MAP601_Systems and Theories

INSTITUTE OF DISTANCE & ONLINE LEARNING MASTER OF ARTS (PSYCHOLOGY) SYSTEM AND THEORIES MAP601 Self Learning Material R101

MASTER OF ARTS (PSYCHOLOGY) SYSTEM AND THEORIES MAP601 Dr. Shruthi Prabhakar Dr. Santosh A.V.

CHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY Institute of Distance and Online Learning Course Development Committee Chairman Prof. (Dr.) R.S. Bawa Vice Chancellor, Chandigarh University, Punjab Advisors Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Bhushan, Director, IGNOU Prof. (Dr.) Manjulika Srivastava, Director, CIQA, IGNOU Programme Coordinators & Editing Team Master of Business Administration (MBA) Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) Co-ordinator - Prof. Pragya Sharma Co-ordinator - Dr. Rupali Arora Master of Computer Applications (MCA) Bachelor of Computer Applications (BCA) Co-ordinator - Dr. Deepti Rani Sindhu Co-ordinator - Dr. Raju Kumar Master of Commerce (M.Com.) Bachelor of Commerce (B.Com.) Co-ordinator - Dr. Shashi Singhal Co-ordinator - Dr. Minakshi Garg Master of Arts (Psychology) Bachelor of Science (Travel & TourismManagement) Co-ordinator - Ms. Nitya Mahajan Co-ordinator - Dr. Shikha Sharma Master of Arts (English) Bachelor of Arts (General) Co-ordinator - Dr. Ashita Chadha Co-ordinator - Ms. Neeraj Gohlan Master of Arts (Mass Communication and Bachelor of Arts (Mass Communication and Journalism) Journalism) Co-ordinator - Dr. Chanchal Sachdeva Suri Co-ordinator - Dr. Kamaljit Kaur Academic and Administrative Management Prof. (Dr.) Pranveer Singh Satvat Prof. (Dr.) S.S. Sehgal Pro VC (Academic) Registrar Prof. (Dr.) H. Nagaraja Udupa Prof. (Dr.) Shiv Kumar Tripathi Director (IDOL) Executive Director (USB) © No part of this publication should be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording and/or otherwise without the prior written permission of the author and the publisher. SLM SPECIALLY PREPARED FOR CU IDOL STUDENTS Printed and Published by: Himalaya Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., E-mail: [email protected], Website: www.himpub.com For: CHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY Institute of Distance and Online Learning CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

System and Theories Course Code: MAP601 Credits: 3 Course Objectives:  Students will be able to gather a creative and in-depth understanding of Psychology as a science.  Students will understand the role and importance of various schools of psychology.  Students will familiarize students with recent development in the field of Psychology.  Students will acquire and demonstrate knowledge of information pertaining to personality and individual differences. Syllabus Unit 1 – Introduction to Psychology: Scope and Nature, Historical Origin of Psychology Unit 2 – Psychology as Science: Current Status. Unit 3 – Schools of Psychology: Structuralism, Functionalism, Behaviourism, Gestalt, Psychoanalysis. Unit 4 – Psychoanalytical Theories: Sigmund Freud, Classical Theories. Unit 5 – Neo-Freudians: Carl Jung – Analytic Psychology, Alfred Adler – Individual Psychology. Unit 6 – Behavioural Perspective: Watson – Psychology as a Science of Behaviour. Unit 7 – Neo-behavioural Perspective: Skinner – Inductive Behaviour, Guthrie – Learning of Contiguity. Unit 8 – Theoretical Perspectives in Psychology: Humanistic-Existential (Maslow, Rogers and Rollo May). Unit 9 – Field Theory: Kurt Lewin Theory. Unit 10 – Development Perspective of Piaget: Nature and Concepts. Unit 11 – Social Learning Theory: Bandura Theory. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Text Books: 1. Marx, M.H. and Hillix, W.A. (1978), Systems and Theories in Psychology, New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill. 2. Chaplin, T. and Kraweic, T.S. (1979), Systems and Theories of Psychology, NY: Thompson Learning. 3. Wolman, B.B. (1995), Contemporary Theories and Systems in Psychology, Delhi: Freeman. Reference Books: 1. Czrniawska, B. (2004), Narratives in Social Science Research, New Delhi: Sage. 2. Santrock, J.W. (2006), Psychology Essentials (2nd Edition), Tata McGraw-Hill Publication. 3. Ciccarelli, S.K. and Meyer, G.E. (2010), Psychology (South Asian Edition), Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd., Licensees of Pearson Education in South Asia. 4. Feldman, R.S. (2006), Understanding Psychology (IV Edition), Tata McGraw-Hill Publication. 5. Baron, R.A. (2012), Psychology (III Edition), Prentice Hall Publications. 6. Misra, G. (2009), Psychology in India, India: Pearson CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

CONTENTS 1 – 18 19 – 32 Unit 1: Introduction to Psychology 33 – 54 Unit 2: Psychology as Science 55 – 72 Unit 3: Schools of Psychology 73 – 116 Unit 4: Psychoanalytical Theories 117 – 130 Unit 5: Neo-Freudians 131 – 152 Unit 6: Behavioural Perspective 153 – 178 Unit 7: Neo-behavioural Perspective 179 – 190 Unit 8: Theoretical Perspectives in Psychology 191 – 204 Unit 9: Field Theory 205 – 218 Unit 10: Development Perspective of Piaget Unit 11: Social Learning Theory CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)



Introduction to Psychology 1 UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Structure: 1.0 Learning Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 The Concept of Psychology 1.3 Meaning and Definitions of Psychology 1.4 Scope of Psychology 1.5 Recent Trends of Psychology 1.6 Nature of Psychology 1.7 Historical Origin of Psychology 1.8 Summary 1.9 Key Words/Abbreviations 1.10 LearningActivity 1.11 Unit End Exercises (MCQs and Descriptive) 1.12 References 1.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Explain the basic concept of psychology  Ellaborate the historical viewpoint CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

2 System and Theories 1.1 Introduction Psychology is the science of behaviour and mind. Psychology includes the study of conscious and unconscious phenomena, as well as feeling and thought. It is an academic discipline of immense scope. Psychologists seek an understanding of the emergent properties of brains, and all the variety of phenomena linked to those emergent properties, joining this way the broader neuro-scientific group of researchers. As a social science, it aims to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles and researching specific cases. 1.2 The Concept of Psychology Psychology is a source of fascination for many people, and for good reason. By learning more about the basics of the human mind and behaviour, people are able to gain a greater understanding of themselves and others. Psychologists also play a vital role in the health care system by helping individuals experiencing mental health issues, performing psychotherapy, investigating different treatment options, and teaching patients how to manage their symptoms effectively. For some people, an interest in psychology is fuelled by a desire to pursue a career in the field. Others may simply want to learn more out of curiosity or because they are thinking about consulting a psychologist for help with a health concern. No matter what the reason, building a better understanding of topics such as emotion, motivation, cognition, love, communication, and research methods will serve you well in many different areas of life. Psychology may seem like a vast and daunting topic at first, but understanding a few basic facts can make it easier to get started. The following are just a few of the important things you need to know about this fascinating subject. Once you have a strong understanding of the basics, you will be better prepared to explore different ways that psychology may help improve your everyday life, health and well-being. 1.3 Meaning and Definitions of Psychology Meaning of Psychology Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. Behaviour includes all of our outward or overt actions and reactions, such as verbal and facial expressions and movements. Mental processes refer to all the internal and covert activity of our mind such as thinking, feeling and remembering. It is a scientific study because to study behaviour and mental processes, the psychologists use the scientific methods for understanding more precisely and accurately. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Introduction to Psychology 3 Definitions of Psychology Eric Pettifor defines psychology as “an art which presents itself as science”. H.D. Hamm defines psychology as “the scientific study of the behaviour of humans and animals”. Dr. Hamm states that “there are many areas of psychology, each attempting to explain behaviour from a slightly different perspective”. He gives a brief discussion of what psychologists in different areas are concerned with. Tom Bolling defines psychology as a science of description and application used for the “interpretation, prediction, development, and improvement of human behaviour” and that psychology was originally a branch of philosophy. According to William McDougall, “Psychology is a science which aims to give us better understanding and control of the behaviour of the organism as a whole”. According to J.B. Watson, “Psychology is the science of behaviour” (taking into account the human as well as animal behaviour). According to N.L. Munn, “Psychology is the science and the properly trained psychologist is a scientist, or at least a practitioner who uses scientific methods and information resulting from scientific investigations”. 1.4 Scope of Psychology The field of psychology can be understood by various subfields of psychology making an attempt in meeting the goals of psychology. 1. Physiological Psychology In the most fundamental sense, human beings are biological organisms. Physiological functions and the structure of our body work together to influence our behaviour. Biopsychology is the branch that specialises in the area. Biopsychologists may examine the ways in which specific sites in the brain which are related to disorders such as Parkinson’s disease or they may try to determine how our sensations are related to our behaviour. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

4 System and Theories 2. Developmental Psychology Here the studies are with respect to how people grow and change throughout their life from prenatal stages, through childhood, adulthood and old age. Developmental psychologists work in a variety of settings like colleges, schools, healthcare centres, business centres, government and non- profit organisations, etc. They are also very much involved in studies of the disturbed children and advising parents about helping such children. 3. Personality Psychology This branch helps to explain both consistency and change in a person’s behaviour over time, from birth till the end of life through the influence of parents, siblings, playmates, school, society and culture. It also studies the individual traits that differentiate the behaviour of one person from that of another person. 4. Health Psychology This explores the relations between the psychological factors and physical ailments and disease. Health psychologists focus on health maintenance and promotion of behaviour related to good health such as exercise, health habits and discouraging unhealthy behaviours like smoking, drug abuse and alcoholism. Health psychologists work in healthcare setting and also in colleges and universities where they conduct research. They analyse and attempt to improve the healthcare system and formulate health policies. 5. Clinical Psychology It deals with the assessment and intervention of abnormal behaviour. As some observe and believe that psychological disorders arise from a person’s unresolved conflicts and unconscious motives, others maintain that some of these patterns are merely learned responses, which can be unlearned with training, still others are contend with the knowledge of thinking that there are biological basis to certain psychological disorders, especially the more serious ones. Clinical psychologists are employed in hospitals, clinics and private practice. They often work closely with other specialists in the field of mental health. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Introduction to Psychology 5 6. Counselling Psychology This focuses primarily on educational, social and career adjustment problems. Counselling psychologists advise students on effective study habits and the kinds of job they might be best suited for, and provide help concerned with mild problems of social nature and strengthen healthy lifestyle, economical and emotional adjustments. They make use of tests to measure aptitudes, interests and personality characteristics. They also do marriage and family counselling, provide strategies to improve family relations. 7. Educational Psychology Educational psychologists are concerned with all the concepts of education. This includes the study of motivation, intelligence, personality, use of rewards and punishments, size of the class, expectations, the personality traits and the effectiveness of the teacher, the student-teacher relationship, the attitudes, etc. It is also concerned with designing tests to evaluate student performance. They also help in designing the curriculum to make learning more interesting and enjoyable to children. Educational psychology is used in elementary and secondary schools, planning and supervising special education, training teachers, counselling students having problems, assessing students with learning difficulties such as poor writing and reading skills and lack of concentration. 8. Social Psychology This studies the effect of society on the thoughts, feelings and actions of people. Our behaviour is not only the result of just our personality and predisposition. Social and environmental factors affect the way we think, say and do. Social psychologists conduct experiments to determine the effects of various groups, group pressures and influence on behaviour. They investigate on the effects of propaganda, persuasion, conformity, conflict, integration, race, prejudice and aggression. These investigations explain many incidents that would otherwise be difficult to understand. Social psychologists work largely in colleges and universities and also other organisations. 9. Industrial and Organisational Psychology The private and public organisations apply psychology to management and employee training, supervision of personnel, improve communication within the organisation, counselling employees and reduce industrial disputes. Thus, we can say that in organisational and industrial sectors not only CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

6 System and Theories the psychological effects of working attitude of the employees are considered but also the physical aspects are given importance to make workers feel healthy. 10. Experimental Psychology It is the branch that studies the processes of sensing, perceiving, learning, thinking, etc. by using scientific methods. The outcome of the experimental psychology is cognitive psychology which focuses on studying higher mental processes including thinking, knowing, reasoning, judging and decision-making. Experimental psychologists often do research in lab by frequently using animals as their experimental subjects. 11. Environmental Psychology It focuses on the relationships between people and their physical and social surroundings. For example, the density of population and its relationship with crime, the noise pollution and its harmful effects and the influence of overcrowding upon lifestyle, etc. 12. Psychology of Women This concentrates on psychological factors of women’s behaviour and development. It focuses on a broad range of issues such as discrimination against women, the possibility of structural differences in the brain of men and women, the effect of hormones on behaviour, and the cause of violence against women, fear of success, outsmarting nature of women with respect to men in various accomplishments. 13. Sports and Exercise Psychology It studies the role of motivation in sport, social aspects of sport and physiological issues like importance of training on muscle development, the coordination between eye and hand, the muscular coordination in track and field, swimming and gymnastics. 14. Cognitive Psychology It has its roots in the cognitive outlook of the Gestalt principles. It studies thinking, memory, language, development, perception, imagery and other mental processes in order to peep into the CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Introduction to Psychology 7 higher human mental functions like insight, creativity and problem-solving. The names of psychologists like Edward Tolman and Jean Piaget are associated with the propagation of the ideas of this school of thought. 1.5 Recent Trends of Psychology 1. Psychology in terms of the study of the mind Although the word mind was less mysterious and vague than soul, yet it also faced the same questions, namely: What is mind? How can it be studied, etc.? This definition was also rejected. 2. Psychology in terms of the study of consciousness The description and explanation of the states of consciousness is the task of Psychology which is usually done by the instrument introspection process of looking within. This definition was also rejected on the grounds that: (i) It could not include the study of the consciousness of animals. (ii) It would not include subconscious and unconscious activities of mind. (iii) The introspection method for the study proved that it is most subjective and unscientific method. 3. Psychology in terms of the study of behaviour The most modern and widely accepted definition of psychology even today, is the study of behaviour, both humans and animals. 4. Psychology in classical conditioning Once psychology has described, explained and made predictions about behaviour, changing or controlling a behaviour can be attempted. For example, interventions based on classical conditioning, such as systematic desensitisation, have been used to treat people with anxiety disorders including phobias. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

8 System and Theories 1.6 Nature of Psychology 1. Psychology is the scientific study and practical application of observable behaviour and mental processes of organisms. 2. Psychology specifically deals with the study of an individual. The other social sciences will study groups or history. 3. Psychology is less a science of reported findings. It attempts asks and answers questions using observable behaviour and what can be determined as mental processes of the subject. 4. The subject matter of psychology is affect, behaviour and cognition. 5. The affect for psychology is the actual mental processes that make up: moods, feelings and emotional state. An example for affect would be feeling sad about something happening. 6. The components and corresponding faces of psychology include the body of knowledge which is considered the teaching face, set of investigative methods or research face and array of techniques the therapy face. 7. The goals of psychology are to explain behaviours, to describe behaviours, to predict behaviour, and to modify inappropriate behaviours. 8. Psychology is the scientific investigation of how people behave, think and feel. It includes underlying mechanisms that involve the environment, the biology and the mind. 9. Psychological investigations try to describe, predict, analyse and create actionable outcomes that help people. Actionable outcomes include therapy, learning design, altering protocols at a workplace, etc. 1.7 Historical Origin of Psychology In a philosophical context, psychology was around thousands of years ago in ancient Greece, Egypt, India, Persia and China. In 387 BCE, Plato suggested that the brain is where mental processes take place, and in 335 BCE Aristotle suggested that it was the heart. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Introduction to Psychology 9 Avicenna, the famous Muslim doctor, born in 980 AD, studied and treated epilepsy, nightmares, and poor memory. The first hospitals treating psychiatric conditions were said to have been set up by Islamic doctors in medieval times. In 1774, Franz Mesmer proposed that hypnosis, or “mesmerism,” might help cure some types of mental illness. In 1793, Philippe Pinel released the first patients with mental health problems from confinement in a move that signalled a move toward more humane treatment. In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt, Germany, founded psychology as an independent experimental field of study. He set up the first laboratory that carried out psychological research exclusively at Leipzig University. Wundt is known today as the father of psychology. In 1890, an American philosopher, William James, published a book entitled Principles of Psychology. It was discussed by psychologists worldwide for many decades. In the same year, New York State passed the State Care Act, in which people with mental health problems were to leave poor houses and enter the hospital for treatment. In 1890, the American Psychological Association (APA) was founded, under the leadership of G. Stanley Hall. Hermann Abbingaus, who lived from 1850 to 1909, and worked at the University of Berlin, was the first psychologist to study memory extensively. Ivan Pavlov, who lived from 1849 to 1936, carried out the famous experiment which showed that dogs salivated when they expected food, introducing the concept of “conditioning.” The Austrian Sigmund Freud, who lived from 1856 to 1939, introduced the field of psychoanalysis, a type of psychotherapy. He used interpretive methods, introspection, and clinical observations to gain understanding of the mind. The ancient civilisations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, and Persia all engaged in the philosophical study of psychology. In Ancient Egypt, the Ebers Papyrus mentioned depression and thought disorders. Historians note that Greek philosophers, including Thales, Plato, and Aristotle (especially in his De CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

10 System and Theories Anima treatise), addressed the workings of the mind. As early as the 4th century BC, Greek physician Hippocrates theorised that mental disorders had physical rather than supernatural causes. Distinctions in types of awareness appear in the ancient thought of India, influenced by Hinduism. A central idea of the Upanishads is the distinction between a person's transient mundane self and their eternal unchanging soul. Divergent Hindu doctrines, and Buddhism, have challenged this hierarchy of selves, but have all emphasised the importance of reaching higher awareness. Yoga is a range of techniques used in pursuit of this goal. Much of the Sanskrit corpus was suppressed under the British East India Company followed by the British Raj in the 1800s. However, Indian doctrines influenced Western thinking via the Theosophical Society, a NewAge group which became popular among Euro-American intellectuals. Psychology was a popular topic in Enlightenment Europe. In Germany, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) applied his principles of calculus to the mind, arguing that mental activity took place on an indivisible continuum most notably, that among an infinity of human perceptions and desires, the difference between conscious and unconscious awareness is only a matter of degree. Christian Wolff identified psychology as its own science, writing Psychologia Empirica in 1732 and Psychologia Rationalis in 1734. This notion advanced further under Immanuel Kant, who established the idea of anthropology, with psychology as an important subdivision. However, Kant explicitly and notoriously rejected the idea of experimental psychology, writing that “the empirical doctrine of the soul can also never approach chemistry even as a systematic art of analysis or experimental doctrine, for in it the manifold of inner observation can be separated only by mere division in thought, and cannot then be held separate and recombined at will (but still less does another thinking subject suffer himself to be experimented upon to suit our purpose), and even observation by itself already changes and displaces the state of the observed object.” In 1783, Ferdinand Ueberwasser designated himself Professor of Empirical Psychology and Logic and gave lectures on scientific psychology, though these developments were soon overshadowed by the Napoleonic Wars, after which the Old University of Münster was discontinued by Prussian authorities. Having consulted philosophers Hegel and Herbart, however, in 1825 the Prussian state established psychology as a mandatory discipline in its rapidly expanding and highly influential educational system. However, this discipline did not yet embrace experimentation. In England, early psychology involved phrenology and the response to social problems including alcoholism, violence and the country’s well-populated mental asylums. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Introduction to Psychology 11 Beginning of Experimental Psychology Wilhelm Wundt (seated) with colleagues in his psychological laboratory, the first of its kind. Gustav Fechner began conducting psychophysics research in Leipzig in the 1830s, articulating the principle (Weber-Fechner law) that human perception of a stimulus varies logarithmically according to its intensity. Fechner’s 1860 Elements of Psychophysics challenged Kant’s stricture against quantitative study of the mind. In Heidelberg, Hermann von Helmholtz conducted parallel research on sensory perception, and trained physiologist Wilhelm Wundt. Wundt, in turn, came to Leipzig University, establishing the psychological laboratory which brought experimental psychology to the world. Wundt focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components, motivated in part by an analogy to recent advances in chemistry, and its successful investigation of the elements and structure of material. Paul Flechsig and Emil Kraepelin soon created another influential psychology laboratory at Leipzig, this one focused on more on experimental psychiatry. Psychologists in Germany, Denmark, Austria, England, and the United States soon followed Wundt in setting up laboratories. G. Stanley Hall who studied with Wundt, formed a psychology lab at Johns Hopkins University in Maryland, which became internationally influential. Hall, in turn, trained Yujiro Motora, who brought experimental psychology, emphasising psychophysics, to the Imperial University of Tokyo. Wundt’s assistant, Hugo Münsterberg, taught psychology at Harvard to students such as Narendra Nath Sen Gupta who, in 1905, founded a psychology department and laboratory at the University of Calcutta. Wundt students Walter Dill Scott, Lightner Witmer, and James McKeen Cattell worked on developing tests for mental ability. Catell, who also studied with eugenicist Francis Galton, went on to found the Psychological Corporation. Wittmer focused on mental testing of children; Scott, on selection of employees. Another student of Wundt, Edward Titchener, created the psychology program at Cornell University and advanced a doctrine of “structuralist” psychology. Structuralism sought to analyse and classify different aspects of the mind, primarily through the method of introspection. William James, John Dewey and Harvey Carr advanced a more expansive doctrine called functionalism, attuned more to human-environment actions. In 1890, James wrote an influential book, The Principles of Psychology, which expanded on the realm of structuralism, memorably described the human CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

12 System and Theories “stream of consciousness”, and interested many American students in the emerging discipline. Dewey integrated psychology with social issues, most notably by promoting the cause progressive education to assimilate immigrants and inculcate moral values in children. A different strain of experimentalism, with more connection to physiology, emerged in South America, under the leadership of Horacio G. Piñero at the University of Buenos Aires. Russia, too, placed greater emphasis on the biological basis for psychology, beginning with Ivan Sechenov’s 1873 essay, “Who is to Develop Psychology and How?”. Sechenov advanced the idea of brain reflexes and aggressively promoted a deterministic viewpoint on human behaviour. Wolfgang Kohler, Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka co-founded the school of Gestalt psychology (not to be confused with the Gestalt therapy of Fritz Perls). This approach is based upon the idea that individuals experience things as unified wholes. Rather than breaking down thoughts and behaviour into smaller elements, as in structuralism, the Gestaltists maintained that whole of experience is important, and differs from the sum of its parts. Other 19th-century contributors to the field include the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus, a pioneer in the experimental study of memory, who developed quantitative models of learning and forgetting at the University of Berlin, and the Russian- Soviet physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who discovered in dogs a learning process that was later termed “classical conditioning” and applied to human beings. Consolidation and Funding One of the earliest psychology societies was La Société de Psychologie Physiologique in France, which lasted 1885-1893. The first meeting of the International Congress of Psychology sponsored by the International Union of Psychological Science took place in Paris, in August 1889, amidst the World’s Fair celebrating the centennial of the French Revolution. William James was one of three Americans among the four hundred attendees. The American Psychological Association (APA) was founded soon after, in 1892. The International Congress continued to be held, at different locations in Europe, with wider international participation. The Sixth Congress, Geneva 1909, included presentations in Russian, Chinese and Japanese, as well as Esperanto. After a hiatus for World War I, the Seventh Congress met in Oxford, with substantially greater participation from the war-victorious Anglo-Americans. In 1929, the Congress took place at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut, CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Introduction to Psychology 13 attended by hundreds of members of the APA. Tokyo Imperial University led the way in bringing new psychology to the East, and from Japan, these ideas diffused into China. American psychology gained status during World War I, during which a standing committee headed by Robert Yerkes administered mental tests (“Army Alpha” and “Army Beta”) to almost 1.8 million soldiers. Subsequent funding for behavioural research came in large part from the Rockefeller family, via the Social Science Research Council. Rockefeller charities funded the National Committee on Mental Hygiene, which promoted the concept of mental illness and lobbied for psychological supervision of child development. Through the Bureau of Social Hygiene and later funding of Alfred Kinsey, Rockefeller foundations established sex research as a viable discipline in the US. Under the influence of the Carnegie-funded Eugenics Record Office, the Draper-funded Pioneer Fund, and other institutions, the eugenics movement also had a significant impact on American psychology; in the 1910s and 1920s, eugenics became a standard topic in psychology classes. During World War II and the Cold War, the US military and intelligence agencies established themselves as leading funders of psychology through the armed forces and in the new Office of Strategic Services intelligence agency. University of Michigan psychologist Dorwin Cartwright reported that university researchers began large-scale propaganda research in 1939-1941, and “the last few months of the war saw a social psychologist become chiefly responsible for determining the week-by-week-propaganda policy for the United States Government.” Cartwright also wrote that psychologists had significant roles in managing the domestic economy. The Army rolled out its new General Classification Test and engaged in massive studies of troop morale. In the 1950s, the Rockefeller Foundation and Ford Foundation collaborated with the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to fund research on psychological warfare. In 1965, public controversy called attention to the Army’s Project Camelot the “Manhattan Project” of social science an effort which enlisted psychologists and anthropologists to analyse foreign countries for strategic purposes. Twentieth-century Chinese psychology originally modelled the US, with translations from American authors like William James, the establishment of university psychology departments and journals, and the establishment of groups including the Chinese Association of Psychological Testing (1930) and the Chinese Psychological Society (1937). Chinese psychologists were encouraged to CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

14 System and Theories focus on education and language learning, with the aspiration that education would enable modernisation and nationalisation. John Dewey, who lectured to Chinese audiences in 1918-1920, had a significant influence on this doctrine. Chancellor T'sai Yuan-p'ei introduced him at Peking University as a greater thinker than Confucius. Kuo Zing-yang who received a Ph.D. at the University of California, Berkeley, became President of Zhejiang University and popularised behaviourism. After the Chinese Communist Party gained control of the country, the Stalinist Soviet Union became the leading influence, with Marxism-Leninism, the leading social doctrine and Pavlovian conditioning the approved concept of behaviour change. Chinese psychologists elaborated on Lenin's model of a “reflective” consciousness, envisioning an “active consciousness” (pinyin: tzu-chueh neng-tung-li) able to transcend material conditions through hard work and ideological struggle. They developed a concept of “recognition” (pinyin: jen-shih) which referred the interface between individual perceptions and the socially accepted worldview (failure to correspond with party doctrine was “incorrect recognition”). Psychology education was centralised under the Chinese Academy of Sciences, supervised by the State Council. In 1951, the Academy created a Psychology Research Office, which in 1956 became the Institute of Psychology. Most leading psychologists were educated in the United States, and the first concern of the Academy was re-education of these psychologists in the Soviet doctrines. Child psychology and pedagogy for nationally cohesive education remained a central goal of the discipline. 1.8 Summary Psychology is the science of behaviour and mind. It includes the study of conscious and unconscious phenomena, as well as feeling and thought. It is an academic discipline of immense scope. Psychologists seek an understanding of the emergent properties of brains, and all the variety of phenomena linked to those emergent properties, joining this way the broader neuro-scientific group of researchers. As a social science, it aims to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles and researching specific cases. Psychology is a source of fascination for many people, and for good reason. By learning more about the basics of the human mind and behaviour, people are able to gain a greater understanding CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Introduction to Psychology 15 of themselves and others. Psychologists also play a vital role in the health care system by helping individuals experiencing mental health issues, performing psychotherapy, investigating different treatment options, and teaching patients how to manage their symptoms effectively. Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. Behaviour includes all of our outward or overt actions and reactions, such as verbal and facial expressions and movements. The ancient civilisations of Egypt, Greece, China, India and Persia, all engaged in the philosophical study of psychology. In Ancient Egypt, the Ebers Papyrus mentioned depression and thought disorders. Historians note that Greek philosophers, including Thales, Plato and Aristotle (especially in his De Anima treatise), addressed the workings of the mind. As early as the 4th century BC, Greek physician Hippocrates theorised that mental disorders had physical rather than supernatural causes. Distinctions in types of awareness appear in the ancient thought of India, influenced by Hinduism. Experimental psychologists work to understand the underlying causes of behaviour by studying humans and animals. They work mainly in a laboratory environment, exploring how different species interrelate and investigating the evolutionary significance of certain behaviours. Developmental psychology is a branch of psychology that attempts to explain the development of humans over time, both in the micro sense, as they develop from babies to mature adults, and in the macro sense, as the culture itself evolves through the years and decades. 1.9 Key Words/Abbreviations  Clinical Psychology: Clinical Psychology that deals with the assessment and intervention of abnormal behaviour.  Biopsychology: Biopsychology is the application of the principles of biology to the study of physiological, genetic and developmental mechanisms of behaviour in humans and other animals. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

16 System and Theories  Educational Psychology: Educational psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of human learning.  Cognitive Psychology: Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of mental processes such as “attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, creativity and thinking”.  Forensic Psychology: Forensic psychology is the interaction of the practice or study of psychology and the law.  Social Psychology: Social psychology is the scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviours are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of others.  Industrial Psychology: Industrial psychology refers to the applied organisational psychology used to study, analyse and understand human behaviour in the workplace, mainly how business works and how employees function.  Health Psychology: Health psychology is the study of psychological and behavioural processes in health, illness and healthcare. 1.10 Learning Activity 1. You are required to prepare a brief report on “Historical Origin of Psychology”. _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 2. You are suggested to identify the future scope of Psychology in Indian perspective. _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Introduction to Psychology 17 3. You are suggested to prepare a project report on “Comparison Study of Various Types of Psychology”. _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 1.11 Unit End Exercises (MCQs and Descriptive) Descriptive Type Questions 1. Give an introduction to Psychology. 2. Explain the concept of Psychology. 3. Write the meaning and definitions of Psychology. 4. Discuss the scope of Psychology. 5. Explain the nature of Psychology. 6. Discuss in brief the historical origin of Psychology. 7. Explain various types of Psychology. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which of the following is the science of behaviour and mind? (a) Psychology (b) Yoga (c) Meditation (d) Physical Exercise 2. Which of the following includes the study of conscious and unconscious phenomena, as well as feeling and thought? (a) Mental Peace (b) Psychology (c) Yoga (d) Meditation CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

18 System and Theories 3. Who has defined the psychology as an art which presents itself as science? (a) H.D. Hamm (b) Tom Bolling (c) Eric Pettifor (d) William McDougall 4. Which of the following consider the scope of Psychology? (a) Developmental Psychology (b) Personality Psychology (c) Health Psychology (d) All the above 5. Which of the following is the type of psychology? (a) Clinical Psychology (b) Educational Psychology (c) Cognitive Psychology (d) All the above Answers: 1. (a), 2. (b), 3. (c), 4. (d), 5. (d) 1.12 References References of this unit have been given at the end of the book.  CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Psychology as Science 19 UNIT 2 PSYCHOLOGYAS SCIENCE Structure: 2.0 Learning Objectives 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Psychology as Science 2.3 The Concept of Science 2.4 Characteristics of Science 2.5 Types of Science 2.6 What Makes Psychology Scientific? 2.7 Current Status of Psychology 2.8 Science and Psychology 2.9 Summary 2.10 Key Words/Abbreviations 2.11 LearningActivity 2.12 Unit End Exercises (MCQs and Descriptive) 2.13 References CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

20 System and Theories 2.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Explain the applicability of psychology and trends  Describe the concept and characteristics of Science  Ellaborate current status of Psychology 2.1 Introduction Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. Modern science is typically divided into three major branches that consist of the natural sciences, which study nature in the broadest sense; the social sciences, which study individuals and societies; and the formal sciences, which study abstract concepts. Disciplines that use existing scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as engineering and medicine, are described as applied sciences. Psychology is a science because it follows the empirical method. It is this emphasis on the empirically observable that made it necessary for psychology to change its definition from the study of the mind because the mind itself could not be directly observed to the science of behaviour. The psychology of science is a branch of the studies of science defined most simply as the scientific study of scientific thought or behaviour. The field first gained popularity in the 1960s, with Abraham Maslow publishing an influential text on the subject, but this popularity faded, only re-emerging in the 1980s. Other studies of science include philosophy of science, history of science, and sociology of science or sociology of scientific knowledge. 2.2 Psychology as Science The psychology of science applies methods and theory from psychology to the analysis of scientific thought and behaviour, each of which is defined both narrowly and broadly. Narrowly defined, “science” refers to thought and behaviour of professional scientists and technologists. More broadly defined, “science” refers to thought and behaviour of anyone (present or past) of any age engaged in problem finding and problem solving, scientific theory construction, learning scientific or mathematical concepts, scientific modelling, testing plausible rival hypotheses, or other scientific reasoning. The methods of psychology that are applied to the study of scientific thought and behaviour CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Psychology as Science 21 include psychohistorical, psychobiographical, observational, descriptive, correlational, and experimental techniques. 2.3 The Concept of Science Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. Science is based on research, which is commonly conducted in academic and research institutions as well as in government agencies and companies. The practical impact of scientific research has led to the emergence of science policies that seek to influence the scientific enterprise by prioritising the development of commercial products, armaments, health care, and environmental protection. Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era and in many historical civilisations. Modern science is distinct in its approach and successful in its results. So, it now defines what science is in the strictest sense of the term. Science in its original sense was a word for a type of knowledge, rather than a specialised word for the pursuit of such knowledge. In particular, it was the type of knowledge which people can communicate to each other and share. For example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before recorded history and led to the development of complex abstract thought. This is shown by the construction of complex calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible, public works at national scale, such as those which harnessed the floodplain of the Yangtse with reservoirs, dams, and dikes, and buildings such as the Pyramids. However, no consistent conscious distinction was made between knowledge of such things, which are true in every community, and other types of communal knowledge, such as mythologies and legal systems. Metallurgy was known in prehistory, and the Vinca culture was the earliest known producer of bronze-like alloys. It is thought that early experimentation with heating and mixing of substances over time developed into alchemy. 2.4 Characteristics of Science The main characteristics of science are as follows: 1. Objectivity: Scientific knowledge is objective. Objectivity simple means the ability to see and accept facts as they are, not as one might wish them to be. To be objective, one has to guard against his own biases, beliefs, wishes, values and preferences. Objectivity demands that one must set aside all sorts of the subjective considerations and prejudices. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

22 System and Theories 2. Verifiability: Science rests upon sense data, i.e., data gathered through our senses—eye, ear, nose, tongue and touch. Scientific knowledge is based on verifiable evidence (concrete factual observations) so that other observers can observe, weigh or measure the same phenomena and check out observation for accuracy. Is there a God? Is Varna system ethical or questions pertaining to the existence of soul, heaven or hell are not scientific questions because they cannot be treated factually. The evidence regarding their existence cannot be gathered through our senses. Science does not have answers for everything. It deals with only those questions about which verifiable evidence can be found. 3. Ethical Neutrality: Science is ethically neutral. It only seeks knowledge. How this knowledge is to be used, is determined by societal values. Knowledge can be put to differing uses. Knowledge about atomic energy can be used to cure diseases or to wage atomic warfare. Ethical neutrality does not mean that the scientist has no values. It here only means that he must not allow his values to distort the design and conduct of his research. Thus, scientific knowledge is value-neutral or value- free. 4. Systematic Exploration: A scientific research adopts a certain sequential procedure, an organised plan or design of research for collecting and analysis of facts about the problem under study. Generally, this plan includes a few scientific steps—formulation of hypothesis, collection of facts, analysis of facts (classification, coding and tabulation) and scientific generalisation and predication. 5. Reliability: Scientific knowledge must occur under the prescribed circumstances not once but repeatedly. It is reproducible under the circumstances stated anywhere and anytime. Conclusions based on casual recollections are not very reliable. 6. Precision: Scientific knowledge is precise. It is not vague like some literary writing. Tennyson wrote, “Every moment dies a man; every moment one is born”, is good literature but not science. To be a good science, it should be written as: “In India, according to the 2001 census, every 10th second, on the average, dies a man; every 4th second, on the average, an infant is born.” Precision requires giving exact number or measurement. Instead of CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Psychology as Science 23 saying “most of the people are against love marriages,” a scientific researcher says, “Ninety per cent people are against love marriages”. 7. Accuracy: Scientific knowledge is accurate. A physician, like a common man, will not say that the patient has slight temperature or having very high temperature but after measuring with the help of thermometer, he will pronounce that the patient is having 101.2°F temperature. Accuracy simply means truth or correctness of a statement or describing things in exact words as they are without jumping to unwarranted conclusions. 8. Abstractness: Science proceeds on a plane of abstraction. A general scientific principle is highly abstract. It is not interested in giving a realistic picture. 9. Predictability: Scientists do not merely describe the phenomena being studied, but also attempt to explain and predict as well. It is typical of social sciences that they have a far lower predictability compared to natural sciences. The most obvious reasons are the complexity of the subject matter and inadequacy at control, etc. 2.5 Types of Science The various types of science are as follows: 1. Natural Science Natural science is concerned with the description, prediction and understanding of natural phenomena based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. It can be divided into two main branches: life science (or biological science) and physical science. Physical science is subdivided into branches, including physics, chemistry, astronomy and earth science. These two branches may be further divided into more specialised disciplines. Modern natural science is the successor to the natural philosophy that began in Ancient Greece. Galileo, Descartes, Bacon and Newton debated the benefits of using approaches which were more mathematical and more experimental in a methodical way. Still, philosophical perspectives, conjectures, and presuppositions, often overlooked, remain necessary in natural science. Systematic data collection, including discovery science, succeeded natural history, which emerged in the 16th century by describing and classifying CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

24 System and Theories plants, animals, minerals, and so on. Today, “natural history” suggests observational descriptions aimed at popular audiences. 2. Social Science Social science is concerned with society and the relationships among individuals within a society. It has many branches that include, but are not limited to, anthropology, archaeology, communication studies, economics, history, human geography, jurisprudence, linguistics, political science, psychology, public health and sociology. Social scientists may adopt various philosophical theories to study individuals and society. For example, positivist social scientists use methods resembling those of the natural sciences as tools for understanding society, and so define science in its stricter modern sense. Interpretivist social scientists, by contrast, may use social critique or symbolic interpretation rather than constructing empirically falsifiable theories, and thus treat science in its broader sense. In modern academic practice, researchers are often eclectic, using multiple methodologies (for instance, by combining both quantitative and qualitative research). The term “social research” has also acquired a degree of autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share in its aims and methods. 3. Formal Science Formal science is involved in the study of formal systems. It includes mathematics, systems theory and theoretical computer science. The formal sciences share similarities with the other two branches by relying on objective, careful, and systematic study of an area of knowledge. They are, however, different from the empirical sciences as they rely exclusively on deductive reasoning, without the need for empirical evidence, to verify their abstract concepts. 2.6 What Makes Psychology Scientific? The thing that makes social psychology a science is that people approach empirical questions with the scientific method. People have hypotheses about human nature, they test them, and they publish their results. Research is more often correlational than it is in harder sciences, and the CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Psychology as Science 25 results people get are usually less confident than in physics or chemistry, which leads to more problems in attempts to replicate findings. Causes and Effects of Psychology that Confirms Scientific 1. Psychology is a science because it follows the empirical method. The scientific status of any endeavor is determined by its method of investigation, not what it studies, or when the research was done, and certainly not by who did the investigation. 2. All sciences use the empirical method. Empiricism emphasises objective and precise measurement. Psychology and the other behavioural or social sciences (sociology, anthropology, economics, political science) are not as precise in their measurements as are biology, chemistry or physics, but to the extent that psychologists use empirical evidence, their findings may be referred to as scientific. 3. It is this emphasis on the empirically observable that made it necessary for psychology to change its definition from the study of the mind (because the mind itself could not be directly observed) to the science of behaviour. 4. Psychology is phony, non-scientific speculation about human behaviour. Astrology trying to predict a person’s behaviour or character on the basis of the position of planetary bodies is generally regarded as a pseudo-science because of its origin in ancient Babylonian religion, not in the modern science of astronomy, which carefully measures and calculates the position of the planets. 5. Common sense, by itself, is not sufficient for science. Common sense refers to generally accepted ideas about human behaviour, but many of these have not been subjected to the kind of systematic investigation that formal science demands. Common sense tends to limit its database to self-reflection and over-emotionalised, isolated examples, some of which might even be contradictory. Common sense may be a starting point for some of our hypotheses about human nature, but we cannot stop there: we must go forward and systematically gather data to test those hypotheses. So, it is best not to use the term common sense in this course. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

26 System and Theories 2.7 Current Status of Psychology Psychology has its scientific side and its technological side just as biology or any other scientific discipline has these facets. Psychology cannot be a science is trying to get another jump out of a long dead horse. Structuralism and functionalism have since been replaced by several dominant and influential approaches to psychology, each one underpinned by a shared set of assumptions of what people are like, what is important to study and how to study it. Psychoanalysis, founded by Sigmund Freud was the dominant paradigm in psychology during the early twentieth century. Freud believed that people could be cured by making conscious their unconscious thoughts and motivations, thus gaining insight. Freud’s psychoanalysis was the original psychodynamic theory, but the psychodynamic approach as a whole includes all theories that were based on his ideas, e.g., Jung, Adler and Erikson. The classic contemporary perspectives in psychology to adopt scientific strategies were the behaviourists, who were renowned for their reliance on controlled laboratory experiment and rejection of any unseen or unconscious forces as causes of behaviour. To evaluate the scientific status of psychology, it does better to first understand what science is and then to see to what extent psychology conforms to these notions of science. Science is a systematically ordered body of knowledge derived through the application of scientific procedure. According to Marx and Hillix, the two broad notions of science are “Science as a way of thinking” and “Science as a way of doing”. The discipline of psychology, in both theory and practice, subsumes these notions of science by closely adhering to scientific standards like accuracy, objectivity, skepticism and open-mindedness. This scientific temper motivates psychology to adopt only those methods, e.g., experimental method which makes control, measurement and prediction of behaviour possible. However, since the subject matter of psychology is something as intricate and dynamic as human behaviour, so there are some understandable limitations to psychological measurements. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Psychology as Science 27 Until a few years back, psychology suffered from “physics envy” assuming that physics is the most perfect of all sciences, and if psychology wants to attain the status of science its methodological behaviour should be as close to physics as possible. However, it is itself questionable that how pure and perfect are these so-called pure sciences. The subject matter of physical sciences is not only sometimes uncertain. Hence, there is scientific aspect of psychology like there is psychological aspect of physics. 2.8 Science and Psychology The science of psychology benefits society and enhances our lives. Psychologists examine the relationships between brain function and behaviour, and the environment and behaviour, applying what they learn to illuminate our understanding and improve the world around us. Curiosity is part of human nature. One of the first questions children learn to ask is “why?” As adults, we continue to wonder. Using empirical methods, psychologists apply that universal curiosity to collect and interpret research data to better understand and solve some of society’s most challenging problems. It is difficult, if not impossible, to think of a facet of life where psychology is not involved. Psychologists employ the scientific method stating the question, offering a theory and then constructing rigorous laboratory or field experiments to test the hypothesis. Psychologists apply the understanding gleaned through research to create evidence-based strategies that solve problems and improve lives. Psychology is a varied field. Psychologists conduct basic and applied research, serve as consultants to communities and organisations, diagnose and treat people, and teach future psychologists and those who will pursue other disciplines. They test intelligence and personality. Many psychologists work as health care providers. They assess behavioural and mental function and well-being. Other psychologists study how human beings relate to each other and to machines, and work to improve these relationships. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

28 System and Theories The application of psychological research can decrease the economic burden of disease on government and society as people learn how to make choices that improve their health and well- being. The strides made in educational assessments are helping students with learning disabilities. Psychological science helps educators understand how children think, process and remember helping to design effective teaching methods. Psychological science contributes to justice by helping the courts understand the minds of criminals, evidence and the limits of certain types of evidence or testimony. The science of psychology is pervasive. Psychologists work in some of the nation’s most prominent companies and organisations. From Google, Boeing and NASA to the federal government, national health care organisations and research groups to Cirque du Soleil, Disney and NASCAR psychologists are there, playing important roles. 2.9 Summary Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. Science is based on research, which is commonly conducted in academic and research institutions as well as in government agencies and companies. The practical impact of scientific research has led to the emergence of science policies that seek to influence the scientific enterprise by prioritising the development of commercial products, armaments, health care, and environmental protection. Science, in a broad sense, existed before the modern era and in many historical civilisations. Modern science is distinct in its approach and successful in its results. So, it now defines what science is in the strictest sense of the term. Scientists do not merely describe the phenomena being studied, but also attempt to explain and predict as well. It is typical of social sciences that they have a far lower predictability compared to natural sciences. The most obvious reasons are the complexity of the subject matter and inadequacy at control, etc. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Psychology as Science 29 Natural science is concerned with the description, prediction and understanding of natural phenomena based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. It can be divided into two main branches: life science (or biological science) and physical science. Physical science is subdivided into branches, including physics, chemistry, astronomy and earth science. Social science is concerned with society and the relationships among individuals within a society. It has many branches that include, but are not limited to, anthropology, archaeology, communication studies, economics, history, human geography, jurisprudence, linguistics, political science, psychology, public health and sociology. Social scientists may adopt various philosophical theories to study individuals and society. For example, positivist social scientists use methods resembling those of the natural sciences as tools for understanding society, and so define science in its stricter modern sense. Formal science is involved in the study of formal systems. It includes mathematics, systems theory, and theoretical computer science. The formal sciences share similarities with the other two branches by relying on objective, careful and systematic study of an area of knowledge. They are, however, different from the empirical sciences as they rely exclusively on deductive reasoning, without the need for empirical evidence, to verify their abstract concepts. 2.10 Key Words/Abbreviations  Psychology as Science: The psychology of science applies methods and theory from psychology to the analysis of scientific thought and behaviour, each of which is defined both narrowly and broadly.  Natural Science: Natural science is concerned with the description, prediction, and understanding of natural phenomena based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

30 System and Theories  Social Science: Social science is concerned with society and the relationships among individuals within a society.  Formal Science: Formal science is involved in the study of formal systems. It includes mathematics, systems theory, and theoretical computer science.  Science and Psychology: The science of psychology benefits society and enhances our lives. Psychologists examine the relationships between brain function and behaviour, and the environment and behaviour, applying what they learn to illuminate our understanding and improve the world around us. 2.11 Learning Activity 1. You are suggested to prepare PPT and give the presentation on “Psychology as Science”. _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 2. You are required to identify the types of Science and their implications for society. _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 2.12 Unit End Exercises (MCQs and Descriptive) Descriptive Type Questions 1. Discuss in details about Psychology as Science. 2. Explain the concept of Science. 3. Discuss the characteristics of Science. 4. Explain various types of Science. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Psychology as Science 31 5. What makes psychology scientific? Explain. 6. Discuss about the current status of Psychology. 7. Explain the recent trends of Psychology. 8. Discuss about Science and Psychology. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which of the following is a systematic enterprise that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe? (a) Psychology (b) Science (c) Technology (d) Engineering 2. Psychology of science applies methods and theory from psychology to the analysis of __________. (a) Scientific thought (b) Behaviour (c) (a) and (b) (d) Applications Both 3. Which of the following is the characteristic of science? (a) Objectivity (b) Verifiability (c) Ethical Neutrality (d) All the above 4. Which of the following is not the type of science? (a) Systematic science (b) Social science (d) Formal science (d) Natural science CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

32 System and Theories 5. Psychologists in science examine the relationships between __________. (a) Brain function and behaviour (b) The environment and behaviour (c) Applying what they learn to illuminate our understanding (d) All the above Answers: 1. (b), 2. (c), 3. (d), 4. (a), 5. (d) 2.13 References References of this unit have been given at the end of the book.  CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Schools of Psychology 33 UNIT 3 SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY Structure: 3.0 Learning Objectives 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Schools of Psychology 3.3 Structuralism 3.4 Functionalism 3.5 Behaviourism 3.6 Gestalt Psychology 3.7 Psychoanalysis 3.8 Summary 3.9 Key Words/Abbreviations 3.10 LearningActivity 3.11 Unit End Exercises (MCQs and Descriptive) 3.12 References 3.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to:  Explain the concept of different schools of psychology  Describe Structuralism, Functionalism and Behaviourism CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

34 System and Theories 3.1 Introduction The psychological schools are the great classical theories of psychology. Each has been highly influential; however, most psychologists hold eclectic viewpoints that combine aspects of each school. There are different schools in psychology, among of these are Structuralism, Functionalism, the Gestalt Psychology, Behaviourism, Psychoanalysis, Humanism and Cognitive Psychology. 3.2 Schools of Psychology Structuralism is led by Wudnt and Titchener. This school of psychology is primarily deals with the study of the element which form the structure of the mind. Structuralist used the method of “Introspection”. Functionalism was developed at the University of Chicago. It was led by John Dewey and James Angell. It also developed at the Harvard University with William James. Functionalist are involved in studying the functions of consciousness. They believed that the learning process was aided by consciousness. The study of functionalist also deals with personality, intelligence and other practical problem related to the field of education. The functionalist is interested in the learning process because the learning process is one of the means of adjustment of man to the environment where he lives. Gestalt psychology is led by Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Wertheimer and Koffka (German psychologist). The Gestalt psychologist analyses experience by configuration, whole or pattern. These psychologists give importance to the wholeness in the process of learning. They give emphasis that the whole is greater than the sum to its parts. Furthermore, they give emphasis of form in perception; they believed that shapes and forms need to be describing by the organisation of the entire perceptual field. Behaviourism was led by John B. Watson. He is a professor of psychology at John Hopkins University. The psychologists believed that psychology should be concerned with behaviours. They stressed that behaviours are observable and they are not conscious experience that is subjective and only known to the person involved. Psychoanalysis was developed by Dr. Sigmund Freud. He developed this theory explaining the physical, nervous and emotional disorders with the organic explanations. Sigmund Freud is interested on the sub-conscious mind. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Schools of Psychology 35 Humanism as contrary to the humanist and the behaviourist believed that every person is destined to be good. This psychologist also believed that criminality as well as delinquency are just caused by the environment that they claimed to be unhealthy and are inadequate for the proper development of the individual. Humanist believed that every individual has desire for what is good. Cognitive Psychology is a blend of humanism and behaviourism. It gives special attention on thought process, the reasoning as well as problem solving. Cognitive psychologists are concerned on understanding the basic methods of the operation of the human brain. 3.3 Structuralism Structuralism in psychology is a theory of consciousness developed by Wilhelm Wundt and his student Edward Bradford Titchener. This theory was challenged in the 20th century. It is debated who deserves the credit for finding this field of psychology, but it is widely accepted that Wundt created the foundation on which Titchener expanded. Structuralism as a school of psychology seeks to analyse the adult mind (the total sum of experience from birth to the present) in terms of the simplest definable components and then to find how these components fit together to form more complex experiences as well as how they correlate to physical events. To do this, psychologists employ introspection, self-reports of sensations, views, feelings, emotions, etc. Psychology is a relatively young science with its experimental roots in the 19th century, compared, for example, to human physiology, which dates much earlier. As mentioned, anyone interested in exploring issues related to the mind generally did so in a philosophical context prior to the 19th century. Two men, working in the 19th century, are generally credited as being the founders of psychology as a science and academic discipline that was distinct from philosophy. Their names were Wilhelm Wundt and William James. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

36 System and Theories Figure: 3.1 Structuralism Wundt and Structuralism Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) was a German scientist who was the first person to be referred to as a psychologist. His famous book entitled Principles of Physiological Psychology was published in 1873. Wundt viewed psychology as a scientific study of conscious experience, and he believed that the goal of psychology was to identify components of consciousness and how those components combined to result in our conscious experience. Wundt used introspection (he called it “internal perception”), a process by which someone examines their own conscious experience as objectively as possible, making the human mind like any other aspect of nature that a scientist observed. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Schools of Psychology 37 Wundt’s version of introspection used only very specific experimental conditions in which an external stimulus was designed to produce a scientifically observable (repeatable) experience of the mind (Danziger, 1980). The first stringent requirement was the use of “trained” or practiced observers, who could immediately observe and report a reaction. The second requirement was the use of repeatable stimuli that always produced the same experience in the subject and allowed the subject to expect and thus be fully attentive to the inner reaction. These experimental requirements were put in place to eliminate “interpretation” in the reporting of internal experiences and to counter the argument that there is no way to know that an individual is observing their mind or consciousness accurately, since it cannot be seen by any other person. This attempt to understand the structure or characteristics of the mind was known as structuralism. Wundt established his psychology laboratory at the University at Leipzig in 1879. In this laboratory, Wundt and his students conducted experiments on, for example, reaction times. A subject, sometimes in a room isolated from the scientist, would receive a stimulus such as a light, image, or sound. The subject’s reaction to the stimulus would be to push a button, and an apparatus would record the time to reaction. Wundt could measure reaction time to one-thousandth of a second (Nicolas and Ferrand, 1999). 3.4 Functionalism Functionalism refers to a psychological school of thought that was a direct outgrowth of Darwinian thinking which focuses attention on the utility and purpose of behaviour that has been modified over years of human existence. Functionalism was a philosophy opposing the prevailing structuralism of psychology of the late 19th century. Edward Titchener, the main structuralist, gave psychology its first definition as a science of the study of mental experience, of consciousness, to be studied by trained introspection. At the start of the 19th century, there was a discrepancy between psychologists who were interested in the analysis of the structures of the mind and those who turned their attention to studying the function of mental processes. This resulted in a battle of structuralism versus functionalism. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

38 System and Theories The main goal of Structuralism was to make attempts to study human consciousness within the confines of an actual living experience, but this could make studying the human mind impossible, functionalism is in stark contrast to that. Structural psychology was concerned with mental contents while functionalism is concerned with mental operations. It is argued that structural psychology emanated from philosophy and remained closely allied to it, while functionalism has a close ally in biology. Behaviourists also rejected the method of introspection but criticised functionalism because it was not based on controlled experiments and its theories provided little predictive ability. B.F. Skinner was a developer of behaviourism. He did not think that considering how the mind affects behaviour was worthwhile, for he considered behaviour simply as a learned response to an external stimulus. Yet, such behaviourist concepts tend to deny the human capacity for random, unpredictable, sentient decision-making, further blocking the functionalist concept that human behaviour is an active process driven by the individual. Perhaps, a combination of both the functionalist and behaviourist perspectives provides scientists with the most empirical value, but, even so, it remains philosophically (and physiologically) difficult to integrate the two concepts without raising further questions about human behaviour. For instance, consider the interrelationship between three elements: the human environment, the human autonomic nervous system (our fight or flight muscle responses), and the human somatic nervous system (our voluntary muscle control). The behaviourist perspective explains a mixture of both types of muscle behaviour, whereas the functionalist perspective resides mostly in the somatic nervous system. It can be argued that all behavioural origins begin within the nervous system, prompting all scientists of human behaviour to possess basic physiological understandings, something very well understood by the functionalist founder William James. An important part of some arguments for functionalism is the idea of multiple realisability. According to standard functionalist theories, mental states correspond to functional roles. They are like valves; a valve can be made of plastic or metal or other materials, as long as it performs the proper function (controlling the flow of a liquid or gas). Similarly, functionalists argue, mental states can be explained without considering the states of the underlying physical medium (such as the brain) that realises them; one need only consider higher-level functions. Because mental states are not limited to a particular medium, they can be realised in multiple ways, including, theoretically, CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Schools of Psychology 39 within non-biological systems, such as computers. A silicon-based machine could have the same sort of mental life that a human being has, provided that its structure realised the proper functional roles. History of Functionalism Functionalism was a philosophy opposing the prevailing structuralism of psychology of the late 19th century. Edward Titchener, the main structuralist, gave psychology its first definition as a science of the study of mental experience, of consciousness, to be studied by trained introspection. At the start of the 19th century, there was a discrepancy between psychologists who were interested in the analysis of the structures of the brain and those who turned their attention to studying the function of mental processes. This resulted in a battle of structuralism versus functionalism. The main goal of Structuralism was to make attempts to study human consciousness within the confines of an actual living experience, but this could make studying the human mind impossible, functionalism is in stark contrast to that. Structural psychology was concerned with mental contents while functionalism is concerned with mental operations. It is argued that structural psychology emanated from philosophy and remained closely allied to it, while functionalism has a close ally in biology. William James is considered to be the founder of functional psychology. But he would not consider himself as a functionalist, nor did he truly like the way science divided itself into schools. John Dewey, George Herbert Mead, Harvey A. Carr, and especially James Rowland Angell were the main proponents of functionalism at the University of Chicago. Another group at Columbia, including notably James McKeen Cattell, Edward L. Thorndike, and Robert S. Woodworth, were also considered functionalists and shared some of the opinions of Chicago’s professors. Egon Brunswik represents a more recent, but Continental, version. The functionalists retained an emphasis on conscious experience. Behaviourists also rejected the method of introspection but criticised functionalism because it was not based on controlled experiments and its theories provided little predictive ability. B.F. Skinner was a developer of behaviourism. He did not think that considering how the mind affects behaviour was worthwhile, for he considered behaviour simply as a learned response to an external stimulus. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

40 System and Theories Yet, such behaviourist concepts tend to deny the human capacity for random, unpredictable, sentient decision-making, further blocking the functionalist concept that human behaviour is an active process driven by the individual. Perhaps, a combination of both the functionalist and behaviourist perspectives provides scientists with the most empirical value, but, even so, it remains philosophically difficult to integrate the two concepts without raising further questions about human behaviour. For instance, consider the interrelationship between three elements: the human environment, the human autonomic nervous system (our fight or flight muscle responses), and the human somatic nervous system (our voluntary muscle control). The behaviourist perspective explains a mixture of both types of muscle behaviour, whereas the functionalist perspective resides mostly in the somatic nervous system. It can be argued that all behavioural origins begin within the nervous system, prompting all scientists of human behaviour to possess basic physiological understandings, something very well understood by the functionalist founder William James. The main problems with structuralism were the elements and their attributes, their modes of composition, structural characteristics, and the role of attention. Because of these problems, many psychologists began to shift their attention from mental states to mental processes. This change of thought was preceded by a change in the whole conception of what psychology is. Three parts ushered functional psychology into the modern-day psychology. Utilising the Darwinian ideology, the mind was considered to perform a diverse biological function on its own and can evolve and adapt to varying circumstances. Secondly, the physiological functioning of the organism results in the development of the consciousness. Lastly, the promise of the impact of functional psychology to the improvement of education, mental hygiene and abnormal states James and Functionalism William James (1842-1910) was the first American psychologist who espoused a different perspective on how psychology should operate. James was introduced to Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection and accepted it as an explanation of an organism’s characteristics. Key to that theory is the idea that natural selection leads to organisms that are adapted to their environment, including their behaviour. Adaptation means that a trait of an organism has a function for the survival and reproduction of the individual, because it has been naturally selected. As James saw it, psychology’s purpose was to study the function of behaviour in the world, and as such, his perspective was known as functionalism. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Schools of Psychology 41 Figure: 3.2 James and Functionalism Functionalism focused on how mental activities helped an organism fit into its environment. Functionalism has a second, more subtle meaning in that functionalists were more interested in the operation of the whole mind rather than of its individual parts, which were the focus of structuralism. Like Wundt, James believed that introspection could serve as one means by which someone might study mental activities, but James also relied on more objective measures, including the use of various recording devices, and examinations of concrete products of mental activities and of anatomy and physiology. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

42 System and Theories 3.5 Behaviourism Behaviourism is a systematic approach to understanding the behaviour of humans and other animals. It assumes that behaviour is either a reflex evoked by the pairing of certain antecedent stimuli in the environment, or a consequence of that individual’s history, including especially reinforcement and punishment contingencies, together with the individual’s current motivational state and controlling stimuli. Although behaviourists generally accept the important role of heredity in determining behaviour, they focus primarily on environmental events. It combines elements of philosophy, methodology, and psychological theory. Behaviourism emerged in the early 1900s as a reaction to depth psychology and other traditional forms of psychology, which often had difficulty making predictions that could be tested experimentally, but derived from earlier research in the late nineteenth century, such as when Edward Thorndike pioneered the law of effect, a procedure that involved the use of consequences to strengthen or weaken behaviour. During the first half of the 20th century, John B. Watson devised methodological behaviourism, which rejected introspective methods and sought to understand behaviour by only measuring observable behaviours and events. It was not until the 1930s that B.F. Skinner suggested that covert behaviour including cognition and emotions subjects to the same controlling variables as observable behaviour, which became the basis for his philosophy called radical behaviourism. While Watson and Ivan Pavlov investigated how (conditioned) neutral stimuli elicit reflexes in respondent conditioning, Skinner assessed the reinforcement histories of the discriminative (antecedent) stimuli that emits behaviour; the technique became known as operant conditioning. The application of radical behaviourism known as applied behaviour analysis is used in a variety of contexts, including, for example, organisational behaviour management and pediatric feeding therapy, to the treatment of mental disorders, such as autism and substance abuse. In addition, while behaviourism and cognitive schools of psychological thought may not agree theoretically, they have complemented each other in the cognitive-behaviour therapies, which have demonstrated utility in treating certain pathologies, such as simple phobias, PTSD and mood disorders. John Broadus Watson (January 9, 1878 – September 25, 1958) was an American psychologist who established the psychological school of behaviourism. Watson promoted a change in psychology through his address Psychology as the Behaviourist Views it, which was given at Columbia University CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Schools of Psychology 43 in 1913. Through his behaviourist approach, Watson conducted research on animal behaviour, child rearing, and advertising. In addition, he conducted the controversial “Little Albert” experiment and the Kerplunk experiment. Watson popularised the use of the scientific theory with behaviourism. He was also editor of Psychological Review from 1910 to 1915. A Review of General Psychology Survey, published in 2002, ranked Watson as the 17th most cited psychologist of the 20th century. Figure: 3.3 Behaviourism Meaning of Behaviourism Behaviourism refers to a psychological approach which emphasises scientific and objective methods of investigation. The approach is only concerned with observable stimulus-response behaviours, and states all behaviours are learned through interaction with the environment. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)