CU-BSC TTM-SEM-VI-Research Methodology

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE SEMESTER-VI RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

First Published in 2022 All rights reserved. No Part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from Chandigarh University. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this book may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. This book is meant for educational and learning purpose. The authors of the book has/have taken all reasonable care to ensure that the contents of the book do not violate any existing copyright or other intellectual property rights of any person in any manner whatsoever. In the event the Authors has/ have been unable to track any source and if any copyright has been inadvertently infringed, please notify the publisher in writing for corrective action. 2 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

CONTENT Unit - 1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................4 Unit - 2 Types Of Research .....................................................................................................20 Unit - 3 Research Design -I .....................................................................................................40 Unit - 4 Research Design -Ii ....................................................................................................60 Unit - 5 Sampling-I ..................................................................................................................73 Unit - 6 Sampling-Ii .................................................................................................................83 Unit - 7 Sampling Error ...........................................................................................................95 Unit – 8 Hypothesis-I.............................................................................................................117 Unit – 9 Hypothesis-Ii............................................................................................................127 Unit – 10 Levels Of Measurement.........................................................................................143 Unit - 11measurement Scale-I ...............................................................................................156 Unit - 12 Measurement Scale-Ii .............................................................................................170 Unit - 13 Measurement Scale-Iii............................................................................................188 Unit - 14 Measurement Scale-Iv ............................................................................................199 3 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT - 1INTRODUCTION STRUCTURE 1.0 Learning Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Objectives of Research 1.3 Significance of Research 1.4 Characteristics of Research 1.5 Summary 1.6 Keywords 1.7 Learning Activity 1.8 Unit End Questions 1.9 References 1.0LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Describe Objectives of research  Identify scope of research  State the need and importance of Research 1.1 INTRODUCTION Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation. The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays down the meaning of research as “a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.”1 Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.” Some individuals view study as a transition from the known to the unknown. Actually, it's a journey of discovery. We all have the instinct to be curious, which is essential because it drives us to dig and gain a deeper understanding of the unknown when it confronts us. This curiosity is the source of all knowledge, and the process by which man learns about whatever the unknown is can be referred to as study. 4 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Some people see study as a transition from the familiar to the unfamiliar. Actually, it's an exploration adventure. We all possess the instinct to be curious, which is crucial because it motivates us to explore and learn more about the unknown when it stands in our way. The process by which man learns about whatever the unknown is can be referred to as research. This curiosity is the root of all knowledge. A research methodology is a means to describe how a researcher plans to conduct their investigation. It is a rational, methodical approach to a study issue. A methodology explains how a researcher will conduct the study in order to produce accurate, legitimate data that meet their goals and objectives. It includes the data they will gather, where they will get it, how they will gather it, and how they will analyse it. A research approach offers the study credibility and yields reliable scientific results. Additionally, it offers a thorough plan that aids in keeping researchers on course, facilitating a simple, efficient, and manageable approach. The reader can comprehend the strategy and procedures utilised to arrive at results by understanding the researcher's methodology. Research methodology is essentially the \"how\" a certain piece of research is conducted in practise. More specifically, it deals with the methodical methods a researcher employs when designing a study to guarantee accurate outcomes that meet the goals and objectives of the investigation. For example, how did the researcher go about deciding:  What data to collect (and what data to ignore)  Who to collect it from (in research, this is called “sampling design”)  How to collect it (this is called “data collection methods”)  How to analyse it (this is called “data analysis methods”) Definition: Research is defined as careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or problem using scientific methods. According to the American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, “research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed phenomenon. It involves inductive and deductive methods.” The following goals are pursued through research:  Find new and potential clients  Recognize established clients 5 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Set sensible objectives.  Create successful market strategy  Addressing business difficulties  Create a plan for business growth.  Determine fresh commercial opportunities E.g. A standard recipe to prepare a particular dish may be modified by an enterprising chef to introduce the dish in new taste, flavor or aroma by using a different method of cooking, or by twisting the combination of spices used in the original recipe, . At the same time the chef may create entirely new dish with the use of same ingredients. As per another school of thought research has to undertaken under defined parameters and it should satisfy the following conditions if you want to term the process as research activity. 1.2OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH Through the use of scientific methods, research aims to find answers to open-ended questions. Finding the truth that is concealed and undiscovered as of yet is the major goal of study. Despite the fact that each research project has a unique aim, we might consider Research goals can be categorised into the following major categories: 1. to become more knowledgeable about a topic or to discover fresh insights into it (studies with this goal are referred to as exploratory or formulative research studies); 2. To accurately depict the traits of a specific person, circumstance, or group Descriptive research studies are those that focus on this object; 3. To establish the regularity with which something occurs or is related investigations that have something else in mind (known as diagnostic research) 4. To investigate the possibility that two variables are causally related (such research is referred to as research studies that evaluate hypotheses). Your study project's goals are outlined in its research objectives. Every phase of the research procedure, such as the data collection, argument construction, and conclusion development, should be guided by them. 1. To ascertain the truth- 6 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

While each sort of study has a specific goal in mind, the fundamental purpose of all studies is to learn more about or gather data from markets, societies, and the respondents who participate in them. For our problem-related questions, a researcher examines or locates the true or accurate information. 2. To achieve new thoughts- This research's secondary goal allows anyone to come away from it with fresh ideas. Finding the precise knowledge through careful observation, optimization, and experiments is the process of research. These are the scientific ways to discover or assess the data that are crucial for assessing the problem task. 3. To evaluate the information- The primary goal of the research is to gather information, which is then evaluated in an acceptable or effective way so that the research problem can be readily designed and solved. Through diverse scientific methodologies, statistical techniques, and other kinds of tables and graphs, a researcher assesses the data. 4. To test a hypothesis- In this objective of the research, the researcher does the causal relationship between the variables (it can also be said that the hypothesis testing research studies). The hypothesis testing study represents the number of actions like these terms: (a) Making a formal statement, (b) Selecting a significance level, (c) Deciding the distribution use, (d) Selecting a random sample and computing an appropriate value, (e) Calculation of the probability, (f) Comparing the probability. 5. To design or implement the research- Following the gathering of all data, the researcher creates a research design structure for the business so that they can quickly define or recognise the structure of a certain research theme. There are two types of research designs: experimental designs and non-experimental designs. The researcher applies the research design's framework to a problem and determines the best way to address it. 7 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

6. To improve the understanding- To better comprehend a topic, the researcher asks what further has to be proven before the research is valid, what knowledge may be gathered from a more narrowly focused examination, or how the present findings might be scrutinised. This is one of the goals of the research. 1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH In order to address numerous operational and planning issues facing business and industry, research is especially important. The outcomes of operations research, market research, and motivational research are all important and help decision-makers in a variety of ways. The study of a market's structure and growth in order to create effective purchasing, production, and sales practises is known as market research. Operations research, often known as optimization problems, is the application of mathematical, logical, and analytical tools to the resolution of business problems involving cost minimization, profit maximisation, or both. Market features are the main focus of motivational research, which aims to understand why individuals behave in certain ways. To put it another way, it is concerned with figuring out the driving forces behind consumer (market) behaviour. The people in business and industry who are in charge of making business decisions will greatly benefit from all of these. Business can benefit greatly from research on aspects related to demand and the market. When future demand is known, it is typically not difficult for a company or an industry to modify its supply schedule while staying within the bounds of its estimated capacity. These days, market analysis is a crucial instrument for corporate strategy. Business budgeting, which finally results in a predicted profit and loss account, is based mostly on sales predictions which in turn depends on business research. Following the completion of the sales forecast, effective production and investment programmes can be put up, around which the purchasing and finance plans are grouped. Thus, research replaces intuitive commercial decisions with ones that are more logical and scientific. Nearly all government policies in our economic system are based on research. For instance, the availability of money to meet these objectives and an analysis of the needs and preferences of the populace form the basis of the government's budgets. The cost of 8 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

necessities must be compared to likely revenues, and this is the area that requires the greatest investigation. By conducting research, we are able to create various policies and assess the effects of each one. Although it may not be a part of research, decision-making is undoubtedly made easier by research. The government must also develop plans to address every aspect of the nation's life, many of which will be directly or indirectly tied to the state of the economy. Research is needed on a variety of topics, including the hardship of growers, issues facing large and small businesses and industries, working conditions, union activity, distribution issues, and even the scope and makeup of defence services. As a result, research is thought to be important for resource allocation in a country. Collecting data about the country's economic and social structure is another area of governance where study is required. Such data reveals the state of the economy and the changes that are occurring. Such statistical data collection entails a number of research issues and is by no means a routine task. To carry out this function, today almost all governments maintain sizable staffs of research technicians or experts. Therefore, research as a tool for economic policy in the context of government has three distinct phases of operation: (I) investigation of economic structure through ongoing fact-gathering; (ii) diagnosis of current events and analysis of the forces driving them; and (iii) prognosis, or forecasting of future development. In order to address numerous operational and planning issues facing business and industry, research is especially important. The outcomes of operations research, market research, and motivational research are all important and help decision-makers in a variety of ways. The study of a market's structure and growth in order to create effective purchasing, production, and sales practises is known as market research. Operations research, often known as optimization problems, is the application of mathematical, logical, and analytical tools to the resolution of business problems involving cost minimization, profit maximisation, or both. Market features are the main focus of motivational research, which aims to understand why individuals behave in certain ways. For social scientists, research is crucial for both understanding social interactions and finding solutions to various social issues. It offers the intellectual delight of understanding a few things only for intellectual curiosity, and it also has practical utility for the social scientist to know in order to be able to accomplish something better or more effectively. In the social sciences, knowledge is pursued both for its own sake and for what it can do to advance 9 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

practical problems. In the case of social science, this dual emphasis is arguably especially appropriate. In addition to the previously mentioned information, the following points can help clarify the importance of research: (a) Research may entail a variety of things to students writing master's or doctoral theses seeking a high place in the social structure through careerism; (b) Research may be a means of support for experts in research methodology; (c) For philosophers and thinkers, research can serve as a platform for fresh perspectives; (d) Research can lead to the creation of novel styles and artistic work for literary men and women; (e) For analysts and thinkers, research may refer to the application of novel theories. Research serves as a source of knowledge for knowledge's sake as well as a crucial resource for supplying recommendations for resolving various societal, political, and business issues. It is a form of formal education that helps one better comprehend the latest advancements in their area. 1. Understanding the World Around Us: Research aids in our comprehension of the environment we live in. We may ask inquiries and get answers thanks to it. Additionally, it enables us to perceive the world in novel ways and comprehend how objects relate to one another. 2. Finding Answers to Questions: Research is frequently utilized to find answers to questions. It can assist us in recognizing new issues and figuring out solutions. It can also assist us in creating new products and technology that enhance our quality of life. 3. Developing New Technologies: New technology development requires extensive research. Many of the modern conveniences we take for granted, like computers, cell phones, and medical treatments, would not exist without research. 4. Knowledge Advancement: 10 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Research is essential to knowledge advancement. It enables us to expand on our existing knowledge and learn new things. This is crucial in industries like medicine where research advancements might result in novel illness treatments and cures. 5. Solving problems with research Whether it's a personal or professional issue, it can be beneficial to seek assistance from others. Your research may concentrate on what other people have done in the past depending on what the problem is. Perhaps you simply require more details in order to formulate an informed strategy and decision. You'll feel lot more secure in your answer if you know you've gathered reliable facts. 6. Research encourages curiosity You may achieve a lot in life if you are curious and enjoy learning. You can learn about fresh ideas and diverse viewpoints through research. It also develops critical thinking and discernment. Curiosity is rewarded in the study process. You are constantly growing when you are dedicated to learning. A healthy dose of curiosity is also beneficial. According to studies, curiosity is linked to greater positive, greater life satisfaction, and decreased anxiety. 1.4CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH Research characteristics indicate if a study contains biases, prejudices, and subjective errors. The success of any research hinges on the phrases because they are employed in research so frequently. They are summarised as follows: 1. Generalized: Depending on the resources available at the time the research is being undertaken, the researcher typically divides the selected population into smaller samples. The findings should apply to and be representative of the entire population since it is believed that this sample is an appropriate representation of the population that has been identified. The analytical data gleaned from analysing these samples ought to provide a decent picture of the overall population's adherence to a given ideology, set of ideas, social stigmas, motivating factor, etc. 2. Controlled: The idea of control suggests that you should design your study in a way that minimises the influence of other factors affecting the relationship when examining causality in respect to two variables (factors). Other variables may be categorised as potential consequences of controlling factors, whereas certain variables are classed as controlling factors. 11 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Studies that incorporate societal issues cannot be controlled, unlike laboratory experiments in pure disciplines like chemistry. Destination studies, for instance, are uncontrollable due to factors like geography, temperature, accessibility, seasonality, etc., but it is possible to investigate the effects of standard operating procedures used in a hotel when providing a specific service. 3. Rigid: It is important to take care to make sure that the methods used to get answers to questions are pertinent, suitable, and justified. Again, there are significant differences in rigour across and within the social sciences as well as between the physical and social sciences. 4. Empirical: The procedures used should be evaluated for accuracy, and the evolution of each stage should make sense. This indicates that any conclusions are based on solid facts gleaned from data gained from observations or experiences made in real life. The empirical nature of study denotes that it was carried out using exacting scientific practises. Scientifically, quantitative research is simpler to support than qualitative research. In qualitative research, prejudice and bias are common. 5. Systematic: To guarantee that resource usage is optimum, the procedure or process being designed to carry out a study should be thoroughly drafted. Procedures that are chaotic or unorganised will never produce the desired results. In order to get the intended result, the procedures should be carried out in a logical order. E.g Dessert cannot be served before the starter or soup course in a formal dining establishment at a five star hotel. 6. Reliability: The degree to which a measurement, calculation, or specification's outcome may be relied upon to be correct is known as reliability. Although it is challenging to assess precisely, there are currently tools that can approximate a research's reliability. It measures how consistently the same outcomes are produced by an experiment, test, measurement method, research, research equipment, tool, or procedure. Research is deemed trustworthy if it consistently produces the same findings when conducted on the same population using the same methods. 12 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

7. Validity & Verifiability: This refers to how well-founded and probable accurate a notion, conclusion, or measurement is in relation to the outside world. The Latin word validus, which means strong, is where the term \"valid\" comes from. It is important to distinguish between this and ideas of certainty or necessity. The extent to which a measurement instrument measures what it claims to measure (for instance, a test in education) is regarded as the tool's validity. The strength of a variety of distinct sorts of evidence is what determines validity. The degree to which we can determine whether study findings, presumptions, or hypotheses are accurate or wrong is known as validity. Whether or whether a measurement accurately captures what it is intended to, this is referred to as validation. Additionally, it determines how research is used to locate a solution to a problem under various circumstances. This offers the research activities a distinct direction. The researcher and anyone else who wants to conduct the study under identical rules or circumstances should be able to verify the results. 8. Employs Hypothesis: The development of a hypothesis is an essential first step in any research project. It is a conjecture or explanation that has been put forth based on scant information as a starting point for additional research. An educated assumption regarding the relationship between two or more variables is what is meant by a hypothesis. A hypothesis is, to put it simply, a notion around which one begins to work before engaging in research. A question serves as the foundation for a hypothesis, which may or may not lead to a logical conclusion. After the study is completed, the hypothesis may turn out to be invalid, useless, or incorrect. An educated and well-informed forecast or explanation about anything is called a hypothesis. Testing the hypothesis and analysing the test results in relation to the hypothesis and the outside environment are both steps in the research process. A researcher's hypothesis serves as a road map for the research endeavour. It reveals to the researcher which variables are crucial to investigate and how they might be connected or influenced by a researcher-initiated alteration (e.g. a program, treatment or change in the environment). The researcher can assess the data they gather and draw valid inferences about the outcomes using this map. 9. Analytical & Accurate: A study should concentrate on not only what is occurring but also how and why a specific phenomena, method, or result draws particular conclusions. The goal of research is 13 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

compromised by any data that is gathered if it does not provide results or is unfit for use in other applications or studies. In order to facilitate easy analysis, the data obtained should be appropriate and error-free. The degree to which one study procedure, technique, and instrument is related to the others is also a measure of accuracy. Accuracy also assesses whether the optimum research tools and methods were chosen in order to address the research challenge. For a research project, choosing the right data collection tools is crucial. 10. Credibility: It is defined as the degree to which an analysis or discovery can be taken to be trustworthy. Only by using the best sources of information and research techniques can this be ensured. Studies based on secondary data are unreliable because those studies may have altered or misinterpreted the data to suit their own objectives. Although secondary data from public domains is readily available, there are many risks involved. Primary data-based research studies are always trustworthy and have greater reliability. If the primary source is unavailable, some secondary data may be used, however relying solely on secondary data when primary data may be collected has the lowest credibility. The credibility of the research is increased when the researcher includes reliable references, but it is also diminished when the researcher uses false references. 11. Critical : Critical analysis of the techniques and methodologies used is essential to a research inquiry. The investigating method must be faultless and without flaws. It is necessary for the methods and process to hold up under inspection. 1.5 FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING A RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 1. Take into consideration the research project's purpose. Researchers are better able to choose the appropriate methodology and research method when they are aware of the data they will need at the conclusion of the project to achieve their goals. 2. Statistical significance: You should also think about if you need concise, data-driven study findings and statistical conclusions. Or whether knowledge of causes, perceptions, attitudes, and motivations is necessary to answer the study questions. 14 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

3. Research's nature: If its goals and objectives are exploratory, qualitative data collection techniques will probably be used. However, the research will need quantitative data gathering techniques if the aims and objectives are to measure or test something. 4.the sample size How large of a sample must be taken in order to respond to the study questions and achieve the goals? Your data collection techniques, such as whether to conduct in-person interviews for smaller samples or online surveys for bigger ones, can be influenced by the sample size. 5. Time available: If there are time restrictions, take into account methods like convenience or random sampling as well as tools that enable data collecting in a matter of days. In-person interviews and observations are options for data collecting if there is more time available. 1.6SUMMARY  You can get the answers to your professional questions in a number of ways. These techniques range from being rather informal and relying on clinical impressions to being strictly scientific and following to the norms of accepted scientific practises. One technique to get the answers to your queries is through research. When you state that you are conducting research to learn the answers to a topic, you are suggesting that the following procedure will be used:  is being carried out in accordance with a set of philosophies;  employs strategies, methods, and procedures that have been examined for their reliability and validity;  is intended to be impartial and neutral.  In order to get the answers to a question, one must conduct research to learn new information. The words \"research\" and \"search\" both mean that we are undertaking an activity to look at a particular component once again or that we are seeking out new information about something. If a front desk executive wants to excel in sales instead of just being a host, they must learn about the amenities, opening hours, and features of the goods and services offered by the hotel. \"All development springs from enquiry.  Modern times have seen a significant increase in the importance of research in many areas of applied economics, whether they are relevant to business or the economy as a 15 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

whole. The use of research to address operational issues has drawn attention due to the complexity of industry and government. Research has increased in relevance for both government and business as a tool for economic policy.  Nearly all government policies in our economic system are based on research. For instance, the availability of money to meet these objectives and an analysis of the needs and preferences of the populace form the basis of the government's budgets. The cost of necessities must be compared to likely revenues, and this is the area that requires the greatest investigation. By conducting research, we are able to create various policies and assess the effects of each one.  Research is the source of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and a crucial source for supplying instructions for resolving various societal, political, and business issues. It is a form of formal education that helps one better comprehend the most recent advancements in their area. 1.7KEYWORD  Hypothesis: A hypothesis is an informed and educated prediction or explanation about something. Part of the research process involves testing the hypothesis, and then examining the results of these tests as they relate to both the hypothesis and the worldaround you.  Research: Research is a process to discover new knowledge to find answers to a question. The word research has two parts re (again) and search (find) which denote that we are taking up an activity to look into an aspect once again or we want to look for some new information about something.  Variable: An image, perception or concept that can be measured; hence capable of taking on different values- is called a variable. A variable is also defined as anything that has a quantity or quality that varies.  Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on targeted variables in an established systematic fashion, which then enables one to answer relevant questions and evaluate outcomes. Data collection is a component of research in all fields of study including physical and social sciences, humanities, and business. It is a component of research in all fields of study including physical and social sciences, humanities, and business. 16 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

1.8LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Define Research. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. State the Significance of Research. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 3. List the Characteristics of Research. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 4. List Objectives of Research. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 1.9 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. What are the characteristics of research? Explain each with illustrations. 2. How you will ensure the quality in research? 3. Elaborate about the Characteristics of Research 4. List the objectives in Research 5. What is hypothesis? Long Questions 1. What are the various objectives of Research? 2. Explain the Significance of Research. 3. Write a short note on research. 4. What are the characteristics of research? 5. How to test hypothesis in research? B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. ________ in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge 17 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

a. Research b. Hypothesis c. Ambiguity d. Generalised 2. A __________ is a means to describe how a researcher plans to conduct their investigation. a. research methodology b. Research c. Hypothesis d. Empirical 3. Research methodology is essentially the \"_______\" a certain piece of research is conducted in practise. a. How b. What c. Whom d. Who 4. The degree to which a measurement, calculation, or specification's outcome may be relied upon to be correct is known as ______ a. Validity b. Reliability c. Verifiability d. None of the above 5. The strength of a variety of distinct sorts of evidence is what determines _______ 18 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

a. Validity b. Reliability c. Verifiability d. None of the above Answers 1-a, 2-a, 3-a. 4-b, 5-a 1.10REFERENCES References book  Shukla, Satishprakash, (2020) Research Methodology and Statistics. Ahmedabad: Rishit Publications.  Shukla, Satishprakash, (2014) Research – An Introduction (Gujarati) Ahmedabad: KshitiPrakashan  Kothari C.R. : Research Methodology, New Age International, 2011.  Shajahan S. : Research Methods for Management, 2004.  ThanulingomN : Research Methodology, Himalaya Publishing  C. RajendarKumar : Research Methodology , APH Publishing  Kumar Ranjit: Research Methodology: A Step by Step Guide for Beginners, Sage Publication, 2014 Website  https://www.scribbr.com/category/methodology/  https://www.scribbr.com/statistics/type-i-and-type-ii- errors/#:~:text=What%20are%20Type%20I%20and,hypothesis%20when%20it%27s %20actually%20false.  https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/research-methodology 19 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT - 2TYPES OF RESEARCH STRUCTURE 2.0 Learning Objectives 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Qualitative research 2.3 Types of Qualitative research 2.4 Quantitative research 2.5 Types of Quantitative research 2.6 Summary 2.7 Keywords 2.8 Learning Activity 2.9 Unit End Questions 2.10 References 2.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Describe various types of research  Identify difference between qualitative and quantitative research  Various types of Quantitative research  Various types of Qualitative research 2.1 INTRODUCTION The many research approaches are classified as types of research. Different styles of research are more suitable for particular studies depending on the aims, timetables, and reasons of the research. Choosing your topic and your objectives is the first step in designing your research. For instance, you can just want to learn more about a subject or you might want to try to assess how a new corporate policy would impact lower-level personnel. Research methods are classified based on different criteria. They are: general category, nature of the study, the purpose of the study, and research design. Also, there are interviews and case studies based on research methodology. In some research, more than two methods are combined while in some, very few methods are taken into account for the study. 20 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Because it enables researchers to confirm or disprove ideas based on precisely defined parameters, settings, and assumptions, it is an essential tool for scientific growth. As a result, it enables us to securely add to the body of knowledge because it makes it possible for research to be validated and duplicated. You may better design your study, employ the most relevant methodologies and techniques, and explain your findings to other researchers and supervisors by understanding the different forms of research and what each one focuses on. The forms of research described above highlight the existence of two fundamental research methodologies: the quantitative approach and the qualitative approach. The former entails the creation of quantitative data that can be rigorously analysed quantitatively in a formal and disciplined manner. This method of study can be further broken down into inferential, experimental, and simulation approaches. The goal of the inferential research approach is to create a database from which to infer population features or associations. This typically refers to survey research, when features of a sample of the population are examined (asked about or observed) in order to draw conclusions about the characteristics of the entire population. The research environment is much more tightly controlled in an experimental technique, and in this situation, some factors are changed to see how they affect others. The simulation approach entails creating an artificial environment where pertinent data and information can be produced. This enables the controlled observation of the dynamic behaviour of a system (or its sub-system). When used in relation to applications in the social sciences and business, the word \"simulation\" denotes \"the operation of a numerical model that depicts the structure of a dynamic process.\" To simulate the behaviour of the process over time, initial circumstances, parameters, and exogenous variables are given values. The simulation approach can be helpful for creating models to predict future conditions. With a qualitative research approach, attitudes, views, and behaviour are evaluated subjectively. In such a setting, research is a function of the researcher's perceptions and insights. Such a research methodology produces findings that are either non-quantitative or that have not undergone thorough quantitative analysis. Focus group interviews, projective techniques, and depth interviews are frequently employed. In the chapters that follow, each of these is thoroughly discussed. 21 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

2.2QUALITATIVE RESEARCH To better comprehend ideas, opinions, or experiences, qualitative research entails gathering and evaluating non-numerical data (such as text, video, or audio). It can be utilised to uncover intricate details about a situation or to spark fresh study concepts. Quantitative research, which involves gathering and analysing numerical data for statistical analysis, is the antithesis of qualitative research. The humanities and social sciences frequently employ qualitative research in fields like anthropology, sociology, education, the health sciences, history, etc. Qualitative research is done to comprehend how individuals see their surroundings. Although there are numerous ways to qualitative research, most of them are adaptable and put a strong emphasis on preserving rich meaning when analysing the data. Grounded theory, ethnography, action research, phenomenological research, and narrative research are examples of common methodologies. While they emphasise different goals and perspectives, they do have certain commonalities. Each research strategy calls for the use of one or more techniques for gathering data. Some of the most popular qualitative techniques are as follows:  Observations: writing down in-depth field notes what you have observed, heard, or come across.  Interviews: one-on-one talks in which questions are directly asked of participants.  Focus groups: a forum for discussion and question-and-answer sessions.  distribution of open-ended questionnaires for surveys.  collecting secondary data, such as texts, photographs, audio or video recordings, etc., that already exist. Research example  To research the culture of a large tech company, you decide to take an ethnographic approach. You work at the company for several months and use various methods to gather data:  You take field notes with observations and reflect on your own experiences of the company culture.  You distribute open-ended surveys to employees across all the company’s offices by email to find out if the culture varies across locations. 22 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 You conduct in-depth interviews with employees in your office to learn about their experiences and perspectives in greater detail. Due to the fact that all observations, interpretations, and analyses are conducted via the qualitative researcher's own personal lens, they frequently view themselves as \"instruments\" in the research process. This is why it's critical to consider your methodology and to fully detail the decisions you took when gathering and analysing the data when writing up your methodology for qualitative research. In qualitative research, information that is not statistically recorded, such as text, audio, or video, is gathered and then examined. The information is used to comprehend intricate ideas, events, and viewpoints. New insights into issues or fresh research concepts are developed through qualitative research. Qualitative research thus represents the polar opposite of quantitative research. In the latter type of research, statistical analysis and pattern-finding are done using numerical data. Although qualitative data can be used in any discipline, the humanities and social sciences use it the most frequently. This kind of research is well-liked in fields like anthropology, history, sociology, and others. 2.3TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH A market research technique known as qualitative research focuses on gathering information through conversational and open-ended dialogue. This approach considers both the \"what\" and \"why\" of people's opinions. Consider a convenience store that wants to increase customer traffic as an example. A thorough investigation reveals that more men frequent this store than women. An in-depth conversation with potential customers in the category is a good way to find out why ladies weren't coming to the business. The store doesn't have enough items for women, which is why there are fewer women visiting the store. This was discovered only after personally speaking with the women and learning why they didn't visit the store because there were more male products than female ones. Another successful example involved successfully interviewing female customers, visiting the nearby stores and malls, and selecting them through random sampling. 23 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The social science disciplines of anthropology, sociology, and psychology serve as the foundation for qualitative research. Since the interviewer or researcher also strives to understand the respondents' purpose and sentiments, the qualitative research methods allow for in-depth and additional probing and questioning of respondents depending on their responses. In order to draw conclusions from market research, it can be helpful to understand how your audience makes decisions. Qualitative research techniques are made to assist you understand how a target audience behaves and thinks about a particular subject. Numerous qualitative research techniques, including in-depth interviews, focus groups, ethnographic studies, content analyses, and case study studies, are frequently employed. Results from qualitative methods are more descriptive, and inferences may be made from the collected data relatively simply. It was the social and behavioural sciences that first developed qualitative research techniques. Our environment is more complex now, making it challenging to comprehend how people think and view the world. That is easier to grasp because online qualitative research methodologies are more conversational and descriptive. Qualitative research is subjective in nature: • Methods are designed to understand the lives of participants. • The process is maintained on neutral lines without placing judgement on individual responses. • Focus areas are cultures, societies and individuals. Types of Qualitative Research methods: 1. Ethnography One of the most well-liked techniques for qualitative research is ethnography, which entails the researcher becoming a part of the subject or subjects' everyday routine. The researcher experiences their practises, traditions, mannerisms, reactions to circumstances, etc. firsthand, sometimes for years, either as an active participant or as a spectator. Geographical limitations could present a challenge for the researcher. An example of an application is how businesses can utilise this on-the-ground approach to assess how customers use specific products or services and then redesign or build new items as necessary. 24 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The most thorough observational technique for seeing individuals in their natural surroundings is ethnographic research. With this approach, the researchers must adjust to the contexts of their target audiences, which may be found everywhere from an organisation to a metropolis or in a remote area. Here, geographic restrictions may be a problem for gathering data. Understanding the cultures, difficulties, motivations, and environments that exist is the goal of this research design. Rather than depending solely on interviews and conversations, you really visit the natural areas. Due to the extensive observation and data collection that goes into this type of research method, it might take anything from a few days to many years to complete. It is a difficult and time-consuming strategy that exclusively relies on the researcher's skill to be able to observe, interpret, and draw conclusions from the data. The descriptive study of people and their culture is known as ethnography. One of the most prevalent categories of qualitative research techniques employed in the social sciences, particularly anthropology, is the ethnographic model. Through the use of techniques like observations, interviews, and other research methodologies, this approach tries to study people in their natural environment. This approach is helpful for researching both distant civilizations and tiny populations within a given region. When conducting in-depth ethnographic research, the researcher may need to spend a significant amount of time on the field, frequently for several months or even years. 2. Narrative The researcher collects information from one or two people over time through interviews, records, etc. using the narrative approach of qualitative research. These are then put together (perhaps not in the same order) based on a theme to produce solutions and advice. Application example: A company can utilise this approach to comprehend the problems that their target market is facing and then use that information to innovate and build new goods. Narrative research is the process of gathering and examining the stories people tell about their experiences in order to provide interpretation. Oncology practitioners frequently employ narrative methodologies to explore topics including clinical outcomes, coping, and quality of life. 25 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

To better understand how research participants create stories and narratives from their own experiences, researchers employ narrative analysis. Thus, narrative analysis involves a second layer of interpretation. The research subjects first use storytelling to analyse their own life. The researcher then analyses how that narrative was put together. The use of narratives in narrative research might be taken from journals, letters, dialogues, autobiographies, in-depth interview transcripts, focus group transcripts, or other forms of narrative qualitative research. One of the categories of qualitative research methodologies that focuses on verbal or written expressions or visual representations made by people is the story model. Through asking in order to ascertain certain concerns or issues, people analyse these stories or narratives using this strategy. Understanding how people express themselves and their experiences to a larger audience is made easier with the aid of this paradigm. 3. Phenomenology The phenomenological approach is one of the sorts of qualitative research approaches that tries to investigate how a community or group of individuals experience a specific issue. It is the investigation of a specific occurrence using interviews with those who have gone through it to determine whether their experiences are similar. Although this method mostly relies on interviews, the results may also be supported by data from other sources. The Phenomenology qualitative research approach is used to examine an event or activity from a variety of perspectives as it is taking place. One might supplement the material already available by leveraging viewpoints and insights from the participants themselves about the activity or event through interviews, films, on-site visits, etc. It is generally a research method based on experience or perception. This approach can be used by universities to understand how students decide which colleges or universities to apply to. 4. Grounded Theory A question or set of data serves as the foundation for grounded theory. Repetitive concepts or elements are coded by the systematic gathering and analysis of data, and codes are then categorised or organised. On the basis of these categories, new theories might be developed. Application example: A business that sells items might use this technique to learn how customers use particular elements of their product or products. 26 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

A lot of disciplines employ the grounded theory method, which is a highly well-liked one. It takes part in data gathering, interpretation, and analysis. The grounded theory model develops many ideas about the study issue using the analysed data. Data gathering and analysis are part of grounded theory. The study and development of ideas take place after you have gathered the facts since the theory is \"based\" in actual data. It was developed in 1967 to give qualitative research legitimacy. Glaser & Strauss. However, it can be used in a wide range of study fields and is not just confined to qualitative investigations. Grounded theory commonly uses the following data collection methods:  Interviewing participants with open-ended questions.  Participant Observation (fieldwork) and/or focus groups.  Study of Artifacts and Texts 5. Case study The case study approach is used to obtain comprehensive and in-depth data about a subject, which could be any person, group, thing, occasion, or something bigger like a nation. This qualitative research technique can be either exploratory or explanatory in character. Application example: Case studies are a helpful tool for businesses to develop strategies, comprehend influences, come up with innovative techniques, etc. Qualitative research techniques yield descriptive findings and inferences that are helpful in decomposing complex issues into more manageable parts. The onus is on the researcher because this person has the power to alter the direction of the study based on the respondents' observations or reactions. A case study entails a thorough investigation of a specific person, circumstance, or community. The social sciences, law, business, and health all make substantial use of this particular qualitative research methodology. The case study's data was gathered using a variety of techniques, including observations and interviews. The best way to get comprehensive and in-depth understanding of a particular subject is through a case study. 6. Oral History An example of a qualitative research technique is oral history, which involves gathering oral testimonials from people about their own real-world experiences. In the study of history, this research technique is frequently employed to present alternate accounts of a certain event or incident to the official sources. Conducting interviews and capturing the narratives in audio, 27 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

video, or text formats is the primary way of gathering oral history. Since the oral testimonies are preserved in an archive so that these voices are not lost, this method is also helpful for future researchers. 2.4QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH A scientific analysis of phenomena using activities applied mathematics, or procedure methodologies, is what quantitative research is defined as. Quantitative analysis differs from other types of analysis in that it involves the collection of data. The information gathered should be in numerical form since quantitative analysis focuses specifically on numerical data and employs mathematical analysis to investigate what is being determined. On the basis of the scientific method, the general framework for quantitative research is projected. It employs the strategy and procedure of gathering and using that data periodically while victimising the issue to share the analysis and results. A quantitative style's fundamental steps are:  Make your own observations about a single undiscovered, unexplained, or wholly novel phenomenon. Examine the current situation and theorem that surrounds containing your flaw or problem.  Create an explanation and a proof to support the observations you made in step one.  Create an outcome prediction that supports your theories. Create a thorough step-by- step strategy to put your second-step prediction to the test.  Gather and handle your information. If your guess was accurate, proceed to step 5 once more. If not, the assumption has been shown to be erroneous. Go back to step 2 and create a new hypothesis to justify your newly acquired information.  Verify your new discoveries and draw inferences from them. Clearly and simply summarise your findings for your audience. In order to test a hypothesis or find patterns and correlations in the data, quantitative research involves gathering and analysing numerical data. Comparative research, which gathers and analyses non-numerical data, is distinct from quantitative research. Finding the facts about various social processes is the focus of quantitative research. In an effort to test or disprove the study's central concept, it makes use of statistical data to enable numerical comparisons and statistical judgments. 28 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

An example could be the survey that a town's hospital conducts to see how satisfied its patients are with the care they received and the state of their health following that care. All of the people who have recently used the hospital for treatment are included in the survey sample. Quantitative research can assist the hospital in examining the many issues and concerns that their patients bring up. The hospital and other health care providers can adjust their services to fit according to the needs of the individuals and, along with that, establish a concordant connection with the support of a clear understanding of the difficulties highlighted. A hospital can use surveys to get quantifiable data and metrics on how well-liked it is among customers based on a variety of factors, including service quality, cost, the customer's experience, etc. These data can be obtained by posing various inquiries that yield information in the form of numerical data that the researcher can examine and work with. Since the data in quantitative research is gathered and presented as numbers, the conclusions drawn from it will be accurate because numbers never tell lies. Wherever there are disagreements, researchers favour quantitative research since it is highly accurate and provides an exact picture of the research that was undertaken. It involves statistics and gives researchers a larger range of data to collect. Quantitative research eliminates the possibility of personal biases showing up in the findings because it is not dependent on the thinking or perception of the individual doing the study but rather is based on the data. Since the research is conducted on a sample of respondents who represent the public and statistics are used to conduct and display results, quantitative research takes less time to collect data since it is more straightforward and involves fewer steps. 2.5 TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH 1. Descriptive Research In order to comprehend a phenomenon, a circumstance, or a population, descriptive research is used. Descriptive research doesn't manipulate particular variables like experimental research does. Instead, it only aims to measure and observe the variables in order to research them. 29 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

This method of study is employed while attempting to pinpoint traits, groups, and trends. Through case studies, observations, and surveys, descriptive research is most frequently gathered. The goal of descriptive research is to describe how a variable is currently behaving. Descriptive research seeks to describe and interpret the current state of individuals, environments, circumstances, or events. In descriptive research, the researcher does not typically start with the hypothesis; nevertheless, after gathering the data, it is likely that one will be developed. The units and methods of measurement for each variable must be chosen with attention for a systematic collection of data. Examples of descriptive study include the extent to which elementary teachers employ arithmetic manipulatives, a description of scientists' perspectives on global warming, a description of the various types of physical activities that take place in schools, etc. Characteristics of descriptive research The term descriptive research then refers to research questions, design of the study, and data analysis conducted on that topic. We call it an observational research method because none of the research study variables are influenced in any capacity. Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are: 1. Quantitative research: Descriptive research is a type of quantitative study that aims to gather measurable data for the population sample's statistical analysis. It is a well-liked market research instrument that enables us to gather and explain the characteristics of the demographic segment. 2. Uncontrolled variables: In descriptive research, there is no effect of any kind on any of the variables. In order to perform the research, observational approaches are used. Therefore, the researcher has no control over the variables' makeup or behavior. 3. Studies that examine various portions of the same group are known as cross-sectional studies, and descriptive research typically falls under this category. 4. The foundation for additional study: By utilizing several research approaches, researchers further investigate the information gathered and examined via descriptive research. The data 30 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

can also serve as a guide for the types of research methodologies that will be applied in the next study. The use of a descriptive research method is flexible and appropriate in many situations. But before starting any survey, it's important to consider its objectives and design. Even after taking these actions, there is no way to predict if the research objective would be achieved. How may descriptive research be used? Here are some examples of how organizations currently employ descriptive research to identify the ultimate goal of research goals: A. questions is to derive specific conclusions about the respondents. The requirement to identify patterns, attributes, and behaviors of the responders may be the cause of this. Another possibility is to determine a respondent's attitude or view toward the phenomenon. Taking into account, for instance, how many hours a week millennials spend online. All of this data enables the research firm to make wise business judgments. B. Validate current conditions: Researchers frequently utilize descriptive research to determine the current circumstances and underlying patterns of the research item. Researchers watch each variable and do an in-depth study thanks to the non-invasive research approach, the use of quantitative observation, and some features of qualitative observation. It is also used by researchers to confirm any existing conditions that might be common in a group. C. Research at various times: To identify any parallels or discrepancies, analysis might be done at several dates. This also makes it possible to assess any number of variables. Studies on the current situation can be repeated for confirmation in order to identify trends. 2. Correlational Research A relationship between two variables can be found using the non-experimental research approach of correlational analysis without the inclusion of any additional variables. The direction and/or intensity of the relationship between the two variables will be reflected in their correlation. A positive correlation indicates that both variables vary in the same direction, whereas a negative correlation indicates that the variables change in the opposite directions. There is no correlation between the variables being examined, as indicated by a 0 correlation. 31 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

In order to create a connection between two related things and ascertain how one influences the other, correlational research is used. A researcher will need at least two different groups to do this. Although this kind of research does not go as far as to analyse the various patterns, it will be able to spot trends and patterns in the data. Since no variables are altered throughout the investigation, correlational research is occasionally regarded as a form of descriptive research. This kind of observational research does not start with a cause and effect relationship. Examples of correlational research include the connections between the activities students engage in in mathematics classes and their academic achievement and the connection between nutrition and anxiety. 3. Quasi-Experimental Research A cause-and-effect link between two variables, an independent variable and a dependent variable, is what quasi-experimental research seeks to establish, much like experimental research. Subjects are placed in groups for a quasi-experiment, nevertheless, using non- random criteria. This isn't like a real experiment where the subjects are chosen at random, for example. When real tests cannot be conducted for logistical or ethical reasons, this research design is frequently used instead. This design has the advantage of having a higher level of external validity than the majority of genuine experiments since it frequently uses real-world treatments rather than ones performed in a controlled laboratory environment. A quasi-experimental design, like a real experiment, seeks to prove a connection between an independent and dependent variable A quasi-experiment, however, does not rely on random assignment, unlike an actual experiment. Instead, non-random criteria are used to classify participants into groups. When real trials cannot be conducted for moral or practical reasons, quasi-experimental design is a helpful tool. True experimental design could be impractical or simply too expensive to use, especially for academics without access to significant funding sources. Other times, it takes too much time to gather enough participants and adequately construct an experimental intervention to qualify as a legitimate experiment. In either situation, using data that has already been purchased or gathered by others will enable you to analyze the issue at hand (often the government). 32 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Comparing quasi-experimental designs to other study types, there are a number of benefits and drawbacks. Because they frequently involve real-world interventions rather than artificial laboratory settings, they have higher external validity than the majority of true experiments. greater ability to account for confounding factors than other non-experimental study styles, which gives them higher internal validity. Lower internal validity than actual experiments—it may be challenging to confirm that all confounding variables have been taken into account in the absence of randomization. Retrospective data collection for other purposes can result in erroneous, imprecise, or difficult-to-access data. 4. Experimental Research The goal of experimental research, also referred to as \"real experimentation,\" is to apply the scientific method to determine the impact of one or more independent factors on one or more dependent variables. To do this, the independent variable is altered while the dependent variable's effects are being studied. A series of procedures are carried out as part of this experimental research design in order to assess the study's hypothesis. Instead of grouping subjects according to non-random criteria, experimental study assigns them to groups at random. Experimental research typically has one or more theories as a foundation. It is predicated on one or more theories. It is known as \"real experimentation,\" and it applies the scientific method to determine the cause-and-effect link between a number of study-related variables. This research can be conducted using a variety of theories. The following is a list of the elements of the experimental research design. Participants who are randomly chosen and allocated to the experimental and control groups form the comparison group. an independent variable that can be used with the experimental group and is sometimes referred to as the experimental variable. a dependent variable that can be measured consistently across all groups, often known as the effect or posttest variable. This analysis is carried out in order to support or refute the assertion. It is typically utilised in the scientific sciences or the social sciences because there are many statements in those fields that need to be proven to be true or false. 33 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

5. Casual-Comparative Research When one variable depends on the opposing experimental variable, casual-comparative research is used to draw conclusions about the cause-effect relationship between two or more variables. The effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable are measured, and the independent variable is not changed by the experimenter. This type of analysis encompasses examining other variables and groups in addition to the applied mathematics of two variables A technique used in casual comparative research is comparison itself. After analysis and conclusions have been reached, choosing the reasons should be done carefully because the outcome could still be affected by other distinct variables, each well- known and unknown. Using the Causal-Comparative Research approach, one can derive conclusions about the cause and effect relationship between two or more variables, where one variable will be dependent on other variables, which will be independent. A causative relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable is sought after in causal-comparative research. Because you, the researcher, do not have perfect control over the independent variable, the relationship between the independent variable and dependent variable is typically suggested rather than established. When the independent variable has already occurred, as in a causal-comparative study, the relationship between the variables is examined, making the study descriptive rather than experimental. The researcher has no control over the independent variable because it has already been finished (for example, two reading techniques employed by a school), which is the variable for which the researcher wants to infer causality. In other words, the researcher is unable to choose the subjects or teachers, choose the method of implementation, or even confirm that the method is being used properly. Sometimes the variable can't be altered or shouldn't be manipulated (for example, gender) (e.g., who smokes cigarettes or how many they smoke). Even so, the effects of potential causation are inferred from the measurements of the independent variable's link to one or more dependent variables. Also referred to as \"ex post facto\" study. (Latin meaning \"after the fact\") because both the effect and the putative cause must be examined in retrospect since they have already 34 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

happened. In this kind of research, researchers look for reasons for or effects of existing variations between or within groups of people. 2.5 SUMMARY  Research methods are classified based on different criteria. They are: general category, nature of the study, the purpose of the study, and research design. Also, there are interviews and case studies based on research methodology. In some research, more than two methods are combined while in some, very few methods are taken into account for the study.  Because it enables researchers to confirm or disprove ideas based on precisely defined parameters, settings, and assumptions, it is an essential tool for scientific growth. As a result, it enables us to securely add to the body of knowledge because it makes it possible for research to be validated and duplicated.  This approach considers both the \"what\" and \"why\" of people's opinions. Consider a convenience store that wants to increase customer traffic as an example. A thorough investigation reveals that more men frequent this store than women. An in-depth conversation with potential customers in the category is a good way to find out why ladies weren't coming to the business.  The store doesn't have enough items for women, which is why there are fewer women visiting the store. This was discovered only after personally speaking with the women and learning why they didn't visit the store because there were more male products than female ones. Another successful example involved successfully interviewing female customers, visiting the nearby stores and malls, and selecting them through random sampling.  A scientific analysis of phenomena using activities applied mathematics, or procedure methodologies, is what quantitative research is defined as. Quantitative analysis differs from other types of analysis in that it involves the collection of data. The information gathered should be in numerical form since quantitative analysis focuses specifically on numerical data and employs mathematical analysis to investigate what is being determined. On the basis of the scientific method, the general framework for quantitative research is projected. It employs the strategy and procedure of gathering 35 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

and using that data periodically while victimising the issue to share the analysis and results. 2.6 KEYWORDS  Empirical: The processes adopted should be tested for the accuracy and each step should be coherent in progression. This means that any conclusions drawn are based upon firm data gathered from information collected from real life experiences or observations.  Generalised: The researcher usually divides the identified population into smaller samples depending on the resource availability at the time of research being conducted. This sample is understood to be the appropriate representative of the identified population therefore the findings should also be applicable to and representative of the entire population.  Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. E.g. studying the stress levels and reasons for variable performances of staff in different shifts in the same department of a hotel. The same individuals may perform differently with the change of shift timings. It can involve performing research about changing preferences of customers as per the change of season.  Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. E.g. Studying the number of enquiries received for room bookings through different modes like internet, emails, calls, letters, or different sources like travel and tours operators, companies and government organizations etc. 2.7 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Define Qualitative research ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. State the various types of Qualitative research ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 36 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

3. State the various types of Quantitative research ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 4. What is Ethnography? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions: 1. Define qualitative research? 2. Explain what is quantitative research 3. Describe ethnography. 4. What do you understand by Phenomenology? 5. What is correlational research? Long Questions: 1. What is a Quantitative research? Explain the various types of Quantitative research? 2. Describe the various types of qualitative research. 3. What is narrative and Phenomenology research? 4. What is difference between experimental and quasi experimental research? B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. ________ research is the process of gathering and examining the stories people tell about their experiences in order to provide interpretation a. Narrative b. Experimental 37 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

c. Narration d. Quasi experimental 2. A _______ correlation indicates that both variables vary in the same direction a. Positive b. Negative c. Zero d. None of the above 3. The most thorough observational technique for seeing individuals in their natural surroundings is _______ research. a. Ethnographic b. Reliability c. Narrative d. Experimental 4. __________ research is done on the basis of pure or fundamental research to solve specific, practical questions; for policy formulation, administration and understanding of a phenomenon. a. Applied b. Narrative c. Descriptive d. Experimental Answers 1-a, 2-a, 3-a, 4-a 2.9REFERENCES References book 38 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Shukla, Satishprakash, (2020) Research Methodology and Statistics. Ahmedabad: Rishit Publications.  Shukla, Satishprakash, (2014) Research – An Introduction (Gujarati) Ahmedabad: KshitiPrakashan  Kothari C.R. : Research Methodology, New Age International, 2011.  Shajahan S. : Research Methods for Management, 2004.  Thanulingom N : Research Methodology, Himalaya Publishing  C. Rajendar Kumar : Research Methodology , APH Publishing  Kumar Ranjit: Research Methodology: A Step by Step Guide for Beginners, Sage Publication, 2014 Website  https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/types-of-research  https://www.discoverphds.com/blog/types-of-research  https://www.educba.com/types-of-research-methodology/ 39 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT - 3RESEARCH DESIGN -I STRUCTURE 3.0 Learning Objectives 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Developing Research Approach 3.3 Features of research Design 3.4 Importance concepts related to research design 3.5 Different research design 3.6 Features of research design 3.7 Importance of research design 3.8 Factors affecting research design 3.9 Summary 3.10 Keywords 3.11 Learning Activity 3.12 Unit End Questions 3.13 References 3.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Describe features of research design  Identify scope of research design  State the need and importance of research design  List the factors affecting research design 3.1 INTRODUCTION The preparation of the research project's design, often known as the \"research design,\" is the difficult process that comes after the task of defining the research problem. A research design consists of decisions made about the what, where, when, how much, and by what means of an inquiry or research project. “A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.” 40 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

In actuality, the research design is the conceptual framework for the research, serving as the guide for data collecting, measurement, and analysis. As such the design includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and its operational implications to the final analysis of data. More explicitly, the desing decisions happen to be in respect of: 1. What is the study about? 2. Why is the study being made? 3. Where will the study be carried out? 4. What type of data is required? 5. Where can the required data be found? 6. What periods of time will the study include? 7. What will be the sample design? 8. What techniques of data collection will be used? 9. How will the data be analysed? 10. In what style will the report be prepared? Research design is necessary because it makes it easier for the many research activities to go smoothly, which maximises the amount of information that can be obtained with the least amount of work, time, and money. We need a research design or a plan before we collect and analyse the data for our research project, just as we need a well-thought-out and prepared blueprint (also known as the map of the house) for better, more affordable, and appealing house construction. Research design refers to the early planning of the approaches to be taken for gathering the pertinent data and the approaches to be utilised for their analysis, bearing in mind the goal of the research and the resources (people, time, and money) that are available. The research design should be created with extreme care because any mistakes could derail the project as a whole. In reality, the trustworthiness of the conclusions reached is greatly influenced by the study design, which serves as the solid foundation for the entire research project. Even so, many people occasionally fail to see the importance of a well-thought-out study design. This issue does not receive the attention it merits. As a result, many research projects fail to achieve their intended goals. They could even draw incorrect conclusions. The research exercise could become pointless if the research endeavour was designed carelessly. Therefore, creating an effective and appropriate design before beginning research 41 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

operations is essential. The design aids the researcher in structuring his thoughts so that he can examine them for shortcomings and inadequacies. Even others may be given access to such a design for feedback and critique. It will be challenging for the critic to give a thorough critique of the planned study in the absence of such a course of action. Definition A research design is a plan, structure and strategy of investigation so conceived as to obtain answers to research questions or problems. The plan is the complete scheme or programme of the research. It includes an outline of what the investigator will do from writing the hypotheses and their operational implications to the final analysis of data. (Kerlinger 1986: 279) A traditional research design is a blueprint or detailed plan for how a research study is to be completed—operationalizing variables so they can be measured, selecting a sample of interest to study, collecting data to be used as a basis for testing hypotheses, and analysing the results. (Thyer 1993: 94) Through a research design, you can make your own decisions and let others know what you've decided, including what study design to use, how to select respondents, how to select respondents, how to collect information from respondents, how to analyse the information you collect, and how to communicate your findings. Additionally, you must explain in depth in your research design the justification and logic behind each choice that influences your responses to the \"how\" of the research journey. You must critically cite the material you have researched to support your justification and rationale in your presentation. Additionally, you must reassure both yourself and others that the suggested course will provide accurate and valid results. 3.3 DEVELOPING RESEARCH APPROACH In the field of science different researchers may assign different meanings for the team research approach. In some publications you may see that research approach may imply methods of data collection and data analysis in general and differences between qualitative and quantitative methods in particular. 42 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

However, in our view research approach is best seen as a general plan and procedure for conducting the study. Accordingly, approach for the research can be divided into three categories: •The three approaches to research are: (a) qualitative, (b) quantitative, and (c) mixed methods. 1. Quantitative research • The positivist/postpositivist paradigm is typically connected with quantitative research. In order for statistical computations to be performed and conclusions to be reached, it typically entails gathering data and putting it into numerical form. • A method for testing objective hypotheses by looking at the relationship between variables is quantitative research. To enable statistical analysis of numbered data, these variables can be measured, often using instruments. •Like qualitative researchers, those who engage in this form of inquiry have assumptions about testing theories deductively, building in protections against bias, controlling for alternative explanations, and being able to generalise and replicate the findings. •Like qualitative researchers, the final written report has a set structure consisting of introduction, literature and theory, methods, results, and discussion. 1. Qualitative research •The social constructivist paradigm, which emphasises the socially constructed aspect of reality, is typically coupled with the approach known as qualitative research. •It involves observing, analysing, and making an effort to understand the deeper significance and meaning of human behaviour and experience, including conflicting ideas, actions, and feelings. •Researchers are not concerned in gathering data that can be applied to other, larger groups, but rather in getting a rich and complex understanding of people's experiences. •The process of research involves developing questions and procedures, data collection frequently taking place in the participant's environment, data analysis inductively building 43 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

from specifics to general themes, and the researcher making interpretations of the meaning of the data. •The final written report has a flexible structure. People that engage in this type of research advocate an approach to research that values an inductive approach, an emphasis on personal meaning, and the significance of accurately depicting the complexity of a situation. 2. Mixed methods The pragmatic approach to science entails employing the method that seems to be most suited to the study topic and refraining from becoming entangled in philosophical arguments over which approach is the best. Therefore, pragmatic researchers allow themselves the flexibility to employ any of the methodologies, methods, and procedures normally connected with either quantitative or qualitative research. Mixed methods research is an approach to inquiry that involves collecting both quantitative and qualitative data, integrating the two types of data, and using distinct designs that may involve philosophical assumptions and theoretical frameworks. They acknowledge that every method has its limitations and that the different approaches can be complementary. The essential premise of this type of study is that using both qualitative and quantitative methods together results in a more thorough grasp of a research problem than using each method separately. 3. Participatory approach Participatory/advocacy-based research methods (emancipatory) Researchers who take an activist or participatory stance believe that the approaches to study that have been outlined thus far insufficiently address the needs or circumstances of members of vulnerable or marginalised groups. Their technique is sometimes referred to as emancipatory because they want to improve the lives of the research participants. It is not an impartial position. It is possible that the researchers will have political objectives and work to give the people they are researching a voice. It is crucial that they involve the group being examined in the research, preferably at all phases, because they want it to directly or indirectly lead to some kind of reform. This will help to prevent further marginalising the group being studied. REQUIREMENTS FOR CHOOSING A RESEARCH APPROACH 44 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

What considerations influence choosing one strategy over another for the design of a proposal, given the potential of qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods approaches? •The addition of worldview, design, and procedures would be -research Problem, -the researcher's own experiences, as well as -the intended audience(s) for the report. 3.4 FEATURES OF RESEARCH DESIGN Adjectives like adaptable, appropriate, efficient, inexpensive, and so on are frequently used to describe a good design. A good design is often one that minimises bias and maximises the reliability of the data collected and analysed. In many research, the best design is considered to be the one that results in the minimum experimental error. Similar to this, a design that generates the most information possible while giving the chance to consider a variety of various elements of an issue is seen as the most appropriate and effective design in relation to many research problems. As a result, the question of excellent design is tied to both the nature of the research topic and its goal or objective. A design could be perfect in one situation but fall short in one way or another when applied to a different research challenge. It is impossible for one design to address all possible research issues. A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves the consideration of the following factors: (i) the means of obtaining information; (ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any; (iii) the objective of the problem to be studied; (iv) the nature of the problem to be studied; and (v) the availability of time and money for the research work. The most suitable research design must be flexible enough to allow for the analysis of many various elements of a phenomenon if the research study is exploratory or formulative, where the main focus is on the discovery of ideas and insights. However, accuracy becomes a crucial factor when a study's goal is an accurate description of a situation or of an association between variables (or in what are known as the descriptive studies), and a research design 45 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

that minimises bias and increases the reliability of the evidence collected is considered to be a good design. Studies that investigate a causal relationship between variables need to be designed in such a way that they may draw conclusions about causation while also minimising bias and maximising reliability. But in reality, classifying a study into a specific group is the most challenging undertaking because a given study may have components from two or more separate studies' roles. A study may only be classified as exploratory, descriptive, or hypothesis-testing based on its primary purpose, and based on this classification, the research design for a certain study may be chosen. Additionally, when determining the pertinent specifics of the research design, such as the experimental design, survey design, sample design, and so on, consideration must be given to the availability of time, money, the abilities of the research staff, and the means of getting information. A good study design is thought to minimise the biasness while maximising the dependability of the data being gathered and analysed. The opportunity should be offered in accordance with the numerous parts of the study challenge in a solid research design. It should deliver the most information while minimising experimental error. Thus, it can be inferred that the choice of research design depends on the nature of the research and the research topic. The key characteristics of an effective study design are as follows: 1) Objectivity: The ability of the research tools to produce conclusions free from the observer's individual biases is referred to as objectivity. A good research design should be able to choose only those instruments that offer unbiased results. Although it is often considered that preserving objectivity is rather simple, doing so might be challenging when doing research and data analysis. 2) Reliability: The responses' dependability is a crucial component of a good study design. The research tools employed should be able to offer comparable answers to a respondent's inquiry. The instrument is deemed untrustworthy if the response changes. In other words, the consistency of the responses is how the reliability of the research methodology is evaluated. 3) Validity: 46 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The capability of a research design to provide the answers it was intended to provide is a crucial aspect of a solid research design. It should be laser-focused on the research's goal and include a detailed plan or structure for accomplishing that goal. For instance, research should be able to address this question rather than the sale of a certain product when measuring the effects of commercials on viewers. 4) Generalizability A research strategy is said to be generalizable if the findings are applicable to a larger population than the one from which the sample was drawn. By carefully defining the population, choosing the sample, conducting the required statistical analysis, and methodologically developing the study design, a research design can be made generalizable. Therefore, the research strategy is more effective the more generalizable the results are. 4) Sufficient Information: Any investigation is carried out to uncover obscure facts, numbers, and data. The study design should be able to give the researcher enough data to allow for a thorough analysis of the research problem. The research problem and research objective should be able to be determined through the study design. 6) Additional Features There are additional characteristics that a research design should have in addition to the ones mentioned above. These include efficiency, flexibility, and adaptability. A good study design has to be able to increase accuracy while reducing errors. 3.5 IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN Before describing the different research designs, it will be appropriate to explain the various concepts relating to designs so that these may be better and easily understood. 1. Dependent and independent variables: A variable is a concept that can have many quantitative values. As a result, variables include ideas like height, weight, and money. The existence or absence of the relevant attribute is used to quantify qualitative phenomena (or the attributes) (s). \"Continuous variables\" refer to phenomena that can have quantitatively varied values down to decimal points. However, not 47 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

all variables are continuous. They are considered non-continuous variables, or \"discrete variables\" in statistical parlance, if they can only be stated as integer values. The number of children is an example of a non-continuous variable, whereas age is an example of a continuous variable. A variable is said to be a dependent variable if it depends on or has an effect on another variable, whereas an independent variable is a variable that comes before a dependent variable. For instance, if height is a dependent variable and age is an independent variable, then height is a dependent variable. Furthermore, if a person's height is dependent on their sex as well as their age, then height is a dependent variable and sex and age are independent variables. Similar to how pre-made movies and lectures are instances of independent variables, behavioural changes that emerge from manipulating the environment are examples of dependent variables. 2. Extraneous variable: Extraneous variables are independent variables that are unrelated to the study's objectives but may have an impact on the dependent variable. Let's say the researcher wants to investigate the idea that children's improvements in social studies performance and their perceptions of themselves are related. Achievement in social studies is a dependent variable in this situation, and self-concept is an independent variable. Although intelligence may also have an impact on social studies performance, since it is unrelated to the research question, it will be regarded as an irrelevant variable. Technically speaking, a \"experimental mistake\" is any impact that an extraneous variable(s) has on the dependent variable. Every study must be planned so that the influence on the dependent variable is solely attributable to the independent variable(s) and not to any unrelated variable(s). Any variable that you are not exploring in an experiment but that could potentially have an impact on the results of your research study is referred to as an extraneous variable. Extraneous variables might cause incorrect conclusions to be drawn regarding the link between independent and dependent variables if they are not controlled. Having participants who work in scientific professions (in labs) is a confounding variable in your study, because this type of work correlates with wearing a lab coat and better scientific reasoning. 48 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

People who work in labs would regularly wear lab coats and may have higher scientific knowledge in general. Therefore, it’s unlikely that your manipulation will increase scientific reasoning abilities for these participants. Variables that only impact on scientific reasoning are extraneous variables. These include participants’ interests in science and undergraduate majors. While interest in science may affect scientific reasoning ability, it’s not necessarily related to wearing a lab coat. 3. Control: Minimizing the influence or effect of unrelated variables is a crucial aspect of a successful research design (s). When we plan the study to minimise the impact of unneeded independent variables, we refer to it as a \"control\" in technical parlance. Control is a phrase used in experimental research to describe restricting the parameters of the experiment. 4. Confounded relationship: The relationship between the dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable when the dependent variable is not free from the influence of extraneous variable(s). 5. Research hypothesis: A research hypothesis is a prediction or a hypothesised relationship that will be tested using scientific methods. A prediction linking an independent variable to a dependent variable is the study hypothesis. Typically, at least one independent and one dependent variable must be present in a research hypothesis. Research hypotheses do not include predictions that are not to be independently validated or relationships that are assumed but not to be examined. 6. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research: Research that aims to test a research hypothesis is referred to as hypothesis-testing research. This can be done experimentally or non-experimentally. Either an experimental design or a non-experimental design can be used. Research that manipulates the independent variable is referred to as \"experimental hypothesis-testing research,\" while research that does not manipulate the independent variable is referred to as \"non- experimental hypothesis-testing research.\" For instance, let's say a researcher wants to investigate whether a group of students' reading abilities are influenced by their intelligence. He chooses 50 students at random and tests their reading skills and intelligence by calculating the coefficient of correlation between the two sets of scores. 49 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

As a result of the fact that IQ is not being altered, this study is a non-experimental hypothesis-testing one. Now consider a scenario in which our researcher randomly chooses 50 students from a group of students who will take a statistics course. She then divides the group into two groups by allocating 25 students to Group A, the regular study programme, and 25 to Group B, the special study programme, at random. He gives each group a test at the conclusion of the course to assess the impact of the training programme on their level of performance as students. This study is an illustration of experimental hypothesis-testing research since the type of training programme, the independent variable, is being changed. 7. Experimental and control groups: When a group is subjected to standard conditions, it is referred to as a \"control group,\" and when the group is exposed to a novel or unusual situation, it is referred to as a \"experimental group.\" In the example above, Group A can be thought of as a control group and Group B as an experimental group. Both groups would be referred to as \"experimental groups\" if both groups A and B were exposed to specific study programmes. Studies can be created with simply experimental groups or studies with both experimental and control groups. 8. Treatments: In most cases, \"treatments\" refer to the various circumstances that experimental and control groups are placed in. The regular study programme and the specialised study programme are the two therapies in the illustration provided above. Similar to this, if we were to compare the effects of three different fertiliser types on wheat yield through an experiment, we would treat the three different fertiliser types as three treatments. 9. Experiment: An experiment is the process of determining whether a statistical hypothesis related to a particular study issue is true. For instance, we could do a test to determine whether a brand-new medicine would be useful. There are two different sorts of experiments: absolute experiments and comparative experiments. If we want to know how a fertiliser affects a crop's production, we are conducting an absolute experiment; however, if we want to know how one fertiliser affects a crop's yield in comparison to another fertiliser, we are conducting a comparative experiment. When we discuss experiment designs, we frequently do comparative experiments. 50 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)