BAQ103-History and Culture of Punjab

144 History and Culture of Punjab - I 6.1.4 Types of Caste in India There are four official levels, or varnas, of the Hindu caste system. The caste system is quite ancient and may have existed in some form as early as four thousand years ago. The highest class is the Brahmins, followed by the Kshatriyas, then the Vaishyas, and finally the Shudras. The Dalit, also known as the Harijan, or more commonly, the Untouchables, exists as an unofficial caste that ranks even lower than the official ones. In short, the caste system places people in occupational categories by virtue of their family and birth. These caste duties are known as dharma. The caste system places limits on the types of jobs someone can have as well as on their social interactions and places of residence. (a) The Brahmins The Brahmins are the highest caste level in traditional Hindu society. Historically, this caste is composed of people who by right of birth can serve as temple priests and scholars. They are charged with disseminating knowledge of religious and spiritual matters to members of the other castes. (b) The Kshatriyas The Kshatriyas serve in public administration and government. They can include anyone from kings and governors to bureaucrats and soldiers. Traditionally, anyone with a job in public service is likely part of this caste. (c) The Vaishya The Vaishya are the merchants, farmers, bankers, craftsmen, and artisans. Any job involving commercial activity and enterprise is open to members of this caste. (d) The Shudra The Shudra is the laborer caste. Members of this caste typically engage in jobs such as construction or any other task involving physical labor. The Untouchables traditionally performed jobs that were thought to pollute a person spiritually or physically. These activities might consist of disposing of human waste, slaughtering animals, and preparing cowhides. These people were traditionally kept on the margins of society. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Caste System 145 6.1.5 Role of Caste in Indian Politics Caste is a social phenomenon of Indian society. By participating in the modern political system, caste is now exposed to divisive influences and a new form of integration resulting from a new scheme of universalist-particularism relationships. Caste has gained an influential position in India politics. On the one hand, a structure of divisions and accommodations, caste provides to politics. And on the other hand a cohesive element which absorbs tensions and frustrations. It becomes divisive when question arises of national unity. But regarding a locality or group matter, it gives a cohesive force by uniting people of a caste. The formation role of caste association is also playing as important role in influencing voting pattern. Even political parties are considering caste as a vote bank. This enabled the lower castes to be politically influential on the basis of numerical preponderance. In selecting candidates for elections, political parties often give consideration to the caste composition of constituencies. Sometimes several castes are using politics in their attempt to better their conditions or to achieve their goal. Reservation policy is another aspect where we can see that caste system also influences Indian politics. Though the caste system initially performed its positive functions well, in course of time it became degenerated and instead of doing social good it caused a great harm to the society. The important roles of caste in Indian Politics are as follows: (a) It hindered national unity The caste system developed a parochial feeling and made the people unduly conscious of their own castes. Many a time, caste interests were given priority over national interest. Thus, the whole system stood against the very concept of national unity. (b) It influences democracy The caste system ran contrary to the democratic spirit. Democracy presupposes human equality, but the caste system believed in inequality and there was a hierarchical arrangement wherein the Brahmins were at the top, whereas the Shudras were at the lowest rung of the ladder. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

146 History and Culture of Punjab - I (c) It resulted in suppression In the caste system, the lower castes were suppressed and repressed by the higher castes. The Shudras were very ill-treated and they were not allowed to come to the public places. Even their shadows were considered profane by the higher caste people. Inter-dining and inter-mixing with the lower castes was not allowed. Thus the system was solely based on exploitation of the lower castes. (d) It influences national development Under the caste system, only a few got the scope to control the national life and the others were engaged in serving the higher castes, like the Brahmins and the Kshatriyas. In the national interest, it is essential that all the sections of the society should contribute to the social welfare, but the downtrodden sections did not have any voice in national development and advancement. (e) It resulted in treachery and the ultimate fall of the Hindus In a traditional caste-ridden society, the Shudras were fully aware that they could not prosper in the Hindu society. As a result, at the time of invasion by outsiders, some of them leaked out the strategic secrets to them. They also cooperated with the invaders instead of their own people. Their treachery ultimately became responsible for the fall of the Hindus. (f) It resulted in religious conversion The dominance of Brahminism became intolerable on the part of the Shudras, who were the most neglected people in the Hindu society. They were easily allured by the ideology and philosophy of Islam as well as Christianity. Many of them embraced the new faiths. In this way, the caste system contributed to the expansion of Christianity and Islam in India. (g) It undermined the ability and aspirations of the people Since in the caste system, one’s status and role are fixed up from the time of one’s birth, one’s ability, personal endeavor or diligence became meaningless in order to bring about any transformation. Acceptance of one’s own hereditary status became mandatory and unquestionable. Thus, the aspirations and ability of people were relegated to the background in the caste system. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Caste System 147 (h) It created a sense of prestige among higher castes The higher castes believed that they had the monopoly of wisdom. They felt that all other castes should consult them and work for them. This created a wide gulf between the higher and the lower castes. (i) It resulted in the creation of a class of idlers The Brahmins, being at the top of the caste hierarchy, were supposed to teach and preach religion. But in course of time, they became apathetic to their avowed profession and did not devote themselves to this task. They knew it very well that they would not be thrown out of their castes, despite their insincerity. As a result, they began to live on the labour of other castes without any useful contribution to the society. Thus, a class of idlers came into existence in the Hindu social system. (j) It resulted in the introduction of untouchability The worst aspect of the caste system was untouchability. The untouchable suffered from various social, economic, political and religious disabilities. In the name of religion, they were thoroughly exploited in the most inhuman manner. The lower castes were placed in the category of untouchables. Their children were never allowed to be educated and they were compelled to take unclean occupation. The Shudra women were prohibited from wearing presses in the manner the Brahmin women dressed themselves. They were not allowed to use public well, ponds, places of worship, etc. The fear of the wrath of God and religious conventions made the lower castes follow all the religious prescriptions and proscriptions. (k) It gave a lower status to women In the caste system, the women were utterly neglected. They enjoyed a very conservative and traditional type of status. They were denied the privilege of higher education. They could not voice their opinion in public affairs. The women belonging to the higher castes led a still more precarious life due to the practice of child marriage and prohibition of widow remarriage. The desires for male made women produce more and more children which affected their physical and mental condition. Sometimes, the lower caste women were sexually harassed by the higher caste males but they could not protest against them due to the prevailing social pattern. In a nutshell, women enjoyed a very low status in the caste system. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

148 History and Culture of Punjab - I 6.2 Origin of the Caste System The history of the social origin of the scheduled castes or the untouchables is age old. Among the early Hindu epics, Dharmashastras and Smritis dealing with the origin of varna system, the Rigveda is the oldest one which describes that all the four varnas, i.e., Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra are originated from the different limbs of the Almighty. According to the Rigveda, the origin of Brahmin is supposed to be from the mouth, Kshatriya from the arms, Vaishya from the Chest and Shudra from the Feet of the Almighty According to Gita, the origin is supposed to be done by the Creator himself on the basis of “Guna” (quality) and the “Karma” (action). From the above extracts of ancient epics, it is clear that the untouchables owe their origin to the traditional varna and caste system. It can, therefore, be observed that the untouchables and the untouchability are by-products of Hindu caste system. According to the code of Manu, all those who were born out of the pratiloma marriage were assigned the lowest rank in the varna hierarchy. The origins of the caste system in India and Nepal are not fully known, but castes seem to have originated more than 2,000 years ago. Under this system, which is associated with Hinduism, people were categorised by their occupations. Although originally caste depended upon a person’s work, it soon became hereditary. Each person was born into an unalterable social status. The four primary castes are Brahmin, the priests; Kshatriya, warriors and nobility; Vaisya, farmers, traders and artisans; and Shudra, tenant farmers, and servants. Some people were born outside of (and below) the caste system. They were called “untouchables” or Dalits—“the crushed ones.” Theology behind the Castes Reincarnation is the process by which a soul is reborn into a new material form after each life; it is one of the central features of the Hindu cosmology. Souls can move not only among different levels of human society but also into other animals. This belief is thought to be one of the primary reasons for the vegetarianism of many Hindus. Within a single lifetime, people in India historically had little social mobility. They had to strive for virtue during their present lives in order to attain a higher station their next time around. In this CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Caste System 149 system, a particular soul’s new form depends upon the virtuousness of its previous behavior. Thus, a truly virtuous person from the Shudra caste could be rewarded with rebirth as a Brahmin in his or her next life. Daily Significance of Caste Practices associated with caste varied through time and across India, but all shared some common features. The three key areas of life historically dominated by caste were marriage, meals, and religious worship. Marriage across caste lines was strictly forbidden. Most people even married within their own sub-caste or jati. At mealtimes, anyone could accept food from the hands of a Brahmin, but a Brahmin would be polluted if he or she took certain types of food from a lower caste person. At the other extreme, if an untouchable dared to draw water from a public well, he or she polluted the water, and nobody else could use it. In religious worship, Brahmins, as the priestly class, presided over rituals and services including preparation for festivals and holidays, as well as marriages and funerals. The Kshatriyas and Vaisyas castes had full rights to worship, but in some places, Shudras (the servant caste) were not allowed to offer sacrifices to the gods. Untouchables were barred entirely from temples, and sometimes they were not even allowed to set foot on temple grounds. If the shadow of an untouchable touched a Brahmin, the Brahmin would be polluted, so untouchables had to lay face-down at a distance when a Brahmin passed. Thousands of Castes Although the early Vedic sources name four primary castes, in fact, there were thousands of castes, sub-castes, and communities within Indian society. These jati were the basis of both social status and occupation. Castes or sub-castes besides the four mentioned in the Bhagavad Gita include such groups as the Bhumihar or landowners, Kayastha or scribes, and the Rajput, a northern sector of the Kshatriya, or warrior, caste. Some castes arose from very specific occupations, such as the Garudi snake charmers or the Sonjhari, who collected gold from river beds. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

150 History and Culture of Punjab - I The Untouchables People who violated social norms could be punished by being made “untouchables.” This was not the lowest caste. The person deemed untouchable and their descendants were condemned and completely outside of the caste system. Untouchables were considered so impure that any contact with them by the caste member would contaminate the member. The polluted person would have to bathe and wash his or her clothing immediately. The untouchables historically did work that no one else would do, like scavenging animal carcasses, leather work, or killing rats and other pests. Untouchables could not eat in the same room as caste members and could not be cremated when they died. Caste among Non-Hindus Curiously, non-Hindu populations in India sometimes organised themselves into castes as well. After the introduction of Islam in the subcontinent, for example, Muslims were divided into classes such as the Sayed, Sheikh, Mughal, Pathan, and Qureshi. These castes are drawn from several sources: The Mughal and Pathan are ethnic groups, roughly speaking, while the Qureshi name comes from the Prophet Muhammad's clan in Mecca. Small numbers of Indians were Christian from around 50 CE onward. Christianity expanded in India after the Portuguese arrived in the 16th century. Many Christian Indians continued to observe caste distinctions, however. Origins of the Caste System Early written evidence about the caste system appears in the Vedas, Sanskrit-language texts that date from as early as 1500 BCE. The Vedas form the basis of Hindu scripture. The “Rigveda,” however, which dates from around 1700-1100 BCE, rarely mentions caste distinctions and is taken as evidence that social mobility was common in its time. The “Bhagavad Gita,” which dates from around 200 BCE-200 CE, emphasises the importance of caste. In addition, the Laws of Manu or Manusmriti, from the same era, defines the rights and duties of the four different castes or varnas. Thus, it seems that the Hindu caste system began to solidify sometime between 1000 and 200 BCE. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Caste System 151 The Caste System during Classical Indian History The caste system was not absolute during much of Indian history. For example, the renowned Gupta Dynasty, which ruled from 320 to 550, was from the Vaishya caste rather than the Kshatriya. Many later rulers also were from different castes, such as the Madurai Nayaks (who ruled from 1559 to 1739) who were Balijas (traders). From the 12th century to the 18th century, much of India was ruled by Muslims. These rulers reduced the power of the Hindu priestly caste, the Brahmins. The traditional Hindu rulers and warriors, or Kshatriyas, nearly ceased to exist in north and central India. The Vaishya and Shudra castes also virtually melded together. Although the Muslim rulers’ faith had a strong impact on the Hindu upper castes in the centers of power, anti-Muslim feeling in rural areas actually strengthened the caste system. Hindu villagers reconfirmed their identity through caste affiliation. Nonetheless, during the six centuries of Islamic domination (roughly 1150-1750), the caste system evolved considerably. For example, Brahmins began to rely on farming for their income, since the Muslim kings did not give rich gifts to Hindu temples. This farming practice was considered justified so long as Shudras did the actual physical labour. The British Raj and Caste When the British Raj began to take power in India in 1757, they exploited the caste system as a means of social control. The British allied themselves with the Brahmin caste, restoring some of its privileges, which had been repealed by the Muslim rulers. However, many Indian customs concerning the lower castes seemed discriminatory to the British, so these were outlawed. During the 1930s and 1940s, the British government made laws to protect the “Scheduled castes,” untouchables and low-caste people. A movement toward the abolition of untouchability took place within Indian society in the 19th and early 20th centuries as well. In 1928, the first temple welcomed untouchables (Dalits) to worship with its upper-caste members. Mohandas Gandhi advocated emancipation for the Dalits, too, coining the term harijan or “Children of God” to describe them. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

152 History and Culture of Punjab - I Caste Relations in Independent India The Republic of India became independent on August 15, 1947. India’s new government instituted laws to protect the “Scheduled castes” and tribes which included both the untouchables and groups living traditional lifestyles. These laws include quota systems that help to ensure access to education and to government posts. Because of these shifts, a person’s caste has become somewhat more of a political category than a social or religious one in modern India. 6.3 Evolution of the Caste System The caste system in India is an important part of ancient Hindu tradition and dates back to 1200 BCE. The term caste was first used by Portuguese travelers who came to India in the 16th century. Caste comes from the Spanish and Portuguese word “casta” which means “race”, “breed”, or “lineage”. Many Indians use the term “jati”. There are 3,000 castes and 25,000 subcastes in India, each related to a specific occupation. Caste not only dictates one’s occupation, but dietary habits and interaction with members of other castes as well. Members of a high caste enjoy more wealth and opportunities while members of a low caste perform menial jobs. Outside of the caste system are the Untouchables. Untouchable jobs, such as toilet cleaning and garbage removal, require them to be in contact with bodily fluids. They are therefore considered polluted and not to be touched. The importance of purity in the body and food is found in early Sanskrit literature. Untouchables have separate entrances to homes and must drink from separate wells. They are considered to be in a permanent state of impurity. Untouchables were named “Harijans” (Children of God) by Gandhi. He tried to raise their status with symbolic gestures such as befriending and eating with Untouchables. Upward mobility is very rare in the caste system. Most people remain in one caste their entire life and marry within their caste. The Beginning of the Caste System There are different theories about the establishment of the caste system. There are religious- mystical theories. There are biological theories. And there are socio-historical theories. The religious theories explain how the four Varnas were founded, but they do not explain how the Jats in each Varna or the untouchables were founded. According the Rigveda, the ancient Hindu CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Caste System 153 book, the primal man – Purush – destroyed himself to create a human society. The different Varnas were created from different parts of his body. The Brahmans were created from his head; the Kshatrias from his hands; the Vaishiyas from his thighs and the Shudras from his feet. The Varna hierarchy is determined by the descending order of the different organs from which the Varnas were created. Other religious theory claims that the Varnas were created from the body organs of Brahma, who is the creator of the world. The biological theory claims that all existing things, animated and inanimated, inherit three qualities in different apportionment. Sattva qualities include wisdom, intelligence, honesty, goodness and other positive qualities. Rajas include qualities like passion, pride, valour and other passionate qualities. Tamas qualities include dullness, stupidity, lack of creativity and other negative qualities. People with different doses of these inherit qualities adopted different types of occupation. According to this theory, the Brahmans inherit Sattva qualities. Kshatrias and Vaishiyas inherit Rajas qualities. And the Shudras inherit Tamas qualities. Like human beings, food also inherits different dosage of these qualities and it affects its eater's intelligence. The Brahmans and the Vaishiyas have Sattvic diet which includes fruits, milk, honey, roots and vegetables. Most of the meats are considered to have Tamasic qualities. Many Shudra communities eat different kinds of meat (but not beef) and other Tamasic food. But the Kshatrias who had Rajasic diet eat some kinds of meat like deer meat which is considered to have Rajasic qualities. Many Marathas who claim to be Kshatrias eat mutton. The drawback of this theory is that in different parts of India the same food was sometimes qualified to have different dosage of inherit qualities. For example, there were Brahmans who eat meat which is considered Tamasic food. The social historical theory explains the creation of the Varnas, Jats and of the untouchables. According to this theory, the caste system began with the arrival of the Aryans in India. The Aryans arrived in India around 1500 BC. The fair skinned Aryans arrived in India from south Europe and north Asia. Before the Aryans, there were other communities in India of other origins among them – Negrito, Mongoloid, Austroloid and Dravidian. The Negritos have physical features similar to people of Africa. The Mongoloid have Chinese features. The Austroloids have features similar the aboriginals of Australia. The Dravidians originate from the Mediterranean and they were the largest CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

154 History and Culture of Punjab - I community in India. When the Aryans arrived in India, their main contact was with the Dravidians and the Austroloids. The Aryans disregarded the local cultures. They began conquering and taking control over regions in north India, and at the same time, pushed the local people southwards or towards the jungles and mountains in north India. The Aryans organised among themselves in three groups. The first group was of the warriors and they were called Rajayana, later they changed their name Rajayana to Kshatria. The second group was of the priests and they were called Brahmans. These two groups struggled politically for leadership among the Aryans. In this struggle, the Brahmans got to be the leaders of the Aryan society. The third group was of the farmers and craftsmen and they were called Vaishya. The Aryans who conquered and took control over parts of north India subdued the locals and made them their servants. In this process, the Vaishiyas who were the farmers and the craftsmen became the landlords and the businessmen of the society and the locals became the peasants and the craftsmen of the society. In order to secure their status, the Aryans resolved some social and religious rules which allowed only them to be the priests, warriors and the businessmen of the society. For example, take Maharashtra. Maharashtra is in west India. This region is known by this name for hundreds of years. Many think that the meaning of the name Maharashtra is in its name, Great Land. But there are some who claim that the name, Maharashtra, is derived from the Jat called Mahar who are considered to be the original people of this region. In the caste hierarchy, the dark skinned Mahars were outcasts. The skin colour was an important factor in the caste system. The meaning of the word “Varna” is not class or status but skin colour. Between the outcasts and the three Aryan Varnas, there is the Shudra Varna who are the simple workers of the society. The Shudras consisted of two communities. One community was of the locals who were subdued by the Aryans and the other were the descendants of Aryans with locals. In Hindu religious stories, there are many wars between the good Aryans and the dark skinned demons and devils. The different Gods also have dark skinned slaves. There are stories of demon women trying to seduce good Aryan men in deceptive ways. There were also marriages between Aryan heroes and demon women. Many believe that these incidences really occurred in which, the gods and the positive heroes were people of Aryan origin. And the demons, the devils and CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Caste System 155 the dark skinned slaves were in fact the original residence of India whom the Aryans coined as monsters, devil, demons and slaves. The Religious Form of Caste System In Hinduism, there exists four castes arranged in a hierarchy. Anyone who does not belong to one of these castes is an outcast. The religious word for caste is ‘Varna’. Each Varna has certain duties and rights. Each Varna members have to work in certain occupation which only that Varna members are allowed. Each Varna has certain type of diet. The highest Varna is of the Brahman. Members of this class are priests and the educated people of the society. The Varna after them in hierarchy is Kshatria. The members of this class are the rulers and aristocrats of the society. After them are the Vaishya. Members of this class are the landlords and businessmen of the society. After them in hierarchy are the Shudra. Members of this class are the peasants and working class of the society who work in non-polluting jobs. The caste hierarchy ends here. Below these castes are the outcasts who are untouchable to the four castes. These untouchables worked in degrading jobs like cleaning, sewage etc. The first three castes had social and economic rights which the Shudra and the untouchables did not have. The first three castes are also seen as ‘twice born’. The intention in these two births is to the natural birth and to the ceremonial entrance to the society at a much later age. The Confusing Caste System The confusion in the caste system begins by the use of the word caste. The Indians in their different languages use the word ‘Jat’ for any community who has something common like religion, language, origin, similar geographical background and so on. The Indians also use the word ‘Jat’ for Varna. The Portuguese who were the first European power to arrive in India distorted the word 'Jat' into caste. The British who arrived to India much later after the Portuguese also used the word caste. The British used the word Caste instead of Jat and Varna. And so sometimes in English, the caste system is explained in a confusing way according to which, the caste system consists of four castes which are divided into many castes. Sometimes, in English, the word caste is used for Varna and the word sub-caste for Jat. In this section to prevent confusion, we will use the words Varna and Jat. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

156 History and Culture of Punjab - I Untouchables The untouchability feature in the caste system is one of the cruelest features of the caste system. It is seen by many as one of the strongest racist phenomenon in the world. In the Indian society, people who worked in ignominious, polluting and unclean occupations were seen as polluting peoples and were therefore considered as untouchables. The untouchables had almost no rights in the society. In different parts of India, they were treated in different ways. In some regions, the attitude towards the untouchables was harsh and strict. In other regions, it was less strict. In regions where the attitude was less strict, the untouchables were seen as polluting people and their dwellings were at a distance from the settlements of the four Varna communities. The untouchables were not allowed to touch people from the four Varnas. They were not allowed to enter houses of the higher Varnas. They were not allowed to enter the temples. They were not allowed to use the same wells used by the Varnas. In public occasions, they were compelled to sit at a distance from the four Varnas. In regions where the attitude towards the untouchables were more severe, not only touching them was seen polluting, but also even a contact with their shadow was seen as polluting. If, because of any reason, there was a contact between an untouchable and a member of the Varnas, the Varna member became defiled and had to immerse or wash himself with water to be purified. In strict societies, especially among the ‘Twice Born’ (the three top Varnas) the touched ‘Twice Born’ also had to pass through some religious ceremonies to purify himself from the pollution. If the untouchable entered a house and touched things of a Varna member, the Varna members used to wash or clean the places where the untouchable touched and stepped. In some incidences, the untouchables who associated with the Varna members were beaten and even murdered for that reason. Some higher hierarchy Jats also had servants whose job was to go or walk before the high Jats members and announce their coming to the streets and to see to it that the streets would be clear of untouchable people. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Caste System 157 The Non-Hindus in Caste System Religiously anyone who does not belong to the four Varnas is an outcast and untouchable. It means, all foreigners and non-Hindus are all supposed to be untouchables. But in reality, neither all foreigners nor non-Hindus were treated as untouchables. Foreigners and non-Hindus were treated differently in different parts of India. Some of the foreigners adopted Hinduism and integrated in the upper level of the Hindu hierarchy. The Rajputs of Rajasthan belong to the Kshatria Varna (warrior castes). The Rajputs, more than any other Indian Jat, represent the warrior castes of India. Almost any Indian community which claims to be a warrior community, claims a Rajput ancestry. But it is believed that many foreign invaders of ancient India like Scythians; Huns; Greeks and others, who adopted Hinduism, integrated in the Rajput community and acquired a Kshatria status. The Konkanash Brahmans of west India are also believed to have non-Indian descent. According to a Hindu legend, an incarnation of Lord Vishnu, Parsuram, found on the Konkan beach some dead bodies which were washed to the shore. In order to cremate them, Parsuram gathered them on a pyre. These dead bodies woke up on pyre, probably because they were not dead in the first place but were only unconscious. Parsuram converted these people to Hinduism and made them Brahmans. There are other theories about the origins of these Konkanash Brahmans. Many of these Brahmans have gray-green eyes. Some claim them to be Vikings or of other European origin. In the Konkan coast, there is Jewish community called Bene Israel. Some claim that these Jews are from the ‘Lost Tribes’. These Jews who arrived in India after their ship-wrecked near the Konkan coast claim that they and the Konkanash Brahmans are descendants of the survivals from the same ship. And in their version, it was not an incarnation of Lord Vishnu who converted the Konkanash Brahmans but a local Brahman. Anyway these Jews do not have gray-green eyes like the Konkanash Brahmans. Former Practice: Sati – The Burning of the Widow Sati is described as a Hindu custom in India in which the widow was burnt to ashes on her dead husband’s pyre. Basically, the custom of Sati was believed to be a voluntary Hindu act in which the woman voluntary decides to end her life with her husband after his death. But there were many incidences in which the women were forced to commit Sati, sometimes even dragged against her wish to the lighted pyre. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

158 History and Culture of Punjab - I Though Sati is considered a Hindu custom, the women, known as Sati in Hindu religious literature, did not commit suicide on their dead husband’s pyre. The first woman known as Sati was the consort of Lord Shiva. She burnt herself in fire as protest against her father who did not give her consort Shiva the respect she thought he deserved, while burning herself she prayed to reborn again as the new consort of Shiva, which she became and her name in the new incarnation was Parvati. Other famous woman in Hindu literature titled Sati was Savitri. When Savitri’s husband Satyavan died, the Lord of death, Yama arrived to take his soul. Savitri begged Yama to restore Satyavan and take her life instead, which he could not do. So, Savitri followed Lord Yama a long way. After a long way in which Yama noticed that Savitri was losing strength but was still following him and her dead husband, Yama offered Savitri a boon, anything other than her husband’s life. Savitri asked to have children from Satyavan. In order to give Savitri her boon, Lord Yama had no choice but to restore Satyavan to life and so Savitri gained her husband back. These two women along with other women in Hindu mythology who were exceptionally devoted to their husbands symbolised the truthful Indian wife who would do everything for their husband and they were named Sati. The meaning of the word sati is righteous. But as written earlier the women named Sati, in Hindu religious literature, did not commit suicide on their dead husband’s pyre. Therefore the custom of burning the widow on her dead husband’s pyre probably did not evolve from religious background but from social background. Caste System in Modern India The leaders of independent India decided that India will be democratic, socialist and secular country. According to this policy, there is a separation between religion and state. Practicing untouchability or discriminating a person based on his caste is legally forbidden. Along with this law, the government allows positive discrimination of the depressed classes of India. The Indians have also become more flexible in their caste system customs. In general, the urban people in India are less strict about the caste system than the rural. In cities, one can see different caste people mingling with each other, while in some rural areas there is still discrimination based on castes and sometimes also on untouchability. Sometimes, in villages or in the cities, there are violent clashes which, are connected to caste tensions. Sometimes the high castes strike the CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Caste System 159 lower castes who dare to uplift their status. Sometimes, the lower caste get back on the higher castes. In modern India, the term caste is used for Jat and also for Varna. The term, caste was used by the British who ruled India until 1947. The British who wanted to rule India efficiently made lists of Indian communities. They used two terms to describe Indian communities ‘Castes’ and ‘Tribes’. The term caste was used for Jats and also for Varnas. Tribes were those communities who lived deep in jungles, forests and mountains far away from the main population and also communities who were hard to be defined as castes for example communities who made a living from stealing or robbery. These lists, which the British made, were used later on by the Indian governments to create lists of communities who were entitled for positive discrimination. The castes, which were the elite of the Indian society, were classified as high castes. The other communities were classified as lower castes or lower classes. The lower classes were listed in three categories. The first category is called Scheduled Castes. This category includes in it communities who were untouchables. In modern India, untouchability exists at a very low extent. The untouchables call themselves Dalit, meaning depressed. Until the late 1980s, they were called Harijan, meaning children of God. This title was given to them by Mahatma Gandhi who wanted the society to accept untouchables within them. The second category is Scheduled Tribes. This category includes in it those communities who did not accept the caste system and preferred to reside deep in the jungles, forests and mountains of India, away from the main population. The Scheduled Tribes are also called Adivasi, meaning aboriginals. The third category is called sometimes Other Backward Classes or Backward Classes. This category includes in it castes who belong to Shudra Varna and also former untouchables who converted from Hinduism to other religions. This category also includes in it nomads and tribes who made a living from criminal acts. 6.4 Merits of the Caste System From time to time, the Indian caste system has been attacked from various quarters and to it have been ascribed all the numerous evils from which society is suffering. But the very fact that it CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

160 History and Culture of Punjab - I continues inspite of these attacks as before goes to prove that the system is not so bad as it is thought to be. The very fact that the Brahmins retained their supremacy for two thousand years proves that they were eminently fitted to be in a position of domination. The merits of the caste system are the following: (i) Trade Union and Orphanage It has provided every individual with a fixed social environment. In the words of Hutton, “He is provided in this way with a permanent body of associations which control almost all his behaviour and contacts. His caste canalises his choice in marriage, acts as his trade union, his friendly or beneficent society, his state club and his orphanage; it takes place for him of health insurance and if need be, provides for his funeral.” (ii) Spirit of Cooperation It has fostered the spirit of cooperation and fellow-feeling among members of the same caste. By helping the poor and needy, it has avoided the necessity of the state supporting the poor. It minimises envy or unhappiness. (iii) Defines Economic Pursuits It defines the economic pursuits of the individual. There is an occupation pertaining to every caste so that the child’s future is not only carved out already but also a proper place of apprenticeship is provided. Since there is identification of work with caste, and little thought of change, there is more pride in workmanship. Ancient India was a land provided with generations of craftsmen and soil cultivators who were extremely skillful in their avocations. (iv) Racial Purity It has preserved the racial purity of the higher caste by forbidding indiscriminate inter-marriages and has greatly fostered the habits of cleanliness by insisting on ritual purity. (v) Influences Intellectual Make-up It influences the intellectual make-up of an individual. Since the caste dictates to each member customs to be observed in the manner of diet, the Observance of ceremonies and whether he may marry a widow, his views on the social and political matters are bound to be influenced by his caste customs. This fosters the spirit of equality within the groups. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Caste System 161 (vi) Integration of the Country It develops class consciousness without breeding class struggle. It has created an efficient organisation of Hindu society without giving any chance to class frictions and factions. It was the best device to organise within one society people of different cultural levels. It prevented the country from splitting up into warring racial units. It integrated Indian society into one vast and variegated community and provided the country with a sure basis of security and continuity whereby a stable and orderly organisation of society could be possible. (vii) Provides for Various Junctions It provides for the various functions necessary to social life functions ranging from education to scavenging, from government to domestic service of the most menial kinds and it makes this provision under the sanction of a religious dogma, the belief in Karma, which renders the superficially inequitable distribution of functions acceptable as being part of the divine order of the universe. It provides a much better method of division of labour than the European class system. (viii) Cultural Diffusion It helps in cultural diffusion within the group. The caste customs, beliefs, skill, behaviour, the trade secrets are passed on from generation to generation. Culture is thus carried from one age to another. (ix) Separation of Social from Political Life It has separated the social from political life and has maintained its independence from political influences. S.C. Hills says, “His intimate life, the life which to the Hindu really matters is altogether independent of the political conditions, which happen to prevail.” It serves as a, great church and maintains its own religious system by providing for the worship of caste gods. 6.5 Demerits of Caste System But the system has given rise to several evils. (i) Denies Mobility of Labour It has denied mobility of labour since the individual must follow the caste occupation and cannot change it according to his likes or dislikes. This leads to stagnation. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

162 History and Culture of Punjab - I (ii) Untouchability It leads to untouchability. According to Mahatma Gandhi, it is “the hate-fullest expression of caste.” Large section of people is reduced to the state of virtual slavery. In addition, it has also created many other social evils like child marriage, dowry system, purda system and casteism. (iii) Solidarity Retarded It has retarded the growth of solidarity and brotherhood in the Hindu society by rigidly separating one class from another and denying any type of social intercourse between them. It has led to the disintegration of Hindu society and weakened it. (iv) Wrong Man in Occupation It often results in putting man on wrong occupation. There is no guarantee that a priest’s son would also like to be a priest or would possess the qualities for a successful priest. Under the caste system, he cannot take up any other profession even though he may possess the skill and liking for that. It does not utilise fully the talents and capabilities of the population and is, therefore, a barrier to optimum productivity. (v) Obstacle to National Unity It has proved an obstacle to the growth of national unity in the country. The lower classes feel discontented at the behaviour meted out to them in society. As Dr. G.S. Ghurye states, “It is the spirit of caste patriotism which engenders opposition to other castes and creates an unhealthy atmosphere for the growth of national consciousness” E. Schmidt also pointed out that one of the most tragic consequences of the caste system is that it prevents the development of general national consciousness. (vi) Obstacle to Social Progress It is a great obstacle to the social and economic progress of the nation. Since the people believe in the theory of ‘Karma’, they become conservative. And because their economic position is fixed, they are led to inertia killing their initiative and enterprise. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Caste System 163 (vii) Undemocratic The caste system is undemocratic because it denies equal rights to all irrespective of their caste, creed or colour. Social barriers are erected specially in the way of lower class individuals who are not given freedom for the mental and physical development and are not provided with opportunities for that. (viii) Promotes Casteism The caste system has created the feeling of casteism. The members belonging to a caste, carry caste feelings and manifest blind and overriding loyalty to their caste ignoring the healthy social standards of justice, fair-play, equity and brotherhood. The terms like ‘Brahminvada’ and ‘Kayasthavada’ are expressions of casteism. Under the influence of casteism, members of one caste do not hesitate in harming the interests of members of other castes. Casteism spells autocracy instead of a system based on fraternity. The politicians exploit the feeling of casteism to their advantage at the cost of nation’s interests. On the perusal of comparative merits and demerits of caste system, it may be safely concluded that the demerits far outweigh the merits. Although caste system played an important role at a certain stage of Indian History by supplying the social foundation to the village community system, it has lost its utility in modern India. A caste system makes for a lethargic and stable society. 6.6 Summary The caste system in India is the paradigmatic ethnographic example of caste. It has origins in ancient India, and was transformed by various ruling elites in medieval, early modern, and modern India, especially the Mughal Empire and the British Raj. It is today the basis of educational and job reservations in India. The caste system consists of two different concepts, varna and jati, which may be regarded as different levels of analysis of this system. Caste is a form of social stratification characterised by endogamy, hereditary transmission of a lifestyle which often includes an occupation, status in a hierarchy, customary social interaction, and exclusion. It is an extreme evolution of a system of legally-entrenched social classes, also endogamous and hereditary, such as that of feudal Europe. Although caste systems exist in various regions, its paradigmatic ethnographic example is the division of Indian society into rigid social groups, with CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

164 History and Culture of Punjab - I roots in India’s ancient history and persisting until today; it is sometimes used as an analogical basis for the study of caste-like social divisions existing outside India. In biology, the term is applied to role stratification in eusocial animals like ants and termites, though the analogy is imperfect as these also involve extremely stratified reproduction. Caste is the system of dividing people in a society into different social classes. This is a social group that includes people of the same economic status, occupation or rank. In India, the rigid caste system divides people by social distinctions into hereditary groups that have specific limitations and privileges, depending on where the person is on the social strata. The caste system is the bane for the Indian society. It divides the Indian society into sectarian groups and classes. Even today, it plays a predominant role in our society despite the growth of culture and civilisation. The society is divided into various small social groups called castes. Each of these castes is a well-developed social group, the membership of which is determined by the consideration of birth. The children belong to the caste of their parents. Caste membership is an indisputable and unalterable fact by which a man’s position in the social structure is wholly determined. The membership of an individual does not undergo any change even if changes in his status, occupation, education, wealth etc. take place. Since membership is normally life long, there is practically no social mobility. However, as pointed out by M.N. Srinivas, a low-caste has been able in a generation or two, to raise itself in the hierarchy, after acquiring economic and political power, by adopting the Brahmanic customs and ways. Hierarchy is a ladder of command in which the lower rungs are encompassed in the higher ones in regular succession. The castes teach us a fundamental social principle of hierarchy. Castes form a hierarchy, being arranged in an order of superiority and inferiority. At the top of this hierarchy is the Brahmin caste and at the bottom is the untouchable caste. In between are the intermediate castes, the relative positions of which are not always clear. As such disputes among the members of these castes over the social precedence of their respective castes are not very uncommon. Hierarchy is viewed as the principle by which the elements of a whole are ranked in relation to the whole, it being understood that in the majority of societies it is religion which provides the view of the whole. Hence, ranking assumes religious dimension. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Caste System 165 The most fundamental characteristic of the caste system is endogamy. All the thinkers are of the opinion that the endogamy is the chief characteristic of caste, i.e., the members of a caste or sub-caste should marry within their own caste or sub-caste. The violation of the rule of endogamy would mean ostracism and loss of caste. Although endogamy is the common rule for a caste, Anomie and Pratiloma marriage, i.e., hypergamy and hypogamy were also prevalent in exceptional cases. The traditional caste system is characterised by hereditary occupation. Members of a particular caste are expected to follow the occupation meant for the caste. Traditionally, a Brahmin was allowed to function as a priest. In some castes, the name of caste is dependent upon the very occupation as for instance, Napita (barber), Dhobi, Mochi, Mali, etc. Social segregation is an aspect of caste differentiation. According to Ghurye, “Segregation of individual castes or of groups of castes in village is most obvious mark of civil privileges and disabilities, and it has prevailed in a more or less definite form all over India”. Segregation is more severe in South than in the North. In some parts of the county such as Marathi, Telugu and Kanarese speaking regions it is only the impure castes that are segregated and made to live on the outskirts of villages. In the Tamil and Malayalam regions, very frequently different castes occupy distinctly different quarters or sometime the village is divided into three parts occupied by the dominate caste or by Brahmins, allotted to the Shudras and the third reserved for the Panchamas or untouchables. Caste is a social phenomenon of Indian society. By participating in the modern political system, caste is now exposed to divisive influences and a new form of integration resulting from a new scheme of universalist-particularism relationships. Caste has gained an influential position in India politics. The history of the social origin of the scheduled castes or the untouchables is age old. Among the early Hindu epics, Dharmashastras and Smritis dealing with the origin of varna system, the Rigveda is the oldest one which describes that all the four varnas, i.e., Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra are originated from the different limbs of the Almighty. According to the Rigveda the origin of Brahmin is supposed to be from the mouth, Kshatriya from the arms, Vaishya from the chest and Shudra from the feet of the Almighty. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

166 History and Culture of Punjab - I The caste system in India is an important part of ancient Hindu tradition and dates back to 1200 BCE. The term caste was first used by Portuguese travelers who came to India in the 16th century. Caste comes from the Spanish and Portuguese word “casta” which means “race”, “breed”, or “lineage”. Many Indians use the term “jati”. There are 3,000 castes and 25,000 subcastes in India, each related to a specific occupation. 6.7 Key Words/Abbreviations  Caste System: Caste is a form of social stratification characterised by endogamy.  Caste System in India: The caste system in India is the paradigmatic ethnographic example of caste.  Division of Labour: They are restricted to certain occupations like sanitation work, plantation work, leather works, cleaning streets, etc.  Right to Equality: The fundamental fights are guaranteed to protect the basic human rights of all citizens of India.  Hereditary Occupation: The traditional caste system is characterised by hereditary occupation.  Cultural Difference: Since each caste has its own set of rules and regulations with regard to endogamy, pollution-purity. 6.8 Learning Activity 1. You are required to prepare a report on “Caste System in India”. _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ 2. You are suggested to prepare a project report related to Hereditary Occupation and Cultural Difference. _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Caste System 167 6.9 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) A. Descriptive Type: Short Answer Type Questions 1. Give the introduction to Caste System. 2. Give the meaning of Caste. Discuss in brief about Caste System in India. 3. Discuss various characteristics of Caste System. 4. Write note on: Hereditary Occupation and Cultural Difference. 5. Discuss various types of castes in India. 6. Explain in details about role of caste in Indian Politics. 7. Discuss in details about origin of the Caste System. 8. Explain in details about evolution of the Caste System. B. Multiple Choice/Objective Type Questions 1. What is a kind of social differentiation whereby a society groups people into socio-economic strata, based upon their occupation and income, wealth and social status, or derived power? (a) Social Stratification (b) Social Mobility (c) Social Class (d) All the above 2. Social stratification is a term used in the social sciences to describe the relative social position of persons in a given __________. (a) Social group (b) Geographical region (c) Social unit (d) All the above 3. Which of the following refers to a system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy? (a) Social Stratification (b) Social Mobility (c) Social Class (d) Caste System CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

168 History and Culture of Punjab - I 4. Who defined, “Social stratification is horizontal division of society into ‘higher’ and ‘lower’ social units”? (a) According to Lundberg (b) According to Gisbert (c) According to Williams (d) According to Raymond W. Murray 5. Which of the following is the characteristic of Social Stratification? (a) Social stratification is universal (b) Stratification is social (c) It is ancient (d) All the above 6. Which of the following consists of group of individuals who are ranked by the members of the community in socially superior inferior position? (a) Social stratification (b) Social Mobility (c) Social Class (d) Caste System Answers 1. (a), 2. (d), 3. (a), 4. (d), 5. (d), 6. (c) 6.10 References “References of this unit have been given at the end of the book”..  CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Study of Epic Age 169 UNIT 7 STUDY OF EPIC AGE Structure: 7.0 Learning Objective 7.1 Introduction 7.2 The Ramayana 7.3 Historical Importance of the Ramayana 7.4 The Mahabharata 7.5 Historical Importance of the Mahabharata 7.6 Summary 7.7 Key Words/Abbreviations 7.8 LearningActivity 7.9 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 7.10 References 7.0 Learning Objective After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Acquaint students about the Epic Age and impact which these had left on the life of common people CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

170 History and Culture of Punjab - I 7.1 Introduction Ramayana and Mahabharata are historical epics with the central character as Rama and Krishna respectively. They have been written by Valmiki and Vyasa respectively who were contemporary of their characters. Incidentally, they also figure in their recordings after some of their own characters are required to report about them. Ramayana has 24000 verses whereas Mahabharata had originally 100000. Ramayana is a very compact and an ideal epic suiting perfectly well with the standards of an epic such as – it should have 8 cantos, its central character should be a perfect model and idealistic. Mahabharata on the other hand focuses on history of the clan of Kurukul where Pandvas and Kauravas fight. Pandavas win it ultimately with the interference of Lord Krishna as they stood for dharma. 7.2 The Ramayana Ramayana is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the Mahabharata. Along with the Mahabharata, it forms the Hindu Itihasa. The epic, traditionally ascribed to the Maharshi Valmiki, narrates the life of Ram, the legendary prince of the Koshal Kingdom. It follows his fourteen-year exile to the forest by his father King Dasharatha, on request of his step- mother Kaikeyi. His travels across forests in India with his wife Sita and brother Lakshman, the kidnapping of his wife by Ravana, the great king of Lanka, resulting in a war with him, and Ram’s eventual return to Ayodhya to be crowned king is the crux of the epic. There have been many attempts to unravel the epic’s historical growth and compositional layers; various recent scholars’ estimates for the earliest stage of the text range from the 7th to 4th centuries BCE, with later stages extending up to the 3rd century CE. The Ramayana is one of the largest ancient epics in world literature. It consists of nearly 24,000 verses (mostly set in the Shloka/Anustubh meter), divided into seven Kand’s (adi kand, ayodhya kand, aranya kand, kishkindhya kand, sundara kand, lanka kand and uttara kand) and about 500 sargas (chapters). In Hindu tradition, it is considered to be the adi-kavya (first poem). It depicts the duties of relationships, portraying ideal characters like the ideal father, the ideal servant, the ideal brother, the ideal husband and the ideal king. Ramayana was an important influence on later Sanskrit poetry and Hindu life and culture. Like Mahabharata, Ramayana presents the teachings of ancient CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Study of Epic Age 171 Hindu sages in narrative allegory, interspersing philosophical and ethical elements. The characters Ram, Sita, Lakshman, Bharata, Hanuman, and Ravana are all fundamental to the cultural consciousness of the South Asian nations of India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and the South-East Asian countries of Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia, and Indonesia. There are many versions of Ramayana in Indian languages, besides Buddhist, Sikh, and Jain adaptations. There are also Cambodian, Indonesian, Filipino, Thai, Lao, Burmese and Malaysian versions of the tale. Etymology The name Ramayana means “Ram” + “Aayana”, whereas Ram is name of Lord or God and Aayana means Path or Way. The literal meaning of the name is “the journey of Ram” or “the career of Ram” or in other words path or way taken or chosen by Lord Ram during the human life cycle form at earth, during Treta Yuga (869000 years ago) in Jambudweep (Java Plum)/Aryavart/India. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

172 History and Culture of Punjab - I Textual History and Structure According to Indian tradition, and the Ramayana itself, the epic belongs to the genre of itihasa like Mahabharata. The definition of itihasa is a narrative of past events (puravatta) which includes teachings on the goals of human life. According to Hindu tradition, Ramayana takes place during a period of time known as Treta Yuga. In its extant form, Valmiki’s Ramayana is an epic poem of some 24,000 verses. The text survives in several thousand partial and complete manuscripts, the oldest of which is a palm-leaf manuscript found in Nepal and dated to the 11th century CE. A Times of India report dated 18 December 2015 informs about the discovery of a 6th-century manuscript of the Ramayana at the Asiatic Society library, Kolkata. The Ramayana text has several regional renderings, recensions and sub-recensions. Textual scholar Robert P. Goldman differentiates two major regional revisions: the northern (n) and the southern (s). Scholar Romesh Chunder Dutt writes that “the Ramayana, like the Mahabharata, is a growth of centuries, but the main story is more distinctly the creation of one mind.” There has been discussion as to whether the first and the last volumes (Bala kand and Uttara kand) of Valmiki’s Ramayana were composed by the original author. Most Hindus still believe they are integral parts of the book, in spite of some style differences and narrative contradictions between these two volumes and the rest of the book. Retellings include Kamban’s Ramavataram in Tamil, Gona Budda Reddy’s Ramayanam in Telugu (c. 13th century), Madhava Kandli’s Saptakanda Ramayana in Assamese (c. 14th century), Krittibas Ojha’s Krittivasi Ramayan (also known as Shri Ram Panchali) in Bengali (c. 15th century), Sarala Das’ Vilanka Ramayana (c. 15th century) and Balaram Das’ Dandi Ramayana (also known as the Jagamohan Ramayana) (c. 16th century) both in Odia, Sant Eknath’s Bhavarth Ramayan (c. 16th century) in Marathi, Tulsidas’ Ramacharitamanas (c. 16th century) in Awadhi (which is an eastern form of Hindi) and Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan’s Adhyathmaramayanam in Malayalam. Period Ram (left third from top) depicted in the Dashavatara, the ten avatars of Vishnu. Painting from Jaipur, now at the Victoria and Albert Museum. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Study of Epic Age 173 In terms of narrative time, the action of the Ramayana predates the Mahabharata. However, the general cultural background of the Ramayana is one of the post-urbanization periods of the eastern part of north India, while the Mahabharata reflects the Kuru areas west of this, from the Rigvedic to the late Vedic period. By tradition, the text belongs to the Treta Yuga, second of the four eons (yuga) of Hindu chronology. Ram is said to have been born in the Treta Yuga (869000 years ago) to king Dasharatha in the Ikshvaku dynasty. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

174 History and Culture of Punjab - I The names of the characters (Ram, Sita, Dasharatha, Janaka, Vashista and Vishwamitra) are all known only in the late Vedic literature. However, nowhere in the surviving Vedic poetry is there a story similar to the Ramayana of Valmiki. According to the modern academic view, Vishnu, who, according to Bala kand, was incarnated as Ram, first came into prominence with the epics themselves and further, during the puranic period of the later 1st millennium CE. Also, in the epic Mahabharata, there is a version of the Ramayana known as Ramopakhyana. This version is depicted as a narration to Yudhishthir. Books two to six form the oldest portion of the epic, while the first and last books (Bala kand and Uttara kand, respectively) are later additions, as some style differences and narrative contradictions between these two volumes and the rest of the book. The author or authors of Bala kand and Ayodhya kand appear to be familiar with the eastern Gangetic basin region of northern India and with the Koshal, Mithila and Magadha regions during the period of the sixteen Mahajanapadas, based on the fact that the geographical and geopolitical data accords with what is known about the region. Ikshvaku Dynasty Dasharatha is king of Ayodhya and father of Ram. He has three queens, Kaushalya, Kaikeyi and Sumitra, and four sons: Bharata, and twins Lakshman, Shatrughna and Ram. Once, Kaikeyi saved Dasharatha in a war and as a reward, she got the privilege from Dasharatha to fulfil two of her wishes at any time of her lifetime. She made use of the opportunity and forced Dasharatha to make their son Bharata crown prince and send Ram into exile for 14 years. Dasharatha dies heartbroken after Ram goes into exile. Ram is the main character of the tale. Portrayed as the seventh avatar of god Vishnu, he is the eldest and favourite son of Dasharatha, the king of Ayodhya and his Chief Queen, Kaushalya. He is portrayed as the epitome of virtue. Dasharatha is forced by Kaikeyi to command Ram to relinquish his right to the throne for fourteen years and go into exile. Ram kills the evil demon Ravana, who abducted his wife Sita, and later returns to Ayodhya to form an ideal state. Ram and the Monkey Chiefs Sita (Vydehi) is another of the tale’s protagonists. She was the blood of sages who sacrificed their lives to develop the powerful force to get rid of earth from demons. This blood was collected in CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Study of Epic Age 175 a pot and was buried in Earth, so she is called the daughter of Mother Earth, adopted by King Janak, and Ram’s beloved wife. Ram went to Mithila and got a chance to marry her by breaking the Shiv Dhanush (bow) while trying to tie a knot to it in a competition organized by King Janaka of Mithila. The competition was to find the most suitable husband for Sita and many princes from different states competed to win her. Sita is the avatar of goddess Lakshmi, the consort of Vishnu. Sita is portrayed as the epitome of female purity and virtue. She follows her husband into exile and is abducted by the Lanka’s king Ravana. She is imprisoned on the island of Lanka, until Ram rescues her by defeating Ravana. Later, she gives birth to twin boys Luv and Kusha. Bharata is the son of Dasharatha and Queen Kaikeyi. When he learns that his mother Kaikeyi has forced Ram into exile and caused Dasharatha to die brokenhearted, he storms out of the palace and goes in search of Ram in the forest. When Ram refuses to return from his exile to assume the throne, Bharata obtains Ram’s sandals and places them on the throne as a gesture that Ram is the true king. Bharata then rules Ayodhya as the regent of Ram for the next fourteen years, staying outside the city of Ayodhya. He was married to Mandavi. Lakshman (Sumitra) is a younger brother of Ram, who chose to go into exile with him. He is the son of King Dasharatha and Queen Sumitra and twin of Shatrughna. Lakshman is portrayed as an avatar of Shesha, the naga associated with the god Vishnu. He spends his time protecting Sita and Ram, during which time he fights the demoness Surpanakha. He is forced to leave Sita, who was deceived by the demon Mareech into believing that Ram was in trouble. Sita is abducted by Ravana upon his leaving her. He was married to Sita’s younger sister Urmila. Shatrughna (Ripudaman: Killer of enemies) is a son of Dasharatha and his third wife Queen Sumitra. He is the youngest brother of Ram and also the twin brother of Lakshman. He was married to Shrutakirti. Allies of Ram The vanaras constructing the Ram Setu Bridge to Lanka, makaras and fish also aid the construction. A 9th century Prambanan bas-relief, Central Java, Indonesia. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

176 History and Culture of Punjab - I Vanara Hanuman is a vanara belonging to the kingdom of Kishkindha. He is an ideal bhakta of Ram. He is born as son of Kesari, a Vanara king in Sumeru region and his wife Añjana. He plays an important part in locating Sita and in the ensuing battle. He is believed to live until our modern world. Sugriva, a vanara king who helped Ram regain Sita from Ravana. He had an agreement with Ram through which Vali – Sugriva’s brother and king of Kishkindha – would be killed by Ram in exchange for Sugriva’s help in finding Sita. Sugriva ultimately ascends the throne of Kishkindha after the slaying of Vali and fulfills his promise by putting the Vanara forces at Ram’s disposal. He was married to Ruma. Angada is a vanara and the son of Bali (vanar king of Kishkindha before Sugriva) who helped Ram find his wife Sita and fight her abductor, Ravana, in Ramayana. He was son of Vali and Tara and nephew of Sugriva. Angada and Tara are instrumental in reconciling Ram and his brother, Lakshman, with Sugriva after Sugriva fails to fulfill his promise to help Ram find and rescue his wife. Together they are able to convince Sugriva to honour his pledge to Ram instead of spending his time carousing and drinking. Riksha Jambavan/Jamvanta is known as Riksharaj (King of the Rikshas). Rikshas are bears. In the epic Ramayana, Jambavantha helped Ram find his wife Sita and fight her abductor, Ravana. It is he who makes Hanuman realize his immense capabilities and encourages him to fly across the ocean to search for Sita in Lanka. Griddha Jatayu, son of Aruna and nephew of Garuda, a demi-god who has the form of a vulture that tries to rescue Sita from Ravana. Jatayu fought valiantly with Ravana, but as Jatayu was very old, Ravana soon got the better of him. As Ram and Lakshman chanced upon the stricken and dying Jatayu in their search for Sita, he informs them of the direction in which Ravana had gone. Sampati, son of Aruna, brother of Jatayu. Sampati’s role proved to be instrumental in the search for Sita. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Study of Epic Age 177 Rakshasa Vibhishana, youngest brother of Ravana. He was against the abduction of Sita and joined the forces of Ram when Ravana refused to return her. His intricate knowledge of Lanka was vital in the war and he was crowned king after the fall of Ravana. Rakshasas Ravana, a rakshasa, is the king of Lanka. He was son of a sage named Vishrava and daitya princess Kaikeyi. After performing severe penance for ten thousand years he received a boon from the creator-god Brahma: he could henceforth not be killed by gods, demons, or spirits. He is portrayed as a powerful demon king who disturbs the penances of rishis. Vishnu incarnates as the human Ram to defeat him, thus circumventing the boon given by Brahma. Indrajit or Meghnadha, the eldest son of Ravana who twice defeated Ram and Lakshman in battle, before succumbing to Lakshman. An adept of the magical arts, he coupled his supreme fighting skills with various stratagems to inflict heavy losses on Vanara army before his death. Kumbhakarna, brother of Ravana, famous for his eating and sleeping. He would sleep for months at a time and would be extremely ravenous upon waking up, consuming anything set before him. His monstrous size and loyalty made him an important part of Ravana’s army. During the war, he decimated the Vanara army before Ram cut off his limbs and head. Surpanakha, Ravana’s demoness sister who fell in love with Ram and had the magical power to take any form she wanted. Vanara Vali, was king of Kishkindha, husband of Tara, a son of Indra, elder brother of Sugriva and father of Angada. Vali was famous for the boon that he had received, according to which anyone who fought him in single-combat lost half his strength to Vali, thereby making Vali invulnerable to any enemy. He was killed by Lord Ram, an Avatar of Vishnu. Synopsis Bal (Balya) kand CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

178 History and Culture of Punjab - I The marriage of the four sons of Dasharatha with the four daughters of Siradhvaja and Kushadhvaja Janakas. Ram and Sita, Lakshman and Urmila, Bharata and Mandavi and Shatrughna with Shrutakirti. This “Sarg” (section) details the stories of Shri Ram’s childhood and events related the time- frame. Dasharatha was the king of Ayodhya. He had three wives: Kaushalya, Kaikeyi and Sumitra. He was childless for a long time and anxious to produce an heir, so he performs a fire sacrifice known as putra-kameshti yagy. As a consequence, Ram is first born to Kaushalya, Bharata is born to Kaikeyi, Lakshman and Shatrughna are born to Sumitra. These sons are endowed, to various degrees, with the essence of the Supreme Trinity Entity Vishnu; Vishnu had opted to be born into mortality to combat the demon Ravana, who was oppressing the gods, and who could only be destroyed by a mortal. The boys are reared as the princes of the realm, receiving instructions from the scriptures and in warfare from Vashistha. When Ram is 16 years old, sage Vishwamitra comes to the court of Dasharatha in search of help against demons who were disturbing sacrificial rites. He chooses Ram, who is followed by Lakshman, his constant companion throughout the story. Ram and Lakshman receive instructions and supernatural weapons from Vishwamitra and proceed to destroy the demons: Tadka and many more. Janaka was the king of Mithila. One day, a female child was found in the field by the king in the deep furrow dug by his plough. Overwhelmed with joy, the king regarded the child as a “miraculous gift of god”. The child was named Sita, the Sanskrit word for furrow. Sita grew up to be a girl of unparalleled beauty and charm. The king had decided that whoever could lift and wield the heavy bow, presented to his ancestors by Shiva, could marry Sita. Sage Vishwamitra takes Ram and Lakshman to Mithila to show the bow. Then Ram desires to lift it and goes on to wield the bow and when he draws the string, it got broken. Marriages are arranged between the sons of Dasharatha and daughters of Janaka. Ram gets married to Sita, Lakshman to Urmila, Bharata to Mandavi and Shatrughna to Shrutakirti. The weddings are celebrated with great festivity in Mithila and the marriage party returns to Ayodhya. Ayodhya Kand After Ram and Sita have been married for twelve years, an elderly Dasharatha expresses his desire to crown Ram, to which the Koshal assembly and his subjects express their support. On the eve of the great event, Kaikeyi – her jealousy aroused by Manthara, a wicked maidservant – claims CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Study of Epic Age 179 two boons that Dasharatha had long ago granted her. Kaikeyi demands Ram to be exiled into the wilderness for fourteen years, while the succession passes to her son Bharata. The heartbroken king, constrained by his rigid devotion to his given word, accedes to Kaikeyi’s demands. Ram accepts his father’s reluctant decree with absolute submission and calm self-control which characterises him throughout the story. He is joined by Sita and Lakshman. When he asks Sita not to follow him, she says, “the forest where you dwell is Ayodhya for me and Ayodhya without you is a veritable hell for me.” After Ram’s departure, King Dasharatha, unable to bear the grief, passes away. Meanwhile, Bharata who was on a visit to his maternal uncle, learns about the events in Ayodhya. Bharata refuses to profit from his mother’s wicked scheming and visits Ram in the forest. He requests Ram to return and rule. But Ram, determined to carry out his father’s orders to the letter, refuses to return before the period of exile. Ram Leaving for Fourteen Years of Exile from Ayodhya Ravana fights Jatayu as he carries off the kidnapped Sita. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

180 History and Culture of Punjab - I After thirteen years of exile, Ram, Sita and Lakshman journey southward along the banks of river Godavari, where they build cottages and live off the land. At the Panchavati forest they are visited by a rakshasi named Surpanakha, sister of Ravana. She tries to seduce the brothers and, after failing, attempts to kill Sita. Lakshman stops her by cutting off her nose and ears. Hearing of this, her brother Khara organises an attack against the princes. Ram defeats Khara and his rakshasas. When the news of these events reach Ravana, he resolves to destroy Ram by capturing Sita with the aid of the rakshasa Maricha. Maricha, assuming the form of a golden deer, captivates Sita’s attention. Entranced by the beauty of the deer, Sita pleads with Ram to capture it. Ram, aware that this is the ploy of the demons, cannot dissuade Sita from her desire and chases the deer into the forest, leaving Sita under Lakshman’s guard. After some time, Sita hears Ram calling out to her; afraid for his life, she insists that Lakshman rush to his aid. Lakshman tries to assure her that Ram is invincible and that it is best if he continues to follow Ram’s orders to protect her. On the verge of hysterics, Sita insists that it is not she but Ram who needs Lakshman’s help. He obeys her wish but stipulates that she is not to leave the cottage or entertain any stranger. He draws a chalk outline, the Lakshman rekha, around the cottage and casts a spell on it that prevents anyone from entering the boundary but allows people to exit. With the coast finally clear, Ravana appears in the guise of an ascetic requesting Sita’s hospitality. Unaware of her guest’s plan, Sita is tricked into leaving the rekha and is then forcibly carried away by Ravana. Jatayu, a vulture, tries to rescue Sita, but is mortally wounded. At Lanka, Sita is kept under the guard of rakshasis. Ravana asks Sita to marry him, but she refuses, being eternally devoted to Ram. Meanwhile, Ram and Lakshman learn about Sita’s abduction from Jatayu and immediately set out to save her. During their search, they meet Kabandha and the ascetic Shabari, who direct them towards Sugriva and Hanuman. Kishkindha Kand A stone bas-relief at Banteay Srei in Cambodia depicts the combat between Vali and Sugriva (middle). To the right, Ram fires his bow. To the left, Vali lies dying. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Study of Epic Age 181 Kishkindha kand is set in the ape (Vanara) citadel Kishkindha. Ram and Lakshman meet Hanuman, the biggest devotee of Ram, greatest of ape heroes and an adherent of Sugriva, the banished pretender to the throne of Kishkindha. Ram befriends Sugriva and helps him by killing his elder brother Vali thus regaining the kingdom of Kishkindha, in exchange for helping Ram to recover Sita. However Sugriva soon forgets his promise and spends his time in enjoying his powers. The clever former ape queen Tara (wife of Vali) calmly intervenes to prevent an enraged Lakshman from destroying the ape citadel. She then eloquently convinces Sugriva to honour his pledge. Sugriva then sends search parties to the four corners of the earth, only to return without success from north, east and west. The southern search party under the leadership of Angada and Hanuman learns from a vulture named Sampati (elder brother of Jatayu), that Sita was taken to Lanka. Sundara Kand Sundara kand forms the heart of Valmiki’s Ramayana and consists of a detailed, vivid account of Hanuman’s adventures. After learning about Sita, Hanuman assumes a gargantuan form and makes a colossal leap across the sea to Lanka. On the way, he meets with many challenges like facing a Gandharva kanya who comes in the form of a demon to test his abilities. He encounters a mountain named Mainakudu who offers Lord Hanuman assistance and offers him rest. Lord Hanuman refuses because there is little time remaining to complete the search for Sita. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

182 History and Culture of Punjab - I After entering into Lanka, he finds a demon, Lankini, who protects all of Lanka. Hanuman fights with her and subjugates her in order to get into Lanka. In the process Lankini, who had an earlier vision/warning from the gods that the end of Lanka nears if someone defeats Lankini. Here, Hanuman explores the demons’ kingdom and spies on Ravana. He locates Sita in Ashoka grove, where she is being wooed and threatened by Ravana and his rakshasis to marry Ravana. Hanuman reassures Sita, giving Ram’s signet ring as a sign of good faith. He offers to carry Sita back to Ram; however, she refuses and says that it is not the dharma, stating that Ramayana will not have significance if Hanuman carries her to Ram – “When Ram is not there Ravana carried Sita forcibly and when Ravana was not there, Hanuman carried Sita back to Ram”. She says that Ram himself must come and avenge the insult of her abduction. Hanuman then wreaks havoc in Lanka by destroying trees and buildings and killing Ravana’s warriors. He allows himself to be captured and delivered to Ravana. He gives a bold lecture to Ravana to release Sita. He is condemned and his tail is set on fire, but he escapes his bonds and leaping from roof to roof, sets fire to Ravana’s citadel and makes the giant leap back from the island. The joyous search party returns to Kishkindha with the news. Yuddha kand The Battle at Lanka, Ramayana by Sahibdin. It depicts the monkey army of the protagonist Ram (top left, blue figure) fighting Ravana—the demon-king of the Lanka—to save Ram’s kidnapped wife, Sita. The painting depicts multiple events in the battle against the three-headed demon general Trisiras, in bottom left. Trisiras is beheaded by Hanuman, the monkey-companion of Ram. Also known as Lanka kand, this book describes the war between the army of Ram and the army of Ravana. Having received Hanuman’s report on Sita, Ram and Lakshman proceed with their allies towards the shore of the southern sea. There they are joined by Ravana’s renegade brother Vibhishana. The apes named Nala and Nila construct a floating bridge (known as Ram Setu) across the sea, using stones that floated on water because they had Ram’s name written on them. The princes and their army cross over to Lanka. A lengthy war ensues. During a battle, Ravana’s son Indrajit hurls a powerful weapon at Lakshman, who is badly wounded. So Hanuman assumes a gigantic form and flies from Lanka to the Himalayas. Upon reaching Mount Sumeru, Hanuman was unable to identify the herb that could cure Lakshman and so decided to bring the CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Study of Epic Age 183 entire mountain back to Lanka. Eventually, the war ends when Ram kills Ravana. Ram then installs Vibhishana on the throne of Lanka. On meeting Sita, Ram asks her to undergo an Agni Pariksha (test of fire) to prove her chastity, as he wants to get rid of the rumors surrounding her purity. When Sita plunges into the sacrificial fire, Agni, lord of fire raises Sita, unharmed, to the throne, attesting to her innocence. The episode of Agni Pariksha varies in the versions of Ramayana by Valmiki and Tulsidas. In Tulsidas’s Ramacharitamanas, Sita was under the protection of Agni (see Maya Sita) so it was necessary to bring her out before reuniting with Ram. Uttara Kand Uttara kand is the last book of Ramayana. It depicts Ram’s reign of Ayodhya, birth of Luv and Kush, the Ashwamedha Yagy and last days of Ram. At the expiration of his term of exile, Ram returns to Ayodhya with Sita, Lakshman and Hanuman, where the coronation is performed. On being asked to prove his devotion to Ram, Hanuman tears his chest open and to everyone’s surprise, there is an image of Ram and Sita inside his chest. Ram rules Ayodhya and the reign is called ‘Ram- rajya’ (a place where the common folk are happy, fulfilled and satisfied). But as time passes, spies start getting rumours that people are questioning Sita’s purity as she stayed in the home of another man for a year without her husband. The common folk start gossiping about Sita and question Ram’s decision to make her Queen. Ram is extremely distraught on hearing the news, but finally tells Lakshman that “Purity of the Queen of Ayodhya has to be above any gossip and rumour. Take Sita to a forest outside Ayodhya and leave her there. Also tell her not to identify herself as the Queen of Ayodhya as that would be an insult to our forefathers”. Lakshman reluctantly drops Sita in a forest for another exile. Sita finds refuge in Sage Valmiki’s ashram, where she gives birth to twin boys, Luv and Kush. Meanwhile, Ram conducts an Ashwamedha Yagy (A holly declaration of the authority of the king). Luv and Kusha captures the horse (sign of the Yagy) and defeat the whole army of Ayodhya which came to protect the horse. Later on, both brothers defeat Lakshman, Bharat, Shatrughan and other warriors. They take Hanumaan as prisoner. Finally Ram came and defeat the 2 mighty brothers. Valmiki tells this to Sita and advised both the brothers to go to Ayodhya and tell the story of Sita’s sacrifice to the common folks. Both brothers went to Ayodhya but face many difficulties while CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

184 History and Culture of Punjab - I convincing people. Hanumaan helped both the brothers in this task. At one point of time, Valmiki brings Sita forward. Seeing Sita, Ram realises that Luv and Kush are his own sons. Again complicit Nagarsen (One of the primaries who instigated the hatred towards Sita) challenged Sita’s character and asked her to prove her purity. Sita is overflown with emotions and decides to go back to the mother earth from where she emerged. She prays to Bhoomidevi (Goddess of Earth), the ground breaks into half and closes after Sita vanishes into it. Ram rules Ayodhya for many years and finally takes samadhi into River Sarayu along with his 3 brothers and leaves the world. He goes back to Vaikunth in his Vishnu form. Versions of Ramayana The epic story of Ramayana was adopted by several cultures across Asia. Shown here is a Thai historic artwork depicting the battle which took place between Ram and Ravana. Relief with part of the Ramayana epic, shows Ram killed the golden deer that turn out to be the demon Maricha in disguise. Prambanan Trimurti temple near Yogyakarta, Java, Indonesia. As in many oral epics, multiple versions of the Ramayana survive. In particular, the Ramayana related in north India differs in important respects from that preserved in south India and the rest of southeast Asia. There is an extensive tradition of oral storytelling based on Ramayana in Indonesia, Cambodia, Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia, Laos, Vietnam and Maldives. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Study of Epic Age 185 India There are diverse regional versions of the Ramayana written by various authors in India. Some of them differ significantly from each other. During the 12th century, Kamban wrote Ramavataram, known popularly as Kambaramayanam in Tamil, but references to Ramayana story appear in Tamil literature as early as 300 BC. A Telugu version, Ranganatha Ramayanam, was written by Gona Budda Reddy in the 14th century. The earliest translation to a regional Indo-Aryan language is the early 14th century Saptakand Ramayana in Assamese by Madhava Kandali. Valmiki’s Ramayana inspired Sri Ramacharitamanas by Tulsidas in 1576, an epic Awadhi (a dialect of Hindi) version with a slant more grounded in a different realm of Hindu literature, that of bhakti; it is an acknowledged masterpiece of India, popularly known as Tulsi-krita Ramayana. Gujarati poet Premanand wrote a version of the Ramayana in the 17th century. Other versions include Krittivasi Ramayan, a Bengali version by Krittibas Ojha in the 15th century; Vilanka Ramayana by 15th century poet Sarala Dasa and Dandi Ramayana (also known as Jagamohana Ramayana) by 16th century poet Balarama Dasa, both in Odia; a Torave Ramayana in Kannada by 16th-century poet Narahari; Adhyathmaramayanam, a Malayalam version by Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan in the 16th century; in Marathi by Sridhara in the 18th century; in Maithili by Chanda Jha in the 19th century; and in the 20th century, Rashtrakavi Kuvempu’s Sri Ramayana Darshanam in Kannada. There is a sub-plot to the Ramayana, prevalent in some parts of India, relating the adventures of Ahiravan and Mahi Ravana, evil brother of Ravana, which enhances the role of Hanuman in the story. Hanuman rescues Ram and Lakshman after they are kidnapped by the Ahi-Mahi Ravana at the behest of Ravana and held prisoner in a cave, to be sacrificed to the goddess Kali. Adbhuta Ramayana is a version that is obscure but also attributed to Valmiki – intended as a supplementary to the original Valmiki Ramayana. In this variant of the narrative, Sita is accorded far more prominence, such as elaboration of the events surrounding her birth – in this case to Ravana’s wife, Mandodari as well as her conquest of Ravana’s older brother in her Mahakali form. Influence on Culture and Art One of the most important literary works of ancient India, the Ramayana has had a profound impact on art and culture in the Indian subcontinent and southeast Asia with the lone exception of Vietnam. The story ushered in the tradition of the next thousand years of massive-scale works in the rich diction of regal courts and Hindu temples. It has also inspired much secondary literature in CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

186 History and Culture of Punjab - I various languages, notably Kambaramayanam by Tamil poet Kambar of the 12th century, Telugu language Molla Ramayanam by poet Molla and Ranganatha Ramayanam by poet Gona Budda Reddy, 14th century Kannada poet Narahari’s Torave Ramayana and 15th century Bengali poet Krittibas Ojha’s Krittivasi Ramayan, as well as the 16th century Awadhi version, Ramacharitamanas, written by Tulsidas. Ramayanic scenes have also been depicted through terracottas, stone sculptures, bronzes and paintings. These include the stone panel at Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh depicting Bharata’s meeting with Ram at Chitrakuta (3rd century CE). The Ramayana became popular in Southeast Asia during 8th century and was represented in literature, temple architecture, dance and theatre. Today, dramatic enactments of the story of the Ramayana, known as Ramlila, take place all across India and in many places across the globe within the Indian diaspora. Hanuman discovers Sita in her captivity in Lanka, as depicted in Balinese kecak dance. In Indonesia, especially Java and Bali, Ramayana has become a popular source of artistic expression for dance drama and shadow puppet performance in the region. Sendratari Ramayana is Javanese traditional ballet of wayang orang genre, routinely performed in Prambanan Trimurti temple and in cultural center of Yogyakarta. Balinese dance drama of Ramayana is also performed routinely in Balinese Hindu temples, especially in temples such as Ubud and Uluwatu, where scenes from Ramayana is integrap part of kecak dance performance. Javanese wayang kulit purwa also draws its episodes from Ramayana or Mahabharata. Ramayana has also been depicted in many paintings, most notably by the Malaysian artist Syed Thajudeen in 1972. The epic tale was picturized on canvas in epic proportions measuring 152 × 823 cm in 9 panels. The painting depicts three prolific parts of the epic, namely The Abduction of Sita, Hanuman visits Sita and Hanuman Burns Lanka. The painting is currently in the permanent collection of the Malaysian National Visual Arts Gallery. Religious Significance Ram, the hero of the Ramayana, is one of the most popular deities worshipped in the Hindu religion. Each year, many devout pilgrims trace their journey through India and Nepal, halting at each of the holy sites along the way. The poem is not seen as just a literary monument, but serves as CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Study of Epic Age 187 an integral part of Hinduism and is held in such reverence that the mere reading or hearing of it or certain passages of it, is believed by Hindus to free them from sin and bless the reader or listener. According to Hindu tradition, Ram is an incarnation (Avatar) of god Vishnu. The main purpose of this incarnation is to demonstrate the righteous path (dharma) for all living creatures on earth. In Popular Culture Multiple modern, English-language adaptations of the epic exist, namely Ram Chandra Series by Amish Tripathi, Ramayana Series by Ashok Banker and a mythopoetic novel, Asura: Tale of the Vanquished by Anand Neelakantan. Another Indian author, Devdutt Pattanaik, has published three different retellings and commentaries of Ramayana titled Sita, The Book of Ram and Hanuman’s Ramayan. A number of plays, movies and television serials have also been produced based upon the Ramayana. In Indonesia, “Ramayana” department store is named after the epic. The company which owns it is known as PT Ramayana Lestari Sentosa founded in 1978 with its main office located in Jakarta. Starting in 1978 and under the supervision of Baba Hari Dass, Ramayana has been performed every year by Mount Madonna School in Watsonville, California. Currently it is the largest yearly, Western version of the epic being performed. It takes the form of a colorful musical with custom costumes, sung and spoken dialog, jazz-rock orchestration and dance. This performance takes place in a large audience theater setting usually in June, in San Jose, CA. Dass has taught acting arts, costume-attire design, mask making and choreography to bring alive characters of Sri Ram, Sita, Hanuman, Lakshman, Shiva, Parvati, Vibhishan, Jatayu, Sugriva, Surpanakha, Ravana and his rakshasa court, Meghnadha, Kumbhakarna and the army of monkeys and demons. 7.3 Historical Importance of the Ramayana The Ramayana is an ancient Indian epic, composed sometime in the 5th century BCE, about the exile and then return of Rama, prince of Ayodhya. It was composed in Sanskrit by the sage Valmiki, who taught it to Rama’s sons, the twins Lava and Kush. At about 24000 verses, it is a rather long poem and, by tradition, is known as the Adi Kavya (adi = original, first; kavya = poem). While the basic story is about palace politics and battles with demon tribes, the narrative is interspersed CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

188 History and Culture of Punjab - I with philosophy, ethics, and notes on duty. While in that other Indian epic, the Mahabharata, the characters are presented with all their human follies and failings, the Ramayana leans more towards an ideal state of things: Rama is the ideal son and king, Sita the ideal wife, Hanuman the ideal devotee, Lakshman and Bharat the ideal brothers, and even Ravana, the demon villain, is not entirely despicable. Rama is Born Dasharatha, king of Ayodhya, had no children. So, he arranged a Putra-kameshti sacrifice (putra = son, kameshti = that which is desired). At the sacrifice, Agni (god of fire) arose from the flames and handed the king a golden vase brimming with nectar. “Give this to your queens”, said the god and disappeared. The king had three wives. To the eldest, the king gave half of the nectar; the second queen got a portion that remained when the queen had drunk her half. To the youngest queen, the king gave the remaining half of the nectar and again, the second queen got the portion that remained. In time, the queens gave birth to sons: to the eldest was born Rama, to the youngest was born Bharat, and to the second queen were born the twins Lakshman and Shatrughna. Rama Marries Sita When the princes had grown up some, the sage Vishwamitra arrived at Dasharatha’s court and asked that Rama and Lakshman be “lent” to him to help him rid his hermitage of the demons that were plaguing the ashram dwellers by defiling their sacrifices with blood and bones, and by killing them off. After the two princes successfully rid the ashram of the demons, the sage took them to the neighbouring kingdom of Mithila to show them the swayamvar festivities of the Mithila princess, Sita, born of the earth. The king of that country had adopted Sita as his daughter and, after Sita had grown up, had declared that he would give her in marriage to anyone who could string the Great Bow of Shiva. No one could. Several kings, princes, and commoners had tried and failed. The swayamvar had been in progress for several months now and the bow still remained unstrung. It was to this place that the sage Vishwamitra brought the two princes of Ayodhya. Rama and Lakshman entered the assembly hall where the bow was displayed in all its glory. Rama walked over, picked up the bow, strung it, and plucked the bowstring with such a twang that two things happened simultaneously: the twang was heard for miles around, and the force of it broke the bow into two with so great a sound that the king and his courtiers came running from their chambers to see what the commotion was about. When the confusion had settled, Rama was married to Sita. His three CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Study of Epic Age 189 brothers were married to a sister and cousins of Sita, and there were many festivities and much rejoicing in the two kingdoms. Rama is Exiled Sometime later, Dasharatha decided he had grown too old to rule and declared he would abdicate in favour of Rama, the eldest born and the crown prince. This is when his youngest queen invoked an old promise that Dasharatha had made to her: she demanded that Rama be exiled for 14 years and that her own son, Bharat, be crowned king. Dasharatha refused but Rama decided to honour his father’s old promise and left for the forests. He was accompanied by Sita and by Lakshman, both of whom could not be dissuaded from following him. In grief at the injustice of it all and at Rama’s departure, Dasharatha died within two days. Rama, Sita, and Lakshman Bharat was not in Ayodhya when these events happened; he, and the fourth prince Shatrughna, were away holidaying at Bharat’s maternal grandfather’s country. They were summoned to Ayodhya in haste and, when Bharat learnt what had happened, he was furious. He shouted at his mother, refused to ascend the throne, and gathered the townsfolk around him to proceed to the forest and bring Rama back. Rama refused to return, stating his intention to serve his father’s last wish by being an exile for the full 14 years. Bharat returned with Rama’s sandals, placed them on the throne, and proceeded to rule the country in Rama’s name. Meanwhile, Rama moved further south even deeper into the forests so that the people of Ayodhya would not find it easy to keep coming to his hut and begging him to return. Ravana Abducts Sita One day, a demoness named Surpanakha saw Rama and, being charmed out of her wits by his beauty, walked up to him and begged him to marry her. “I already have a wife”, said Rama and pointed to Sita. “Why don’t you marry my brother Lakshman instead?” When Surpanakha turned towards Lakshman, he declared he’d taken a temporary vow of celibacy and sent her back to Rama. What followed was that the brothers took turns to thus play ping-pong with her and when Surpanakha, by now angry beyond measure, rushed towards Sita to kill her, Lakshman cut off Surpanakha’s nose and ears. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

190 History and Culture of Punjab - I Surpanakha flew towards Lanka (modern Sri Lanka), ruled by her brother Ravana, and complained. Enraged, Ravana vowed vengeance. He persuaded the demon Marich to disguise himself as a golden deer and wander near Rama’s hut. When Sita saw the golden deer, she begged Rama to get it for her. When the brothers were out pursuing the deer, Ravana arrived, abducted Sita, placed her in his flying chariot, and flew through the skies to Lanka. When the princes, after having killed the golden deer and discovered it was a demon in disguise, returned to their hut, they found it empty and started to look for Sita. Rama Meets Hanuman During their wanderings, the princes came upon a group of monkeys who showed them some ornaments of Sita’s: the monkeys had seen a beautiful lady crying and dropping her ornaments from a chariot in the sky that was being driven southwards by a demon. Among the monkeys was Hanuman, who ultimately located Sita’s whereabouts to be in Ravana’s kingdom in Lanka. Rama gained the help of the monkey chief Sugreeva, gathered a monkey army, marched southwards, built a bridge across the ocean and crossed over to Lanka. Rama, after an epic battle, was then able to kill Ravana and finally free Sita. Hanuman When Sita walked up to Rama, however, he refused to accept her since she had been a living in a demon’s palace all this while. Hurt, Sita entered into a burning pyre intending to give up her life. However, Agni rose from the flames, carrying an unhurt Sita in his arms and said: Rama is Crowned at Ayodhya Since the 14 years were over by now, Rama then returned to Ayodhya, was crowned king, and ruled the kingdom with great wisdom: no child died before their parents did, no door needed locks against robbers, no farmland lay barren, no tree went fruitless, and there was peace and prosperity all around. Sita is Banished The Ramayana, as composed by Valmiki, is thought to have six chapters and to end at this happy point. A seventh chapter, called the Uttar-Ramayana (uttar = post, after, that which comes later) continues the story and ends on a slightly less happy note. This is how the story continues: CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Study of Epic Age 191 After many months of Rama’s rule, rumours began to surface among the populace regarding Sita’s chastity since she had been abducted and imprisoned by a demon. Mindful of the feelings of his subjects, Rama asked Sita to undergo an Agni Pareeskha again. Sita refused, whereupon Rama banished her. Lakshman was deputed to escort her out of the kingdom; he did so unwillingly and left Sita near the hermitage of Valmiki. Lava and Kush Sing the Ramayana Sita was pregnant at that time. Valmiki took her in as an ashram inmate, and she gave birth to her twins there: sons named Lava and Kush whom Valmiki brought up with great love and affection, teaching them princely skills such as archery as well as scholarly skills such as the Vedas and other scriptures. Valmiki also taught them to sing the Ramayana, which he had finished composing by this time. The twins, who were unaware of their parentage and, hence, unaware that they were singing about their own family, would recite the poem at gatherings. They became so well-loved for their sweet recitation that their fame reached Rama’s ears who summoned them for a performance. It was here at Rama’s court that the true story was revealed to the twins: that they, spitting images of the king, were his sons and that their mother was none other than the Sita whom they sang of. Rama, in remorse, asked Sita to return to the palace if she could prove her chastity again before an assembly. Sita, in anguish, cried out, “O mother earth, just take me away from this place forever!” Whereupon the ground parted, the goddess Prithivi arose on a golden throne, took Sita in her lap, descended, and the rift closed. Sita was forever lost. Griefstricken, Rama decided to live no longer. He abdicated the throne in favour of his sons and, along with his brothers, entered the waters of the river Sarayu that skirted Ayodhya; their spirits left their bodies and ascended to the heavens. Regional Variations The Ramayana was composed in Sanskrit. Over the years of re-tellings, several vernacular versions emerged that embellished the story, added regional touches, and inserted explanations and justifications for those bits that showed the hero, Rama, in a not-too-heroic light. The Ramavataram, composed by the Tamil poet Kamban in the 12th century CE, is popular in the southern parts of India. In the north, the Ramacharitamanas, composed by the Awadhi poet Tulsidas, is extremely popular. Other variations exist in Bengali, Malayalam, Telugu, Kannada, and other Indian languages. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

192 History and Culture of Punjab - I Staircase of the Kailasa Temple, Ellora The Ramayana’s characters have found their way into the common speech and idiom of the land. Public recitations of the Ramayana are common. The epic has been adapted into plays and films; it is also enacted every year by local troupes and neighbourhood societies in North India during the Dusshera festivities of the present times. Scenes from the epic can be seen on the walls of some of the oldest temples across Asia. Rama is worshipped as an incarnation of god Vishnu, and it is not uncommon to find a Rama temple in almost every other neighbourhood in the country in the northern parts of India, especially in the Gangetic belt. In countries of South-East Asia, such as Cambodia, Indonesia, and Malaysia, the story of Rama continues to be told through intricately crafted shadow puppet shows. 7.4 The Mahabharata The Mahabharata is an ancient Indian epic where the main story revolves around two branches of a family – the Pandavas and Kauravas – who, in the Kurukshetra War, battle for the throne of Hastinapur. Interwoven into this narrative are several smaller stories about people dead or living, and philosophical discourses. Krishna-Dwaipayan Vyasa, himself a character in the epic, composed it; as, according to tradition, he dictated the verses and Ganesha wrote them down. At 100,000 verses, it is the longest epic poem ever written, generally thought to have been composed in the 4th century BCE or earlier. The events in the epic play out in the Indian subcontinent and surrounding areas. It was first narrated by a student of Vyasa at a snake-sacrifice of the great-grandson of one of the major characters of the story. Including within it the Bhagavad Gita, the Mahabharata is one of the most important texts of ancient Indian, indeed world, literature. Shantanu, the king of Hastinapur, was married to Ganga (personification of the Ganges) with whom he had a son called Devavrat. Several years later, when Devavrat had grown up to be an accomplished prince, Shantanu fell in love with Satyavati. Her father refused to let her marry the king unless the king promised that Satyavati’s son and descendants would inherit the throne. Unwilling to deny Devavrat his rights, Shantanu declined to do so but the prince, on coming to know of the matter, rode over to Satyavati’s house, vowed to renounce the throne and to remain celibate throughout his life. The prince then took Satyavati home to the palace so that the king, his father, could marry her. On account of the terrible vow that he’d taken that day, Devavrat came to be CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Study of Epic Age 193 known as Bheeshm. Shantanu was so pleased with his son that he granted to Devavrat the boon of choosing the time of his own death. In time, Shantanu and Satyavati had two sons. Soon thereafter, Shantanu died. Satyavati’s sons still being minors, the affairs of the kingdom were managed by Bheeshm and Satyavati. By the time these sons reached adulthood, the elder one had died in a skirmish with some gandharvas (heavenly beings) so the younger son, Vichitravirya, was enthroned. Bheeshm then abducted the three princesses of a neighbouring kingdom and brought them over to Hastinapur to be wedded to Vichitravirya. The eldest of these princesses declared that she was in love with someone else, so she was let go; the two other princesses were married to Vichitravirya who died soon afterwards, childless. Dhritarashtra, Pandu and Vidur So that the family line did not die out, Satyavati summoned her son Vyasa to impregnate the two queens. Vyasa had been born to Satyavati of a great sage named Parashar before her marriage to Shantanu. According to the laws of the day, a child born to an unwed mother was taken to be a CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)