CU - BA - Sem IV - English Literature-IV

["\uf0b7 Dorian, N. C., \u201cAbrupt Transmission Failure in Obsolescing Languages: How Sudden the \u2018Tip\u2019 to the Dominant Language in Communities and Families?\u201d Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society (1986) \uf0b7 Foot, H. and May McCreaddie, \u201cHumour and Laughter,\u201d in The Handbook of Communication Skills, ed. Owen Hargie (New York, NY: Routledge, 2006). \uf0b7 Hargie, O. Skilled Interpersonal Interaction: Research, Theory, and Practice (London: Routledge, 2011) \uf0b7 Hayakawa, S. I. and Alan R. Hayakawa, Language in Thought and Action, 5th ed. (San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace, 1990) Textbook references \uf0b7 Martin, J. N. and Thomas K. Nakayama, Intercultural Communication in Contexts, 5th ed. (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2010) \uf0b7 McCornack, S., Reflect and Relate: An Introduction to Interpersonal Communication (Boston, MA: Bedford\/St Martin\u2019s, 2007) \uf0b7 McKay, M., Martha Davis, and Patrick Fanning, Messages: Communication Skills Book, 2nd ed. (Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications, 1995) \uf0b7 Huang, L., \u201cTechnology: Textese May Be the Death of English,\u201d Newsweek, August 2011, 8. \uf0b7 Humphrys, J., \u201cI h8 txt msgs: How Texting Is Wrecking Our Language,\u201d Daily Mail, September 24, 2007, accessed June 7, 2012 \uf0b7 Martin, J. N. and Thomas K. Nakayama, Intercultural Communication in Contexts, 5th ed. (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2010) \uf0b7 McCornack, S., Reflect and Relate: An Introduction to Interpersonal Communication (Boston, MA: Bedford\/St Martin\u2019s, 2007) Website \uf0b7 Egocentricity in Child Language | Forms | Human Behaviour | Psychology \uf0b7 Relationship between Thought and Language | Human Behaviour | Psychology \uf0b7 Sex Behaviour of an Individual | Forms | Human Behaviour | Psychology \uf0b7 Brain Function and Language Behaviour | Human Behaviour | Psychology 101","UNIT \u2013 9 PHONOLOGY: MINIMAL PAIRS, DISTINCTIVE FEATURES, FORM AND MEANING STRUCTURE 9.0 Learning Objectives 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Phonology: Minimal Pairs, Distinctive Features, Form and Meaning 9.3 Summary 9.4 Keywords 9.5 Learning Activity 9.6 Unit End Questions 9.7 References 9.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. Understand the system of sound and sound combinations in English (Phonology). 2. Understand how sounds are produced, how they are transmitted, and how they are perceived (Phonetics). 3.Differentiate between consonants and vowels. 4. Pronounce English sounds in isolation and in connected speech. 5. Differentiate between consonants and vowels in all word-positions. 6. Distinguish phonemes and allophones. 7. Know the structure of the English syllable. 8. Know the different types of stress in English. 9. Distinguish strong and weak forms. 10. Know different connected speech processes, such as assimilation, elision, linking, etc. 11. Know the different intonation patterns of English. 102","9.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter introduces phonology, the study of the sound systems of language. Its key objective is to: \uf0b7 introduce the notion of phonological rule \uf0b7 explain the nature of sound as a physical phenomenon \uf0b7 highlight the trade-off between accuracy and usefulness in representing sound \uf0b7 distinguish between phonetics and phonology \uf0b7 contrast the continuous and discrete aspects of linguistic sounds \uf0b7 introduce the notion of \u201csound as cognitive symbol\u201d Phonology is one of the core fields that composes the discipline of linguistics, which is defined as the scientific study of language structure. One way to understand what the subject matter of phonology is, is to contrast it with other fields within linguistics. A very brief explanation is that phonology is the study of sound structure in language, which is different from the study of sentence structure (syntax) or word structure (morphology), or how languages change over time (historical linguistics). This definition is very simple, and also inadequate. An important feature of the structure of a sentence is how it is pronounced \u2013 its sound structure. The pronunciation of a given word is also a fundamental part of the structure of the word. And certainly the principles of pronunciation in a language are subject to change over time. So the study of phonology eventually touches on other domains of linguistics. 9.2 PHONOLOGY: MINIMAL PAIRS, DISTINCTIVE FEATURES, FORM AND MEANING MINIMAL PAIRS: In phonology, minimal pairs are pairs of words or phrases in a particular language, spoken or signed, that differ in only one phonological element, such as a phoneme, tone me or chroneme, and have distinct meanings. They are used to demonstrate that two phones represent two separate phonemes in the language. Many phonologists in the middle part of the 20th century had a strong interest in developing techniques for discovering the phonemes of unknown languages, and in some cases, they set up writing systems for the languages. The major work of Kenneth Pike on the subject 103","is Phonemics: a technique for reducing languages to writing. The minimal pair was an essential tool in the discovery process and was found by substitution or commutation tests. As an example for English vowels, the pair \\\"let\\\" + \\\"lit\\\" can be used to demonstrate that the phones [\u025b] (in let) and [\u026a] (in lit) actually represent distinct phonemes \/\u025b\/ and \/\u026a\/. An example for English consonants is the minimal pair of \\\"pat\\\" + \\\"bat\\\". The following table shows other pairs demonstrating the existence of various distinct phonemes in English. All of the possible minimal pairs for any language may be set out in the same way. word 1 word 2 IPA 1 IPA 2 note initial consonant pin bin \/p\u026an\/ \/b\u026an\/ vowel rot lot \/r\u0252t\/ \/l\u0252t\/ thigh thy \/\u03b8a\u026a\/ \/\u00f0a\u026a\/ seal zeal \/si\u02d0l\/ \/zi\u02d0l\/ bin bean \/b\u026an\/ \/bi\u02d0n\/ pen pan \/p\u025bn\/ \/p\u00e6n\/ cook kook \/k\u028ak\/ \/ku\u02d0k\/ hat had \/h\u00e6t\/ \/h\u00e6d\/ final consonant mean meme \/mi\u02d0n\/ \/mi\u02d0m\/ Phonemic differentiation may vary between different dialects of a language so a particular minimal pair in one accent may be a pair of homophones in another. That means not that one of the phonemes is absent in the homonym accent but only that it is not contrastive in the same range of contexts. Types In addition to the minimal pairs of vowels and consonants provided above, others may be found: 1. Quantity Many languages show contrasts between long and short vowels and consonants. A distinctive difference in length is attributed by some phonologists to a unit called a chroneme. Thus, Italian has the following minimal pair that is based on long and short \/l\/. 2. Syntactic gemination In some languages like Italian, word-initial consonants are geminated after certain vowel-final words in the same prosodic unit. Sometimes, the phenomenon can create some syntactic- gemination-minimal-pairs. 3. Tone 104","Minimal pairs for tone contrasts in tone languages can be established; some writers refer to that as a contrast involving a toneme. For example, Kono, of Sierra Leone, distinguishes high tone and low tone on syllables. 4.Stress Languages in which stress may occur in different positions within the word often have contrasts that can be shown in minimal pairs, as in Greek and Spanish. In English stress can determine the part of speech of a word: insult as a noun is \/\u02c8\u026ans\u028clt\/ while as a verb it is \/\u026an\u02c8s\u028clt\/. In certain cases it can also differentiate two words: below \/b\u026a\u02c8lo\u028a\/ vs billow \/\u02c8b\u026alo\u028a\/. 5. Juncture Anglophones can distinguish between, for example, \\\"great ape\\\" and \\\"grey tape\\\", but phonemically, the two phrases are identical: \/\u0261re\u026ate\u026ap\/. The difference between the two phrases, which constitute a minimal pair, is said to be one of juncture. At the word boundary, a \\\"plus juncture\\\" \/+\/ has been posited and said to be the factor conditioning allophones to allow distinctivity: in this example, the phrase \\\"great ape\\\" has an \/e\u026a\/ diphthong shortened by pre- fortis clipping and, since it is not syllable-initial, a \/t\/ with little aspiration (variously [t\u02ed], [\u027e], [\u0294t], [\u0294], etc., depending on dialect); meanwhile in \\\"grey tape\\\", the \/e\u026a\/ has its full length and the \/t\/ is aspirated [t\u02b0]. Only languages with allophonic differences associated with grammatical boundaries may have juncture as a phonological element. There is disagreement over whether or not French has phonological juncture: it seems likely that the difference between, for example, \\\"des petits trous\\\" (some little holes) and \\\"des petites roues\\\" (some little wheels), phonemically both \/dep\u0259tit\u0281u\/, is only perceptible in slow, careful speech. Distinctive features In linguistics, a distinctive feature is the most basic unit of phonological structure that distinguishes one sound from another within a language. For example, the feature [voice] distinguishes the two bilabial plosives: [p] and [b]. There are many different ways of defining and arranging features into feature systems: some deal with only one language while others are developed to apply to all languages.[1] Distinctive features are grouped into categories according to the natural classes of segments they describe: major class features, laryngeal features, manner features, and place features. These feature categories in turn are further specified on the basis of the phonetic properties of the segments in question. For phonemes to be in a particular natural class, they have to share the same distinctive features such as articulation and\/or sound similar to each other. We can find distinctive features between two words by finding the minimal pair 105","between them. The minimal pair are when two words sound the same, but they are different in definition because the pair has different phonemes from each other. Since the inception of the phonological analysis of distinctive features in the 1950s, features traditionally have been specified by binary values to signify whether a segment is described by the feature; a positive value, [+], denotes the presence of a feature, while a negative value, [\u2212], indicates its absence. In addition, a phoneme may be unmarked with respect to a feature. It is also possible for certain phonemes to have different features across languages. For example, [l] could be classified as a continuant or not in a given language depending on how it patterns with other consonants. After the first distinctive feature theory was created by Jakobson in 1941, it was assumed that the distinctive features are binary and this theory about distinctive features being binary was formally adopted in \u201cSound Pattern of English\u201d by Chomsky and Halle in 1968. Jakobson saw the binary approach as the best way to make the phoneme inventory shorter and the phonological oppositions are naturally binary. In recent developments to the theory of distinctive features, phonologists have proposed the existence of single-valued features. These features, called univalent or privative features, can only describe the classes of segments that are said to possess those features, and not the classes that are without them. 3. Form and meaning A. List Euler diagram showing a typical classification of sounds (in IPA) and their manners of articulation and distinctive features This section lists and describes distinctive features in linguistics. B. Major class Major class features: The features that represent the major classes of sounds. 106","1. [+\/\u2212 syllabic] Syllabic segments may function as the nucleus of a syllable, while their counterparts, the [\u2212syll] segments, may not. Except in the case of syllabic consonants, [+syllabic] designates all vowels, while [\u2212syllabic] designates all consonants (including glides). 2. [+\/\u2212 consonantal]] Consonantal segments are produced with an audible constriction in the vocal tract, such as obstruent\u2019s, nasals, liquids, and trills. Vowels, glides and laryngeal segments are not consonantal. 3. [+\/\u2212 approximant] Approximant segments include vowels, glides, and liquids while excluding nasals and obstruent\u2019s. 4. [+\/\u2212 sonorant] This feature describes the type of oral constriction that can occur in the vocal tract. [+son] designates the vowels and sonorant consonants (namely glides, liquids, and nasals) that are produced without an imbalance of air pressure in the vocal tract that might cause turbulence. [\u2212son] describes the obstruents, articulated with a noticeable turbulence caused by an imbalance of air pressure in the vocal tract. C. Laryngeal Laryngeal features: The features that specify the glottal states of sounds. 1. [+\/\u2212 voice] This feature indicates whether vibration of the vocal folds occurs with the articulation of the segment. 2. [+\/\u2212 spread glottis] Used to indicate the aspiration of a segment, this feature denotes the openness of the glottis. For [+sg], the vocal folds are spread apart widely enough for frication to occur; for [\u2212sg], there is not the same friction- inducing spreading. 3. [+\/\u2212 constricted glottis] The constricted glottis features denotes the degree of closure of the glottis. [+cg] implies that the vocal folds are held closely together, enough so that air cannot pass through momentarily, while [\u2212cg] implies the opposite. D. Manner Manner features: The features that specify the manner of articulation. 1. [+\/\u2212 continuant] This feature describes the passage of air through the vocal tract. [+cont] segments are produced without any significant obstruction in the tract, allowing air to pass through in a continuous stream. [\u2212cont] segments, on 107","the other hand, have such an obstruction, and so occlude the air flow at some point of articulation. 2. [+\/\u2212 nasal] This feature describes the position of the velum. [+nas] segments are produced by lowering the velum so that air can pass through the nasal tract. [\u2212nas] segments conversely are produced with a raised velum, blocking the passage of air to the nasal tract and shunting it to the oral tract. 3. [+\/\u2212 strident] The strident feature applies to obstruents only and refers to a type of friction that is noisier than usual. This is caused by high energy white noise. 4. [+\/\u2212 lateral] This feature designates the shape and positioning of the tongue with respect to the oral tract. [+lat] segments are produced as the center of the tongue rises to contact the roof of the mouth, thereby blocking air from flowing centrally through the oral tract and instead forcing more lateral flow along the lowered side(s) of the tongue. 5. [+\/\u2212 delayed release] This feature distinguishes stops from affricates. Affricates are designated [+del rel] E. Place Place features: The features that specify the place of articulation. \uf0b7 [ LABIAL ]] Labial segments are articulated with the lips. As consonants, these include bilabial and labiodental consonants. 1. [+\/\u2212 round]: [+round] are produced with lip rounding, while [\u2212round] are not. \uf0b7 [ CORONAL ] Coronal sounds are articulated with the tip and\/or blade of the tongue. These include a large number of consonants, which can be made with the tip, blade or underside of the tongue (apical, laminal, or subapical consonant, respectively), making contact with the upper lip (linguolabial), between the teeth (interdental), with the back of the teeth (dental), with the alveolar ridge (alveolar), behind the alveolar ridge (postalveolar), or on or in front of the hard palate ((pre)palatal). With postalveolar sibilants, additional tongue shapes need to be distinguished, i.e. \\\"domed\\\" or slightly palatalized (\\\"hushing\\\" or \\\"palato- alveolar\\\"), palatalized (alveolopalatal), and \\\"closed\\\" (\\\"hissing-hushing\\\"). 1. [+\/\u2212 anterior]: Anterior segments are articulated with the tip or blade of the tongue at or in front of the alveolar ridge. Dental consonants are [+ant], postalveolar and retroflex ones are [\u2212ant]. 108","2. [+\/\u2212 distributed]: For [+dist] segments the tongue is extended for some distance in the mouth. In other words, laminal dental and postalveolar consonants are marked as [+dist], while apical alveolar and retroflex consonants are [\u2212dist]. \uf0b7 [ DORSAL ] Dorsal sounds are articulated by raising the dorsum of the tongue. All vowels are dorsal sounds. Dorsal consonants include palatal, velar and uvular consonants. 1. [+\/\u2212 high]: [+high] segments raise the dorsum close to the palate. [\u2212high] segments do not. 2. [+\/\u2212 low]: [+low] segments bunch the dorsum to a position low in the mouth. 3. [+\/\u2212 back]: [+back] segments are produced with the tongue dorsum bunched and retracted slightly to the back of the mouth. [\u2212back] segments are bunched and extended slightly forward. 4. [+\/\u2212 tense]: This feature (mainly) applies to the position of the root of the tongue when articulating vowels. [+tense] vowels have an advanced tongue root. In fact, this feature is often referred to as advanced tongue root (ATR), although there is a debate on whether tense and ATR are the same or different features. \uf0b7 [ RADICAL ] Radical sounds are articulated with the root of the tongue. These include epiglottal consonants. 1. [+\/\u2212 advanced tongue root]: [+ATR] segments advance the root of the tongue. 2. [+\/\u2212 retracted tongue root]: [+RTR] segments bunch the root of the tongue towards the pharyngeal wall and activate the pharyngeal constrictor muscles \uf0b7 [ GLOTTAL ] Purely glottal sounds do not involve the tongue at all. These are the glottal consonants. F. Vowel space Vowels are distinguished by 1. [+\/\u2212 back] (back vowels) 2. [+\/\u2212 high] (close vowels) 3. [+\/\u2212 low] (low vowels) 4. [+\/\u2212 tense] (tense vowels) However, laryngoscopic studies suggest the features are 1. [+\/\u2212 front] (front vowels) 2. [+\/\u2212 raised] (raised vowels) 3. [+\/\u2212 retracted] (retracted vowels) 109","4. [+\/\u2212 round] (round vowels) Jakobsonian system: This system is given by Jakobson & Halle 1. Sonority \uf0b7 [+\/\u2212 vocalic] vocalic, non-vocalic \uf0b7 [+\/\u2212 consonantal] consonantal, non-consonantal \uf0b7 [+\/\u2212 nasal] nasal, oral \uf0b7 [+\/\u2212 compact] forward-flanged: velar and palatal consonant, wide vowel \uf0b7 [+\/\u2212 diffuse] backward-flanged: labial and coronal, narrow vowel \uf0b7 [+\/\u2212 abrupt] \uf0b7 [+\/\u2212 strident] strident, mellow \uf0b7 [+\/\u2212 checked] 2. Propensity \uf0b7 [+\/\u2212 tense] 3. Tonality \uf0b7 [+\/\u2212 grave] peripheral consonant, back vowel \uf0b7 [+\/\u2212 acute] \uf0b7 [+\/\u2212 medial] coronal or palatal consonant, front vowel \uf0b7 [+\/\u2212 flat] narrowed slit, wider slit \uf0b7 [+\/\u2212 sharp] widened slit, narrower slit 9.3 SUMMARY \uf0b7 In phonology, minimal pairs are pairs of words or phrases in a particular language, spoken or signed, that differ in only one phonological element, such as: 1. a phoneme 2. a toneme 3. a chroneme \uf0b7 They have distinct meanings. \uf0b7 They are used to demonstrate that two phones represent two separate phonemes in the language. 110","9.4 KEYWORD 1. Sound 2. Symbol 3. Transcription 4. Grammar 5. Continuous nature of speech 6. Accuracy 7. Sonority 8. Protensity 9. Tonality 10. Laryngeal 11. Radical sounds 12. Dorsal sounds 9.5 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. What is phonological representation? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. What is a positive phonological value? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 9.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. Why is phonology important? 2. Why should language teachers learn phonetics? 3. What is linguistics and phonology? 4. Why do students need phonological awareness skills? 5. How do phonological rules work? 111","Long Questions 1. What is phonology in linguistics? 2. What does phonology mean in Sign Language? 3. What is a phonological system? 4. What is the subject matter of phonology? 5. What are minimal pairs in phonology? B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. The invention and general use of totally new terms, or ______ is not very common in English. a. Coinage b. Eponyms c. Acronyms d. Conversion 2. New words are formed that are similar in some way to existing words by a quite different process known simply as. a. Derivation b. Infix c. Circumfix d. Analogy 3. The higher-level term in hyponymy(e.g. flower \u2013 daffodils) is. a. Source b. Sound loss c. Semantic role d. Superordinate 4. The soft area at the back of the root of the mouth also called the \u201csoft palate\u201d and. a. Velar b. Uvular c. Velum d. Turn 5. A part of the brain that controls muscle movement is called. a. Nasal b. Motor cortex c. Natural class 112","d. Oralism Answers 1-a, 2-a, 3-c. 4-c, 5-d 9.7 REFERENCES References book \uf0b7 Abram, D., Spell of the Sensuous (New York, NY: Vintage Books, 1997) \uf0b7 Allan, K. and Kate Burridge, Forbidden Words: Taboo and the Censoring of Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006) \uf0b7 Brown, G., \u201cExplaining,\u201d in The Handbook of Communication Skills, ed. Owen Hargie (New York, NY: Routledge, 2006) \uf0b7 Crystal, D., How Language Works: How Babies Babble, Words Change Meaning, and Languages Live or Die (Woodstock, NY: Overlook Press, 2005) \uf0b7 Dorian, N. C., \u201cAbrupt Transmission Failure in Obsolescing Languages: How Sudden the \u2018Tip\u2019 to the Dominant Language in Communities and Families?\u201d Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society (1986) \uf0b7 Foot, H. and May McCreaddie, \u201cHumour and Laughter,\u201d in The Handbook of Communication Skills, ed. Owen Hargie (New York, NY: Routledge, 2006). \uf0b7 Hargie, O. Skilled Interpersonal Interaction: Research, Theory, and Practice (London: Routledge, 2011) \uf0b7 Hayakawa, S. I. and Alan R. Hayakawa, Language in Thought and Action, 5th ed. (San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace, 1990) Textbook references \uf0b7 Martin, J. N. and Thomas K. Nakayama, Intercultural Communication in Contexts, 5th ed. (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2010) \uf0b7 McCornack, S., Reflect and Relate: An Introduction to Interpersonal Communication (Boston, MA: Bedford\/St Martin\u2019s, 2007) \uf0b7 McKay, M., Martha Davis, and Patrick Fanning, Messages: Communication Skills Book, 2nd ed. (Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications, 1995) \uf0b7 Huang, L., \u201cTechnology: Textese May Be the Death of English,\u201d Newsweek, August 2011, 8. 113","\uf0b7 Humphrys, J., \u201cI h8 txt msgs: How Texting Is Wrecking Our Language,\u201d Daily Mail, September 24, 2007, accessed June 7, 2012 \uf0b7 Martin, J. N. and Thomas K. Nakayama, Intercultural Communication in Contexts, 5th ed. (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2010) \uf0b7 McCornack, S., Reflect and Relate: An Introduction to Interpersonal Communication (Boston, MA: Bedford\/St Martin\u2019s, 2007) Website \uf0b7 Egocentricity in Child Language | Forms | Human Behaviour | Psychology \uf0b7 Relationship between Thought and Language | Human Behaviour | Psychology \uf0b7 Sex Behaviour of an Individual | Forms | Human Behaviour | Psychology \uf0b7 Brain Function and Language Behaviour | Human Behaviour | Psychology 114","UNIT\u2013 10 SYLLABLE STRUCTURE: ASSIMILATION RULES, DISSIMILATION RULES STRUCTURE 10.0 Learning Objectives 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Syllable Structure: Assimilation rules, Dissimilation rules 10.3 Summary 10.4 Keywords 10.5 Learning Activity 10.6 Unit End Questions 10.7 References 10.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES \uf0b7 Syllables are the building blocks of words \uf0b7 Long words can be broken into syllables (small speech sounds) \uf0b7 Knowing how to divide words into syllables can help: 1. It improves reading skills 2. Helps in pronounce new, hard words & names 3. Help pronounce vowels 4. To spell words correctly \uf0b7 It is much easier to read a new, unfamiliar word in chunks than to try to sound out all the letters in one long, continuous string. \uf0b7 This is because we need to hold onto the sounds in short term memory as we blend the word together before we can recognise it. \uf0b7 Chunks are easier to hold on to than lots of small bits of information. \uf0b7 It is easier and more accurate to spell a long word if you try to spell it in chunks of syllables rather than trying to remember all the letters separately. This skill is especially important for children who struggle with reading and spelling. 115","10.1 INTRODUCTION Every language manifests a particular way of combining its sounds to form meaningful words or parts of words, called syllables. Each language puts certain restrictions on these possible combinations. For example, in English we can't have a word which begins with a consonant sequence bfj, zbf or tap. When we analyse what restrictions (and regularities) are found in the language under study, we are studying the syllable structure of that language. We can divide words into one or more syllables. For example, tin has one syllable, brother has two, important has three and computer has four syllables each. A syllable is a group of one or more sounds. The essential part of a syllable is a vowel sound (V) which may be preceded and\/or followed by a consonant (C) or a cluster of consonants (CC or CCC) (see below). Some syllables consist of just one vowel sound (V) as in I and eye\/aI \/, owe\/\u0259\/. In English, a syllable can consist of a vowel preceded by one consonant (CV) as in pie\/paI \/, or by two consonants (CCV) as in try\/traI \/, or by three consonants (CCCV) as in spry\/spraI \/. The vowel of the syllable may also be followed by one consonant (VC) as in at\/\u00e6t\/, or by two consonants (VCC) as in its\/I ts\/, or by three consonants (CVCCC) as in text\/tekst\/or by four consonants (CVCCCC) as in texts\/teksts\/. 10.2 SYLLABLE STRUCTURE: ASSIMILATION RULES, DISSIMILATION RULES Syllable structure As we have seen, the way that segments are assigned to syllables can vary from language to language. But phonologists have found that within each language, the syllable structure assigned to any given word (or phrase) is predictable. This means that it must be assigned by the phonological grammar \u2014 syllable structure is not memorized and stored in URs. As always, our goal is to develop a model of syllabification and syllable structure that is general enough to encompass the variation that we see between languages, while being restrictive enough to account for the aspects of syllable structure that do not vary between languages. Crucially, while languages differ in the specific kinds of syllable structure that they allow, the variation between languages actually seems to involve only a very limited number of possible options 116","A syllable is a part of a word that contains sounds (phonemes) of a word. It usually has a vowel in it. A syllable is also called a \u2018beat\u2019 and teachers often teach children to identify syllables by clapping the \u2018beats\u2019 in words. Another way to describe a syllable is a \u2018mouthful\u2019 of a word. You can often find the syllables in a word if you notice when you open and close your mouth as you pronounce the word. Touch your chin as you say the word \u2018elephant\u2019. How many times did your chin drop? You probably pronounced the syllables like this: \u2018e-le-phant\u2019 and your chin would have dropped three times. Assimilation rules Assimilation and dissimilation are changes that result in an increase or decrease, respectively, in the degree of phonetic similarity between two segments. It is a rule that makes neighboring segments more similar by copying or spreading a phonetic property from one segment to the other. For the most part, assimilation rules stem from articulatory or physiological processes. There is a tendency when we speak to increase the ease of articulation, that is, to articulate efficiently. For the most part, assimilation rules stem from articulatory or physiological processes. There is a tendency when we speak to increase the ease of articulation, that is, to articulate efficiently. Dissimilation rules Dissimilation rules: rules in which a segment becomes less similar to another segment. Such rules have a natural explanation from the hearer\u2019s perspective this time. That is, in listening to speech, if sounds are too similar, we may miss the contrast. Also it may be easier to articulate dissimilar sounds. Tongue twisters are based on the similarity of sounds. \u201cThe sixth sheik\u2019s sixth sheep is sick.\u201d Vs. \u201cThe fifth sheik\u2019s fourth sheep is sick.\u201d \u201cShe sells seashells by the seashore.\u201d 10.3 SUMMARY \uf0b7 A syllable is a group of one or more sounds. \uf0b7 The essential part of a syllable is a vowel sound (V) which may be preceded and\/or followed by a consonant (C) or a cluster of consonants (CC or CCC) (see below). \uf0b7 Some syllables consist of just one vowel sound (V) as in I and eye\/aI \/, owe\/\u0259\/. \uf0b7 In English, a syllable can consist of a vowel preceded by one consonant (CV) as in pie\/paI \/, or by two consonants (CCV) as in try\/traI \/, or by three consonants (CCCV) as in spry\/spraI \/. 117","\uf0b7 The vowel of the syllable may also be followed by one consonant (VC) as in at\/\u00e6t\/, or by two consonants (VCC) as in its\/I ts\/, or by three consonants (CVCCC) as in text\/tekst\/or by four consonants (CVCCCC) as in texts\/teksts\/. 10.4 KEYWORD \uf0b7 Syllable \uf0b7 Assimilation \uf0b7 Dissimilation \uf0b7 Structure \uf0b7 Segmentation \uf0b7 Blending \uf0b7 Vowel \uf0b7 Consonant 10.5 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. Why do some words have more than one syllable? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. Why should we learn how to split words into syllables? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 3. Does a syllable have a vowel? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 10.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. What is the structure of a syllable? 118","2. What are syllables in speech planning? 3. What are syllables and sequences? 4. How do syllables work in different languages? 5. What is the difference between syllable segmentation and blending? Long Questions 1. What are assimilation rules? 2. What are dissimilation rules? 3. What are the different types of assimilation? 4. What is regressive assimilation? 5. How are segments assigned to syllables? B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. An articulatory parameter in ASL describing the type of motion used in forming sign is. a. Movement b. Pitch c. Pharynx d. Larynx 2. A syllable that ends with a vowel and has no coda is. a. Phonology b. Polysemy c. Open syllable d. Close syllable 3. The form of old English in use before. a. 1500 b. 1600 c. 1300 d. 1100 4. A sound produced in the pharynx is called. a. Pharyngeal b. Polysemy c. Person deixis d. Palatal Answers 1-a, 2-a, 3-c. 4-c, 119","10.7 REFERENCES References book \uf0b7 Abram, D., Spell of the Sensuous (New York, NY: Vintage Books, 1997) \uf0b7 Allan, K. and Kate Burridge, Forbidden Words: Taboo and the Censoring of Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006) \uf0b7 Brown, G., \u201cExplaining,\u201d in The Handbook of Communication Skills, ed. Owen Hargie (New York, NY: Routledge, 2006) \uf0b7 Crystal, D., How Language Works: How Babies Babble, Words Change Meaning, and Languages Live or Die (Woodstock, NY: Overlook Press, 2005) \uf0b7 Dorian, N. C., \u201cAbrupt Transmission Failure in Obsolescing Languages: How Sudden the \u2018Tip\u2019 to the Dominant Language in Communities and Families?\u201d Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society (1986) \uf0b7 Foot, H. and May McCreaddie, \u201cHumour and Laughter,\u201d in The Handbook of Communication Skills, ed. Owen Hargie (New York, NY: Routledge, 2006). \uf0b7 Hargie, O. Skilled Interpersonal Interaction: Research, Theory, and Practice (London: Routledge, 2011) \uf0b7 Hayakawa, S. I. and Alan R. Hayakawa, Language in Thought and Action, 5th ed. (San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace, 1990) Textbook references \uf0b7 Martin, J. N. and Thomas K. Nakayama, Intercultural Communication in Contexts, 5th ed. (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2010) \uf0b7 McCornack, S., Reflect and Relate: An Introduction to Interpersonal Communication (Boston, MA: Bedford\/St Martin\u2019s, 2007) \uf0b7 McKay, M., Martha Davis, and Patrick Fanning, Messages: Communication Skills Book, 2nd ed. (Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications, 1995) \uf0b7 Huang, L., \u201cTechnology: Textese May Be the Death of English,\u201d Newsweek, August 2011, 8. \uf0b7 Humphrys, J., \u201cI h8 txt msgs: How Texting Is Wrecking Our Language,\u201d Daily Mail, September 24, 2007, accessed June 7, 2012 \uf0b7 Martin, J. N. and Thomas K. Nakayama, Intercultural Communication in Contexts, 5th ed. (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2010) 120","\uf0b7 McCornack, S., Reflect and Relate: An Introduction to Interpersonal Communication (Boston, MA: Bedford\/St Martin\u2019s, 2007) Website \uf0b7 Egocentricity in Child Language | Forms | Human Behaviour | Psychology \uf0b7 Relationship between Thought and Language | Human Behaviour | Psychology \uf0b7 Sex Behaviour of an Individual | Forms | Human Behaviour | Psychology \uf0b7 Brain Function and Language Behaviour | Human Behaviour | Psychology 121","UNIT \u201311 MORPHOLOGY: WORD CLASSES, FORMATION STRUCTURE 11.0 Learning Objectives 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Morphology: 11.2.1 Word Classes 11.2.2 Formation 11.3 Summary 11.4 Keywords 11.5 Learning Activity 11.6 Unit End Questions 11.7 References 11.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES \uf0b7 Introduce students to Morphology. \uf0b7 Acquaint students with morphemes and characteristics of being a morpheme. \uf0b7 Recognize the major and minor types of morphemes in English language. \uf0b7 Distinguish between the functions of related terms: root, stem, base. \uf0b7 Recognize the features and functions of derivational and inflectional affixes. \uf0b7 Distinguish between: words, lexemes, and lexicons. \uf0b7 Be familiar with the processes of word formation. \uf0b7 Be familiar with the inflectional paradigm \uf0b7 The aims and functions of morphology are to help us accurately read and understand component parts of words like roots, prefixes, and suffixes. \uf0b7 Morphology helps us determine, for example, that the root word of homes is home, and the e belongs to the root word, while in the word catches, the e combines with the s to form the plural ending. 122","11.1 INTRODUCTION Morphology is a Greek word. Morph means \u201cshape\u201d or \u201cform,\u201d and \u201cology\u201d means study. With morphology, in the context of linguistics, a person studies the shape and form of words. Morphology, the study of the formation and components of words, helps us better understand the functions and meanings of words, learn the grammar of a language, and create new words. Morphology is the branch of linguistics that studies the formation and components of words. Words are built of morphemes, which are the smallest units of language that have meaning. Some morphemes are free; they can stand alone and make sense. Others are bound; they have to be attached to another. 11.2 MORPHOLOGY: WORD CLASSES, FORMATION Linguistics is the study of language, and there is a lot to unpack about language, so why not start small? Words are the smallest unit of meaning in a language, right? Guess again! Small segments of sound that carry meaning\u2014many even smaller than words\u2014are called morphemes. There are many types of morphemes that can come together to make a single word. Morphology is the study of these sub-word sounds and how they function to create meaning in language. Morphology Definition Consider the word smallest from the paragraph above. This word can be broken down into two segments that carry significance: small and -est. While -est isn\u2019t a word in and of itself, it does carry significance that any English-speaking person should recognize; it essentially means \u201cthe most.\u201d a division of linguistics, morphology is the study of the smallest segments of language that carry meaning. language includes everything from grammar to sentence structure, and the segments of language that we use to express meaning are most often words. Morphology deals with words and their makeup. But what are words made of? Morphology Examples Sometimes it\u2019s easier to see a visual representation of something than to explain it. Morphological trees do exactly that. Unreachable \u2013 the inability to be reached or contacted Un (inflectional morpheme) reach (lexical morpheme) able (free morpheme) This example shows how the word unreachable can be broken into individual morphemes. 123","The morpheme able is an affix that changes the word reach (a verb) to reachable (an adjective.) This makes it a derivational morpheme. After you add the affix un- you get the word unreachable which is the same grammatical category (adjective) as reachable, and so this is an inflectional morpheme. Motivation \u2013 the reason or reasons why someone does something Motiv (lexical morpheme) ate (derivational morpheme) ion (derivational morpheme) The root word is motive (a noun) which, with the addition of the affix -ate becomes motivate (a verb). The addition of the bound morpheme -ion changes the verb motivate to the noun motivation. Morphology and Syntax Linguistics, the scientific study of language, is made up of several specific domains related to language. Starting from the smallest, most basic unit of language (phonetics) and graduating up to the study of discourse and contextual meaning (pragmatics), linguistics consists of the following sections: \uf0b7 Phonetics \uf0b7 Phonology \uf0b7 Morphology \uf0b7 Syntax \uf0b7 Semantics \uf0b7 Pragmatics Morphology and syntax are close to one another in terms of the linguistic domain. While morphology studies the smallest units of meaning in language, syntax deals with how words are linked together to create meaning. The difference between syntax and morphology is essentially the difference between studying how words are formed (morphology) and how sentences are formed (syntax). Morphology and Semantics Semantics is one level removed from morphology in the grand scheme of linguistic study. Semantics is the branch of linguistics responsible for understanding meaning in general. To understand the meaning of a word, phrase, sentence, or text, you might rely on semantics. Morphology also deals with meaning to a degree, but only in as much as the smaller sub-word units of language can carry meaning. To examine the meaning of anything larger than a morpheme would fall under the domain of semantics. 124","11.2.1 Word classes Word classes, also known as parts of speech, are the different categories of words used in grammar. The major word classes are: 1. Nouns 2. Verb 3. Adjectives 4. Adverbs There are also minor word classes like: 1. Prepositions 2. Pronouns 3. Conjunctions and others. Every word class has its own rules for how it\u2019s used, so knowing a word\u2019s class is important for using it correctly. Word classes in English grammar Word classes also known as parts of speech. Word classes are the categories of words that determine how words are used in grammar. For example, nouns represent people, places, things, and concepts, while verbs represent actions. Nouns are used as the subject of sentences, and verbs are used as the predicate. Word classes are divided into two main groups: 1. Form 2. Function. Form word classes, also known as lexical words, are the most common types of words that make up the important parts of a sentence. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Function word classes, also known as structure words, assist the form word classes in a sentence. They include auxiliaries, prepositions, pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, and interjections. Form word classes: \uf0b7 noun \uf0b7 verb \uf0b7 adjective \uf0b7 adverb 125","Function word classes: \uf0b7 auxiliary \uf0b7 preposition \uf0b7 pronoun \uf0b7 determiner \uf0b7 conjunction \uf0b7 interjection Nouns Nouns represent people, places, things, or concepts. They can be concrete or abstract; concrete nouns are physical things that can be seen, touched, heard, or otherwise sensed (rocks, noise, grandma), and abstract nouns are nonphysical things that represent ideas (justice, philosophy, happiness). Proper nouns are a type of noun that represents something specific. For example, the noun person is a common noun used generally for anyone, but the proper noun Richard Attenborough represents a specific person. Proper nouns almost always use capitals for their first letter, like names. Proper noun examples: \uf0b7 dog \uf0b7 pizza \uf0b7 apple \uf0b7 The Mandalorian \uf0b7 Taiwan Verbs Verbs represent actions and are the only word class that is absolutely necessary to make a complete sentence. You can conjugate verbs in different verb tenses to explain when an action takes place (past, present, or future) or combine them with auxiliaries for more advanced tenses like the present perfect tense or past continuous tense. Verb examples: \uf0b7 be (is, are, was, were) \uf0b7 swim \uf0b7 get \uf0b7 play \uf0b7 analyze Adjectives 126","Adjectives are words that modify or describe a noun. They add more details to the noun, such as color, size, or age. Adjective examples: \uf0b7 big \uf0b7 green \uf0b7 ancient \uf0b7 gorgeous \uf0b7 difficult Adverbs Similar to adjectives, adverbs modify or describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. When describing verbs, they give details about how an action is performed, such as where, when, why, or how often. They usually\u2014but not always\u2014end in -ly. Adverb examples: \uf0b7 carefully \uf0b7 slowly \uf0b7 often \uf0b7 really \uf0b7 verb Function word classes Auxiliaries Also known as helper verbs or helping verbs, auxiliary verbs are a type of verb that assists the sentence\u2019s main verb to create advanced tenses. For example, in the sentence \u201cThey have arrived,\u201d the main verb is arrived, but the auxiliary verb have is necessary to make the present perfect tense. Auxiliary verbs also include modal verbs like can or should, which slightly modify the meaning of the main verb. Some verbs like have, be, or do can be either regular verbs or auxiliary verbs. Auxiliary verb examples: \uf0b7 will \uf0b7 could \uf0b7 might \uf0b7 would \uf0b7 must Prepositions 127","Prepositions are a special type of word class that indicates relationships between other words. Prepositions always use a noun, known as the preposition\u2019s object, and typically describe where something is in relation to something else. When used to describe a verb, prepositions can explain when or where an action happened. Preposition examples: \uf0b7 in \uf0b7 at \uf0b7 behind \uf0b7 to \uf0b7 from Pronouns Pronouns are a type of noun used as a substitute for other nouns. They make communication easier and faster because you don\u2019t have to repeat the same words over and over again. Pronoun examples: \uf0b7I \uf0b7 they \uf0b7 who \uf0b7 yourself \uf0b7 nobody Determiners Determiners are words that come before a noun to explain which noun you\u2019re referring to, the noun\u2019s quantity, or whether the noun is general or specific. Determiners are important for grammar and include a few different types of words like articles, demonstratives, possessive pronouns, distributives, and quantifiers like many, much, and more. Determiner examples: \uf0b7 the \uf0b7 my \uf0b7 all \uf0b7 those \uf0b7 few Conjunctions Conjunctions like the word and are words that connect other words. Coordinating conjunctions link words, phrases, or clauses of the same kind, such as a series of nouns or 128","two independent clauses. Subordinating conjunctions are only used to connect a dependent clause to an independent clause. Conjunction examples: \uf0b7 but \uf0b7 or \uf0b7 because \uf0b7 if \uf0b7 so Interjections Only used in informal communication, interjections show a sudden emotion. They attempt to mimic speech in writing and are often used together with exclamation points. Interjection examples: \uf0b7 gee \uf0b7 hey \uf0b7 ouch \uf0b7 yikes \uf0b7 off 11.2.2 The formation structure of the words Let\u2019s find out: How are words formed? Are there any rules by which words are formed?. In this unit we understand what word formation is, the various types of word formation and the rules to be adhered to when forming words. The number of examples given will make learning process more effective and easier. What Is Word Formation? The English language is known for its great quality of the way in which words and sentences are formed and used. Formation of new words from an present root word by adding a syllable or another word is the general process; however, there are various ways in which it can be done. Types of Word Formation with Examples The formation of words is classified into four types based on how the process of formation is carried out. They are: 129","\uf0b7 By adding prefixes \uf0b7 By adding suffixes \uf0b7 Converting from one-word class to another \uf0b7 Forming compound words Let us look at each type of word formation in detail. Adding Prefixes The term \u2018prefix\u2019 refers to one or more alphabets added to the stem of a word, mostly to make it negative. The most commonly used prefixes include \u2018in-\u2019, \u2018un-\u2019, \u2018dis-\u2019, \u2018im-\u2019, \u2018ir-\u2019, etc. Look at the examples given below for a clearer understanding of how prefixes are used to form new words. Examples of Word Formation by the Addition of Prefixes \uf0b7 Discipline \u2013 indiscipline \uf0b7 Just \u2013 unjust \uf0b7 Tidy \u2013 untidy \uf0b7 Respect \u2013 disrespect \uf0b7 Understand \u2013 misunderstand \uf0b7 Comfortable \u2013 uncomfortable \uf0b7 Comfort \u2013 discomfort \uf0b7 Responsible \u2013 irresponsible \uf0b7 Honest \u2013 dishonest \uf0b7 Happy \u2013 unhappy \uf0b7 Polite \u2013 impolite \uf0b7 Experience \u2013 inexperience \uf0b7 Practical \u2013 impractical \uf0b7 Important \u2013 unimportant \uf0b7 Legal \u2013 illegal \uf0b7 Ethical \u2013 unethical \uf0b7 Potent \u2013 impotent Adding Suffixes A suffix is a short syllable added at the end of a root word. The addition of suffixes usually changes the word class of the particular word. The most common suffixes include \u2018-ment\u2019, \u2018- ness\u2019, \u2018-ity\u2019, \u2018-ous\u2019, \u2018-tion\u2019, \u2018-sion\u2019, \u2018-al\u2019, \u2018-able\u2019, \u2018-ible\u2019, \u2018-ive\u2019, \u2018-ly\u2019, \u2018-ate\u2019, \u2018-er\u2019, \u2018-or\u2019, etc. Check out the following examples to see how suffixes are added. 130","Examples of Word Formation by the Addition of Suffixes \uf0b7 Comprehend (verb) \u2013 comprehension (noun) \u2013 comprehensible (adjective) \uf0b7 Inform (verb) \u2013 information (noun) \u2013 informative (adjective) \uf0b7 Invest (verb) \u2013 Investment (noun) \u2013 Investor (noun) \uf0b7 Write (verb) \u2013 writer (noun) \uf0b7 Authorise (verb) \u2013 authorisation (noun) \uf0b7 Move (verb) \u2013 movement (noun) \uf0b7 Add (verb) \u2013 addition (noun) \uf0b7 Happy (adjective) \u2013 happiness (noun) \uf0b7 Conserve (verb) \u2013 conservation (noun) \uf0b7 Wide (Adjective) \u2013 widen (verb) \uf0b7 Manage (verb) \u2013 manageable (adjective) \u2013 manager (noun) \uf0b7 Courage (noun) \u2013 courageous (adjective) \uf0b7 Brave (adjective) \u2013 bravery (noun) Conversion The process of conversion focuses solely on changing the word class of the particular word. If you have noticed, you would have seen how some nouns are used to perform the role of a verb or an adjective acting like a noun just by the addition of another word or to some extent altering the spelling of the actual word. Examples of Word Formation by Conversion \uf0b7 The rich should help the poor. Adjectives such as \u2018rich\u2019 and \u2018poor\u2019 are used as nouns by using them with the article \u2018the\u2019. \uf0b7 Everyone is talented. \u2018Talented\u2019 \u2013 a past participle is used as an adjective in the above sentence. The word is formed by adding the suffix \u2018ed\u2019 to the end of the noun \u2018talent\u2019. \uf0b7 There will definitely be a lot of ups and downs in life. Prepositions \u2018up\u2019 and \u2018down\u2019 are used as nouns by adding \u2018s\u2019 to the end of it. \uf0b7 He texted me about the meeting only at the last minute. The noun \u2018text\u2019 used to refer to a text message sent on a phone is used as a verb in the sentence by adding an \u2018ed\u2019 to the end of the word. \uf0b7 The financial aid had to be approved before we could make a decision. The noun \u2018finance\u2019 is used as an adjective by adding \u2018ial\u2019 to the end of it and the verb \u2018decide\u2019 is used as a noun by removing \u2018de\u2019 and adding \u2018sion\u2019 to the word. 131","Forming Compound Words Compound words are formed by combining one part of speech with another to form a specific word class. There are many ways in which compound words are formed. Verbs are combined with adjectives to form compound verbs, a present participle is combined with a noun to form a compound noun, two nouns are combined to form a compound noun, an adjective and a noun are combined to form a compound noun, an adverb is combined with a noun to form a compound noun, an adjective is combined with a past participle to form a compound adjective and so on. Look at the following examples and go through the articles on compound nouns, compound words and compound adjectives to understand how they work. Examples of Word Formation by Compounding \uf0b7 Over (adverb) + load (noun) \u2013 Overload \uf0b7 White (adjective) + wash (verb) \u2013 Whitewash \uf0b7 Black (adjective) + board (noun ) \u2013 Blackboard \uf0b7 Cup (noun) + board (noun) \u2013 Cupboard \uf0b7 Short (adjective) + hand (noun) \u2013 Shorthand \uf0b7 Swimming (present participle) + pool (noun) \u2013 Swimming pool \uf0b7 Three (adjective) + legged (past participle) \u2013 Three-legged \uf0b7 Break (verb) + Down (preposition) \u2013 Breakdown \uf0b7 Up (preposition) + town (noun) \u2013 Uptown \uf0b7 Copy (verb) + writer (noun) \u2013 Copywriter \uf0b7 Sun (noun) + rise (verb) \u2013 Sunrise \uf0b7 Count (verb) + down (preposition) \u2013 Countdown \uf0b7 Flash (verb) + mob (noun) \u2013 Flash mob \uf0b7 Master (noun) + piece (noun) \u2013 Masterpiece \uf0b7 Round (adjective) + table (noun) \u2013 Round-table Rules to be Followed When Forming Words Formation of words can be a very interesting exercise, but one has to be really careful while adding inflections or affixes. There are a few things you will need to bear in mind when you are forming words. Take a look at the following points to learn what they are. \uf0b7 Before making any change to the root of the word, try to analyse what is the kind of meaning we want the word to convey and what role the word will have to play in the sentence. 132","\uf0b7 In most cases, the start of the root word remains the same. Only when prefixes are added the word has a syllable added to the beginning of it. One can notice that even in this case, the word is retained as such. \uf0b7 When suffixes are added, there are many cases where we have to remove the last one or more alphabets of the word and add the suffix. However, there are words like \u2018movement\u2019 where the suffix is just added without any change in the spelling of the base word. \uf0b7 Here is one way to easily know which suffix has to be added to form a particular word class \u2013 most often, nouns end in \u2018er\u2019, \u2018or\u2019, \u2018its\u2019, \u2018ian\u2019, \u2018ion\u2019, \u2018ment\u2019, \u2018ness\u2019, and \u2018ity\u2019; verbs end in \u2018is\u2019, \u2018ate\u2019 and \u2018end\u2019; adjectives end in \u2018able\u2019, \u2018ible\u2019, \u2018ive\u2019, \u2018ic\u2019, \u2018ed\u2019, \u2018ing\u2019 and \u2018al\u2019; and adverbs normally end in \u2018ly\u2019. \uf0b7 We have to be very careful when words are formed by conversion. Make to convert them accurately and using them in the sentence properly. \uf0b7 When forming compound words, see to it that one hyphenates them if necessary, use the right combination of words and do not just mix and match any word. \uf0b7 Changing from one tense to another also can also be considered a type of word formation, as the word is inflected to indicate the twelve different tenses in the English language. \uf0b7 Forming degrees of comparison can also be put under word formation. In this case, the comparative and superlative degrees are formed by adding \u2018er\u2019 and \u2018est\u2019 to the end of the adjective. The comparative and superlative degrees of polysyllabic words are formed by using \u2018more\u2019 and \u2018most\u2019, respectively, along with the adjective. 11.3 SUMMARY \uf0b7 Morphology is the study of the smallest units of language that carry meaning. Morphology helps to better understand complex words with many components such as unreliability, and the ways each morpheme function. \uf0b7 A morpheme is the smallest segment of language that contains meaning. An example is \u201cun\u201d as it is not a word, but it does mean \u201cnot\u201d when added as a prefix to a root word. \uf0b7 Some close synonyms (although not exact) for morphology are etymology and sound structure. 133","\uf0b7 Morphology is the study of morphemes, which are the smallest significant building blocks of language. \uf0b7 Morphology is the study of the smallest segments of language that carry meaning. \uf0b7 Morphemes are the smallest units of language that have meaning and can\u2019t be further subdivided. \uf0b7 There are two main types of morphemes: bound and free. \uf0b7 Bound morphemes must be combined with another morpheme to create a word. \uf0b7 Free morphemes can stand alone as a word. 11.4 KEYWORD \uf0b7 Morphology \uf0b7 Morpheme \uf0b7 Free morpheme \uf0b7 Bound morpheme \uf0b7 Derivational morpheme \uf0b7 Inflectional morpheme \uf0b7 Linguistics \uf0b7 Suffix \uf0b7 Prefix \uf0b7 Lexical morpheme \uf0b7 Function morpheme 11.5 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. What is morphology & why is it important? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. What is morphology and lexicology? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 3. What is morphology example? 134","___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 11.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. What is morphology and example? 2. What is a morpheme example? 3. What is another word for morphology? 4. What are the basics of morphology? 5. Which statement best defines morphology? Long Questions 1. What are the aims and functions of morphology? 2. Why is morphology important in NLP? 3. How do you explain morphologic structure in a lesson? 4. What is the difference between morphology and linguistics? 5. What are the two branches of morphology? B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. The idea that early human speech developed from the instinctive sounds people make in emotional circumstances, this theory is known as: a. Auditory system b. Pooh-pooh c. Bow-wow d. Origins of speech 2. The study of what speaker means or \u201cspeaker meaning\u201d and how more is communicated than is said is termed as: a. Preposition b. Postvocalic c. Pragmatic d. Rebus principle 3. What is the vowel in a syllable termed as? 135","a. Noun b. Nucleus c. Number d. Objects 4. A consonant produced by raising the tongue to the palate is called. a. Alveo-palatal b. Rebus principle c. Schema d. Schwa 5. A conventional knowledge structure in memory for the series of actions involved in events such as \u201cGoing to the dentist\u201d is termed as. a. Rhyme b. Register c. Script d. Reflexivity Answers 1-b, 2-c, 3-c. 4-a, 5-c 11.7 REFERENCES References book \uf0b7 Barker, C. (1998). Episodic \u2013ee in English: A thematic role constraint on new word formation. Language, 74, 695\u2013727. \uf0b7 Bauer, L. (1997). Evaluative morphology: In search of universals. Studies in Language, 21(3), 533\u2013575. \uf0b7 Bauer, L. (1998). Is there a class of neoclassical compounds, and if so, is it productive? Linguistics, 36(3), 65\u201386. \uf0b7 Bauer, L. (2001). Morphological productivity. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. \uf0b7 Bauer, L. (2004). Glossary of morphology. Edinburgh, Scotland: Edinburgh University Press. 136","Textbook references \uf0b7 Beard, R. (1995). Lexeme morpheme base morphology. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. \uf0b7 Inkelas, S., & Zoll, C. (2005). Reduplication: Doubling in morphology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. \uf0b7 Lappe, S. (2007). English prosodic morphology. Dordrecht: Springer. \uf0b7 Lieber, R. (2004). Morphology and lexical semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. \uf0b7 Bieber, R., & \u0160tekauer, P. (2014). The Oxford handbook of derivational morphology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Website \uf0b7 Egocentricity in Child Language | Forms | Human Behaviour | Psychology \uf0b7 Relationship between Thought and Language | Human Behaviour | Psychology \uf0b7 Brain Function and Language Behaviour | Human Behaviour | Psychology 137","UNIT - 12 MORPHEME: BOUND WORDS AND FREE WORDS STRUCTURE 12.0 Learning Objectives 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Morpheme: Bound Words and Free Words 12.2.1 Classification to Affixes 12.3 Summary 12.4 Keywords 12.5 Learning Activity 12.6 Unit End Questions 12.7 References 12.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES The aims and functions of morphology are to help us accurately read and understand component parts of words like roots, prefixes, and suffixes. Morphology helps us determine, for example, that the root word of homes is home, and the e belongs to the root word, while in the word catches, the e combines with the s to form the plural ending. 12.1 INTRODUCTION Morphology is a Greek word. Morph means \u201cshape\u201d or \u201cform,\u201d and \u201cology\u201d means study. With morphology, in the context of linguistics, a person studies the shape and form of words. One of the answers to your question might be in the word itself. You could say one of the functions or aims of morphology is to study the form and shape of words. You could reason that studying the structure and configuration of human words leads to a greater understanding of human language and perhaps humans in general. Another key part of morphology is morphemes. Morphemes are the tiniest elements of a language. They\u2019re words that can\u2019t be broken up or divided into smaller parts. For example, 138","\u201ccat\u201d is a morpheme. You can\u2019t make \u201ccat\u201d into a smaller word. \u201cCats,\u201d however, is not a morpheme since you can make \u201ccats\u201d into a smaller word by cutting off the \u201cs\u201d and turn into \u201ccat.\u201d Taking morphemes into account, you could claim another aim or function of morphology is to serve as a kind of microscope for language. The morphology field\u2014and its concomitant study of morphemes\u2014allows people to scrutinize words at their most basic, rudimentary level. It lets people look at them up close in their embryonic state. It\u2019s almost as if morphology helps people see the foundation or building blocks of language. You could argue morphology helps people figure out how bigger, more complex words are born. 12.2 MORPHEME: BOUND WORDS AND FREE WORDS Morphemes that can only be attached to another part of a word (cannot stand alone) are called bound morphemes. Complex words are words that are made up of both free morpheme (s) and bound morpheme (s), or two or more bound morphemes. \uf0b7 A free morpheme is a morpheme (or word element) that can stand alone as a word. It is also called an unbound morpheme or a free-standing morpheme. A free morpheme is the opposite of a bound morpheme, a word element that cannot stand alone as a word. Many words in English consist of a single free morpheme. \uf0b7 The root is listen is stand-alone morpheme and a word at a same time. When root word was modifying with affixes like -s, -er, -ed and \u2013ing it became a word consisting of two morpheme in each word. 1. Free morpheme 2. Bound morpheme The morpheme that can stand alone as a single word (as a meaningful unit) is called free morpheme. \uf0b7 \\\"Morphemes can be divided into two general classes. Free morphemes are those which can stand alone as words of a language, whereas bound morphemes must be attached to other morphemes. There is an even smaller unit of language than morphemes\u2014phonemes. Phonemes are the distinct components of sound that come together to build a morpheme or word. The difference between morphemes and phonemes is that morphemes carry significance or meaning in and of themselves, whereas phonemes do not. For example, the words dog and dig are separated by a single phoneme\u2014the middle vowel\u2014but neither \/\u026a\/ (as in dig) nor \/\u0252\/ (as in dog) carries meaning by itself. 139","In the example of the word smallest, the two segments small and -est come together to make a complete word. These building blocks are an example of individual morphemes. Morphemes are the smallest units of language that have meaning and can\u2019t be further subdivided. When we put together the morphemes small (which is a word by itself) and -est (which is not a word but does mean something when added to a word) we get a new word that means something different from the word small. Small \u2013 something slight in size. Smallest \u2013 the most slight in size. But what if we wanted to make a different word? There are other morphemes we can add to the root word small to make different combinations and, therefore, different words. Morpheme Types There are two major types of morphemes: Free morphemes and Bound morphemes. The smallest example is made up of one of each of these types of morphemes. Small \u2013 is a free morpheme -est \u2013 is a bound morpheme 1. Free Morphemes A free morpheme is a morpheme that occurs alone and carries meaning as a word. Free morphemes are also called unbound or freestanding morphemes. You might also call a free morpheme a root word, which is the irreducible core of a single word. Frigid Are Must Tall Picture Roof Clear Mountain These examples are all free morphemes because they cannot be subdivided into smaller pieces that hold significance. Free morphemes can be any type of word\u2014whether an adjective, a noun, or anything else\u2014they simply have to stand alone as a unit of language that conveys meaning. 140","You might be tempted to say that free morphemes are simply all words and leave it at that. This is true, but free morphemes are actually categorized as either lexical or functional according to how they function. Lexical Morphemes Lexical morphemes carry the content or meaning of a message. Stand Stage Compact Deliver Meet Blanket Tree Excess You might think of them as the substance of language. To identify a lexical morpheme, ask yourself, \u201cIf I deleted this morpheme from the sentence, would it lose its meaning?\u201d If this answer is yes, then you almost certainly have a lexical morpheme. Functional Morphemes As opposed to lexical morphemes, functional morphemes do not carry the content of a message. These are the words in a sentence that are more functional, meaning that they coordinate the meaningful words. With There And So You But If We Remember that functional morphemes are still free morphemes, which means they can stand alone as a word with meaning. You wouldn\u2019t categorize a morpheme such as re- or -un as a grammatical morpheme because they aren\u2019t words that stand alone with meaning. 2. Bound Morphemes 141","Unlike lexical morphemes, bound morphemes are those that cannot stand alone with meaning. Bound morphemes must occur with other morphemes to create a complete word. Many bound morphemes are affixes. An affix is an additional segment added to a root word to change its meaning. An affix may be added to the beginning (prefix) or the end (suffix) of a word. Not all bound morphemes are affixes, but they are certainly the most common form. Here are a few examples of affixes you might see: -est -ly -ed -s un- re- im- a- Bound morphemes can do one of two things: they can change the grammatical category of the root word (derivational morpheme), or they can simply alter its form (inflectional morpheme). Derivational Morphemes When a morpheme changes the way you\u2019d categorize the root word grammatically, it\u2019s a derivational morpheme. Poor (adjective) + ly (derivational morpheme) = poorly (adverb) The root word poor is an adjective, but when you add the suffix -ly\u2014which is a derivational morpheme\u2014it changes to an adverb. Other examples of derivational morphemes include - ness, non-, and -ful. Inflectional Morphemes When a bound morpheme is attached to a word but does not change the root word's grammatical category, it is an inflectional morpheme. These morphemes simply modify the root word in some way. Fireplace + s = fireplaces Adding the -s to the end of the word fireplace did not change the word in any significant way\u2014 it simply modified it to reflect multiple rather than one single fireplace. 142","12.2.1 Classification to Affixes Suffixes have been classified according to their origin, parts of speech they served to form, their frequency, productivity and other characteristics. Within the parts of speech suffixes have been classified semantically according to lexico- grammatical groups and semantic fields, and last but not least, according to the types of stems they are added to. In conformity with our primarily synchronic approach it seems convenient to begin with the classification according to the part of speech. They will be listed together with words illustrating their possible semantic force. Noun-forming suffixes: -age(bondage, breakage, mileage, vicarage); -ance\/-ence(assistance, reference); -ant\/- ent(disinfectant, student); -dom(kingdom, freedom, officialdom); -ee(employee); - eer(profiteer); -er (writer, type-writer);-ess (actress, lioness); -hood(manhood); - ing (building, meaning, washing); -ion\/-sion\/-tion\/-ation(rebellion, tension, creation, explanation);-ism\/-icism(heroism, criticism);-ist (novelist, communist); -ment(government, nourishment); -ness(tenderness); -ship(friendship); -(i)ty(sonority). Adjective-forming suffixes: -able\/-ible\/-uble(unbearable, audible, soluble); -al(formal); -ic(poetic); -ical(ethical); -ant\/- ent(repentant, dependent); -ary(revolutionary);-ate\/-ete(accurate, complete); -ed\/- d(wooded); -full(delightful); -an\/-ian(African, Australian); -ish (Irish, reddish, childish); - ive (active); -less(useless); -like(lifelike); -ly (manly); -ous\/-ious(tremendous, curious);- some(tiresome); -y (cloudy, dressy). Numeral-forming suffixes: -fold(twofold); -teen(fourteen); -the(seventh); -ty (sixty). Verb-forming suffixes: -ate (facilitate); -er(glimmer); -en (shorten); -fy\/-ify (terrify, specify, solidify); - ize (equalize); -ish (establish). Adverb-forming suffixes: -ly (coldly); -ward\/-wards (upward, northwards); -wise(likewise). If we change our approach and become interested in the lexico-grammatical meaning the suffixes serve to signalize, we obtain within each part of speech more detailed lexico- grammatical classes or subclasses. 143","Taking up nouns we can subdivide them into proper and common nouns. Among common nouns we shall distinguish personal names, names of other animate beings, collective nouns, falling into several minor groups, material nouns, abstract nouns and names of things. \uf0b7 Abstract nouns are signalled by the following suffixes: -age, -ance\/-ence, -any\/- ency, -dom, -hood, -ing, -ion\/-tion\/-ation, -ism, -ment, -ness, -ship, -th, -ty. \uf0b7 Personal nouns that are emotionally neutral occur with the following suffixes: - an(grammarian), -ant\/-ent (servant, student), -arian(vegetarian), -ee (examinee), - er (porter), -ician(musician), -ist (linguist), -ite (sybarite), -or(inspector), and a few others. \uf0b7 Feminine suffixes may be classed as a subgroup of personal noun suffixes. These are few and not frequent: -ess (actress), -ine (heroine),-rix (testatrix), - ette(cosmonette). Alongside with adding some lexico-grammatical meaning to the stem, certain suffixes charge it with emotional force. They may be derogatory: -ard(drunkard); -ling (underling); - ster(gangster); -ton (simpleton). These seem to be more numerous in English than the suffixes of endearment. Transfers in Georgia Emotionally coloured diminutive suffixes rendering also endearment differ from the derogatory suffixes in that they are used to name not only persons but things as well. This point may be illustrated by the suffix -y\/-i.e.\/-ey (auntie, cabbie (cabman), daddie), but also: hanky (handkerchief), nightie (night-gown). Other suffixes that express small-ness are -kin\/- kins(manikin); -let (booklet); -ock (hillock); -etc(kitchenette). The connotation of some tiny suffixes is not one of endearment but of some outlandish elegance and novelty, particularly in the case of the borrowed suffix -etc (kitchenette, laun- derette, lecturette, maisonette, etc.). Derivational morphemes affixed before the stem are called prefixes. Prefixes modify the lexical meaning of the stem, but in so doing they seldom affect its basic lexico-grammatical component. Therefore, both the simple word and its prefixed derivative mostly belong to the same part of speech. The prefix mis-, for instance, when added to verbs conveys the meaning 'wrongly', 'badly', 'unfavourably'; it does not suggest any other part of speech but the verb. Compare the following oppositions: behave: : misbehave, calculate: : miscalculate, 144","inform: : misinform, lead: : mislead, pronounce: : mispronounce. The above oppositions are strictly proportional semantically, i.e. the same relationship between elements holds throughout the series. There may be other cases where the semantic relationship is slightly different but the general lexico-grammatical meaning remains, c f. giving : : misgiving 'foreboding' or 'suspicion'; take : : mistake and trust : : mistrust. The semantic effect of a prefix may be termed adverbial because it modifies the idea suggested by the stem for manner, time, place, degree and so on. It has been already shown that the prefix mis- is equivalent to the adverbs wrongly and badly, therefore by expressing evaluation it modifies the corresponding verbs for manner. The prefixes pre- and post- refer to time and order, e. g. historic :: pre-historic, pay :: prepay, view :: preview. The last word means 'to view a film or a play before it is submitted to the general public'. Compare also: graduate :: postgraduate (about the course of study carried on after graduation), Impressionism :: Post- impressionism. The latter is so called because it came after Impressionism as a reaction against it. The prefixes in-, a-, ab-, super-, sub-, trans- modify the stem for place, e. g. income, abduct 'to carry away', subway, transatlantic. Several prefixes serve to modify the meaning of the stem for degree and size. The examples are out-, over- and under-. The group of negative prefixes is so numerous that some scholars even find it convenient to classify prefixes into negative and non-negative ones. The negative ones are: de-, dis-, in-\/am- \/if-\/it-, non-, un- The prefix de- occurs in many neologisms, such as decentralize, decontaminate 'remove contamination from the area or the clothes', denazify, etc. The general idea of negation is expressed by dis-; it may mean 'not', and be simply negative or 'the reverse of, 'asunder', 'away', 'apart' and then it is called reversative. C f. agree: : disagree 'not to agree' appear : : disappear (disappear is the reverse of appear), appoint : : disappoint 'to undo the appointment and thus frustrate the expectation', disgorge 'eject as from the throat', dishouse 'throw out, evict'. Non- is often used in abstract verbal nouns such as non- interference, nonsense or non-resistance, and participles or former participles like non- commissioned (about an officer in the army below the rank of a commissioned officer), non- combatant (about any one who is connected with the army but is there for some purpose other than fighting, as, for instance, an army surgeon.) Non- used to be restricted to simple unemphatic negation. Beginning with the sixties non- indicates not so much the opposite of something but rather that something is not 145","real or worthy of the name. E. g. non-book \u2014 is a book published to be purchased rather than to be read, non-thing \u2014 something insignificant and meaningless. The most frequent by far is the prefix un-; it may convey two different meanings: 1) Simple negation, when attached to adjective stems or to participles: happy: : unhappy, kind : : unkind, even : : uneven. It is immaterial whether the stem is native or borrowed, as the suffix un- readily combines with both groups. For instance, uncommon, unimportant, etc. are hybrids. 2) The meaning is reversative when un- is used with verbal stems. In that case it shows action contrary to that of the simple word: bind: : unbind, do: : undo, mask : : unmask, pack : : unpack. A very frequent prefix with a great combining power is re- denoting repetition of the action expressed by the stem. It may be prefixed to almost any verb or verbal noun: rearrange v, recast v 'put into new shape', reinstate v 'to place again in a former position', refitment n 'repairs and renewal', remarriage n, etc. There are, it must be remembered, some constraints. Thus, while reassembled or revisited are usual, rereceived or reseen do not occur at all. The meaning of a prefix is not so completely fused with the meaning of the primary stem as is the case with suffixes, but retains a certain degree of semantic independence. Among the above examples verbs predominate. This is accounted for by the fact that prefixation in English is chiefly characteristic of verbs and words with deverbal stems. The majority of prefixes affect only the lexical meaning of words but there are three important cases where prefixes serve to form words belonging to different parts of speech as compared with the original word. These are in the first place the verb-forming prefixes be- and en-, which combine functional meaning with a certain variety of lexical meanings. Be- forms transitive verbs with adjective, verb and noun stems and changes intransitive verbs into transitive ones. Examples are: be- little v 'to make little', benumb v 'to make numb', befriend v 'to treat like a friend', becloud v (bedew v, befoam v) 'to cover with clouds (with dew or with foam)', bemadam v 'to call madam', besiege v 'to lay siege on'. Sometimes the lexical meanings are very different; compare, for instance, bejewel v 'to deck with jewels' and behead v which has the meaning of 'to cut the head from'. There are on the whole about six semantic verb-forming varieties and one that makes adjectives from noun stems following the pattern be- + noun stem+ -ed, as in benighted, bespectacled, etc. The pattern is often connected with a contemptuous emotional colouring. the prefix in-\/am- is now used to form verbs from noun stems with the meaning 'put (the object) into, or on, something, as in embed, engulf, encamp, and also to form verbs with 146","adjective and noun stems with the meaning 'to bring into such condition or state', as in enable v, enslave v, encash v. Sometimes the prefix en-lem- has an intensifying function, c f. enclasp. The prefix a- is the characteristic feature of the words belonging to statives: aboard, afraid, asleep, awake, etc. As a prefix forming the words of the category of state a- represents: (1) OE preposition on, as abed, aboard, afoot; (2) OE preposition of, from, as in anew; (3) OE prefixes ge- and y- as in aware. This prefix has several homonymous morphemes which modify only the lexical meaning of the stem, c f. arise v, amoral a. The prefixes pre-, post-, non-, anti-, and some other Romanic and Greek prefixes very productive in present-day English serve to form adjectives retaining at the same time a very clear-cut lexical meaning, e. g. anti-war, pre-war, post-war, non-party, etc. From the point of view of etymology affixes are subdivided into two main classes: the native affixes and the borrowed affixes. By native affixes we shall mean those that existed in English in the Old English period or were formed from Old English words. The borrowed affixes needs some explanation. The changes a morpheme undergoes in the course of language history may be of very different kinds. A bound form, for instance, may be developed from a free one. This is precisely the case with such English suffixes as -dom, -hood, -lock, -ful, -less, -like, -ship, e. g. ModE -dom < OE dom 'fate', 'power', c f. ModE doom. The suffix -hood that we see in childhood, boyhood is derived from OE had 'state'. The OE lac was also a suffix denoting state. The process may be summarized as follows: first lac formed the second element of compound words, then it became a suffix and lastly was so fused with the stem as to become a dead suffix in wedlock. The nouns freedom, wisdom, etc. were originally compound words. The most important native suffixes are: -d, -dom, -ed, -en, -fold,-full, -hood, -ing, -ish, -less, - let, -like, -lock, -ly, -ness, -oc, -red, -ship,-some, -teen, -th, -ward, -wise, -y. The suffixes of foreign origin are classified according to their source into Latin (-able\/-ible, - ant\/-ent), French (-age, -ance\/-ence, -ancy\/-ency,-ard, -ate, -sy), Greek (-ist, -ism, -ite), etc. The term borrowed affixes is not very exact as affixes are never borrowed as such, but only as parts of loan words. To enter the morphological system of the English language a borrowed affix has to satisfy certain conditions. The borrowing of the affixes is possible only if the number of words containing this affix is considerable, if its meaning and function are definite 147","and clear enough, and also if its structural pattern corresponds to the structural patterns already existing in the language. If these conditions are fulfilled, the foreign affix may even become productive and combine with native stems or borrowed stems within the system of English vocabulary like-able < Lat - abilis in such words as laughable or unforgettable and unforgivable. The English words bal- ustrade, brigade, cascade are borrowed from French. It should be noted that many of the borrowed affixes are international and occur not only in English but in several other European languages as well. Allomorphs. The combining form allo- from Greek allos 'other' is used in linguistic terminology to denote elements of a group whose members together constitute a structural unit of the language (allophones, allo-morphs). Thus, for example, -ion\/-sion\/-tion\/-ation are the positional variants of the same suffix. To show this they are here taken together and separated by the sign \/. They do not differ in meaning or function but show a slight difference in sound form depending on the final phoneme of the preceding stem. They are considered as variants of one and the same morpheme and called its allomorphs. Descriptive linguistics deals with the regularities in the distributional relations among the features and elements of speech, i.e. their occurrence relatively to each other within utterances. The approach to the problem is thus based on the principles of distributional analysis. An allomorph is defined as a positional variant of a morpheme occurring in a specific environment and so characterized by complementary distribution. Complementary distribution is said to take place when two linguistic alternatives cannot appear in the same environment. Thus, stems ending in consonants take as a rule -ation (liberation); stems ending in pt, however, take -tion (corruption) and the final t becomes fused with the suffix. Different morphemes are characterized by contrastive distribution, i.e. if they occur in the same environment they signal different meanings. The suffixes -able and -ed, for instance, are different morphemes, not allomorphs, because adjectives in -able mean 'capable of being': measurable 'capable of being measured', whereas -ed as a suffix of adjectives has a resultant force: measured 'marked by due proportion', as the measured beauty of classical Greek art; hence also 'rhythmical' and 'regular in movement', as in the measured form of verse, the measured tread. In some cases the difference is not very clear-cut: -ic and -ical, for example, are two different affixes, the first a simple one, the second a group affix; they are said to be characterized by contrastive distribution. But many adjectives have both the -ic and -ical form, often without a 148","distinction in meaning. COD points out that the suffix -ical shows a vaguer connection with what is indicated by the stem: a comic paper but a comical story. However, the distinction between them is not very sharp. Allomorphs will also occur among prefixes. Their form then depends on the initials of the stem with which they will assimilate. A prefix such as im- occurs before bilabials (impossible), its allomorph ir- before r (irregular), il- before l (illegal). It is in- before all other consonants and vowels (indirect, inability). Two or more sound forms of a stem existing under conditions of complementary distribution may also be regarded as allomorphs, as, for instance, in long a : : length n, excite v : : excitation n. In American descriptive linguistics allomorphs are treated on a purely semantic basis, so that not only [iz] in dishes, [z] in dreams and [s] in books, which are allomorphs in the sense given above, but also formally unrelated [n] in oxen, the vowel modification in tooth :: teeth and zero suffix in many sheep, are considered to be allomorphs of the same morpheme on the strength of the sameness of their grammatical meaning. This surely needs some serious re-thinking, as within that kind of approach morphemes cease to be linguistic units combining the two fundamental aspects of form and meaning and become pure abstractions. The very term morpheme (from the Greek morpheme 'form') turns into a misnomer, because all connection with form is lost. Allomorphs therefore are as we have shown, phonetically conditioned positional variants of the same derivational or functional morpheme (suffix, root or prefix) identical in meaning and function and differing in sound only insomuch, as their complementary distribution produces various phonetic assimilation effects. 12.3 SUMMARY \uf0b7 Morphology, the study of morphemes is a subfield of linguistics that focuses on studying the smallest lexical units of meaning in language, which are the internal constituent parts of a word. \uf0b7 These smallest lexical units of meaning are called morphemes. Variations in pronunciations or, more properly, realizations, of these morphemes, these internal constituent parts, are called allomorphs. 149","\uf0b7 Morphology aims to understand the internal constituent parts of words; to understand morpheme relationships; and, in so doing, to understand how a language building relates to words' constituent parts, their morphemes. \uf0b7 The function of morphology is to identify individual morphemes, which may be words or may be parts of words, and analyze their meaning and lexical function. 12.4 KEYWORD \uf0b7 Morphology \uf0b7 Morphemes \uf0b7 Allomorphs \uf0b7 Phonemes \uf0b7 Free morphemes \uf0b7 Bound morphemes. \uf0b7 Lexical morphemes \uf0b7 Functional Morphemes \uf0b7 Derivational Morphemes \uf0b7 Inflectional Morphemes 12.5 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. What does morphemes mean? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. What is the difference between lexical and functional morphemes? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 12.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 150"]