CU-BA-SEM-III-Sociology-III- Second Draft

BACHELOR OF ARTS SEMESTER-III SOCIOLOGY-III BAQ-208

CHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY Institute of Distance and Online Learning Course Development Committee Prof. (Dr.) R.S.Bawa Pro Chancellor, Chandigarh University, Gharuan, Punjab Advisors Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Bhushan, Director – IGNOU Prof. (Dr.) Majulika Srivastava, Director – CIQA, IGNOU Programme Coordinators & Editing Team Master of Business Administration (MBA) Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) Coordinator – Dr. Rupali Arora Coordinator – Dr. Simran Jewandah Master of Computer Applications (MCA) Bachelor of Computer Applications (BCA) Coordinator – Dr. Raju Kumar Coordinator – Dr. Manisha Malhotra Master of Commerce (M.Com.) Bachelor of Commerce (B.Com.) Coordinator – Dr. Aman Jindal Coordinator – Dr. Minakshi Garg Master of Arts (Psychology) Bachelor of Science (Travel &Tourism Management) Coordinator – Dr. Samerjeet Kaur Coordinator – Dr. Shikha Sharma Master of Arts (English) Bachelor of Arts (General) Coordinator – Dr. Ashita Chadha Coordinator – Ms. Neeraj Gohlan Academic and Administrative Management Prof. (Dr.) R. M. Bhagat Prof. (Dr.) S.S. Sehgal Executive Director – Sciences Registrar Prof. (Dr.) Manaswini Acharya Prof. (Dr.) Gurpreet Singh Executive Director – Liberal Arts Director – IDOL © No part of this publication should be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording and/or otherwise without the prior written permission of the authors and the publisher. SLM SPECIALLY PREPARED FOR CU IDOL STUDENTS Printed and Published by: TeamLease Edtech Limited www.teamleaseedtech.com CONTACT NO:- 01133002345 For: CHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY 2 Institute of Distance and Online Learning CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

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CONTENT Unit - 1 : C o nc ep ts O f So c ia l S tr uctur e ............................................................ 5 Unit– 2: Social Change : Meaning, Character is tics And Type Of Social Change ......................................................................................................... 25 Unit- 3 : So c ia l S tr uc tur e And So c ia l C ha nge ............................................... 78 Unit- 4: Factors O f Social C hange .............................................................. 127 Unit– 5: Factors O f Social C hange ............................................................. 142 Unit -6: Processes O f Social C hange .......................................................... 165 Unit- 7: Processes O f Social C hange ........................................................... 195 4 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT -1: CONCEPTS OF SOCIAL STRUCTURE 5 Structure 1.0 Learning Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2The Concept of Social Structure 1.2.1 Social Structure and Social Organisation 1.2.2 Social Structure and Social Groups 1.3 Perspectives on Social Structure 1.4 Meaning of Social Structure 1.4.1 Definition: 1.4.2 Characteristics of Social Structure 1.5 Elements of Social Structure 1.5.1 Status 1.5.2 Role 1.5.3 Norms 1.5.4 Values 1.6 Summary 1.7 Key words 1.8 Learning Activity 1.9 Unit End Question 1.10 References 1.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVE After going through this unit, you should be able to:  Distinguish social structure from social organisation CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 State and describe the meaning of the concept of social structure put forward by the structural- functionalists.  Describe the structuralists’ point of view regarding social structure.  Explain the Marxist understanding of social structure; and  Establish the relationship between social structure and social change. 1.1 INTRODUCTION In this unit we can talk approximately social structure. This is a broader and extra widespread idea than different principles mentioned on this block. Generally speaking, something whether or not an item or a concept has a shape. It is best thru the long-lasting elements of a shape that we understand its existence. Similarly, we are able to say that every society within side the global has a shape, which may be referred to as its social shape. We can recognize a society thru the everlasting and enduring e lements of its shape. Put on this way, social shape seems to be a completely extensive and easy idea. But, at the same time as reading a selected social shape, sociologists have differed broadly of their interpretation and use of this idea. It is because o f those disparities in perspectives, that dialogue on social shape has come to be conceptually complicated and confusing. This want now no longer be so. We keep that at an easy level, the concept of social shape is essentially pretty elementary. It enables us to explain the everlasting and enduring elements of social relationships. As such it's miles a completely beneficial device to recognize social reality. In this unit you'll study diverse interpretations and uses, of this fundamental idea in sociologica l idea. We start with an extensive definition of the idea. It has, normally, been understood through the structural—functionalist faculty of idea because the community of everlasting and enduring elements of social relationships. These relationships are wo nderful from person relationships. When people have a dating in which everyone expects something from the different, their behaviour is predictable and social. Social behaviour is, thus, an anticipated and organised behaviour. It is described through the social norms and given sanction through society. Different sociologists and social anthropologists have described this idea in diverse approaches. Its use and applicability, this idea is known in one-of-a-kind approaches in Britain, France, and in North America. There can be a few exceptions, however normally in North America the “Culture” thing of social shape is given extra emphasis. British sociologists like Radcliffe-Brown and his fans supply extra emphasis to the ‘relational’ thing. In France, the idea is known in phrases of models, 6 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

mentioned through Levi Strauss. We will talk extra elaborately approximately those distinctions, as properly as, the improvement of this idea within side the subsequent section. 1.2 THE CONCEPT OF SOCIAL STRUCTURE The phrase structure intended originally, the development of a building. Gradually, shape started to mean inter-family members among the components of any whole. It additionally started for use in anatomical studies. The idea of social shape has become famous among the sociologists and social anthropologists, within side the decade following World War II. During that length it have become so stylish to apply this term, that it got here to be implemented to “nearly any ordered association of social phenomenon” (see Leach 1968 : 482). It is crucial to have a take a observe the distinct ways, wherein sociologists and social anthropologists, have implemented this idea. In this technique you'll learn the way it turned into understood through the structural- functionalists, the structuralists, and the Marxists – the 3 most important colleges of sociological thought. But earlier than intending to those 3 perspectives of social shape, allow us to additionally have a take a observe the distinction among social shape and social organisation. We additionally in short point out how a few students used the perception of social shape in phrases of social organizations and roles. 1.2.1 Social Structure and Social Organisation The structure meant originally, the event of a building. Gradually, form began to mean inter- family members among the elements of any whole. It in addition started to be used in anatomical studies. The concept of social form became renowned among the sociologists and social anthropologists, with inside the last decade following warfare II. Throughout that length it became thus fashionable to use this term, that it happened to be enforced to “nearly any ordered association of social phenomenon” (see Leach 1968: 482). It's crucial to own a take a observe the distinct ways in which, whereby sociologists and social anthropologists, have enforced this concept. during this technique you will learn the approach it become understood through the structural- functionalists, the structuralists, and therefore the Marxists – the three most significant faculties of social science thought. However before aiming to those three views of social form, permit USA to in addition have a take a observe the excellence among social form and social structure. We tend to in addition in brief entails however some students used the perception of social form in phrases of social organizations and roles. 7 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

According to Firth (1956: 41) the structure and organisation of the community life possess certain constituents which are essential for social e xistence within a community. These constituents are: social alignment, social controls, social media, and social standards. 1.2.2 Social Structure and Social Groups There are a few researchers who utilize the term social construction for just industrious gatherings of people in the public eye like country, clan, group, and so on One of them is E.E. Evans-Pritchard. His hypothesis of social construction emerged as a response to Radcliffe- Brown's comprehension of social design. Truth be told, it was Evans-Pritchard who previously achieved the shift from unadulterated construction functionalism to structuralism in friendly anthropological investigations of social orders. In his book, The Nuer (1940), he has managed these constant and lasting gatherings, whose s ingular enrolment continues changing, yet whose primary structure remains roughly something very similar all through time. His meaning of social construction varies from Radcliffe-Brown's, as in he isn't worried about the social conduct of individual to individual. He has amassed his consideration in his investigation of the Nuer of Sudan, on the relationship of the residence with the more extensive gathering of the town. The town he concentrates comparable to the tertiary gathering made out of couple of towns; the tertiary gathering with the auxiliary gathering made out of a few tertiary gatherings, the optional gathering with the essential gathering made out of a few tertiary gatherings, the auxiliary gathering with the essential gathering made out of a few auxiliary gatherings, etc, till the entire clan is incorporated. In this segmentary social design, groups, heredities, consanguineal and affinal kinfolks, and so forth structure significant segments. Along these lines, Evans-Pritchard's origination of social design has the family or the estate (as on account of the Nuer society) as its fundamental unit, as opposed to the people. 1.3 PERSPECTIVES ON SOCIAL STRUCTURE Levi Strauss Levi-Strauss considered social construction as rationale behind the real world. He demanded that the term social design has nothing to do with experimental reality except for with models which are developed after it. While social relations establish the crude materials out of which the models making up the social design are constructed, the actual construction can't be decreased to a group of social relations rather such relations themselves result from such re- 8 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

existing constructions. The constructions display the attributes of a framework and are comprised of a few components none of which can go through change without affecting changes in any remaining components. Nadel Nadel sees social structure as reality itself. He respects the job arrangement of any general public with its given intelligibility as the lattice of the social design. He traces two explicit benefits of underlying investigation. These are loaning a more significant level of equivalence to social information and delivering such information all the more promptly quantifiable. Nadel battles that a specific social design as portrayed at a given second is precise just for a specific timeframe. Design and difference are not naturally opposing rather the previous is characterized or developed through assessing the last mentioned. In the event that difference is limitless there would be supreme turmoil and no organization in public activity. Murdock In characterizing social design Murdock's standard concern is the ethnographic realities and the ordered grouping of social orders based on show promptly detectable qualities. The scientific classification set up by Murdock relies principally upon assortments of connection association. The scientific categorization depends on factual connection as opposed to the utilitarian investigation. Social Structure Social structure is the fundamental idea for the appropriate comprehension of society. Thus, we propose to give a to some degree itemized perspective on the significant idea of social construction. 1.4 MEANING OF SOCIAL STRUCTURE Since long many efforts have been made to define ‘Social Structure’ but still there is no unanimity of opinion on its definition. Herbert Spencer was the first writer to throw light on the structure of society. He called society an organism but his view of society was confused. Emile Durkheim also made a futile attempt to define it. 9 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The following are the important views on social structure: Nadel’s view S. F. Nadel states, \"We show up at the construction of society through abstracting from the solid populace and its conduct, the example or network (or arrangement) of connections getting between entertainers in their ability of assuming parts comparative with each other.\" Nadel has attempted to clarify in his definition that 'structure' alludes to a determinable verbalization, an arranged course of action of parts. It is identified with the external perspective or the system of society and is absolutely indifferent with the practical part of society. So he has stressed that the social design alludes to the organization of social relationship which is made among the people when they communicate with one another as per their situations with agreement with the examples of society. Nadel, thusly, says, \"structure shows an arranged plan of parts, which can be treated as movable, being moderately invariant, while the actual parts are variable. As per him there are three components of a general public: — (i) A group of people (ii) Institutionalized rules according to which the members of the group interact (iii) An institutionalized pattern or expression of these interactions The institutionalized rules or patterns do not change easily and this creates orderliness in society. These rules determine the statuses and roles of the individuals. There is an order among these roles and statuses also which provides an ordered arrangement of human beings. Ginsberg’s view As indicated by Ginsberg, \"The investigation of social design is worried about the chief types of social association, for example kinds of gatherings, affiliations and foundations and the complex of these which establish social orders… …. A full record of social construction would include an audit of the entire field of relative organizations.\" Ginsberg has composed that the individuals coordinate themselves into bunches for the accomplishment of some article or objective and these gatherings are called as foundations. The entirety of these foundations brings forth the construction of society. 10 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The primary imperfection of Ginsberg's view is that he doesn't make any qualification between friendly design, social association and gatherings of people. At somewhere else he states, \"The social construction of a local area incorporates the various sorts of gatherings which individuals’ structure and the organizations in which they partake.\" (iii) Radcliffe Brown's view Radcliffe Brown was an incredible social anthropologist of England. He has a place with the primary practical school of humanism. He expresses, \"The segments of social design are individuals, the actual construction being a plan of people in relationship institutionally characterized and controlled. To explain his definition he cited models from the Australian and African ancestral social orders. He said that connection framework among them is the portrayal of systematized relationship. These connections tie the people together in a specific manner and subsequently credit to them specific positions. The kinfolk, involving the arrangement of positions, makes an example which is named as \"family relationship structure.\" He referred to another model from the Thonga and Bantu clans of South Africa. There is a custom of paying 'Lady cost' called labola among them. This specially identified with marriage ties the people together. For the instalment of labola the individuals from family, yet additionally the friends and relatives consolidate their hands. This labola is given as a monetary guide to be utilized at the hour of marriage of the lady's sibling or her close to family members. Along these lines the establishment of marriage brings the individuals from the families as well as brings a sort of monetary guide. Hence the institutionally characterized and directed conjugal relations become a connection between two families in the financial field and consequently their decided positions make an example of marriage and connection structure. Later on, Radcliffe Brown gave another meaning of social construction. He said, \"… Human creatures are associated by an unpredictable organization of social relations. I utilize the term 'social construction' to signify this organization of really existing relations.\" The segments of social design are people, and an individual is a person thought about not as a life form but rather as involving position in a social design. Radcliffe Brown thinks about friendly design as genuine as are singular creatures. As indicated by him, both the social construction and the human living being are inclined to change yet they are steady. By transform he implies that the organs of both the constructions 11 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

are obligated to advancement or obliteration. The abilities of the human living being first create from earliest stages to development and afterward their destruction begins in mature age. Likewise, in friendly design, new individuals take their introduction to the world and the old continue biting the dust. In any case, in spite of this constant change their essential highlights stay stable. As such, we may say that the practical part of social design is consistently under change while external system is steady. Radcliffe has utilized the terms, 'real construction' and 'general design' separately. He has recognized underlying structure, and 'social design'. Social construction is dynamic; its appearance is conceivable just in the capacities or jobs of the parts or units of social design. Consequently, we can comprehend social design just as far as the capacities or jobs of its parts. Parsons’ view As indicated by Talcott Parsons, \"Social design is a term applied to the specific game plan of the interrelated organizations, offices and social examples just as the situations with jobs which every individual accepts in the gathering.\" Talcott Parsons has attempted to clarify the idea of social construction in conceptual structure. Every one of the units of social construction, for example establishments, offices, social examples, situations with jobs are imperceptible and theoretical and consequently are dynamic. He has underscored that the situations with jobs of people are dictated by customs, customs and shows of society. These situations with birth to various organizations, offices and examples. Every one of these when interrelated and coordinated in a specific way assemble the social construction of society. Social design is worried about types of between connection between these units instead of with the units. These units establish the general public. The arranged game plan seen between these units is social design. (v) Johnson's view Harry M. Johnson expresses, \"The design of anything comprises of the moderately steady between connections among its parts; besides, the term 'part' itself infers a specific level of Stability. Since a social framework is made out of the between related demonstrations of 12 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

individuals, its design should be looked for in some level of routineness or repeat in these demonstrations.\" Consequently, as indicated by Johnson, the 'structure' itself is an exa mple of strength which is made by the interrelation of the parts. These parts are the gatherings and sub-gatherings of society. He doesn't mean by strength that there is no change at all in the design, however he implies that it is nearly steady. For instance, the design of local area comprises of organizations and affiliations which thusly comprise of people. Each individual is apportioned a specific status and part to perform. With the passing of the person, there is no adjustment of the status and job itself. The new officeholder who succeeds the perished individual is again to play out a similar job in a similar status. Consequently the status and the job are moderately steady which thusly make the construction stable. Among the constituent pieces of social construction, Johnson incorporates gatherings, sub-gatherings, jobs, regulative standards and social qualities. (vi) MacIver's view MacIver and Page compose, \"… The different methods of collection …. together involve the intricate example of the social design… …. In the examination of the social design the part of assorted mentality and interest of social creatures is uncovered.\" MacIver and Page have likewise viewed the social design as unique which is made out of a few gatherings like family, church, class, standing, state, local area and so on They have given due thought to those sources and powers who tie these gatherings into a chain to give them a distinct type of social construction. Since society is the association of social relationship and is theoretical, thusly, its design additionally is dynamic. MacIver and Page likewise allude to the security and changefulness of social design. They express, \"For while the social construction itself is temperamental and changeful it has an unequivocal character at each stage, and a large number of its significant components have shown more prominent determination of type through change.\" In their investigation of social design they have incorporated the investigation of affiliations, organizations, gatherings, practical frameworks and institutional edifices. In the wake of going through the different perspectives on friendly construction, we may close as under: (a) Social construction is a theoretical and elusive marvel. 13 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

(b) As people are the units of affiliation and foundations so these affiliations and organizations are the units of social construction. (c) These organizations and affiliations are between related in a specific course of action and accordingly make the example of social design. (d) It alludes to the outer part of society which is generally steady when contrasted with the practical or inner part of society. (e) Social design is a \"living\" structure which is made, kept up for a period and changes. 1.4.1 Definition Several Sociologists and social anthropologists have tried to define it, let us see the main definition as such: According to Radcliffe Brown: “Social structure consists of the sum total of all the social relationships of all individuals at a given moment of time.”  According to Ginsberg: “Social structure is concerned with the principal forms of social organization, i.e., types of Groups, associations and the complex of these which continue societies.” According to Persons : “Social structure is the term applied to the particular arrangement of the interrelated institutions, agencies and social patterns, as well as the statuses and roles which each person assumes in the group.” 1.4.2 Characteristics of Social Structure We have discussed the meaning and definitions of soc ial structure in the preceding pages. Sociologists have worked on social structure quite elaborately. They prefer to use term ‘social system’ instead of ‘social structure’. However, both sociologists and social anthropolo gists define social structure in terms of the interrelations between the individuals and functioning of these ordered interrelationships in the maintenance of the society. The definitions given by various social anthropologists help us to bring out certain characteristics of social structure. We enumerate these as under: (i) Abstraction of empirical reality: 14 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Empirical reality has a large number of details about the functioning of society. The construction of social structure removes unnecessary details and brings out abstractions. For instance, there are innumerable caste and tribal groups in India. Each caste has its locus and functioning. The tribes also have their own identity. In the formation of social structure we delete the names and specialities of each caste and tribal group. Instead we use the terms ‘caste’ and ‘tribe’. These are abstractions. (ii) Exists independently of the individuals: In a social structure, individuals do not matter; they come and go. In our country we had Gandhi, Nehru and Vinoba Bhave. They have left this wo rld. Social structure is independent of any individual-big or small. It is concerned with the interactions between statuses: The family or the university is a social structure notwithstanding the persons who are members of these structures. Radcliffe-Brown, as mentioned earlier, very rightly says that Jack and Jill come and go but the struc tures continue. (iii) Persistent social group: Milton Singer and Bernard Cohn edited a book on India entitled, Structure and Change in Indian Society (1968). The contributors to this rather big volume discuss caste, joint family and language as components of social structure in India. The editors argue that the specialty of the Indian social structure is not only its change but also its continuity. Thus, when we talk of social structure, we mean persistent social interactions of varying statuses. (iv) Retains continuity: Throughout their discussions Radcliffe-Brown, Firth and Nadel insist that there may be a change in social structure but there is an “ordered arrangements of parts” which are relatively invariant. Interestingly, the parts themselves are variable but the nature of the social structure is invariable. This invariability of the parts of ordered arrangements gives continuity to social structure. The members of a society are free to have social interactions as they like. There are a wide range of choices. But, the established institutionalized norms change little. They are invariant. 15 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

(v) Matrix (Origin) of society: Eriksen has defined social structure rather elaborately. He says that social structure is the origin of society. It is the matrix of society. It is the sum total of all the statuses of society. It contains norms, values, social control, polity, etc. There is difference in social structure and social organization. Social organization is the society in function, it is an ongoing life. Social structure is the abstraction of society. Man may come and go but the structure remains the same. (vi) Not concerned with the particular or unique: One very important aspect of social structure is that it does not relate to the unusual or unique. The mythological story of Mahabharata says that Kansa, who was Krishna’s mother’s brother, killed his own sister’s children. But, the general status of mother’s brother is not that of Kansa. Social structure is concerned, therefore, with the usual or general and not specific or particular. (vii) Having spatial dimensions: Social structure is invariant and continuous. But it has its spatial as pects also; it is related to place. Social structure is not the same all over the world. The kind of social structure that we find in India is different from that in the US. Each space has its particularity, its own history, and its own experiences. Therefore, the nature of social structure varies from one locality to another. (viii) Connected with social personality: Radcliffe- Brown mentions the connections of social structure with so cial personality. “Every human being living in society is two things: he is an individual and also a person. As an individual, he is a biological organism, a collection of a vast number of molecules organized in a complex structure, within which as long as it persists, there occur physiological and psychological actions and reactions, processes and changes. Human beings as individuals are objects of study for physiologists and psychologists. The human being as a person is a complex of social relationships. As a person, the human being is the object of study for the social anthropologists. We cannot study persons except in terms of social structure, nor can we study social structure, except in 16 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

terms of the persons who are the units of which it is composed.” In other words, there is a close nexus between individual and social structure. Thus, social structure has almost occupied a place of theory in so cial anthropology. It includes various institutions of society such as family, marriage, kinship, religion, custom and law, primitive economy, politics, etc. These institutions are based on social organization. Eriksen argues that social organization carries within it the social structure of society. In a broader way it is said that social structure is like an organism which has different parts to maintain the body sys tem. Or, in simple words, it is like a huge building which has different walls, windows, doors and a roof. But such a kind of explanation of a social structure is very naive. As a matter of fact, it is an abstraction of the empirical reality of all these institutions. Social structure dwells on established patterns of rules, customs, statutes, and social institutions. It is the arrangement of different parts of the society whereas social organization is the dynamic aspect of social structure. Finally, it would be interesting to refer to the question which has been raised by Radcliffe- Brown in his analysis of social structure. He asks: “How do structural systems persist? What are the mechanisms which maintain a network of social relations in existence, and how do they work?” Radcliffe-Brown himself answers the question: Morals, law, etiquette, religion, government and education are all parts of the complex mechanism by which a social structure exists and persists. 1.5 ELEMENTS OF SOCIAL STRUCTURE In a social design the individuals put together themselves into relationship for the quest for some article or items. The point can be satisfied just if the social construction depends on specific standards. 1.5.1 Status Status, to lay it out plainly, alludes to the social position that an individual involves in the public arena. Situations with of various sorts and together structure an essential piece of our character, and in this way an individual at some random time possesses numerous situations 17 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

with. Every one of them together are alluded to as a person's status set –for instance, an individual can be a parent, columnist, coordinator, and somebody's accomplice simultaneously. Status sets are always showing signs of change as individuals acquire and lose situations with they go through various periods of their life. There are various kinds of situations with: Master status: The most significant status that an individual holds, which educates and shapes their character and can cause pessimism or energy in their life. Ascribed and Achieved Status: Ascribed status refers to a status that an individual gets at their introduction to the world, one which is allotted to them automatically – for instance, our sex, race/nationality, natural connections, and so on Then again, accomplished status alludes to situations with an individual pursues and in this manner accomplishes, or which they overcome karma and capacity. 1.5.2 Role: Job alludes to the \"conduct expected of somebody who holds a specific status\" (Mac ionis, 2005). Hence, jobs go with situations with people perform parts as indicated by the situations with they are holding. They are socially endorsed examples of conduct, and consequently alongside situations with a ton from one culture to another. The term job set alludes to the arrangement of jobs connected to a status – for instance, an instructor may have different jobs – that of being an educator, an associate, an accomplice, and a parent. There are various ideas identified with Social Roles. Allow us to find in detail a portion of those:  Role struggle: Role struggle alludes to the circumstance that happens when an individual is relied upon to act in opposing jobs in regular day to day exis tence. The contentions can either be a result of conflicting interests or when there exists various standards on what the duties of a specific job are. Job clashes occur in close to home just as expert life. An illustration of job struggle is the circumsta nce that happens when a functioning mother is decided to not find a way into the part of a \"great spouse\".  Role Distancing: Role removing alludes to the act of separating oneself from a job. For instance, an entertainer may need to try the idea of job removing regularly, among expert and individual viewpoints. 18 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Role leave: The cycle of ceasing from a job to build up another one. A model is the change of a person into a parent.  Role assumption: This alludes to the arrangement of activities that are normal from an individual assuming a specific part. For example, every calling has a particular arrangement of jobs that are normal from them.  Role execution: Role execution is a term that alludes to the degree of execution of an individual regarding the job that s/he is appointed with.  Role inversion: It alludes to the demonstration of individuals trading their jobs with one another. For models, an analyst can at time look for help from a dear companion or relative.  Role isolation: Refers to the isolating of job accomplices from one another. For models, an adjudicator of Court would not show up for a case which s/he has individual associations with.  Role set: It alludes to the combined arrangement of jobs that an individual has, from different jobs that s/he plays.  Role strain: This alludes to the pressure that an individual encounters in gathering assumptions and commitments related with any job. A model is the point at which an individual is dealing with a PC, however wishes to prepare nourishment for his youngsters simultaneously.  Role taking: The demonstration of expecting to take up the job of someone else to comprehend things from their perspective. A model is while a promoter attempts to think according to the perspective of the charged while analysing a case. 1.5.3 Norms: According to H.M. Johnson, sub- groups and roles are governed by social norms. Social norms are of two types: (i) obligatory or relational and (ii) permissive or regulative. A few standards indicate positive commitments. In any case, they are not ordinarily applied to every one of the jobs and sub-gatherings. For instance, the positive commitments of a family are not equivalent to those of business firm. Some different standards determine the constraint of reasonable activity. A job inhabitant of a sub-bunch for this situation 'must' do certain things, 'may' do certain things and 'should not do ledge others. They are called regulative standards. They don't separate among jobs and sub- 19 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

gatherings. For instance in our general public, paying little mind to one's job, one should not look to impact others by danger of savagery or by viciousness itself. The parts of social design are individuals, the construction being a plan of people in relationship institutionally characterized and directed. 1.5.4 Values: At the top level are the societal values. These are the most general or abstract normative conceptions of what the ideal society itself would be like. Individuals or groups are found to be emotionally committed to values. These values help to integrate personality or a system of interaction. 1.6 SUMMARY  Thus we can conclude by saying the social structure means more fundamental or basic patterns of social relations in a given society or social system. This is the blue print, or basic and permanent or long - lasting structure of a society, on the basis of which it functions.  It is just like the basic systems in human body – the skeleton or bone system, digestive system, blood circulation system, and the nervous system, which work in mutual inter - relationship harmoniously and without which no one can be alive and function effectively. 1.7 KEY WORDS  Affinal: The relationships which are acquired through marriage, such as, wife’s brother, husband’s sister, etc.  Analogy: Similarity or correspondence between two things or ideas.  Consanguineal: The relationships which one has through the blood ties, such as, of mother and child, or brothers and sisters, etc.  Constraint: Any kind of restraint or compulsion felt by an individual.  Heuristic devices: The means to provide aid in solving problems.  Indispensable: Something which is essential and cannot be substituted. 20 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Methodology: It is the body of methods, tools and techniques of studying society, as in the case of a student of sociology.  Morphology: It is the study of forms or structure of animals, plants or the society as in our case.  Physiology: It is the study of the life-process or functioning of animals, plants or the society.  Segmentary : Anything which is divided into different parts or sections 1.8 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Define Radcliffe-Brown’s concept of social structure. Give an example. Use about five lines. ___________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ 2. Explain Role as an element of Social Structure. ___________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ 1.9 UNIT END QUESTION A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. Difference between Globalisation and Internationalism 2. Definitions of Secularization 3. Write down Principles of Secularization 4. Explain the Dimensions of modernization: 5. List down the Causes of Secularization. Long Questions 21 1. Discuss the impact of globalisation on various sections of Indian society CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

2. Distinguish between Westernisation and Modernisation. 3. Delineate how the process of Globalisation is affecting various segments of Indian society? 4. What is the relationship between Modernisation and Secularisation? 5. Explain the concept of Secularisation in Indian context B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Social Structure refers a. Social statues and roles b. a value c. norms d. Social group 2. Which of the following is a unit of social structure? a. A status b. an organisation c. Social System d. All of these 3. An organisation means 22 a. co-ordination of social relationship b. co-ordinating parts c. certain positions d. None of these CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

4. Main constitute of Social structure a. Groups b. Institutions c. human beings d. Society 5. Role is a. The behaviour expected someone within a given status in a group or society. b. Socially defined position in a group or society c. Social status d. None of these Answers 1. a, 2. b, 3. b, 4. b, 5. a 1.10 REFERENCES Reference Books:  Firth, Raymond, 1956, Elements of social Organisation. Watts and Company: London.  Leach, Edmund, 1968. Social Structure. In David I. Sills (ed.) International Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences. Macmillan Company and The Free Press: New York. 23 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

 Levi-Strauss, C., 1953. Social Structure. In A.L. Kroeber. (ed.) Anthropology Today: An Encyclopaedic Inventory, pp. 524-553. The University of Chicago Press: Chicago and London.  Radcliffe- Brown, A.R., 1952. Structure and Function in Primitive Societies. Cohen and West Limited: London. 24 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT– 2: SOCIAL CHANGE: MEANING, 25 CHARACTERISTICS AND TYPE OF SOCIAL CHANGE Structure 2.0 Learning objective 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Meaning Social change 2.3 Definition of Social Change 2.4 Characteristics of Social change 2.5 Types of Social Change 2.5.1 Evolutionary Social Change 2.5.2 Revolutionary Social Change. 2.6 Theories of Social Change 2.7 Social Movement 2.8 Summary 2.9 Keywords 2.10 Learning Activity 2.11 Unit End Question 2.12 References 2.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVE After going through this unit, you should be able to:  Define and describe the nature of social change;  Differentiate the important nature of social change;  Discuss the different types of social change CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

2.1 INTRODUCTION Change is that the internal law. History and science bear ample testimony to the very fact that change is that the law of life. Stagnation is death. They tell us stories of man’s rise and growth from the Palaeolithic Age to the Neolithic Age, then to the Stone Age and next to the copper age etc. On the stage of the planet, scenes follow scenes, acts follow acts, and drama follows drama. Nothing stands still. The wheel of your time moves on and on. The old dies and therefore the young steps into the planet. We ring out the old and ring within the new. a toddler changes into a boy, a boy into a youth then into a person. The bud changes into a flower. The dawn turns into morning, morning into noon, noon into afternoon and afternoon into night. It is said, “Today isn't yesterday, we ourselves change. No change is permanent, it's subject to vary. this is often observed altogether spares of activity. Change indeed is painful, yet needful”. Flowing water is wholesome, and stagnant water is poisonous. only it flows through and alters with changes, it's ready to refresh and recreate. Change is an ever-present phenomenon. it's the law of nature. Society isn't in the least a static phenomenon, but it's a dynamic entity. it's an ongoing process. The social organization is subject to incessant changes. Individuals may strive for stability, yet the very fact remains that society is every changing phenomenon; growing, decaying, renewing and accommodating itself to changing conditions. The human composition of societies changes over time, technologies expand, ideologies and values combat new components; institutional functions and structures undergo reshaping. Hence, no society remains complete static. Incessant changeability is extremely inherent nature of human society. A social organization may be a nexus of present relationships. It exists because social beings seek to take care of it. It continues to exist because men demand its continuance. But the prevailing social organization is influenced by many factors and forces that inevitably cause it to vary. Society is thus subject to continuous change. The change of man and society has been the central and quite dominant concern of sociology right from the time when it emerged as branch of learning. the priority for social change is of great importance not only in studying past changes but also in investigating ‘future’ developments. 26 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

2.2 MEANING OF SOCIAL CHANGE Change suggests all varieties in human social orders. At the point when changes happen in the methods of living of people and social connection gets impacted, such changes are called social changes. Social change alludes to the adjustments which occur in life example of individuals. It happens in light of the fact that all social orders are in a steady condition of disequilibrium. The word 'change' means a distinction in anything saw throughout some timeframe. Consequently, social change would mean recognizable contrasts in any friendly marvels throughout any time frame. Social change is the adjustment of society and society is a snare of social co nnections. Thus, social change is an adjustment of social connections. Social connections are social cycles, social examples and social cooperation’s. These incorporate the common exercises and relations of the different pieces of the general public. Subsequently, the term 'social change' is utilized to depict varieties of any part of social cycles, social examples, social association or social association. Social change might be characterized as changes in the social association, that is, the construction and elements of the general public. At whatever point one tracks down that an enormous number of people are occupied with exercises that vary from those which their prompt progenitors were occupied with some time previously, one tracks down a social change. At whatever point human conduct is currently adjustment, one tracks down that social change is happening. Human culture is established of individuals. Social change implies human change, since men are individuals. To change society, as says Davis, is to change man. Scholars of social change concur that in most solid feeling of the word 'change', each friendly framework is changing constantly. The organization of the populace changes through the existence cycle and hence the occupation or jobs changes; the citizenry goes through physiological changes; the proceeding with cooperation’s among part alter perspectives and assumptions; new information is continually being acquired and sent. 27 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

2.3 DEFINITION OF SOCIAL CHANGE The question to what social change actually means is perhaps the most difficult one within the scientific study of change. It involves the often neglected query of what ‘kind’ and degree of change in what is to be considered social change. Most analysts of social change deal with this question implicitly somewhere in their theoretical system or in the context of the latter’s application to some empirical case. For the present purpose it should suffice to examine definitions that are frequently used to conceptualise change. According to Jones “Social change is a term used to describe variations in, or modifications of any aspect of social processes, social patterns, social interaction or social organization”. As Kingsley Davis says, “By Social change is meant only such alternations as occur in social organization – that is, the structure and functions of society”. According to Maclver and Page, “Social change refers to a process responsive to many types of changes; to changes the man in made condition of life; to changes in the attitudes and beliefs of men, and to the changes that go beyond the human control to the biological a nd the physical nature of things”. Morris Ginsberg defines, “By social change, I understand a change in social structure, e.g., the size of the society, the composition or the balance of its parts or the type of its organization”. P. Fairchild defines social change as “variations or modifications in any aspects of social process, pattern or form. B. Kuppuswamy says, “Social change may be defined as the process in which is discernible significant alternation in the structure and functioning of a particular social system”. H.M. Johnson says, “Social change is either change in the structure or quasi- structural aspects of a system of change in the relative importance of coexisting structural pattern”. According to Merrill and Eldredge, “Change means that large number of persons are engaging in activities that differ from those which they or their immediate forefathers engaged in some time before”. Anderson and Parker define, “Social change involves alternations in the structure or functioning of societal forms or processes themselves”. 28 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

According to M.D. Jenson, “Social change may be defined as modification in ways of doing and thinking of people. As H.T. Mazumdar says, “Social change may be defined as a new fashion or mode, either modifying or replacing the old, in the life of people or in the operation of a society”. According Gillin and Gillin, “Social changes are variations from the accepted modes of life; whether due to alternation in geographical conditions, in cultural equipment, composition of the population or ideologies and brought about by diffusion, or inventions within the group. of sociological inquiry. It is so complex and so significant in the life of individual and of society that we have to explore the ‘why’ and ‘how’ of social change in all its ramifications. Characteristics of Social Change: By breaking down every one of the definitions referenced above, we reach at the resolution that the two sort of changes ought to be treated as two realities of a similar social marvel. Two kind of changes are for example (I) changes in the construction of society, (ii) changes in the qualities and normal practices which tie individuals together and help to keep everything under control. These two kinds of changes ought not, nonetheless, be dealt with independently on the grounds that an adjustment of one consequently incites changes in the other. For instance, an adjustment of the demeanour of individuals may achieve changes in the social design. Towards the end of the 19 century, there was a propensity in the nations of Western Europe for families to develop more modest in size. There is an overall arrangement that this has been achieved mostly by deliberate limitation of births\". For this situation, an adjustment of the demeanour of individuals is basically answerable for change in the social construction. Then again, an adjustment of the social design may achieve attitudinal change among the individuals from the general public. Change of rustic culture into mechanical society isn't just an adjustment of the design of society. For instance, industrialization has annihilated homegrown arrangement of creation. The obliteration of homegrown arrangement of creation has carried ladies from home to manufacturing plant and office. The work of ladies gave them another free viewpoint. The mentality of freedom rather than reliance upon men has become the attribute of ladies' actually. Thus, these two sorts of changes ought not be dealt with independently yet the two of them ought to be concentrated together. The issue of social change is one of the focal foci 29 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

The reality of social change has entranced the quickest personalities and still represents a portion of the incredible inexplicable issues in sociologyy. 2. 4 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL CHANGE The marvel of social change isn't straightforward however intricate. It is hard to comprehend this completely. The inexplicable issues are continually compressing us to track down a suitable answer. To comprehend social change well, we need to investigate the idea of social change which are as per the following: 1. Social Change is Social: Society is a \"web of social connections\" and consequently friendly change clearly implies an adjustment of the arrangement of social connections. Social connections are perceived regarding social cycles and social cooperation’s and social associations. Along these lines, the term social change is utilized to portray variety in friendly associations, cycles and social associations. Just that change can be considered social change whose impact can be felt locally structure. The progressions that have impor tance for all or significant fragment of populace can be considered as friendly change. 2. Social Change is Universal: Change is the all- inclusive law of nature. The social construction, social association and social organizations are altogether powerful. Social change happens in all social orders and consistently. No general public remaining parts totally static. Every general public, regardless of how customary and moderate, is continually going through change. Similarly as man's life can't stay static, so does society, all things considered, and times. Here change occur and here struggle separates change. Here there is transformation and here assent. Here men want for accomplishing new objectives, and here they get back to old ones. 3. Social Change happens as an Essential law: Change is the law of nature. Social change is likewise normal. Change is an unavoidable and unchangeable law of nature. Ordinarily we want change. Our requirements continue changing 30 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

to fulfil our longing for change and to fulfil these requirements, social change turns into a need. Truly we are tensely sitting tight for a change. As per Green, \"The eager reaction of progress has become lifestyle. 4. Social Change is Continuous: Society is a consistently evolving marvel. It is going through unlimited changes. It is an \"progressing measure\". These progressions can't be halted. Society is dependent upon nonstop change. Here it develops and rots, there it discovers recharging, adjusts to different evolving conditions. Society is an arrangement of social relationship. Yet, these social connections are rarely lasting. They are liable to change. Society can't be protected in a historical centre to save it from the assaults of time. From the beginning of history, down right up 'til the present time, society has been in transition. Social change shows itself in various phases of mankind's set of experiences. In old occasions when life was restricted to caverns (Stone Age), the social framework was not the same as that of the PC age today. There is no fixity in human connections. Conditions achieve numerous an adjustment of the standards of conduct. 5. Social Change Involves No-Value Judgment: Social change doesn't connect any worth judgment. It is neither good nor shameless, it is flippant. The subject of \"what should be\" is past the idea of social change. The investigation of social change includes no-esteem judgment. It is morally impartial. A right choice on what is observationally evident isn't equivalent to address choice on what should be. 6. Social Change is Bound by Time Factors: Social change is worldly. It occurs through time, since society exists just as a period arrangement. We know its significance completely exclusively by understanding it through time factors. For instance, the standing framework which was a mainstay of dependability in customary Indian culture, is presently going through significant changes in the cutting-edge India. 31 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

There was less industrialisation in India during 50s. However, in 90s, India has gotten more industrialized. Along these lines, the speed of social change varies forever. The explanation is that the variables which cause social change don't stay uniform with the progressions on schedule. 7. Rate and Tempo of Social Change is Uneven: In spite of the fact that social change is an unquestionable requirement for every single society, the rate, rhythm, speed and degree of progress isn't uniform. It varies from one society to another. In certain social orders, its speed is fast; in another it very well might be moderate. What's more, in some different social orders it happens so gradually that it may not be seen by the individuals who live in them. For instance, in the cutting edge, mechanical metropolitan culture the speed and degree of pro gress is quicker than customary, agrarian and provincial society. 8. Definite Prediction of Social Change is Impossible: It is a lot of hard to make out any expectation on the specific types of social change. 1,000 years prior in Asia, Europe and Latin America the substance of society was limitlessly unique in relation to that what exists today. Be that as it may, what the general public will be in a long time from now, nobody can tell. In any case, a change there will be. For instance, industrialisatio n and urbanization has achieved a progression of interrelated changes in our family and marriage framework. Yet, we can't anticipate the specific structures which social connections will expect to be in future. Also, what will be our thoughts, perspectives and worth in future, it is eccentric. 9. Social Change Shows Chain-Reaction Sequences: Society is a unique arrangement of interrelated parts. Changes in a single part of life may incite a progression of changes in different viewpoints. For instance, with the liberation of ladies, instructed young ladies track down the customary sort of family and marriage not exactly fit however they would prefer. 32 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

They think that it’s hard to live with their folk’s in- law, submitting to the mother by marriage at each point. They want separate homes. The security of relationships can presently don't be underestimated. The changing upsides of ladies power men to change their qualities moreover. Subsequently, society is an arrangement of interrelated parts. Change in its one viewpoint may prompt a progression of changes in different parts of the general public. 10. Social Change happens because of Multi-Number of Factors: Social change is the result of various components. A unique factor may trigger a change however it is constantly connected with different variables that make the setting off conceivable. Social change can't be clarified regarding a couple of components in particular and that different factors really join and become the 'reason for' the change. M. Ginsberg notices: \"A reason is a gathering of variables which, in association with one another, go through a change\". There is no single expert key by which we can open every one of the entryways prompting social change. Truly, social change is the result of various elements. 11. Social Changes are Chiefly those of Modifications or of Replacement: Social changes might be considered as alterations or substitutions. It very well might be alteration of actual merchandise or social connections. For instance, the type of our morning meal food has changed. In spite of the fact that we eat similar essential materials like meats, eggs corn and so forth which we ate before, their structure has been changed. Prepared to-eat cornflakes, breads, omelettes are fill in for the structure wherein these equivalent materials were devoured in before years. Further, there might be adjustments of social connections. For instance, the old tyrant family has become the little equalitarian family. Our mentalities towards ladies' status and rights, religion, co-training and so forth stand adjusted today. 12. Social Change might be Small-scale or Large-scale: A line of qualification is drawn between limited scope and enormous scope social change. Limited scope change alludes to changes inside gatherings and associations as opposed to social orders, culture or human advancement. 33 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Concurring W.E. Moore, by limited scope transforms we will mean changes in the qualities of social designs that however included inside the overall framework recognizable as a general public, don't have any prompt and significant ramifications for the summed up structure (society) thusly. 13. Short-term and Long-term Change: The conceptualization of the greatness of progress includes the following trait of progress, the period of time. In other words, a change that might be named 'limited scope from a momentary viewpoint may end up having enormous scope outcomes when seen throughout an extensive stretch of time, as the diminishing passing rate since the 1960 in India embodies. 14. Social Change might be Peaceful or Violent: On occasion, the characteristic 'serene' has been considered as for all intents and purposes inseparable from 'continuous' and 'savage' with 'fast'. The term 'viciousness' oftentimes alludes to the danger or utilization of actual power associated with accomplishing a given change. In certain sense, fast change may 'savagely' influence the feelings, qualities and assumptions for those included. As per W.E. Moore, \"A 'valid' transformation, a fast and central shift in the organizations or regulating codes of society and of its force dispersion, is quick and ceaseless by definition and is probably going to be vicious, however likely could be methodical instead of flighty\". 'Tranquil' has to do with the progressions that happen by assent, acknowledgment or obtaining and that are upheld by the standardizing restrictions of society. 15. Social Change might be Planned or Unplanned: Social change may happen in the characteristic course or it is finished by man purposely. Impromptu change alludes to change coming about because of regular disasters, like starvations and floods, quakes and volcanic ejection and so on So friendly change is called as the unchangeable law of nature. The nature is rarely very still. Arranged social change happens when social changes are adapted by human designing. Plans, projects and tasks are made by man to decide and control the course of social change. 34 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Other than that essentially individuals want change. The interest of a man never rests; nothing checks his longing to know. There is consistently an anomaly about obscure. The necessities of individuals are changing step by step. So, to fulfil these requirements they want change. 16. Social Change may be Endogenous or Exogenous: Endogenous social change alludes to the change brought about by the elements that are produced by society or a given subsystem of society. Struggle, correspondence, regionalism and so on are a portion of the instances of endogenous social change. Then again, exogenous wellsprings of social change by and large view society as an essentially steady, all around coordinated framework that is upset or modified simply by the effect of powers outside to the framework (e.g., world circumstance, wars, starvation) or by new factors brought into the framework from different social orders. For instance, mechanical exchange and cerebrum channel, political and social dominion may prompt the dissemination of social characteristics past the constraints of single social orders. 17. Change Within and Change of the System: The differentiation between sorts of progress has been created by Talcott Parsons in his examination of progress 'inside' and change 'of the framework, i.e., the efficient cycle of continuous change inside the limits of a framework, rather than the interaction bringing about changes of the design of the framework viable. Struggle scholars cause us to notice the way that the aggregate impact of progress 'inside' the framework may bring about a difference in the framework. 2.5 TYPE OF SOCIAL CHANGE: From the ensuing discussion it appears that social change can be categorised to two types: (1) Evolutionary Social Change (2) Revolutionary Social Change. 2.5.1 Evolutionary Social Changes: Evolutionary changes occur in course of a long period slowly and gradually and through evolutionary process. Such changes are not very drastic or remarkable. They proceed 35 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

gradually like the process of conditioning and people learn to adjust with such changes gradually. During our school and college days we were wearing saree and nobody then could dream of a married any a women wearing even Salwar and Kameez. We also used to put veil on our head, after marriage. I remember after my marriage in 1960, I used to put veil on my head for 35 years while in job and at home as well. But this system has changed gradually. Now what about girls, married women is Orissa also wear Salwar Kameez, various other western dress and normally do not put veil on their head. This practice has been gradual and it has also been accepted by parents, relations in laws and other members of the society. So much so that when today a girl attends, college wearing a saree others around look at her with raised eyebrows. Even some of her friends start joking at her calling her ‘Chudaa’. means, old fashioned. Using lipstick and going to beauty parlours were considered as taboos so for women in Orissa some decades back. But now even college going girls including many women teachers go to school and colleges using various kinds of make-up. This is not considered a taboo now. Gradually people have adjusted to such evolutionary changes may be due to urbanization and western influence. Some years back while I was in Government job and went to Delhi to attend a meeting, one of my lady colleagues who was also attending the same meeting wanted to go to a beauty parlour on our way back to hotel. She also asked me to join her. But she was astonished when I told her that I have never visited a beauty parlour even when I was young and I would not like to do it now. Though I as a member of the society have accommodated to certain social changes which I consider beneficial or may be not harmful, I do not accommodate to those changes which are harmful for our society for our social values, culture and finally our conduct in the society. Still many people are there is the society who follow me. People are able to adjust better with evolutionary social changes as the process is slow and gradual and hence easy to adjust. We also find today many male members wearing pants and shirts while sitting in Puja which was not acceptable several years back. 36 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Use of Jeans and T. shirts in place of half pants and shirts have become common sights in schools and colleges, in public life and members of the society have gradually coped with this. Even old and aged people of India are now found wearing such westernised dresses without any conflict or guilt feeling, since society has gradually accepted it. Similarly, women going for higher education, studying in coeducational institutions, do join army, navy and air force, for becoming pilots, going to space to join politics, doing various jobs which were earlier meant for men only. Doing various jobs outside the domestic front, which were not acceptable several decades back for women is now accepted. Husbands in Indian society doing domestic chores which were not acceptable hundred years back have become common practices to-day in Indian societies. This has been possible due to gradual, evolutionary socia l change. This change has not occurred instantly, suddenly, abruptly. Earlier many people did not pay tax, but now people have developed the mind set to pay tax considering it as legal and are paying tax voluntarily. These are simple examples of important evolutionary changes which occur gradually within sufficient time perspective. 2.5.2 Revolutionary Changes: It is the opposite of evolutionary change. When the changes in various sectors of our social system occur suddenly, drastically and sufficiently so as to differentiate it from gradual, slow change, it is called revolutionary social change. The change in other words is great in degree, remarkable. The changes are such that they change the whole social order and the course or style of living, conduct and concept of dos and don’ts. They are a matter of kind which occurs due to some movement, revolution war, rapid technological changes, due to sudden change in social events. They occur very quickly and within a short period or short duration. Let us take some examples. The changes in social structure and social system which occurred after various famous revolutions like the French, the Russian, the Chinese and the American Revolution and more recently the revolutionary changes that occurred or are still occ urring in various Afro-Asian countries occur due to revolutions and movements India’s freedom movement or revolution for independence from ‘British Raj’ is a case of revolutionary movement. 37 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Besides India’s small or big movements to eradicate the evils of colonialism, caste and class system economic disparity, tribal life style, superstition, to fight against suppression and oppression, are valid examples. Introduction of widow marriage, abolition of child marriage, and Satidaha Pratha, acceptance of inter-caste and inter religion marriage are to some extent examples of revolutionary change. In short, those remarkable and drastic changes which occur in the social system of a country or society in a very short span of time are possible due to revolution and mo vements big or small. Such drastic changes not only change the life style of people in a society, they also transform the relationship between individual across countries including within the countries. Various cross cultural studies lead to support this observation. Attitude change is an important example of the effect of social change which may happen either due to evolutionary or revolutionary change. Because of various social changes attitude of people also change towards the social system. It is therefore rightly viewed that man is not only an agent, but also a target of social change. In short, man is indispensable in bringing social changes as well as is influenced by the same social changes. He makes or changes the society where he lives and is again influenced by such a changed society. Social activities who fight against dowry system and are able to pass a law in that regard are also influenced by the abolition of dowry system. When their sons and daughters get married they cannot claim or give dowry. 2.6 THEORIES OF SOCIAL CHANGE The 5 theories of social change are as follows: one. evolutionary Theory a pair of. 2 Theory 3. Economic (Mandan) Theory of Social change four. Conflict Theory five. Technological Theory. A variety of reasons are offered throughout history to elucidate why social change happens. the matter of explaining social change was central to nineteenth century social science. several earlier theories of society that claimed to be scientific were really theories of amendment. They sought-after to elucidate this in terms of the past. Comte, the French social scientist, who coined the term ‘sociology’ delineate society as ranging from the ‘logical’ stage, passing through a ‘metaphysical’ stage and eventually reaching a ‘positivistic’ stage. 38 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Many different theories were propounded to outline and justify social modification. Broadly, theories of nineteenth century could also be divided into theories of social evolution (Saint- Simon, Comte, Spencer, Durkheim etc.) and theories of social revolution (Marx). Among the overall theoretical explanations offered for understanding social modification are geographical, biological, economic and cultural. of these we've mentioned within the previous section. Theories of social amendment is divided into 2 groups: (1) Theories with reference to the direction of social change: Various varieties of evolutionary theories, and alternate theory. (2) Theories with reference to causing of change: (a) Those explaining change in terms of endogamous factors or processes; and (b) Those emphasising exogamous factors like economic, cultural or historical. 1. evolutionary Theory: Despite the big variety within the attainable directions modification could take, varied generalisations are set forth. as a result of the ton of human beings usually has improved over the future, out and away the foremost varied categories of theories of the direction of modification comprise varied additive or evolutionary trends. Though' varied in some ways, these theories share a very important conclusion that the course of man’s history is marked up ‘upward’ trend through time. The notion of evolution came into social sciences from the theories of biological evolution. With the arrival of Darwinian Theory of biological evolution, society and culture began to be considered undergoing a similar changes and demonstrating a similar trends. It was planned that society and culture were subject to a similar general laws of biological and organism growth. Some thinkers even known evolution with progress and proceeded to project into the longer term a lot of and a lot of excellent and better-adapted social and cultural forms. Charles Darwin (1859), country scientist, who propounded the idea of biological evolution, showed that species of organisms have evolved from difficult} organisms to a lot of complicated organisms through the processes of variations and survival. when Darwin, 39 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

‘evolution’, in fact, became the thrill word altogether intellectual inquiry and Darwin and sociologist were the key names of an era within the history of thought. Herbert Spencer (1890), World Health Organization is understood to be the forerunner of this evolutionary thought in social science, took the position that social science is “the study of evolution in its most advanced form”. For him, evolution could be a method of differentiation and integration. Bask Assumptions and Distinctive options Of The evolutionary Chang: The basic assumption of this theory is that modification is that the characteristic feature of human society. this ascertained condition of the society is likely to be the results of modification within the past. Another assumption is that modification is inevitable or it's ‘natural’. It was assumed that the amendment is essentially the results of operation o f forces inside the society or culture. Underlying all theories of evolution, there exists a belief of infinite improvement within the next stage over the preceding one. All these assumptions is summarised as under: 1. That amendment is inevitable and natural. 2. That change is gradual and continuous. 3. That change is successive and insures stages. 4. that each one sequential stages of modification are higher over preceding stage, i.e., evolution is progressive. 5. That stages of modification are non-reversible. 6. That forces of modification are inherent within the object. 7. That the direction of modification is from easy to advanced, from homogeneity to no uniformity, from uniform to the differentiated in type and performance. 8. that each one society undergo same stages of development. All thinking of early sociologists was dominated by a conception of man and society as seen progressing up definite steps of evolution leading through each bigger quality to some conclusion of perfection. The notion of evolutionary principles was extraordinarily fashionable British anthropologists and sociologists of nineteenth century. 40 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Such as Morgan (1877), Tyler (1889), sociologist (1890) and Hobhouse (1906). though evolutionary theory in social science is attributed to Herbert Spencer, it's clear that it had been taken with a pinch of salt by writers as various as sociologist, Karl Marx, Engels and V. Gordon Childe. The fact that it had been employed by each radical and conservative theorist is indicative of the profound cultural importance of evolutionism within the nineteenth century thought. The conception of evolution was applied not solely to the event of societies however conjointly to art, literature, music, philosophy, sciences, religion, economic and political life (state) and nearly each different accomplishment of the mind of man. each sociologist and Durkheim utilized the conception of structural differentiation to point that as society develops a lot of functions, it becomes structurally a lot of advanced. this attitude has been careful a lot of recently by sociologist. The general evolutionary model of society is delineating by an oversized range of specific theories. C.H. Saint-Simon, one in all the earliest founders of social science, at the side of Comte, as an example, place associate degree evolutionary plan of social development, as a successive progression of organic societies representing increasing levels of advancement. His 3 stages were later careful in Comte’s biological process theme. Isidore Auguste Marie Francois Comte joined developments in human data, culture and society and pictured the subsequent 3 nice stages through that all societies should go—those of conquest, defense and trade. Societies responded to 3 stages—the primitive, the negotiator and also the scientific, that corresponded to the varieties of human data (thought). He conceived those ranges as progressing from the theological thru the metaphysical to reach in the long run on the perfection of high-quality reasoning. He argued all mankind unavoidably surpassed thru those ranges because it evolved, suggesting each unilinear path and development. Spencer additionally displayed a linear idea of evolutionary ranges. He argued that the fashion of human societies become from easy, undifferentiated wholes to complicated and heterogeneous ones, in which the components of the entire emerge as greater specialized however remained integrated. William Graham Sumner (1934), who has been labelled as a ‘Social Darwinist’ extensively utilized the concept of evolution, as had Spencer, to dam efforts at reform and social extrude, arguing that social evolution ought to comply with its personal path, dictated through nature. 41 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

He stated: “It is the finest folly of which a person may be capable, to take a seat down with a slate and pencil to plot out a brand-new social world.” The evolutionary technique to social improvement become additionally observed through radical thinkers, together with Marx and Engels, who have been significantly inspired through the paintings of the anthropologist L.H. Morgan, who sought to show that each one societies went thru constant ranges of improvement every succeeding the different, from savagery thru barbarism to civilisation. Marx and Engels maintained that every degree of civilisation, together with feudalism, organized the floor for the subsequent. It contained inside itself “the seeds of its personal destruction”, and could unavoidably be succeeded through that degree next ‘better’ on the dimensions of evolution. O n this foundation they concluded that the subsequent degree in social evolution after the degree of capitalism may be attained best through violent revolution. All those theories are known as unilinear theories of social evolution. Durkheim’s view of the innovative department of labour in society and German sociologist Ferdinand Tonnies’ view of gemeinschaft and gesellschaft styles of society to a point additionally constitute the evolutionary angle however their schemes of classifying societies are much less sweeping and much less explicit, and are, consequently known as quasi- evolutionary theories. For Durkheim the maximum essential measurement of society become the diploma of specialisation, as he known as it, “the department of labour”. He believed that there has been an ancient fashion, or evolution, from a low to an excessive diploma of specialisation. Durkheim prominent fundamental styles of society on the premise of this department of labour—the primary primarily based totally on mechanical harmony and the second one on natural harmony. Durkheim believed that this 2nd kind constantly advanced from and succeeded the primary because the diploma of specialisation, the department of labour, increased. Tonnies’ gemeinschaft kind of society corresponded pretty nicely to Durkheim’s mechanical harmony and the second one gesellschaft to natural harmony. Numerous different pupils positioned forth comparable thoughts. The scheme of the American anthropologist Robert Redfield, who elaborated at the evaluation between ‘folk’ and ‘urban’ society, reiterates the identical primary dichotomy of social kinds cautioned through Durkheim and Tonnies. Modem theorist Talcott Parsons additionally regarded social extrade as a manner of ‘social evolution’ from easy to greater complicated shape of society. He regards modifications in 42 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

edition as a main riding pressure of social evolution. The records of human society from easy searching and collecting band to the complicated geographical region represents a boom withinside the ‘popular adaptive capability of society. Types of Evolutionary Theory: There are 3 fundamental styles of evolutionary idea: (1) Theory of Unilinear Evolution: It postulates the straight-line, ordered or innovative nature of social extrade. According to this idea, extrade constantly proceeds towards a predestined purpose in a unilinear style. There isn't any area of repetition of the identical degree on this idea. Followers of this sample of extrade argue that society regularly movements to a fair better country of civilisation which advances in a linear style and withinside the path of improvement. The tempo of this transformation can be speedy or slow. In brief, linear speculation states that each one components of society extrade always in a sure path, in no way faltering, in no way repeating themselves. Theories of Saint-Simon, Comte, Morgan, Marx and Engels, and lots of different anthropologists and sociologists come beneath the class of unilinear theories of social evolution due to the fact they're primarily based totally on the idea that every society does, certainly ought to, by skip thru a hard and fast and restricted number of ranges in a given sequence. Such theories lengthy ruled the sociological scene. (2) Universal Theory of Evolution: It is a touch bit version shape of unilinear evolution which states that each society does now no longer always undergo the identical constant ranges of improvement. It argues, instead, that the way of life of mankind, taken as an entire, has observed a particular line of evolution. Spencer’s perspectives may be labelled beneath this angle who stated that mankind had stepped forward from small organizations to big and from easy to compound and in greater popular terms, from homogenous to the heterogeneous. The anthropologist Leslie White has been a main exponent of this conception. Similar thoughts have been significantly elaborated through William Ogbum, who harassed the function of invention in social extrade. On this foundation he gave start to the well-known idea of ‘cultural lag’ which states that extrade in our non-cloth way of life, i.e., in our 43 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

thoughts and social arrangements, constantly lag in the back of modifications in cloth way of life, i.e., in our generation and invention. (3) Multilinear Theory of Evolution: This logo of evolutionism has greater these days evolved and is greater sensible than the unilinear and regular logo of evolutionary extrade. Multilinear evolution is an idea, which tries to account for diversity. It basically way identity of various sequential styles for unique way of life or styles of cultures. This idea holds that extrade can arise in numerous approaches and that it does now no longer unavoidably lead withinside the identical path. Theorists of this persuasion understand that human way of life has advanced alongside some of lines. Those who percentage this angle, together with Julian Steward (1960), try to provide an explanation for neither the straight- line evolution of every society, nor the development of mankind as an entire, however instead give attention to a lot greater restricted sequences of improvement. It does pick out a few social traits as simply regular: the development from smaller to larger, easier to greater complicated, rural to urban, and coffee generation to better generation however it recognises that those can come approximately in diverse approaches and with wonderful consequences. This idea is associated with what's referred to as episodic technique, which stresses the significance of injuries and precise ancient, social and environmental occasions that assist to provide an explanation for a selected path of social extrade. Later on, the perspectives of Leslie White and Julian Steward have been named as neo-evolutionism. Criticism of Evolutionary Theory: Evolutionary scheme (slow and non-stop improvement in ranges) of any type fell below each theoretical and empirical assault withinside the final century. It became criticised closely on many grounds however particularly for its sweeping or over-generalisation approximately historic sequences, uniform ranges of improvement and evolutionary price of extrade. The organic evolution, from which the principle thoughts of social evolution have been borrowed, furnished fairly clumsy and unsatisfactory answers. Such reasons got here below assault for loss of evidence. Evolutionary scales have been additionally wondered from a fairly different, however greater empirical supply. The clean 44 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

assumption that societies advanced from easy to complicated forms, became particularly primarily based totally on a scale of major efficient generation became out to be unwarranted. The doctrine of ‘cultural relativity’ inhibited even static or cross-sectional generalisation, furnished a brand- new foundation for pleasant the not unusual place capabilities of societies. The evolutionary scheme additionally didn't specify the systematic traits of evolving societies or institutions and additionally the mechanisms and methods of extrade via which the transition from one level to some other became effected. Most of the classical evolutionary colleges tended to factor out widespread reasons of extrade (economic, technological or religious etc.) or a few widespread fashions to complexity inherent withinside the improvement of societies. Very frequently they harassed such widespread inclinations with the reasons of extrade or assumed that the overall inclinations provide an explanation for concrete times of extrade. Because of the above shortcomings, the evolutionary idea is much less famous today. A main current theorist Anthony Giddens (1979) has continually attacked on evolutionism and functionalism of any brand. He rejects them as the ideal technique to below status society and social extrade. Spencer’s positive idea is appeared with a few scepticisms. It is stated that boom may also create social issues as opposed to social progress. Modern sociology has tended to forget about or maybe to reject this idea, particularly as it became too uncritically implemented with the aid of using an in advance technology of sociologists. In spite of its all weaknesses, it has a totally big area withinside the interpretation of social extrade. The latest tentative revival in an evolutionary angle is intently associated with developing hobby in historic and comparative studies. 2. Cyclical Theory: Cyclical extrade is a version on unilinear idea which became advanced with the aid of using Oswald Spengler (Decline of the West, 1918) and Arnold J. Toynbee (A Study of History, 1956). They argued that societies and civilisations extrade in step with cycles of upward push, decline and fall simply as man or woman humans are born, mature, develop old, and die. According to German philosopher Spengler, each society has a predetermined lifestyles cycle—birth, boom, adulthood and decline. Society, after passing via these types o f ranges of lifestyles cycle, returns to the authentic level and for that reason the cycle starts off evolved once more. 45 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

On the premise of his evaluation of Egyptian, Greek Roman and plenty of different civilisations, he concluded that the Western civilisation is now on its decline. The international famed British historian Toynbee has additionally upheld this idea. He has studied the records of diverse civilisations and has discovered that each civilisation has its upward push, improvement and fall which include the civilisation of Egypt. They have all come and gone, repeating a recurrent cycle of birth, boom, breakdown and decay. He propounded the idea of “project and response” because of this that that folks that can deal with a converting surroundings live on and people who cannot die. Thus, a society can develop and live on if it may constructively reply to the challenges. Cyclical idea of extrade or on occasion called ‘upward push and truthful idea presumes that social phenomena of anything type recur o nce more and once more, precisely as they have been earlier than in a cyclical fashion. A version of cyclical method is the idea of a famous American sociologist P.A. Sorokin (Social and Cultural Dynamics, 1941), which is understood as ‘pendular idea of social extrade’. He considers the route of records to be non-stop, alevin though irregular, fluctuating among primary styles of cultures: the ‘sensate’ and the ‘ideational’ via the ‘idealistic’. According to him, subculture oscillates just like the pendulum of a clock among points. The pendulum of a clock swings with the passage of time, however in the long run it involves its authentic function and re-proceeds to its preceding journey. Thus, it's far similar to a cyclical method however oscillating in character. A sensate subculture is one which appeals to the senses and sensual desires. It is hedonistic in its ethics and stresses technology and empiricism. On the opposite hand, the ideational subculture is one wherein expressions of art, literature, faith and ethics do now no longer attraction to the senses however to the thoughts or the spirit. It is greater summary and symbolic than the sensate subculture. The pendulum of subculture swings from sensate pole and leads closer to the ideational pole via the centre pole called ‘idealistic’ subculture, that's a combined shape of sensate and ideational cultures—a fairly solid aggregate of religion, reason, and senses because the supply of truth. Sorokin locations contemporary European and American cultures withins ide the final level of disintegration of sensate subculture, and argues that best manner out of our ‘crisis’ is a brand new synthesis of religion and sensation. There isn't any different possibility. 46 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

In Sorokin’s evaluation of cultures, we discover the seeds of each the theories—cyclical and linear extrade. In his view, subculture may also continue in a given path for a time and for that reason seem to comply to a linear formula. But, eventually, due to forces which can be inherent withinside the subculture itself, there can be shift of path and a brand new length of improvement can be ushered in. This new fashion can be linear, possibly it's far oscillating or it is able to agree to a few precise sort of curve. Vilfredo Pareto’s (1963) concept of ‘Circulation of Elites’ is likewise basically of this variety. According to this concept, important social extrade in society takes place whilst one elite replaces another, a system Pareto calls it ‘flow of elites. All elites generally tend to grow to be decadent withinside the route of time. They ‘decay in quality’ and lose their ‘ vigour’. According to Marx, records in the end results in and ends with the communist Utopia, while records to Pareto is an unending circulation of elites. He stated that societies by skip thru the intervals of political vigour and decline which repeat themselves in a cyclical fashion. Functionalis m and Social Change: Functionalism, as a brand new technique of take a look at of society, evolved particularly as a response to evolutionism, withinside the early years of 20th century. Critics of evolutionism endorsed that there has been little need to realize the primary look of any object of subculture and social behaviour. They know as it the “fruitless quest for origin”. One of the maximum extensive assumptions of functionalists is that society (or subculture) is constituted of functionally interdependent components or the device as a whole. These theorists believed that the society, like human body, is a balanced device of establishments, every of which serves a characteristic in retaining society. When occasions outdoor or within the society’ disrupts the equilibrium, social group makes modifications to repair stability. This essential assumption have become the principle foundation of the cr itics of functionalism to rate that if the device is in equilibrium with its numerous components contributing in the direction of order and stability, it's far tough to look the way it modifications. Critics (broadly speaking war theorists) argued that fictionists don't have any good enough clarification of extrade. They can't account for extrade, in that there seems to be no mechanism a good way to disturb current useful relationships. Thus, functionalists don't have anything or little or no to provide to the take a look at of social extrade as this technique is involved best approximately the upkeep of the device, i.e., how 47 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

social order is maintained withinside the society. G. Homans, in certainly considered one among his articles “Bringing guys back” (1964) confused that the dominant function withinside the functionalist version is an inherent tendency in the direction of stability. Society can also additionally extrade, however it stays solid thru new styles of integration. The functionalists spoke back to this rate with the aid of using ideas which include equilibrium and differentiation. For instance, a main proponent of functionalist technique, Talcott Parsons methods this hassle withinside the following way: He maintained, no device is in a great nation of equilibrium even though a positive diploma of equilibrium is important for the survival of societies. Changes arise in a single a part of society, there ought to be modifications in different components. If this doesn't arise, the society’s equilibrium could be disturbed and stress will arise. The system of social extrade can consequently be notion of as a ‘transferring equilibrium’. Parsons’s perspectives social extrade as a system of ‘social evolution’ from easy to greater complicated shape of society. Social evolution entails a system of social differentiation. The establishments arid roles which shape the social device grow to be more and more differentiated and specialized in phrases in their characteristic. As the components of society grow to be an increasing number of specialized and distinct, it will increase the hassle of integration of components which in flip set forth the system of social extrade and social equilibrium. Some fans of functionalism argued that if it's far a concept of social persistence (stability), then it ought to be additionally a concept of extrade. In the system of variation of social establishments in a society, extrade is a vital situation or as a substitute it's far impending in it. Thus, you possibly can provide an explanation for modifications withinside the financial system as variations to different economics or to the polity, or modifications withinside the own circle of relatives shape in phrases of variation to different establishments, and so on. In an article ‘Dialectic and Functionalism’ (ASR, 1963), P. Van den Berghe states that in keeping with useful concept extrade can also additionally come from 3 important sources: 1. Adjustment to outside disturbances which include a recession in global trade. 2. Structural differentiation in reaction to issues withinside the device, e.g., electoral reforms in reaction to political unrest. 3. Creative improvements withinside the device, e.g., medical discoveries or technological advances. 48 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

3. Economic (Mandan) Theory of Social Change: Owing in large part to the have an effect on of Marx and Marxism, the financial concept of extrade is likewise called the Marxian concept of extrade. Of route, financial interpretations of social extrade want now no longer be continually Marxist, however none of the opposite versions (which include Veblen who additionally confused on fabric and financial factor) of the doctrine are pretty as vital as Marxism. The Marxian concept rests in this fundamental intellectual assumption that modificatio ns withinside the financial ‘infra-shape’ of society are the top movers of social extrade. For Marx, society includes structures—’infra-shape’ and ‘super-shape’. The ‘infra-shape’ includes the ‘forces of manufacturing’ and ‘family members of manufacturing’. The ‘super-shape’ is composed of these functions of the social device, which include legal, ideological, political and spiritual institutions, which serve to keep the ‘infra-shape’, and that are moulded with the aid of using it. To be greater clear, in keeping with Marx, efficient forces represent ‘approach of manufacturing’ (herbal resources, land, labour, uncooked fabric, machines, gear and different contraptions of manufacturing) and ‘mode of manufacturing’ (strategies of manufacturing, intellectual and ethical behaviour of human beings) each and their stage of improvement determines the social relation of manufacturing, i.e., manufacturing family members. These manufacturing family members (elegance family members) represent the financial shape of society—the totality of manufacturing family members. Thus, the socio-financial shape of society is essentially decided with the aid of using the nation of efficient forces. For Marx, the contradiction among the continuously converting and developing ‘efficient forces’ and the solid ‘manufacturing family members’ is the demiurge of all social improvement or social extrade. Basic Postulates: Change is the order of nature and society. It is inherent withinside the rely via the contradiction of forces. Marx wrote: “Matter is goal fact, present outdoor and impartial of the thoughts. The hobby of the thoughts does now no longer get up impartial of the cloth. Everything intellectual or religious is the fabricated from the cloth method.” The international, through its very nature is cloth. Everything which exists comes into being on the premise of cloth route, arises and develops in accordance with the legal guidelines of movement of rely. Things come into being, exist 49 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

and end to exist, now no longer every impartial of all different matters however every in its dating with others. Things cannot be understood every one by one and through itself however best of their relation and interconnections. The international does now no longer include everlasting strong matters with specific houses however of never-ending methods of nature wherein matters undergo an alternate of entering being and passing away. For Marx, manufacturing gadget is the lever of all social modifications, and this gadget is dynamic. Need gadget determines manufacturing and the technological order, i.e., mode of manufacturing. It is man’s cloth requirements which can be at the basis of his effective effort, which in its flip is the fundamentals of all different sorts of his life. Marx believed that alternate happens via contradiction of forces and that is gift all through the records in a few or the opposite shape. In the ‘Preface’ of his enormous paintings Capital: A Critique of Political Economy Marx’s entire philosophy of social alternate is summarised: “At a sure degree in their improvement, the cloth forces of manufacturing in society come into warfare with the present family members of manufacturing or with the belongings family members inside which they have been at paintings before. From sorts of improvement of the forces of manufacturing those family members change into their fetters. Then comes the duration of social revolution with the alternate of the financial foundation, the whole mammoth superstructure is extra or much less swiftly transformed.” Thus, the primary thrust of the Preface is the emphasis on modifications withinside the financial base (mode of manufacturing), and those in flip produce ideologies which result in humans to combat out social struggles. As it stands, this materialist idea of records absolutely encourages us to regard ‘evolution’ of the financial base as the important thing to social alternate—what Engels known as ‘the regulation of improvement of human records’. Marx regarded the route of records (social alternate) in phrases of the philosophy of ‘dialectics’. (A concept borrowed from Hegel however Marx known as it materialistic. According to Hegel, evolution proceeds in keeping with a gadget of 3 tiers—thesis, antithesis and synthesis). Accordingly, the alternate, improvement, and development take area through manner of contradiction and warfare and that the ensuing alternate ends in a better unity. In particular, Marx regarded the elegance conflict and the transition from one social gadget to some other as a dialectical method wherein the ruling elegance regarded as ‘thesis’ evoked its 50 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)