears, daggers, bows and arrows. Swords, shields, helmets or any such protective gears were not used. These weapons were made of copper or bronze. Their inferior quality suggests that the Harappan soldiers were not quite sophisticated in warfare. Medicines We have little knowledge about the drugs and medicines used by the Harappan people. The horns of deer and antelope were used as medicines. The use of ‘neem’ as an anti-psoric medicine was also known to them. Their limited medical knowledge helped them to cure themselves to some extent. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

70 History and Culture of Punjab - I Domestication of Animals The Harappan people knew the art of domesticating animals for their personal use. These animals were bulls, buffaloes, sheep, pigs, dogs, elephants and camels. They used carts drawn by bullocks. It is doubtful whether horse was domesticated. It is evident that they were familiar with wild animals like tigers, bears, rhinoceros, squirrels and monkeys. The idea of domesticating animals for human use speaks of the Harappans’ advanced thinking in this regard. Disposal of the Dead Different methods of disposing the dead were practiced by the people of Harappan culture. The common method of disposing the dead body was burning the corpse. The second method was to leave the dead in dense jungles or other inaccessible places to be eaten up by birds and animals. The bones were collected afterwards. Another method was to bury the dead. The absence of cemetery at Mohenjo-daro and a large burial ground found at Harappa show that uniform burial rites were not followed everywhere. According to Sir John Marshall, the process of burning was very common to the people. The ashes were sometimes placed in the urns and at other times un burnt bones were collected in jars. Earthen pots containing food grains were placed in the grave and in some cases the body was buried with ornaments. Social Stratification The Harappan society seems to have been divided into three sections: (a) The elite class associated with the citadel, (b) A well-to-do middle class and (c) A relatively weaker class occupying the lower towns that were generally fortified. Some of the craftsmen and labourers, however, resided outside the fortified area. We do not know whether these divisions were based purely on economic factors or had a socio-religious basis. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Harappan Culture: Part - II 71 At Kalibangan site of Harappan culture, it appears that the priests lived in the upper part of the citadel and performed rituals on altars of fire in the lower part of it. The different aspects of Harappan society discussed above show that the people led a highly developed, peaceful, fun-loving and comfortable life. Social rules and norms were well regulated and their mode of living was well disciplined. As a result, social life was simple and contented. Women in the Harappan society seemed to enjoy high respect. The worship of Mother Goddess stands as clear proof to the esteemed position of Harappan women. They were treated equally by their male counterparts. 3.4 Economic Life of the Harappan People The economic condition of the Harappan people was quite good. Their affluence was due to agriculture, animal husbandry, industry, trade and commerce. These made them prosperous and opened for them the avenues of a comfortable life. Through trade and commerce they, too, were able to establish contacts with others inside India and outside. Agriculture The Harappan people were dependent on agriculture as the primary source of living. Archaeological remains of the region reveal a variety of agricultural equipments used by them. Kalibangan gives us the idea about their agriculture. They also knew the use of sickle and used to cut crops with it. The circular floor was used for harvesting, as the Harappan granary would reveal. They grew wheat. rice, maize, cotton and various vegetables in their fields. The surplus produce was stored in the granary. The agriculture depended on rain-fed water. In case of need, they irrigated their land with water from the Indus. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

72 History and Culture of Punjab - I The floods in the Indus inundated the fields and left a fertile silt-cover on the fields after the flood water receded. This fertile silt would yield a bumper harvest during following agricultural seasons. For all practical purposes, agriculture was the principal means of sustenance for the Harappan people. Animal Husbandry The Harappan people domesticated many animals like cow, buffalo, sheep, elephant, camel, pig, etc. They did not know the use of animals like horse and dog. Their seals reveal the images of tiger, bear, rhino, etc. The children’s toys were styled after monkey, mouse, cat, peacock, rabbit, mongoose, etc. Animal husbandry supplemented their agriculture. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Harappan Culture: Part - II 73 Industry The industrial know-how of the Harappan people was unique. They were busy in manufacturing many articles and each of their handiworks reveals an exquisite artistry. Making of metal pots, weaving, metallic works and such other artifacts reveal their enviable artistry. Given below is a detailed account of their industry. Earthenware Earthenware was their principal industry. They knew the use of wheel. With its help, they made beautiful earthenware pots like cooking pot, jug, plate, tray, perforated jars, cups and the like. The earthenware were as artistic as they were useful. In most cases, the earthenware were painted with pictures of comb, tooth, creepers, leaves, cowrie and small circles. On some were painted the pictures of peacock and sometimes, alternate rows of circles and squares running to five or six lines. While earthenware of Mohenjo-daro and Harappan reveal the old style, that of Lothal is primarily modem. On the latter were painted images of birds and decorative designs of creepers. This is unique to the earthenware of Lothal. The Harappan earthenware were smooth and glossy, resembling the earthenware recovered from Tel Asmar of Mesopotamia. Prominent among the Harappan earthenware is a cylindrical and perforated pot, used for extracting cheese from curd as per Mortimer wheeler’s inference. In all, these earthenware of Harappa was eulogy on the Harappan potters’ workmanship. Weaving Renowned were the weavers of Harappa. The abundant produce of cotton and wool in the Indus region led the people to weave cotton and woollen garments separately or in a mixed way. They had mastery over the proportionate weaving and stitching of inner and outer garments. They stitched with needles of bone and bronze. The immaculate dressing revealed from their images and seals speaks volumes on their expertise knowledge in weaving. Most likely, these woven dresses were items of export to outside word. Metal Objects The Harappan people had mastered the art of preparing metallic objects, made of gold, silver, copper, tin and alloy. Articles like tray, flower vase, cups, jars, needle, verilion stick, cosmetics box CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

74 History and Culture of Punjab - I and other articles of daily use were made from different metals. They, too, built images made of bronze. Excavations have brought to surface various ovens used by them for preparing meal alloy. They knew how to prepare metallic objects after melting the metal. They did not know the use of iron. Stones and Ivory The Harappan people were familiar with many precious stones like agate, carnelian, steatite, lapis lazuli, turquoise, etc. A manufacturing unit at Chanhudaro bears testimony to it. Beads recovered from Chanhudaro, Mohenjo-daro and Lothal indicate their use in necklaces. The weight and measure was done with stone slabs of varying sizes. Combs, earrings and ornaments were also made from ivory. Ornament Ornament making was their technical forte. Ornaments were made both for men and women. All loved ornaments irrespective of whether they were rich or poor. Chains and necklaces, armlets, bracelets, rings and earrings were made for both men and women. Armlets, earrings and nose buds, etc. were only meant for the ladies. Ornaments were also made of ivory, horn and bronze, particularly the combs and hairpin. The ordinary people sported ornaments made of bones, copper, earthenware and conch shells. Such a picture about their ornaments becomes clear from a study of many images recovered from various places. Weapons of Self-defence and War They aimed themselves with an adequate variety of weapons for purposes of war with enemies, self-defence and hunting. For purposes of war and hunting they used bows and arrows, axe and lance prepared by them. For self-defence, they made sword, shield, protective dress and head-gear. They also protected themselves by building forts and high walls to ward off the external enemy. The manufacture of these weapons was an outstanding aspect of their industrial manufacture. Trade and Commerce A developed base of industry prompted the Harappan people to naturally look for trade and commerce. Their trade was confined not only to India but spread to foreign areas like Sumer, Akad, CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Harappan Culture: Part - II 75 Egypt, Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean. The seals they used, the stone slabs they used for weight and measure purposes and articles of merchandise for import and export are strong pointers to their trade and commerce. Harappa and Mohenjo-daro were principal trading centres. Trade and business grew as a result of close interaction between the town and its sub-urban villages. The Harappan granary proves the point that grains were brought over to it from nearby villages for storage and sale at the appropriate time. Also, costly stones were brought over from Hindu Kush and the north-western frontier areas. Gold from Kashmir and copper and tin from Rajasthan were also brought over here. A variety of articles were manufactured in Harappa and Mohenjo-daro for purposes of domestic consumption. Surplus goods and articles were exported. Weights and Measures The Harappan people adopted a system of weight and measure. Both weight and measure was done in the multiples of two like 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, etc. The weight system involved the decimal method and done in multiples of 16 like 16, 320, 640, 1600, 3200, etc. Stone slabs used as weights and of varying weights have been recovered to indicate their use. Length was measured in Ones. One foot was equal to almost 37.6 centimeters. Measuring by hand was also prevalent. It is a tragedy that no scale has yet been discovered from any site. Yet as per then prevalent length-scale, the main wall of the Harappan granary was 30 hands long. Exchange Equally significant was their exchange system in trade and commerce. Though exact details are not available, that they were not totally ignorant about the system of “exchange” that prevailed in ancient times is indicated from the hints about it in their seals and sealing process. The cylindrical seal recovered from Mohenjo-daro substantiates to this. It was styled after the Mesopotamian model. The copper piece recovered from Lothal indicates that they had a mode and medium of exchange. Export and Import Adapt in trade, the Harappan people exported wheat, maize, other crops and cotton goods. They imported gold, silver and precious stones. Things produced by them were sufficient to meet the domestic demand and the craze for those in foreign markets as well. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

76 History and Culture of Punjab - I Trade Links Extensive trade-contacts were established by the Harappan people with such Indian areas as Sind, Punjab, Rajasthan, Rupar, Lothal, Kalibangan and areas where the Harappan culture was prevalent. Trade links with Afghanistan and Central Asia by land and with Mesopotamia by maritime trade reveal a close reciprocity. Extensive trade relations with Mesopotamia is proved through the discovery of Harappan seals from Mesopotamian towns like Susa and Ur and the Harappan script from its seals at Nipur along with the picture of an imaginary unicorn. The heavy stone scales of Harappa recovered from the Persian Gulf area is another proof of trade links. The button-shaped seals of Lothal are similar to the ones of the Persian Gulf region. There are similar indicators to show the trade links with Egypt. Transport They conducted their trade by both land and sea routes. The cart was the principal vehicle of transport and trade by land. Many earthen toy carts for children have been found. The cart was drawn either by bullocks or by men. Boats were used for trade through rivers and sea. Archaeological remains of a port are found at Lothal. It stretches to a length of 219 metres and is 37 metres wide. An earthen boat has also been recovered from there. Also found are different seals and stone slabs as weights and measure. These strongly point to maritime trade. So, carts by land and boats and ships by river and sea were the main medium of transport of goods. Trade and commerce were well managed by the Harappan people. Raw-materials were brought from sub-urban villages on the outskirts of the towns and manufacturing work was done in towns. There from was conducted export, whether inland or foreign. This was indeed a highly successful venture of the Harappan people and it embellished their affluence. 3.5 Religious Life of the Harappan People The affluent Harappan society was deeply religious in nature. In the absence of ruins of any temple, altar or statue of gods, we have to rely only on figurines and seals of religious significance to have an idea regarding their religious belief. Generally, there are two aspects of a religion. They are: CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Harappan Culture: Part - II 77 (a) The conceptual or philosophical aspect and (b) The practical or ritualistic aspect. The conceptual part of religion is generally found in the metaphysical texts whereas the ritualistic part is found in the material methods. Since the scripts on the Harappan seals have not yet been deciphered by the scholars, it is difficult to know the metaphysical aspect of their religion. But the abundance of material remains from the Harappan sites help us to form ideas about the practical aspect of their religious faith. Figurines similar to those of the Harappan people have been found in many countries between Persia and Aegean Sea. From these available sources, we can form an idea about their religion: 1. Worship of the Mother Goddess. 2. Worship of a male god, probably Shiva or Pasupatin. 3. Worship of animals in natural or semi-human form. 4. Worship of trees and plants in their natural state and the spirits dwelling in them. 5. Worship of inanimate stones or other objects in the form of linga or yoni symbols. 6. Worship of sacred incense-burners or chrematheism. 7. De-monophobia or faith in magic and charms. 8. Practice of Yoga. Worship of Mother Goddess One of the most important aspects of Harappan religion was worship of Mother Goddess. A large number of terracotta figurines in various postures have been unearthed from the ruins. These statues are believed to be of Mother Goddess. Most of these images are shown wearing saree, necklace and waist band. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

78 History and Culture of Punjab - I One interesting seal from Harappa shows one female figure standing upside down with outstretched legs and a tree sprouting from her womb. Scholars opine that she symbolises the Goddess of Fertility or Plant Goddess. In another seal, we find a female figure with upraised arms before whom stands a man brandishing a sword. This posture leads the historians to conclude that some form of sacrifice was prevalent among the Harappans. Besides, earthen images of pregnant women, women carrying children, etc. are ample proof of worship of the Mother Goddess because she was believed to be the source of creation and energy. Worship of a Male God Another prominent religious belief among the Harappans was the worship of a male god. In one particular seal, we find a male figure meditating with a headgear adorned with horns of a buffalo being surrounded by animals like elephants, tigers, deer, etc. This explains to a certain extent the later concept of the master of animals known as “Pasupatin”. The images of bulls or oxen on the Harappan seals also prove the point that they were worshippers of Shiva. Another seal describes the picture of a god in the same yogic posture with a Naga kneeling in prayer before him with uplifted hands on either side. All these findings clearly point towards – the concept of later Shiva worship in Hindu religion. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Harappan Culture: Part - II 79 Animism Animal worship was another typical feature of Harappan religious belief. Worship of certain common animals like elephants, rhinoceros, tigers and bulls was quite prevalent. Worship of the Naga deity or serpent worship was equally in vogue. But among all animals, bull worship was most prominent. The bull was usually worshipped, associated with Lord Shiva. But the absence of cow on the seals is very conspicuous. There is also the image of an imaginary unicorn in some seals. All these animals were worshipped with reverence by the Harappan people. Worship of Trees and Plants In addition to the worship of Shiva and Shakti both in human and symbolic forms, the Harappan people followed the practice of the worship of stones, trees and animals because they believed that these were the abode of various spirits, good or bad. Pictures of trees on the seals, in some cases horned animals and human beings standing under trees, a deity standing between two branches of a peepal tree, are clear evidences of tree worship. There are stray references with regard to the worship of Neem and Banyan trees. The Harappans had great regard for water. They regarded water to be very sacred and purifying. The discovery of a large number of wells, tanks and public baths in the ruins found on the banks of the Indus river hints upon the idea of self-purification of the body which was a prelude to any worship. In all probabilities, like the water of the Ganga, the water of the Indus river received equal reverence from the inhabitants of the civilisation. Worship of Stones or Other Objects Another peculiarity of Harappan religious belief was the worship of stones in the form of linga and yoni as sources of potency. One terracotta piece from Kalingbangan shows pictures of linga and yoni on one seal. Most probably such seals were worshipped by the Harappans. But there is no definite knowledge whether linga and yoni were worshipped separately symbolising Shiva and Shakti. Chrematheism The linga and yoni worship by the Harappans was associated with chrematheism, as illustrated in the worship of sacred incense burneio. A number of clay tablets, rings, terracotta cakes found from the ruins suggest their use in rituals. There are seals carrying the figure of a unicorn and other sacred animals associated with altar or dhoopdani. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

80 History and Culture of Punjab - I Demonophobia Like most primitive inhabitants of other civilisations, the Harappan people harboured faith in magic and charms. Their blind belief in the existence of spirits prompted them to have faith in various practices of black magic to get rid of their evil influence. Practice of Yoga The last aspect of Harappan religion attached much importance to the practice of Yoga. A large number of terracotta figurines show individuals in various yogic postures or asanas. The Hardpans practiced yoga for both physical exercise and as religious rites. As a matter of fact, modern Hinduism possesses many of the above features of Harappan religious faith and practices. The worship of Mother Goddess, worship of Shiva in both iconic and phallic form, worship of free spirits, trees, animals and other popular features of Hinduism were well established in India long before the origin of Vedic civilisation. Shaivism and Shaktism of later period owe their origin to Harappan culture. In the words of Wheeler, CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Harappan Culture: Part - II 81 “The Indus Valley Civilisation was a melange of much that already know of third millennium Asiatic religious observance augmented by specific manifestations of later Hinduism.” Therefore, we cannot but conclude with the words of R.C. Majumdar that there is “an organic relationship between the ancient culture of Indus valley and the Hinduism of today”. In a real sense, “the religion of Indus people was a linear progenitor of Hinduism.” Legacy of Harappan Culture Harappan civilisation is the most ancient civilisation of Indian history. It gave to the world the first taste of urban life. Their highly developed civic life had its manifestations in their socio-cultural habits and practices. The Harappan social life was well-regulated and systematic. Various facets of their social activities as well as trends give us a picture of their decent style of living by our ancestors. In fact, modern Indian life owes much of its origin to Harappan culture. To them goes the credit for producing the earliest specimens of pottery, harnessing animals for use by humans and innovating creative use of leisure. The religious legacy left by the Harappans is equally praiseworthy. The foundation of Hindu religion was laid during this period upon which the superstructure was raised later by the Aryans. The Hindu religious beliefs, myths, traditions, etc. have in a sense deep-rooted connection with the Harappan religious ways. After coming to limelight in 1922 A.D., this ancient culture has established the fact that it has greatly contributed to the essence of modern Indian life. 3.6 Summary The social and economic life of the people of Harappan Civilisation was systematic and organised. The Indus valley population consisted of Australoid, Mediterranean, Mongoloid and Alpine races. The approximate population of Mohenjo-daro was 35000. The Indus civilisation is also known as the Harappan Civilisation, after its type site, Harappa, the first of its sites to be excavated early in the 20th century in what was then the Punjab province of British India and now is Pakistan. The discovery of Harappa and soon afterwards Mohenjo-daro was the culmination of work beginning in 1861 with the founding of the Archaeological Survey of India during the British Raj. There were however earlier and later cultures often called Early Harappan and Late Harappan in CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

82 History and Culture of Punjab - I the same area; for this reason, the Harappan civilisation is sometimes called the Mature Harappan to distinguish it from these other cultures. By 2002, over 1,000 Mature Harappan cities and settlements had been reported, of which just under a hundred had been excavated. However, there are only 5 major urban sites: Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, Ganeriwala in Cholistan, and Rakhigarhi. The early Harappan cultures were preceded by local Neolithic agricultural villages, from which the river plains were populated. The Indus Valley civilisation was mainly an urban culture sustained by surplus agricultural production and commerce, the latter including trade with Sumer in southern Mesopotamia. Both Mohenjo-daro and Harappa are generally characterised as having “differentiated living quarters, flat-roofed brick houses, and fortified administrative or religious centers.” Although such similarities have given rise to arguments for the existence of a standardised system of urban layout and planning, the similarities are largely due to the presence of a semi-orthogonal type of civic layout, and a comparison of the layouts of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa shows that they are in fact, arranged in a quite dissimilar fashion. The food of the Harappans was supplied from extensive areas cultivated in vicinity of the city. Rice was probably grown in the Indus valley. The staple food of the people comprised wheat, barley, rice, milk and some vegetables like peas, sesamums and fruits like date palms. Beef, mutton, pork, poultry, fish etc. were also eaten by the Indus people. Agriculture appears to be the main occupation of the Indus people. The discovery of a granary at Harappa lends support to this. The discovery of large number of spindles proves the use of cotton for weaving social cloths. Wool was also used. The garments might have been sewn. Both men and women used two pieces of cloth. The men folk wore some lower garment like dhoti and upper garment like shawl. The upper garment wrapped the left shoulder. Female attire was the same as that of men. Men wore long hair, parted in the middle and kept tidy at the back. The women of Indus valley usually wore long hair in a braid with fan- shaped bow at the end. The females of the Indus valley had a taste for culture like their modern sisters. The “vanity case” and the toilet jars found at Harappa consisted of ivory powder, face-paint and many other varieties of cosmetics. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Harappan Culture: Part - II 83 Most of the household articles were made of pottery or of metals like copper and bronze. The art of pottery attained a wonderful excellence at Mohenjo-daro. Most of the kitchen utensils including jars, vessels, dishes, etc. were made of earth and stone. There is lack of defensive weapons like sword. Chairs and tools were used for decorating rooms and for sitting comfortably. Hunting of wild animals, bull fighting, fishing and clay modeling were general social amusements of people. It is suggested by scholars that there was strong family organisations among them. The craftsmen taught their skill in crafting to their children. The toys were used by children of the family. The ruins and various evidences of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro along with other sites reveal a great deal about the socio-cultural life of the people of Indus valley. An analysis of the findings gives us sufficient information about their highly developed social life. The civilisation itself was a glorious conglomeration of people of various origins. As the civilisation centered on city culture, the social life of the people bore touches of an urban influence. Their civic life was highly disciplined and quite scientific. The inhabitants preferred to live in a proper hygienic atmosphere, as is proved by their town-planning systems. Since the climate of the area was tropical, naturally people preferred to use garments conductive to tropical climate. Several figurines of males and females have been found at the excavation sites that give us a clear idea about their costumes. Cotton fabrics were in common use though use of wool was not unknown to them. The Harappan people were fond of luxury and comfort. The discovery of ivory combs, bronze mirrors and razors shows the interest of people in the use of their own attire. Both men and women liked stylish combing of hair. They combed their hair into different braids and men kept short beards and long whiskers and sometimes the upper lip was shaved. Their hair was combed backwards and was either cut short or coiled into a knot on the top of the head. People knew the art of toilet and cosmetics. Various toilet jars made of ivory, metal, pottery and stone have been discovered at Harappan sites. Ladies were well-acquainted with toilet culture. It CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

84 History and Culture of Punjab - I appears that they knew the use of collyrium, powder, cream and possibly lipstick too. All these go on to prove that the Harappans were quite conscious of their own beauty. Since the people of Harappan culture were city-dwellers they had various pastimes for useful recreation of their leisure. They entertained themselves by playing indoor games like dicing, dancing and singing. Further hunting, fishing, arranging animal and bird fights formed other sources of amusement. From the excavation sites, a number of toys made of copper, ivory, clay and other materials have come to light. These toys were made in the shape of human beings and animals like bulls, monkeys, etc. Clay modeling was another major pastime of the Harappans. The Harappans used to engage themselves through these constructive hobbies. A number of household items used by the Harappans have been unearthed at different sites. These items were made of gold, silver, copper and bronze. One interesting thing to be noted is that these people did not know the use of iron. Earthen vessels of exquisite designs prepared by the potter’s wheel show the technical skill of the people. The surface of these articles was fine and polished and they were at times ornamented with the figures of birds, animals, trees and clay knobs. The economic condition of the Harappan people was quite good. Their affluence was due to agriculture, animal husbandry, industry, trade and commerce. These made them prosperous and opened for them the avenues of a comfortable life. Through trade and commerce they, too, were able to establish contacts with others inside India and outside. The Harappan people were dependent on agriculture as the primary source of living. Archaeological remains of the region reveal a variety of agricultural equipment’s used by them. Kalibangan gives us the idea about their agriculture. They also knew the use of sickle and used to cut crops with it. The circular floor was used for harvesting, as the Harappan granary would reveal. They grew wheat. rice, maize, cotton and various vegetables in their fields. The surplus produce was stored in the granary. The agriculture depended on rain-fed water. In case of need, they irrigated their land with water from the Indus. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Harappan Culture: Part - II 85 The affluent Harappan society was deeply religious in nature. In the absence of ruins of any temple, altar or statue of gods, we have to rely only on figurines and seals of religious significance to have an idea regarding their religious belief. Generally, there are two aspects of a religion. One of the most important aspects of Harappan religion was worship of Mother Goddess. A large number of terracotta figurines in various postures have been unearthed from the ruins. These statues are believed to be of Mother Goddess. Most of these images are shown wearing saree, necklace and waist band. One interesting seal from Harappa shows one female figure standing upside down with outstretched legs and a tree sprouting from her womb. Scholars opine that she symbolises the Goddess of Fertility or Plant Goddess. In another seal, we find a female figure with upraised arms before whom stands a man brandishing a sword. This posture leads the historians to conclude that some form of sacrifice was prevalent among the Harappans. Besides, earthen images of pregnant women, women carrying children, etc. are ample proof of worship of the Mother Goddess because she was believed to be the source of creation and energy. 3.7 Key Words/Abbreviations  Life of the Harappan People: The social and economic life of the people of Harappan Civilisation was systematic and organised.  The Indus Valley Civilisation: The Indus Valley civilisation was mainly an urban culture sustained by surplus agricultural production and commerce.  Food: The food of the Harappans was supplied from extensive areas cultivated in vicinity of the city.  Clothing: The discovery of large number of spindles proves the use of cotton for weaving social cloths.  Communication and Intelligence: The large number of seals engraved with letters presents the idea that there was high percentage of literacy among the Indus people. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

86 History and Culture of Punjab - I  Dress and Ornament: Since the climate of the area was tropical, naturally people preferred to use garments conductive to tropical climate.  Amusement and Recreation: Since the people of Harappan culture were city-dwellers they had various pastimes for useful recreation of their leisure.  Weapons of War: Although the Harappans were a peace loving people they used various weapons for self-defence.  Disposal of the Dead: Different methods of disposing the dead were practiced by the people of Harappan culture.  Agriculture: The Harappan people were dependent on agriculture as the primary source of living. 3.8 Learning Activity 1. Students are required to identify the life of the Harappan people and prepare a report on the same. _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ 2. You are suggested to prepare a report on “Legacy of Harappan Culture”. _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ 3.9 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) A. Descriptive Type: Short Answer Type Questions 1. Briefly explain the Life of the Harappan people. 2. Explain in details about the Indus Valley civilisation. 3. Discuss about Communication and Intelligence of the Harappan people. 4. Explain in brief the features of social life of the Harappan people. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Harappan Culture: Part - II 87 5. Discuss in details about dress and ornament of the Harappan people. 6. Explain in details about economic life of the Harappan people. 7. Discuss about religious life of the Harappan people. 8. Explain in details about legacy of Harappan Culture. B. Multiple Choice/Objective Type Questions 1. Which of the following consider as the life of the Harappan people? (a) Food (b) Clothing (c) Decoration (d) All the above 2. Which of the following is the feature of social life of the Harappan people? (a) Dress and Ornament (b) Amusement and Recreation (c) Weapons of War (d) All the above 3. Which of the following method were used for the disposal of the dead of people of Harappan culture? (a) Disposing the dead body was burning the corpse (b) Leave the dead in dense jungles (c) Bury the dead (d) All the above 4. Which of the following is the Social Stratification of Harappan society? (a) The elite class associated with the citadel (b) A well-to-do middle class (c) A relatively weaker class occupying the lower towns that were generally fortified (d) All the above CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

88 History and Culture of Punjab - I 5. Which of the following does not consider the economic life of the Harappan people? (a) Agriculture (b) Animal Husbandry (c) Transport (d) Technology Answers 1. (d), 2. (d), 3. (d), 4. (d), 5. (d) 3.10 References “References of this unit have been given at the end of the book”.  CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 The  Indo-Aryans 89 UNIT 4  THE INDO-ARYANS Structure: 4.0 Learning Objective 4.1 Introduction 4.2 The Indo-Aryans 4.3 Original Home and Settlement in Punjab 4.4 Fundamentals of Indo-Aryan Migration Theory 4.5 Summary 4.6 Key Words/Abbreviations 4.7 LearningActivity 4.8 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 4.9 References 4.0 Learning Objective After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Acquaint the students about Aryans and different theories regarding their original home 4.1 Introduction The Indo-Aryan peoples or the Indic peoples are a diverse collection of ethno linguistic groups speaking Indo-Aryan languages, a subgroup of the Indo-European language family. There are over one billion native speakers of Indo-Aryan languages, most of them native to the Indian subcontinent and presently found all across South Asia, where they form the majority. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

90 History and Culture of Punjab - I 4.2 The Indo-Aryans The Indo-Aryan migrations were the migrations into the Indian subcontinent of Indo-Aryan peoples, an ascribed ethnolinguistic group that spoke Indo-Aryan languages, the predominant languages of today’s North India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indo-Aryan population movements into the region and Anatolia (ancient Mitanni) from Central Asia are generally considered to have started around 1500 BCE, as a slow diffusion during the Late Harappan period, which led to a language shift in the northern Indian subcontinent. The Iranian languages were brought into Iran by the Iranians, who were closely related to the Indo-Aryans. The Proto-Indo-Iranian culture, which gave rise to the Indo-Aryans and Iranians, developed on the Central Asian steppes north of the Caspian Sea as the Sintashta culture (2100-1800 BCE) in present-day Russia and Kazakhstan, and developed further as the Andronovo culture (1800-1400 BCE), around the Aral Sea. The proto-Indo-Iranians then migrated southwards to the Bactria- Margiana Culture, from which they borrowed their distinctive religious beliefs and practices. The Indo-Aryans split off around 1800-1600 BCE from the Iranians, whereafter the Indo-Aryans migrated into Anatolia and the northern part of the SouthAsia (modernAfghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Nepal), while the Iranians moved into Iran, both bringing with them the Indo-Iranian languages. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 The  Indo-Aryans 91 Migration by an Indo-European people was first hypothesised in the late 18th century, following the discovery of the Indo-European language family, when similarities between western and Indian languages had been noted. Given these similarities, a single source or origin was proposed, which was diffused by migrations from some original homeland. This linguistic argument is supported by archeological, anthropological, genetical, literary and ecological research. Genetic research reveals that those migrations form part of a complex genetic puzzle on the origin and spread of the various components of the Indian population. Literary research reveals similarities between various, geographically distinct, Indo-Aryan historical cultures. Ecological studies reveal that in the second millennium BCE widespread aridisation lead to water shortages and ecological changes in both the Eurasian steppes and the Indian subcontinent, causing the collapse of sedentary urban cultures in south central Asia, Afghanistan, Iran, and India, and triggering large- scale migrations, resulting in the merger of migrating peoples with the post-urban cultures. The Indo-Aryan migrations started in approximately 1800 BCE, after the invention of the war chariot, and also brought Indo-Aryan languages into the Levant and possibly Inner Asia. It was part of the diffusion of Indo-European languages from the proto-Indo-European homeland at the Pontic Caspian steppe, a large area of grasslands in far Eastern Europe, which started in the 4th-5th millennia BCE, and the Indo-European migrations out of the Eurasian Steppes, which started approximately in 2000 BCE. The theory posits that these Indo-Aryan speaking people may have been a genetically diverse group of people who were united by shared cultural norms and language, referred to as arya, “noble”. Diffusion of this culture and language took place by patron-client systems, which allowed for the absorption and acculturation of other groups into this culture, and explains the strong influence on other cultures with which it interacted. 4.3 Original Home and Settlement in Punjab Aryan “Race” In the 1850s, Max Müller introduced the notion of two Aryan races, a western and an eastern one, who migrated from the Caucasus into Europe and India respectively. Müller dichotomised the two groups, ascribing greater prominence and value to the western branch. Nevertheless, this “eastern CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

92 History and Culture of Punjab - I branch of the Aryan race was more powerful than the indigenous eastern natives, who were easy to conquer”. By the 1880s, his ideas had been “hijacked” by racist ethnologists. For example, as an exponent of race science, colonial administrator Herbert Hope Risley (1851-1911) used the ratio of the width of a nose to its height to divide Indian people into Aryan and Dravidian races, as well as seven castes. Müller’s work contributed to the developing interest in Aryan culture, which often set Indo- European (‘Aryan’) traditions in opposition to Semitic religions. He was “deeply saddened by the fact that these classifications later came to be expressed in racist terms”, as this was far from his intention. For Müller the discovery of common Indian and European ancestry was a powerful argument against racism, arguing that “an ethnologist who speaks of Aryan race, Aryan blood, Aryan eyes and hair, is as great a sinner as a linguist who speaks of a dolichocephalic dictionary or a brachycephalic grammar” and that “the blackest Hindus represent an earlier stage of Aryan speech and thought than the fairest Scandinavians”. In his later work, Max Müller took great care to limit the use of the term “Aryan” to a strictly linguistic one. “Aryan Invasion” The excavation of the Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and Lothal sites of the Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC) in the 1920, showed that northern India already had an advanced culture when the Indo- Aryans migrated into the area. The theory changed from a migration of advanced Aryans towards a primitive aboriginal population, to a migration of nomadic people into an advanced urban civilisation, comparable to the Germanic migrations during the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, or the Kassite invasion of Babylonia. This possibility was for a short time seen as a hostile invasion into northern India. The decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation at precisely the period in history in which the Indo-Aryan migrations probably took place, seemed to provide independent support of such an invasion. This argument was proposed by the mid-20th century archaeologist Mortimer Wheeler, who interpreted the presence of many unburied corpses found in the top levels of Mohenjo-daro as the victims of conquest wars, and who famously stated that the god “Indra stands accused” of the destruction of the Civilisation. This position was soon left by the scholarly community, noticing that no evidence was found, and that the skeletons were found to be hasty interments, not massacred victims. Wheeler himself CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 The  Indo-Aryans 93 also nuanced this interpretation in later publications, stating “This is a possibility, but it can’t be proven, and it may not be correct.” Wheeler further notes that the unburied corpses may indicate an event in the final phase of human occupation of Mohenjo-daro, and that thereafter the place was uninhabited, but that the decay of Mohenjo-daro has to be ascribed to structural causes such as salinisation. Nevertheless, although “no informed Western scholar speaks of ‘invasions’ anymore”, critics of the Indo-Aryan Migration theory continue to present the theory as an “Aryan Invasion Theory”, presenting it as a racist and colonialist discourse: The theory of an immigration of IA speaking Arya (“Aryan invasion”) is simply seen as a means of British policy to justify their own intrusion into India and their subsequent colonial rule: in both cases, a “white race” was seen as subduing the local darker colored population. Aryan Migration An early 20th century depiction of Aryans settling in agricultural villages in India. In the later 20th century, ideas were refined along with data accrual, and migration and acculturation were seen as the methods whereby Indo-Aryans and their language and culture spread into northwest India around 1500 BCE. The term “invasion” is only being used nowadays by opponents of the Indo-Aryan Migration theory. These changes were thought to be in line with changes in thinking about language transfer in general, such as the migration of the Greeks into Greece (between 2100 and 1600 BCE) and their adoption of a syllabic script, Linear B, from the pre-existing Linear A, with the purpose of writing Mycenaean Greek, or the Indo-Europeanisation of Western Europe (in stages between 2200 and 1300 BCE). It is generally believed that the Aryans came to India in groups that settled in the areas of North-Western Province in Pakistan and the Punjab which they had then named Sapt-Sindhu or the ‘land of seven rivers’, namely, the Indus, the Sutlej, the Ravi, the Beas, the Chenab, the Jhelum and the Saraswati. Later, they called this area Brahmavarta or ‘the land of Brahma’. The Aryans were found to have been occupying the whole of the present region of Punjab from about 1500 BC. The first group of Aryans fought against the Dravidians and other inhabitants whom they defeated and CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)