CU - BA - Sem IV - English Literature-IV

["\uf0b7 Auditory phonetics, which illustrates the way listeners perceive and understand linguistic signals. 1. Articulatory phonetics Articulatory phonetics describes how the speech organs\/vocal organs also known as articulators, are used to produce speech sounds. It also analyses which organs and muscles are used to produce speech sounds. In articulatory phonetics, we discuss different questions like: 2. Acoustic phonetics Acoustic phonetics covers the field of physical properties of speech sounds i.e., how air vibration caused by vocal tracts pass from speaker to listener? In acoustic phonetics, phoneticians depict and analyze sound waves using computer machines and by different computer programs. Speech sound consists of variations in vibration of air molecules which results from physical disturbances of air pressure caused by air thrust out of the lungs. This air thrust out of the lungs makes the air molecules to compress and oscillate, creating increases and decreases depending on thrust of lungs. The resulting sound wave travels in medium of air and reach from speaker to hearer where these sound waves are interpreted as a meaningful message. 3. Auditory phonetics Auditory phonetics covers the field of \u201cthe perception of speech sounds by the listener\u201d. In Auditory Phonetics, we study how the sounds are transmitted from the ear to the brain, and how they are processed. As we speak, the sound spreads as a sound wave, causing the air molecules to crowd together and causing a vibration. These vibrating air molecules cause the eardrum in the middle ear to vibrate and this vibration is then carried on from the eardrum to the three little bones: mallet, incus, and stirrup. From the stirrup, the vibration is carried on to the inner ear where the auditory receptor cells are located. The cells in the inner ear (on the basilar membrane) convert vibrations into neural signals that are transmitted via the auditory nerves to the brain, where a listener identify the incoming sound as actual sound. 4.2.1 Place of Articulation Place of articulation or point of articulation indicates where our mouth obstruction is occurring when a consonant is formed. To create an obstruction, each of your lips needs to be brought together. One part of the articulator that moves is called the active articulator, and one that remains stationary is called the passive. 1. Bilabial 51","Bilabial consonants are created when you use both the upper and lower lips together to block\/constrict airflow out of the mouth. Example: \/b\/ as in \u201cbad\u201d and \u201cjob\u201d \/m\/ as in \u201cmat\u201d and \u201cjam\u201d \uf0b7 \/p\/ as in \u201cpan\u201d and \u201clamp\u201d \uf0b7 \/w\/ as in \u201cwatch\u201d and \u201cdraw\u201d \uf0b7 \uf0b7 2. Labio-dental Labio-dental consonants are made when you block\/constrict the airflow by putting your lower lip and the upper teeth together. Example: \/f\/ as in \u201cfox\u201d and \u201croof\u201d \/v\/ as in \u201cvillage\u201d and \u201cbrave\u201d \uf0b7 \uf0b7 3. Dental Here when you block\/constrict the airflow by placing the tip of your tongue against your upper teeth. Example: \/ ?\/ as in \u201cthink\u201d and \u201cother\u201d \/ \u00f0\/ as in \u201ctheirs\u201d and \u201csoothe\u201d \uf0b7 \uf0b7 4. Alveolar The alveolar obstruction occurs at the alveolar ridge. It happens when the ridge behind the upper teeth that are touched by your tongue as you raise it. We have a lot of alveolar consonant sounds in English. Example: \/d\/ as in \u201cdot\u201d and \u201cfed\u201d \/l\/ as in \u201clion\u201d and \u201crail\u201d \uf0b7 \/n\/ as in \u201cnorth\u201d and \u201cminute\u201d \uf0b7 \/s\/ as in \u201csalt\u201d and \u201cinside\u201d \uf0b7 \/t\/ as in \u201cturtle\u201d and \u201ccoat\u201d \uf0b7 \/z\/ as in \u201czoo\u201d and \u201cdozen\u201d \uf0b7 \uf0b7 \uf0b7 In some accents, this category of articulate also includes with \/rr\/ rolling r sound. 5. Post-alveolar 52","Post-alveolar or Palato-alveolar is almost the same as how we articulate the alveolar. But in post-alveolar, the tongue moves back a little bit farther in the mouth. Example: \/? \/ as in \u201cshape\u201d and \u201ccash\u201d \/? \/ as in \u201cusual\u201d and \u201cbeige\u201d \uf0b7 \/t? \/ as in \u201ccheap\u201d and \u201cteach\u201d \uf0b7 \/d? \/ as in \u201chedgehog\u201d and \u201cbridge\u201d \uf0b7 \uf0b7 6. Palatal Palatal consonants are where the body of the tongue is raised to the hard palate. In English, we there is only one sound of palatal. Example: \uf0b7 \/j\/ as in \u201cunit\u201d, \u201cyoung\u201d, \u201cuniversity, and \u201cyear\u201d. 7. Velar Here the obstruction occurs when the back of our tongue touches the soft palate (velum) at the back of the mouth. Example : \/g\/ as in \u201cglad\u201d and \u201cbig\u201d \/k\/ as In \u201ckangaroo\u201d and \u201cknock\u201d \uf0b7 \/?\/ as in \u201cuncle\u201d and \u201csinger\u201d \uf0b7 \/w\/ as in \u201cwet\u201d \uf0b7 \uf0b7 8. Glottal These sounds are articulated using the glottis. The glottis actually has two vocal cords. It acts as a sort of lid to your windpipe. You can do this by inhaling and then hold your breath with your mouth open. So the air won\u2019t come out from your lungs. Example : \/h\/ as in \u201chope\u201d and \u201cOklahoma\u201d \/? \/ as in \u201cschool\u201d and \u201chonest\u201d \uf0b7 \uf0b7 4.2.2 Manner of Articulation in Phonetics When place of articulation tells us where the obstruction to the airflow is occurring, the manner of articulation tells us how much of the airflow is being obstructed that came out from the lungs and flows out from the nose and mouth. 1. Nasal 53","Nasal can be created by stopping the air flow when we can reroute it through the nasal cavity. This produces sounds like: ; as we pronounced these words, the articulator \uf0b7 \/m\/ as in \u201cmap\u201d and \u201cswim\u201d is blocked because the lips are closed (bilabial). \uf0b7 \/n\/ as in \u201cnew\u201d and \u201csun\u201d ; as we pronounced these words, the articulator is blocked because the tongue tip is pressing against the alveolar ridge (alveolar). \uf0b7 \/?\/ as in \u201cpaintings\u201d and \u201clength\u201d ; as we pronounced these words, the articulator is blocked because the back part of tongue is pressing against the soft palate (velar). 2. Plosive Plosive also known as stop, occurs when the airflow by the vocal tract is stopped entirely. But unlike the nasal, the air in a plosive manner quickly boost up pressure behind the articulators and then releases it in a small explosion. \uf0b7 \/b\/ as in \u201cblow\u201d and \u201ccomb\u201d ; bilabial \uf0b7 \/d\/ as in \u201cduck\u201d and \u201cbed\u201d ; alveolar \uf0b7 \/g\/ as in \u201cguess\u201d and \u201cbag\u201d ; velar \uf0b7 \/k\/ as in \u201ckayak\u201d ; velar \uf0b7 \/p\/ as in \u201cplane\u201d and \u201ccap\u201d ; bilabial \uf0b7 \/t\/ as in \u201ctight\u201d ; alveolar 3. Fricative Here the airflow is obstructed almost entirely producing a turbulent, hissing sound. \uf0b7 \/f\/ as in \u201cfluff\u201d ; labiodental \uf0b7 \/v\/ as in \u201cvan\u201d ; labiodental \uf0b7 \/?\/ as in \u201cwith\u201d ; dental \uf0b7 \/\u00f0\/ as in \u201cthey\u201d ; dental \uf0b7 \/s\/ as in \u201csleep\u201d ; alveolar \uf0b7 \/z\/ as in \u201czipper\u201d ; alveolar \uf0b7 \/?\/ as in \u201cwish\u201d ; post\u2013alveolar \uf0b7 \/?\/ as in \u201cusually\u201d ; post\u2013alveolar \uf0b7 \/h\/ as in \u201cher\u201d some consider that h not even a fricative. \uf0b7 \/x\/ as in \u201cloch\u201d 4. Affricate 54","This consonant is formed from stop consonants that mix with fricative consonants. The consonant affricate starts with air that built up pressure behind an articulator, which then releases the air through a narrow track, rather than making a clean burst like the else. Example : \/t?\/ as in \u201cwatch\u201d ; post-alveolar \/d?\/ as in \u201cjob\u201d ; post-alveolar \uf0b7 \uf0b7 5. Approximant Here the airflow is impeded only slightly. The hissing sound indicative of fricatives is no longer present here. But, the sound is altered to a degree. In English, we have 3 approximants. Here are the examples: \uf0b7 \/w\/ as in \u201cwater\u201d ; velar \uf0b7 \/j\/ as in \u201cyes\u201d ; palatal \uf0b7 \/?\/ as in \u201cwrong\u201d ; alveolar\/post-alveolar 6. Lateral Lateral are liquidy \u201cl\u201d type sounds that produced when the tongue creates an obstruction in the middle of the mouth and re-routes the air out the sides of the mouth. This consonant manner come in three forms: \uf0b7 Lateral Fricatives \uf0b7 Lateral Approximants \uf0b7 Lateral But in English, we only find 1 type of lateral : \uf0b7 \/l\/ as in \u201cluck\u201d and \u201claugh\u201d ; alveolar 4.3 SUMMARY \uf0b7 Phonetics can be divided into three main Categories. These are Articulatory phonetics, Acoustic phonetics and Auditory phonetics. \uf0b7 Phonetics is the study of speech processes. which includes the anatomy, neurology and pathology of speech? It also covers the articulation, classification and perception of speech sounds. It should not be confused with Phonology, which is the study of speech sounds of a certain language and their function within the sound system of that language; or Semantics, which is a field of Linguistics that primarily focuses on the meaning in various languages. 55","\uf0b7 Articulatory phonetics is the study of the movement of the speech organs as the words are being uttered. Acoustic phonetics involves the study of physical properties of speech sounds also known as frequency and amplitude. \uf0b7 Auditory phonetics on the other hand means the study of hearing and perception of speech sounds. Articulatory phonetics entails the movement of speech organs contrary to Acoustic phonetics which deals with the physical properties of speech sounds. \uf0b7 Phonetics is the study of speech sounds. Every language uses a certain number of speech sounds selecting on its own out of the large number of varied sounds the human vocal organs can produce. Phonetics is involved with the description and classification of these sounds. \uf0b7 Phonology is the study of sound systems of a certain language and the analysis and classification of its phonemes. It explores the way sound functions in languages through phonemes, syllable structure, stress, accent, and intonation. Phoneme represents the smallest unit of sound that creates a difference in pronunciation and meaning. \uf0b7 Phonetics is understanding the description and classification of these sounds on the basis of how they are generated by our vocal organs (articulatory phonetics), how they are perceived by our hearing mechanism (auditory phonetics), and how they are transmitted through the air (acoustic phonetics). 4.4 KEYWORD \uf0b7 Lexicographers \uf0b7 Foreign Language Students \uf0b7 Teachers \uf0b7 Linguists \uf0b7 Speech-Language Pathologists \uf0b7 Singers \uf0b7 Actors \uf0b7 Constructed Language Creators \uf0b7 Translators \uf0b7 Orators \uf0b7 Phonics \uf0b7 Vowels 56","\uf0b7 Consonats \uf0b7 Auditory phonetics \uf0b7 Articulatory phonetics \uf0b7 Phonetic transcription 4.5 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. What is the definition of Phonetics? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. What is the definition of Phonology? ___________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ 3. Define Articulatory phonetics. _______________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 4. Define Acoustic phonetics. _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ 5. Define Auditory phonetics. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 4.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. What is Phonetic? 2. Why phonetic is required? 3. What is Articulatory phonetics? 4. What is Acoustic phonetics? 5. What is Auditory phonetics? 57","Long Questions 1. Phonetics covers which basic two aspects of human speech? 2. Modern Phonetics is divided into which three main Branches? Illustrate. 3. Describe Phonics in length. 4. Describe Phonology in length. 5. Phonetics is that branch of linguistics. How? B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. ______________is the scientific study of language? a. Philology b. Phonology c. Phonetics d. linguistics 2. Words composed of two or more elements that are identical or slightly different are called____________? a. Compounding b. Acronym c. Reduplicates d. Conversion 3. Which of these terms refer to the study of speech process? a. Phonology b. Phonetic substances c. Phonetics d. Semantics 4. Which of these is not a type of phonetics? a. Articulatory b. Personal c. Acoustic d. Auditory 5. Which of these is not a type of phonetics? a. Articulatory b. Personal c. Acoustic d. Auditory 58","Answers 1-d, 2-c, 3-c. 4-b, 5-b 4.7 REFERENCES References book \uf0b7 Abram, D., Spell of the Sensuous (New York, NY: Vintage Books, 1997) \uf0b7 Allan, K. and Kate Burridge, Forbidden Words: Taboo and the Censoring of Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006) \uf0b7 Brown, G., \u201cExplaining,\u201d in The Handbook of Communication Skills, ed. Owen Hargie (New York, NY: Routledge, 2006) \uf0b7 Crystal, D., How Language Works: How Babies Babble, Words Change Meaning, and Languages Live or Die (Woodstock, NY: Overlook Press, 2005) \uf0b7 Dorian, N. C., \u201cAbrupt Transmission Failure in Obsolescing Languages: How Sudden the \u2018Tip\u2019 to the Dominant Language in Communities and Families?\u201d Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society (1986) \uf0b7 Foot, H. and May McCreaddie, \u201cHumour and Laughter,\u201d in The Handbook of Communication Skills, ed. Owen Hargie (New York, NY: Routledge, 2006). \uf0b7 Hargie, O. Skilled Interpersonal Interaction: Research, Theory, and Practice (London: Routledge, 2011) \uf0b7 Hayakawa, S. I. and Alan R. Hayakawa, Language in Thought and Action, 5th ed. (San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace, 1990) Textbook references \uf0b7 Martin, J. N. and Thomas K. Nakayama, Intercultural Communication in Contexts, 5th ed. (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2010) \uf0b7 McCornack, S., Reflect and Relate: An Introduction to Interpersonal Communication (Boston, MA: Bedford\/St Martin\u2019s, 2007) \uf0b7 McKay, M., Martha Davis, and Patrick Fanning, Messages: Communication Skills Book, 2nd ed. (Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications, 1995) 59","\uf0b7 Huang, L., \u201cTechnology: Textese May Be the Death of English,\u201d Newsweek, August 2011, 8. \uf0b7 Humphrys, J., \u201cI h8 txt msgs: How Texting Is Wrecking Our Language,\u201d Daily Mail, September 24, 2007, accessed June 7, 2012 \uf0b7 Martin, J. N. and Thomas K. Nakayama, Intercultural Communication in Contexts, 5th ed. (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2010) \uf0b7 McCornack, S., Reflect and Relate: An Introduction to Interpersonal Communication (Boston, MA: Bedford\/St Martin\u2019s, 2007) Website \uf0b7 Egocentricity in Child Language | Forms | Human Behaviour | Psychology \uf0b7 Relationship between Thought and Language | Human Behaviour | Psychology \uf0b7 Sex Behaviour of an Individual | Forms | Human Behaviour | Psychology \uf0b7 Brain Function and Language Behaviour | Human Behaviour | Psychology 60","UNIT \u2013 5 PRODUCTION OF SPEECH SOUND : VOWELS AND CONSONANTS IN THE CONTEXT OF INDIAN LEARNER STRUCTURE 5.0 Learning Objectives 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Production of Speech Sound: Vowel and Consonant 5.3 Summary 5.4 Keywords 5.5 Learning Activity 5.6 Unit End Questions 5.7 References 5.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES \uf0b7 Identify, define and give an example of each of the four main types of delivery \uf0b7 Determine the best speaking style for different types of speaking occasions \uf0b7 Identify and utilize voice aspects of speaking \uf0b7 Recognize and utilize the key \u201cingredients\u201d of a well-performed speec to understand the different vowel and consonant sounds \uf0b7 Recognize correct pronunciation of critical vowel and consonant sounds \uf0b7 Practice reading words, phrases, and sentences using accurate production of critical vowel sounds and consonant sounds. \uf0b7 To understand what vowels and consonants are and to practise spotting vowels in words. \uf0b7 Aids to teach and reinforce vowel concepts with the lesson plan. \uf0b7 Ability to differentiate between consonants and vowels. \uf0b7 Learn about different types of vowels. \uf0b7 Learn about different types of Consonants. \uf0b7 Polish off with a sorting activity that applies concepts. 61","\uf0b7 To understand Phonemic and Allophonic Variations. \uf0b7 To comprehend Consonant Clusters in English. \uf0b7 To know about Phonemic Transcription. \uf0b7 Adapt to the physical aspects of a speaking venue \uf0b7 Plan the speech in preparation for delivery\/performance of a speech. \uf0b7 To understand the different vowel and consonant sounds \uf0b7 Recognize correct pronunciation of critical vowel and consonant sounds \uf0b7 Practice reading words, phrases, and sentences using accurate production of critical vowel sounds and consonant sounds. \uf0b7 To understand what vowels and consonants are and to practise spotting vowels in words. \uf0b7 Aids to teach and reinforce vowel concepts with the lesson plan. \uf0b7 Ability to differentiate between consonants and vowels. \uf0b7 Learn about different types of vowels. \uf0b7 Learn about different types of Consonants. \uf0b7 Polish off with a sorting activity that applies concepts. \uf0b7 To understand Phonemic and Allophonic Variations. \uf0b7 To comprehend Consonant Clusters in English. \uf0b7 To know about Phonemic Transcription. 5.1 INTRODUCTION \uf0b7 Speech production is the process by which thoughts are translated into speech. This includes the selection of words, the organization of relevant grammatical forms, and then the articulation of the resulting sounds by the motor system using the vocal apparatus. \uf0b7 Normally speech is created with pulmonary pressure provided by the lungs that generates sound by phonation through the glottis in the larynx that then is modified by the vocal tract into different vowels and consonants. \uf0b7 Voiced sounds are produced by forcing air through the glottis or an opening between the vocal folds. Then, the vocal folds vibrate, interrupt the air stream, and produce a 62","quasiperiodic pressure wave that excites the vocal tract. An example of voiced sound is the vowel \u201ca\u201d in, cut, or \u201cee\u201d in \u201cbeet.\u201d \uf0b7 The traditional method of describing speech sounds is in terms of the movements of the vocal organs that produce them. The main structures that are important in the production of speech are the lungs and the respiratory system, together with the vocal organs. 5.2 PRODUCTION OF SPEECH SOUND: VOWEL AND CONSONANT Vowels and Consonants in English Alphabet Learning: As we already know, language originated from speech; it is a collection of sounds strung together. Prior to writing, there is speech. It must follow certain rules of the structure of a particular language. The English alphabet has twenty-six letters. Each letter has a distinct sound. The same letter may produce different sounds when combined with other letters. When we speak, we produce sound. To communicate effectively in English through the medium of speech, correct and distinct pronunciation is a must. While speaking, it has to be kept in mind that the speech must be understandable to the listener. This article will help you learn vowels and consonants in English alphabet. Vowels and Consonants seem very easy to understand and simple to remember. In the simplest categorization, English has 26 alphabets. Out of these, 5 are vowels and the rest 21 are consonants. The 5 vowels include a, e, i, o and u. A vowel sound is produced by a free flow of breath out of the mouth. A consonant sound is produced by blocking air which is flowing out of the mouth. A proper understanding of Vowels and Consonants plays a crucial role in building good speaking skills in kids. Also, it is a must for parents to pay the required attention to their kid\u2019s learning. Vowels and consonants play an integral part in English grammar, and thus, kids need to answer the vowels and consonants questions regularly. When you engage the little learners in answering these questions, they eventually improve their vocabulary and communication skills. Moreover, it improves their writing and reading abilities. What are Vowel and Consonant sounds In the English alphabet, five of the letters (a, e, i, o, u) are vowels and the rest are consonants. The letters actually sound together when you pronounce them. 63","Pronounce these two words: 1. Apple and 2. All \u2013 You will realise that the alphabet \u2018a\u2019 is pronounced differently in each case. Now speak out the letters: \u2018a\u2019, \u2018e\u2019, \u2018i\u2019, \u2018o\u2019, \u2018u\u2019 and see how easily they roll off your tongue. Also, observe that your lips form different shapes and that your tongue, too, has to be positioned differently to produce each sound. Such sounds are known as Vowel Sounds and these 5 letters: \u2018a\u2019, \u2018e\u2019, \u2018i\u2019, \u2018o\u2019, \u2018u\u2019 are known as Vowels. In English, there are two sets of vowels; short and long. Vowels that are short are called near vowels. On the other hand, longer vowels are called open vowels. Essentially, English is a complex language. In fact, English has the largest inventory of vowel combinations in the world. Since English is written as if you are talking with your friend. English has 21 distinct consonants. Vowels are connected to consonants to form words. American English Vowels and Consonants 5 VOWELS IN ENGLISH ALPHABETS A, E, I, O, U are the 5 English vowels in grammar. The sounds \u201cA\u201d and \u201cI\u201d are typically longer than the other three vowels. Most vowels are pronounced as \u201caa\u201d, \u201coo\u201d or \u201cah\u201d. The letters O and U are almost identical and are pronounced with the help of the \u201cU\u201d only. There are a number of ways to pronounce vowels. It\u2019s advisable to just go with standard English pronunciation for the most part. Pronunciation and English Vowel Here\u2019s How to Pronounce Each English Vowel: \uf0b7 a: soft, a little longer than the other English vowels. \uf0b7 e: short, this vowel sounds more like a sharp \u201ce\u201d. \uf0b7 i: the sound of the letter \u201ci\u201d is a little higher than the sound of \u201co\u201d. \uf0b7 o: the sound of \u201co\u201d is like a really, really long \u201co\u201d. \uf0b7 u: the sound of \u201cu\u201d is found in words like \u201cbus\u201d and \u201chum\u201d. Short Vowel When you pronounce the word \u2018bid\u2019, you require less time and effort. The vowel sound here is of shorter duration. Such vowel sounds are known as short vowels. Here are some more examples: Allow, Above, Attend, Add, Pin, Chin, If, Sink, Sit, Leg, Sketch, Egg, Bench, And, Band, Jam, Stand Foot, Wood, Would, Cook, Cot, Pot, Lot, Knot 64","Long Vowels Now, just pronounce the word \u2018bead\u2019. Here you take some extra time and effort to pronounce it. That is to say, the vowel sound here is of a longer duration compared to the previous one. Such vowel sounds are known as Long Vowels. Here are some more examples for you. Long Vowels Examples See, Free Saw, Law Food, Pool Bird, Curd, Card, Far Safe, Made, Ride, Side, Boy, Toy Go, Home, Now, Found, Sound, Foul The 21 Enlshish Consonant Consonants List: B, C, D, F, G, H, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, W, X, Y, Z are a total of 21 consonants in the English language. Consonants are those speech sounds that are made when the mouth is closed, but with air in the lungs. To be able to learn how to pronounce these consonants correctly, you need to understand English vowels and how they\u2019re used together with voiced consonants. Vowel and Consonant Sounds in English Within the English language\u2019s 26 letters, there are approximately 44 distinct sounds referred to as phonemes. Combining the 44 sounds allows for clear differentiation between various meanings. The sounds are represented by a variety of letters and letter combinations called Graphemes. There are two major categories of sounds in English: consonants and vowels. In English, there are 19 distinct vowel sounds, which are organized into five short vowels, six long vowels, three diphthongs, two \u2018oo\u2019 sounds, and three types of R-controlled vowel sounds. 5.3 SUMMARY \uf0b7 English is the most popular language spoken in the world. \uf0b7 If you wish to learn English, then it is recommended that you know the Common English Alphabet first. \uf0b7 This will help you to learn some basic English pronunciation without depending on a dictionary. 65","\uf0b7 You can also assist yourself by using any English alphabet learning app from the Google Play Store. \uf0b7 It\u2019s only through words that we speak and communicate. \uf0b7 There are two ways to pronounce words when you read or speak English. \uf0b7 By pronouncing correctly the words, you can understand the grammar of English and also learn to write your vocabulary. 5.4 KEYWORD \uf0b7 Consonant \uf0b7 Vowel \uf0b7 Long Vowel \uf0b7 Short Vowel \uf0b7 Phonemes \uf0b7 Graphemes 5.5 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. How many letters in English Alphabet? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. How many vowels and consonants are there in English? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 3. How many Consonants are there in the English Alphabet? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 66","5.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. What is speech production? 2. What is semi vowel in English grammar? 3. What is a consonant vowel? 4. What is the difference between vowels and consonants? 5. Out of 7 consonants and 4 vowels, how many words of 3 consonants and 2 vowels can be formed? Long Questions 1. What is the traditional method of describing speech sounds? 2. How is speech created? 3. How are voiced sounds produced? B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Find the odd one out: a, w, i, u, e,v a. e b. w c. a 2. Which among the following words in the options starts with a vowel? a. Rabbit b. Lion c. Icecream 3. Count the total number of consonants present in the word: Mississippi a. 7 b. 6 c. 4 4. List out the consonants in the word: Education a. d, c, u, n b. d, c, t, n c. d, c, t 5. Select the vowel from the given options. a. n 67","b. u c. t Answers 1-a, 2-a, 3-c. 4-c, 5-d 5.7 REFERENCES References book \uf0b7 Abram, D., Spell of the Sensuous (New York, NY: Vintage Books, 1997) \uf0b7 Allan, K. and Kate Burridge, Forbidden Words: Taboo and the Censoring of Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006) \uf0b7 Brown, G., \u201cExplaining,\u201d in The Handbook of Communication Skills, ed. Owen Hargie (New York, NY: Routledge, 2006) \uf0b7 Crystal, D., How Language Works: How Babies Babble, Words Change Meaning, and Languages Live or Die (Woodstock, NY: Overlook Press, 2005) \uf0b7 Dorian, N. C., \u201cAbrupt Transmission Failure in Obsolescing Languages: How Sudden the \u2018Tip\u2019 to the Dominant Language in Communities and Families?\u201d Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society (1986) \uf0b7 Foot, H. and May McCreaddie, \u201cHumour and Laughter,\u201d in The Handbook of Communication Skills, ed. Owen Hargie (New York, NY: Routledge, 2006). \uf0b7 Hargie, O. Skilled Interpersonal Interaction: Research, Theory, and Practice (London: Routledge, 2011) \uf0b7 Hayakawa, S. I. and Alan R. Hayakawa, Language in Thought and Action, 5th ed. (San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace, 1990) Textbook references \uf0b7 Martin, J. N. and Thomas K. Nakayama, Intercultural Communication in Contexts, 5th ed. (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2010) \uf0b7 McCornack, S., Reflect and Relate: An Introduction to Interpersonal Communication (Boston, MA: Bedford\/St Martin\u2019s, 2007) 68","\uf0b7 McKay, M., Martha Davis, and Patrick Fanning, Messages: Communication Skills Book, 2nd ed. (Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications, 1995) \uf0b7 Huang, L., \u201cTechnology: Textese May Be the Death of English,\u201d Newsweek, August 2011, 8. \uf0b7 Humphrys, J., \u201cI h8 txt msgs: How Texting Is Wrecking Our Language,\u201d Daily Mail, September 24, 2007, accessed June 7, 2012 \uf0b7 Martin, J. N. and Thomas K. Nakayama, Intercultural Communication in Contexts, 5th ed. (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2010) \uf0b7 McCornack, S., Reflect and Relate: An Introduction to Interpersonal Communication (Boston, MA: Bedford\/St Martin\u2019s, 2007) Website \uf0b7 Egocentricity in Child Language | Forms | Human Behaviour | Psychology \uf0b7 Relationship between Thought and Language | Human Behaviour | Psychology \uf0b7 Sex Behaviour of an Individual | Forms | Human Behaviour | Psychology \uf0b7 Brain Function and Language Behaviour | Human Behaviour | Psychology 69","UNIT \u2013 6 STRESS: STRONG AND WEAK SYLLABLE, WEAK FORMS PROBLEMS FOR INDIAN LEARNERS STRUCTURE 6.0 Learning Objectives 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Stress 6.3 Summary 6.4 Keywords 6.5 Learning Activity 6.6 Unit End Questions 6.7 References 6.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. To increase any learner\u2019s intrinsic motivation and decrease their disinterest. 2. Learners begin understanding about syllables orally through \u201cnatural\u201d breaks in the pronunciation of any word. 3. People are often taught to clap for each syllable. 4. This allows the learner(s) to count the number of syllables in each word. 5. It helps in increasing the reading fluency. 6. Learners are better able to focus on analysing the meaning of groups of words, instead of how to pronounce the word. 7. Another benefit of knowing how to decode the written words into workable parts is the improvement in one\u2019s spelling accuracy. 8. Further this also helps in passage comprehension. Most people comprehend orally at a higher level compared to what they can read. They use their knowledge of oral language to assist them to comprehend written words 70","6.1 INTRODUCTION Word stress, also refer as lexical stress. This emphasis a speaker places on a specific syllable in a multi-syllable word. Word stress is especially tough for non-native speakers to master. Word stress is the concept that while pronouncing a word (a word that has more than one syllable), we do not stress or accent every syllable therein the same way. One or at times more of the syllables are always more stressed or accented. To make it simpler to understand, some syllables \u2013 the ones that are stressed upon\u2013 sound longer and louder. Often, they are said at a higher pitch as well. The rest of the syllables will obviously be unstressed or unaccented. Examples: 1.Breakfast There are two syllables in the word breakfast \u2013 break and fast. While the first syllable break is stressed, the second one fast is unstressed. 2. Beautiful There happen to be three syllables in beautiful \u2013 beau-ti-ful. The first syllable beau is stressed. The remaining two are not stressed. 3. Tomorrow Again there are three syllables in tomorrow \u2013to-mor-row. The second syllable mor happens to be stressed while the other two are unstressed. In English, the individual sounds of a word (i.e. syllables\u2014which will be discussed subsequently) are not pronounced with the same intensity. One syllable usually receives more emphasis than the others. Syllable definition: A syllable is a unit of sound that creates meaning in language. Consonants join vowels to create syllables. A syllable is one unit of sound in English. Syllables join consonants and vowels to form words. Syllables can have more than one letter; however, a syllable cannot have more than one sound. Syllables can have more than one consonant and more than one vowel, as well. However, the consonant(s) and vowel(s) that create the syllable cannot make more than one sound. In multi-syllable words, the stress falls on one of the syllables. The other syllables tend to be spoken quickly. This leads to sounds that are not clear (muted) on unstressed syllables. In order to improve your pronunciation, focus on pronouncing the stressed syllable clearly. However, don't be afraid to mute (not say clearly) the other unstressed vowels. 71","6.2 STRESS 8 Word Stress Rules to Improve English Pronunciation 1. Nouns and adjectives containing two syllables The rule: When a noun (a word referring to a person, thing, place or abstract quality) or an adjective (a word that gives information about a noun) has two syllables, the stress is more often on the first syllable. Exceptions: To prove it, obviously there are exceptions to this rule. It could happen that a word was borrowed from another language or it even could be totally random. One just has to learn these \u201coutsiders\u201d by heart. 2. Verbs and prepositions with two syllables The rule: When a verb (a word referring to an action, event or state of being) or a preposition (a small word that comes before a noun, pronoun or the \u201c-ing\u201d form of a verb, and shows its relation to another word or part of the sentence) includes two syllables, the stress is mostly on the second syllable. 3. Words that are both a noun and a verb The rule: Some words in English can be used both as a noun and a verb. In these cases, the noun contains its word stress on the first syllable, whereas with the verb, the stress falls on the second syllable. If one has been paying attention, he will see that this rule is merely a derivation from the prior two sections. However, this is treated as a separate section since these pairs of words are pretty common in English and are likely to cause some confusion due to their same spelling. But then there are, however, exceptions to this rule as well. For instance, the word \u201crespect\u201d involves a stress on the second syllable both when it is used as a verb and a noun. 4. Three syllable words ending in \u201cer\u201d and \u201cly\u201d The rule: Words that contain three syllables and end in \u201c-er\u201d or \u201c-ly\u201d usually have a stress on the first syllable. 5. Words ending in \u201cic,\u201d \u201csion\u201d and \u201ction\u201d The rule: When a word ends in \u201cic,\u201d \u201csion\u201d or \u201ction,\u201d the stress is mostly on the second-to- last syllable. If one was to count the syllables backwards then he would have to put a stress on the second one from the end. 6. Words ending in \u201ccy,\u201d \u201cty,\u201d \u201cphy,\u201d \u201cgy\u201d and \u201cal\u201d 72","The rule: Whenever a word ends in \u201ccy,\u201d \u201cty,\u201d \u201cphy,\u201d \u201cgy\u201d and \u201cal,\u201d the stress is usually on the third to last syllable. Similarly, counting the syllables backwards and putting a stress on the third one from the end will be the norm. 7. Compound nouns The rule: In most of the compound nouns, which represent a noun made up of two or more existing words, the word stress is on the first noun. 8. Compound adjectives and verbs The rule: Converse to the last rule for most compound adjectives, a single adjective made up of more than one word and usually linked with a hyphen, and compound verbs, a multi- word verb that functions as a single verb, the stress is on the second word. Syllables are formed when a vowel pairs with a consonant to create a unit of sound. Some words have one syllable (monosyllabic), and some words have many syllables (polysyllabic). New vowels sound creates new syllables. \uf0b7 long \uf0b7 This word has one syllable. There is only one vowel sound, created by the \u201co.\u201d \uf0b7 shame \uf0b7 This word has one syllable. Even though there are two vowels, only one vowel makes a sound. The long \u201ca\u201d sound is the vowel sound; the \u201ce\u201d is a silent \u201ce.\u201d \uf0b7 silent \uf0b7 This word has two vowels sounds; therefore it has two syllables. The first syllable is \u201csi\u201d with the long \u201ci\u201d sound. The second syllable includes the letters \u201clent.\u201d There are two ways that syllables formed in English words: open and closed syllables. Here is a brief discussion of both of those topics. Open Syllable What is an open syllable? An open syllable is a syllable that has only one vowel and only one vowel sound. The single vowel in the open syllable occurs at the end of the word. Examples of Open Syllables: \uf0b7 wry \uf0b7 try \uf0b7a 73","\uf0b7 chew \uf0b7 brew Closed Syllable What is a closed syllable? A closed syllable is a syllable that has only one vowel and only one vowel sound. A closed syllable ends in a consonant. Examples of Closed Syllables: \uf0b7 clock \uf0b7 truck \uf0b7 ask \uf0b7 bin How Many Syllables Are in a Word? A syllable starts with a vowel sound. That vowel most often joins with a consonant, or consonants, to create a syllable. Syllables will sometimes consist of more than one vowel but never more than one vowel sound. Syllables create meaning in language. When vowels and consonants join to create sound, words are formed. A single syllable makes a single sound. Some words have one unit of sound, which means they have one syllable. More than one sound means the word has more than one syllable. Monosyllabic Words Words with one syllable (monosyllabic) Single vowel sound \uf0b7 man \uf0b7 This word has two consonants and one vowel \uf0b7 The one vowel sound (the short \u201ca\u201d) joins with the two consonants to create one syllable \uf0b7 cry \uf0b7 This word has two consonants and one vowel \uf0b7 The one vowel (the long \u201ci\u201d sound formed by the \u201cy\u201d) joins with the two consonants to create one syllable Double vowels with single sound \uf0b7 brain \uf0b7 This word has three consonants and two vowels 74","\uf0b7 tree \uf0b7 The two vowels create one vowel sound (a long \u201ca\u201d sound) \uf0b7 The single vowel sound joins with the three consonants to make one syllable \uf0b7 This word has two consonants and two vowels \uf0b7 The two vowels create one vowel sound (a long \u201ce\u201d sound) \uf0b7 The single vowel sound joins with the two consonants to make one syllable Words ending with a silent \u201ce\u201d \uf0b7 lane \uf0b7 This word has two consonants and two vowels \uf0b7 The \u201ce\u201d and the end of the word is silent to represent a long \u201ca\u201d sound \uf0b7 The single vowel sound in this word is a long \u201ca\u201d sound \uf0b7 The single vowel sound joins with the two consonants to make one syllable \uf0b7 tile \uf0b7 This word has two consonants and two vowels \uf0b7 The \u201ce\u201d and the end of the word is silent to represent a long \u201ci\u201d sound \uf0b7 The single vowel sound in this word is a long \u201ci\u201d sound \uf0b7 The single vowel sound joins with the two consonants to make one syllable Polysyllabic Words Words with more than one syllable (polysyllabic) \uf0b7 baker \uf0b7 two syllables \uf0b7 This word has three consonants and two vowels \uf0b7 \u201cbak\u201d: two consonants \u201cm\u201d \u201ck\u201d plus one vowel \u201ca\u201d \uf0b7 \u201cer\u201d: one vowel \u201ce\u201d plus one consonant \u201cr\u201d \uf0b7 growing \uf0b7 two syllables \uf0b7 This word has five consonants and two vowels 75","\uf0b7 \u201cgrow\u201d: three consonants \u201cg\u201d, \u201cr\u201d, and \u201cw\u201d plus one vowel \u201co\u201d \uf0b7 \u201cing\u201d: one vowel \u201ci\u201d plus two consonants \u201cng\u201d \uf0b7 terrible \uf0b7 three syllables \uf0b7 This word has five consonants and three vowels \uf0b7 \u201cter\u201d: two consonants \u201ct\u201d and \u201cr\u201d plus one vowel \u201ce\u201d \uf0b7 \u201cri\u201d: one consonant \u201ci\u201d plus one vowel \u201ci\u201d \uf0b7 \u201cble\u201d : two consonants \u201cb\u201d and \u201cl\u201d plus one vowel \u201ce\u201d Note: The last \u201ce\u201d in \u201cterrible\u201d is not silent. The \u201ce\u201d and the end creates more of a \u201cbull\u201d sound when joined with the \u201cb\u201d and \u201cl\u201d than an \u201ce\u201d sound would normally make. 6.3 SUMMARY \uf0b7 There are three types of stress related to words. \uf0b7 These are primary, secondary, and weak stress. \uf0b7 Primary stress denotes the strongest syllable of a word. \uf0b7 Secondary denotes strong syllables with less emphasis than the primary. \uf0b7 Third are weak syllables are typically realized by the schwa. \uf0b7 The definition of syllables is a phonological unit consisting of one or more sounds, including a vowel sound. To sum up, a syllable: \uf0b7 Is a unit of sound in language? \uf0b7 Joins vowels with consonants to create meaning \uf0b7 Will always contain only one vowel sound 6.4 KEYWORD \uf0b7 Word Stress \uf0b7 Syllable \uf0b7 Open syllable \uf0b7 Closed syllable \uf0b7 Weak syllables 76","\uf0b7 Monosyllabic Words \uf0b7 Polysyllabic Words 6.5 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. What is an open syllable? What is an open syllable? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. What is a closed syllable? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 3. How Many Syllables Are in a Word? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 6.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. What is the difference between strong and weak syllables? 2. How do syllables and stress work in English? 3. What makes a syllable Louder than a weak syllable? 4. Do longer words have the same stress as the root word? 5. What are Polysyllabic Words? Long Questions 1. How do syllables and stress work in English? 2. How do you know if a word is stressed? 3. Can a word have two stresses? 4. How do you distinguish strong and weak syllables in English? 5. What are Monosyllabic Words? 77","B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. How many syllables does this word have: gigantic a. 1 syllable b. 2 syllables c. 3 syllables d. 4 syllables 2. How many syllables does this word have: large a. 1 syllable b. 2 syllables c. 3 syllables d. 4 syllables 3. How many syllables does this word have: tiny a. 1 syllable b. 2 syllables c. 3 syllables d. 4 syllables 4. How many syllables does this word have: big a. 1 syllable b. 2 syllables c. 3 syllables d. 4 syllables 5. How many syllables does this word have: medium a. 1 syllable b. 2 syllables c. 3 syllables d. 4 syllables Answers 1-c, 2-a, 3-b. 4-a, 5-c 78","6.7 REFERENCES References book \uf0b7 Abram, D., Spell of the Sensuous (New York, NY: Vintage Books, 1997) \uf0b7 Allan, K. and Kate Burridge, Forbidden Words: Taboo and the Censoring of Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006) \uf0b7 Brown, G., \u201cExplaining,\u201d in The Handbook of Communication Skills, ed. Owen Hargie (New York, NY: Routledge, 2006) \uf0b7 Crystal, D., How Language Works: How Babies Babble, Words Change Meaning, and Languages Live or Die (Woodstock, NY: Overlook Press, 2005) \uf0b7 Dorian, N. C., \u201cAbrupt Transmission Failure in Obsolescing Languages: How Sudden the \u2018Tip\u2019 to the Dominant Language in Communities and Families?\u201d Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society (1986) \uf0b7 Foot, H. and May McCreaddie, \u201cHumour and Laughter,\u201d in The Handbook of Communication Skills, ed. Owen Hargie (New York, NY: Routledge, 2006). \uf0b7 Hargie, O. Skilled Interpersonal Interaction: Research, Theory, and Practice (London: Routledge, 2011) \uf0b7 Hayakawa, S. I. and Alan R. Hayakawa, Language in Thought and Action, 5th ed. (San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace, 1990) Textbook references \uf0b7 Martin, J. N. and Thomas K. Nakayama, Intercultural Communication in Contexts, 5th ed. (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2010) \uf0b7 McCornack, S., Reflect and Relate: An Introduction to Interpersonal Communication (Boston, MA: Bedford\/St Martin\u2019s, 2007) \uf0b7 McKay, M., Martha Davis, and Patrick Fanning, Messages: Communication Skills Book, 2nd ed. (Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications, 1995) \uf0b7 Huang, L., \u201cTechnology: Textese May Be the Death of English,\u201d Newsweek, August 2011, 8. \uf0b7 Humphrys, J., \u201cI h8 txt msgs: How Texting Is Wrecking Our Language,\u201d Daily Mail, September 24, 2007, accessed June 7, 2012 \uf0b7 Martin, J. N. and Thomas K. Nakayama, Intercultural Communication in Contexts, 5th ed. (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2010) 79","\uf0b7 McCornack, S., Reflect and Relate: An Introduction to Interpersonal Communication (Boston, MA: Bedford\/St Martin\u2019s, 2007) Website \uf0b7 Egocentricity in Child Language | Forms | Human Behaviour | Psychology \uf0b7 Relationship between Thought and Language | Human Behaviour | Psychology \uf0b7 Sex Behaviour of an Individual | Forms | Human Behaviour | Psychology \uf0b7 Brain Function and Language Behaviour | Human Behaviour | Psychology 80","UNIT \u2013 7 TRANSCRIPTION: PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION OF WORDS STRUCTURE 7.0 Learning Objectives 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Transcription: Phonetic Transcription of Words 7.3 Summary 7.4 Keywords 7.5 Learning Activity 7.6 Unit End Questions 7.7 References 7.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES \uf0b7 Transcription is a process in which information is rewritten. \uf0b7 Transcription is something we do in our everyday lives. \uf0b7 There are around 44 \u201cdiacritics\u201d in IPA. Each diacritic symbolizes the different sounds that speakers often make when pronouncing a word. \uf0b7 It helps in understanding those variations in tone, emphasis and pronunciation can be vital for interpreting context. In this shifting environment, IPA transcription can benefit participants and content readers. \uf0b7 In recent years, more people are conducting their work remotely and companies have workforces that span the globe. \uf0b7 IPA phonetic transcription helps people understand the nuances in words by emphasizing vocal elements like pitch, intonation and syllables. \uf0b7 Phonetic transcription allows more insight into the proper pronunciation of words. \uf0b7 If an employee new to English or in other situations, the industry might use a lot of niche jargon. In either case, having this tool is a great way to learn proper pronunciation. \uf0b7 Business leaders can likely identify places where an IPA transcript would prove useful for performing their tasks or supporting their employees. 81","\uf0b7 Phonetic transcription can enhance business processes and engagement with employees, clients and consumers. 7.1 INTRODUCTION Phonetic transcription is the process of transcribing words according to their specific phonetic pronunciations. The practice of using phonetic pronunciations in transcribed speech is useful for linguists and people who are learning a new language. Phonetic transcription employs special characters to show the difference in the pronunciation of certain words. For example, the word \u201ctrap\u201d would be written as \u201ctr\u00e6p\u201d to differentiate it from other \u201ca\u201d sounds in words such as \u201cfair.\u201d Phonetic transcription (also known as phonetic script or phonetic notation) is the visual representation of speech sounds (or phones) by means of symbols. The most common type of phonetic transcription uses a phonetic alphabet, such as the International Phonetic Alphabet. The pronunciation of words in all languages changes over time. It uses the symbols of International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) \u2014 the most popular phonetic transcription system in the world. In addition to IPA, this tool also supports several types of phonetic spelling. This phonetic translator supports three most common English dialects: British, American and Australian. A phonetic transcription looks quite unlike a regular (\u2018orthographic\u2019) transcription. The transcriber observes the way the spoken words are pronounced, using a special alphabet of phonetic symbols. The most popular is the international phonetic alphabet (IPA). One would have probably seen IPA symbols in dictionaries. It is printed between a word and its definition, one finds something like this: \u02c8\u0254\u02d0.di.\u0259\u028a This represents the phonetic spelling of \u201caudio.\u201d Like many English-language words, it may not be obvious how to say \u201caudio\u201d if someone is not a native speaker. But, when transcribed phonetically, each sound within the word is represented by a specific symbol. Non-English speakers who understand how to read IPA can read back a phonetic transcription with the correct English pronunciation, even if they do not know the meaning of that word. In fact, IPA works for any spoken language, not just English. Following is an example of what the phonetic transcription of a full sentence looks like: hi \u02c8h\u00e6d\u203f\u026az \u02c8f\u0251\u02d0\u00f0\u0259z\u203f\u02c8\u026a\u0259z\u203f \u01c0 \u203f\u0259nd\u203f\u026az \u02c8m\u028c\u00f0\u0259z\u203f\u02c8pun\u0329 \u02c8h\u0251\u02d0t \u01c1 82","Unable to make head nor tail of it? Below is the orthographic transcription of this same sentence: \u201cHe had his father\u2019s ears and his mother\u2019s open heart.\u201d As one can see, they are very different texts that have very different uses. The study of phonetics in language is all about the sounds of the words. Linguists study many aspects of the sounds of words, from the part of the mouth that is used during the pronunciation to the type of sound that is produced by those movements. Phonetics can be a useful tool for many people, and dictionaries employ phonetic translations of words along with the written version to show how they should be pronounced. The English language is particularly complicated in this respect, because words can have different pronunciations despite being spelled the same, such as \u201cminute\u201d being a noun that refers to a period of time as well as an adjective that means \\\"small.\\\" The ways in which American pronunciation differs from British pronunciation also can be shown through phonetics. Differentiating between British and American English using phonetic transcription is a good way for one to understand the basics of the system. The word \u201cdot\u201d in British English, is pronounced with the \u201co\u201d sound being similar to that found in the word \u201clot\u201d or \u201codd.\u201d In American English, the same word is pronounced with the same type of \u201co\u201d sound that is found in words such as \u201cstart\u201d or \u201cfather.\u201d The ability of phonetic transcription to show the differences between the specific pronunciations of words is the reason why it is particularly useful to linguists, who study the evolution and usage of language. If a linguist wanted to show how Texan pronunciations differ from Californian pronunciations, the use of phonetic language would be the only way to do so in a structured, written fashion. 7.2 TRANSCRIPTION: PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION OF WORDS Phonetic transcription, representation of discrete units of speech sound through symbols. Over the years, multiple writing systems and computer symbol sets have been developed for this purpose. The most common is perhaps the International Phonetic Alphabet. Most modern languages have standard orthographies, or ways that they are represented in written or typed characters or symbols. However, these systems cannot account for all of the idiosyncrasies of spoken language or for shifts in pronunciation over time. For example, in Old and Middle English the word knight was pronounced with the initial \/k\/ sound. In 83","modern English the k is silent in pronunciation but remains in the written word. In addition, many languages do not have distinct graphemes (written symbols) for each phoneme (distinct speech sound). Standard English orthography has single phonemes that are consistently represented by more than one symbol (if you say \u201csh\u201d to yourself, you can hear that it is one sound; in phonetic alphabets this phoneme is represented by a single written character rather than two, but in most English words it is written \u201csh\u201d). It also has single phonemes that can be represented by a variety of symbols (the ei in seize and ea in seas make the same sound but are written \u201cei\u201d and \u201cea\u201d\u2014the same sound can also be represented in other ways, including \u201cee\u201d and \u201ce.\u201d English also has symbols or series of symbols that can be pronounced in a variety of ways: compare the sound a makes in cat and father, or the sound th makes in father and math. Single symbols in English also can represent multiple phonemes, such as the x in fox, which represents the phonemes \/k\/ and \/s\/ together. Other languages have similar issues to varying degrees depending on how their written language is structured. Indeed, some languages use the same or similar orthography as other languages to represent different sounds. For instance, the j in Spanish represents a sound unlike the English j used in words like judge or January. Consider how an English speaker encountering the word jalapeno for the first time would assume it is pronounced. There are also distinctions in pronunciation among regional accents or even among individuals that can be noted with phonetic transcription. Compare how speakers of American English and speakers of British English might pronounce the word tomato. Moreover, the pronunciation of words may be altered by their place or context in a phrase or sentence. For instance, a speaker may fully pronounce the individual words did, you, and eat in a certain way but combine them into a sentence as something that sounds more like \u201cDjoo eat?\u201d Having a way to transcribe these differences is important in many fields, especially in the study and application of linguistics. Transcribing precise speech sounds is also helpful in documentation for the treatment of speech differences and disorders, or even for describing the sounds made in singing. It is useful for those learning new languages for communication, or for scholars studying languages that previously may not have been transcribed. Phonetic transcription is a common feature of dictionaries, glossaries, and word lists so that those encountering a word or name for the first time through standard orthography can learn how to pronounce it. Media professionals and public speakers will sometimes use phonetic transcription to make sure they are able to pronounce unfamiliar terms or personal names. 84","Within phonetic transcription there is a wide spectrum of detail that can be included or omitted based on the specific needs of the user. A distinction is often made between \u201cbroad\u201d and \u201cnarrow\u201d transcription, although there are no hard and fast boundaries around these terms. It is generally accepted that \u201cbroad\u201d transcription provides detail only on the phonemic level, which is to say the discrete sound units in a given word or utterance. These phonemes are generally understood by speakers of a language to be the distinct sounds that make up their language. However, there may be subtle differences in the ways in which sounds are produced that do not register as differences for the language\u2019s speakers. The broadest English transcription does not distinguish between these sounds. In other languages aspiration may be extremely important in distinguishing meaning and thus included in broad transcription. In \u201cnarrow\u201d phonetic transcription, details can be added using additional symbols, marks, diacritics, numbers, superscripts, subscripts, and so on to denote the length of vowels, aspiration, nasalization, tone, and other qualities of sound. These are helpful to scholars and medical professionals who are interested in the minute details of how sounds are produced by human anatomy and understood by the human brain. Uses of Phonetic transcription Phonetic transcription can enhance business processes and engagement with employees, clients and consumers. Here are several strong reasons for companies to phonetically transcribe words: Sales Calls Phonetic transcription can be useful when conducting sales calls. These calls account for 92% of all customer interactions. B2B business professionals especially benefit from this transcription, as they\u2019re often trying to pitch and build buy-in for a product. Using phonetic transcription can help improve sales communications with these clients. Additionally, international prospects will likely be joining many of these calls. When a diverse group of individuals are all on the line, and some are participating in a non-native language, phenetic transcription can help facilitate better communication. Live Meetings Statistics now indicate that 89% of employees work within global teams. In most cases, employees will need to connect with colleagues who speak different languages and come from different cultures. Phonetic transcription can serve as an aid in these global environments. By bridging communication and language barriers, phonetic transcription supports people are working in-person and within online work environments. 85","Interviewing 72% of recruiters believe that artificial intelligence (AI) can positively impact their work. AI- powered phonetic transcription is one of the tools that can support these professionals. With a phonetic transcript, employees can improve the interview process for everyone involved. For example, these transcriptions can help recruiters communicate more effectively with potential candidates who come from diverse backgrounds. Branding Guidance Brand name pronunciation is known to have a significant influence on consumer behavior. When it comes to building your brand\u2019s awareness, phonetic transcription can be a useful form of guidance in a company\u2019s brand book. It is also a strategy that supports the inclusive of non-native speakers. Sales representatives and marketing professionals, as well as outside contractors can all benefit from this tool. With phonetic transcripts, everyone can know they\u2019re conveying brand and product information to others correctly. 7.3 SUMMARY \uf0b7 Transcribing words phonetically can significantly help with language barriers in the workplace. \uf0b7 Phonetic transcription is arguably the most useful way to record information, particularly for international teams. \uf0b7 The phonetic transcription of words offers employees who are communicating with colleagues who speak different languages an opportunity to practice correct pronunciation. \uf0b7 It can improve fluency while also avoiding embarrassing mispronunciations. \uf0b7 Many people learning the language find difficulty understanding the relationship between the spelling and the pronunciation. 7.4 KEYWORD \uf0b7 Phonetic \uf0b7 Transcription \uf0b7 Phonetic transcription 86","\uf0b7 IPA \uf0b7 Orthographic transcription \uf0b7 Phonetic translator \uf0b7 Branding Guidance \uf0b7 Artificial intelligence (AI) \uf0b7 Sales Calls \uf0b7 Live Meetings \uf0b7 Interviewing 7.5 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. How to convert English text to IPA phonetic transcription? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. What is the orthographic transcription of the same sentence? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 3. How do I use a phonetic translator? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 7.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. What is phonetic transcription? 2. How can AI-powered phonetic transcription help recruiters? 3. What is IPA phonetic transcription? 4. Should a phonetic transcription be enclosed in square brackets? 5. What are transcriptions in dictionaries? Long Questions 1. What is the study of phonetics in language? 87","2. How do I convert English words into phonetic transcription? 3. What is the orthographic transcription of the same sentence? 4. What type of Phonetic Alphabet does a phonetic translator use? 5. How are the transcriptions written? B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which of the following is an example of a rule of Articulation? a. IPA b. Alveolar ridge c. Consonants sounds d. Voiced\/voiceless 2. A special type of borrowing is described as. a. Loan-translation b. Calque c. Both A and B d. None of these 3. There is a joining of two separate words to produce a single form, technically known as. a. Compounding b. Blending c. Clipping d. Borrowing 4. ______ are new words formed from the initial letters of a set of other words. a. Acronym b. Suffixes c. Both A and B d. None of these 5. The second set of bound morphemes contains. a. Derivational morphemes b. Inflectional morphemes c. Lexical morphemes d . Functional morphemes Answers 1-d, 2-c, 3-a, 4-a, 5-b 88","7.7 REFERENCES References book \uf0b7 Abram, D., Spell of the Sensuous (New York, NY: Vintage Books, 1997) \uf0b7 Allan, K. and Kate Burridge, Forbidden Words: Taboo and the Censoring of Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006) \uf0b7 Brown, G., \u201cExplaining,\u201d in The Handbook of Communication Skills, ed. Owen Hargie (New York, NY: Routledge, 2006) \uf0b7 Crystal, D., How Language Works: How Babies Babble, Words Change Meaning, and Languages Live or Die (Woodstock, NY: Overlook Press, 2005) \uf0b7 Dorian, N. C., \u201cAbrupt Transmission Failure in Obsolescing Languages: How Sudden the \u2018Tip\u2019 to the Dominant Language in Communities and Families?\u201d Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society (1986) \uf0b7 Foot, H. and May McCreaddie, \u201cHumour and Laughter,\u201d in The Handbook of Communication Skills, ed. Owen Hargie (New York, NY: Routledge, 2006). \uf0b7 Hargie, O. Skilled Interpersonal Interaction: Research, Theory, and Practice (London: Routledge, 2011) \uf0b7 Hayakawa, S. I. and Alan R. Hayakawa, Language in Thought and Action, 5th ed. (San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace, 1990) Textbook references \uf0b7 Martin, J. N. and Thomas K. Nakayama, Intercultural Communication in Contexts, 5th ed. (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2010) \uf0b7 McCornack, S., Reflect and Relate: An Introduction to Interpersonal Communication (Boston, MA: Bedford\/St Martin\u2019s, 2007) \uf0b7 McKay, M., Martha Davis, and Patrick Fanning, Messages: Communication Skills Book, 2nd ed. (Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications, 1995) \uf0b7 Huang, L., \u201cTechnology: Textese May Be the Death of English,\u201d Newsweek, August 2011, 8. \uf0b7 Humphrys, J., \u201cI h8 txt msgs: How Texting Is Wrecking Our Language,\u201d Daily Mail, September 24, 2007, accessed June 7, 2012 \uf0b7 Martin, J. N. and Thomas K. Nakayama, Intercultural Communication in Contexts, 5th ed. (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2010) 89","\uf0b7 McCornack, S., Reflect and Relate: An Introduction to Interpersonal Communication (Boston, MA: Bedford\/St Martin\u2019s, 2007) Website \uf0b7 Egocentricity in Child Language | Forms | Human Behaviour | Psychology \uf0b7 Relationship between Thought and Language | Human Behaviour | Psychology \uf0b7 Sex Behaviour of an Individual | Forms | Human Behaviour | Psychology \uf0b7 Brain Function and Language Behaviour | Human Behaviour | Psychology 90","UNIT - 8 INTONATION, PROBLEMS AND REMEDIAL MEASURES STRUCTURE 8.0 Learning Objectives 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Intonation: Intonation, Problems and Remedial Measures 8.3 Summary 8.4 Keywords 8.5 Learning Activity 8.6 Unit End Questions 8.7 References 8.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES \uf0b7 To pronounce English Correctly and intelligibly \uf0b7 To use appropriate word stress, sentence stress and elementary intonation patterns. \uf0b7 To speak intelligibly while making statements, \uf0b7 To ask question correctly. \uf0b7 To give instructions and commands properly. \uf0b7 To do reporting of events intelligibly. 8.1 INTRODUCTION Writers write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors. intonation, in phonetics, the melodic pattern of an utterance. It conveys differences of expressive meaning (e.g., surprise, anger, or delight), and it can also serve a grammatical function. Intonation is primarily a matter of variation in the pitch of the voice. Without the proper use of intonation, people have often misunderstood in their day-to-day life let alone when it comes to speaking in formal settings or delivering a public speech. Decoding the speech of someone who completely avoids the correct usage of tones is often too hard to carry out a smooth communication. 91","That is why it is absolutely monumental for second language users to learn and practice correct intonations. New users or learners of a language would take some time to get used to the intonations used in it but listening to native speakers and practicing to imitate similar speech delivery. Intonation is absolutely imperative for effective communication. Learning to use them accurately would have a direct effect on the language you are using and the fluent communication in it. Following the above article thoroughly must clear most of your confusions regarding intonation in the English language and how you can use them without making too many mistakes. Intonation is a feature of pronunciation and common to all languages. Other features of pronunciation include stress, rhythm, connected speech and accent. As with these other features, intonation is about how we say something rather than what we say. At its simplest, intonation could be described as 'the music of speech'. 8.2 INTONATION, PROBLEMS AND REMEDIAL MEASURES Intonation Intonation is the use of tone and the variation of it depending on situations and the type of communication. Statements and questions do not sound the same and that is because different intonations are used for these two very different purposes. The rise and fall of the vocal sound or tone in speech is intonation. With the accurate use of intonation, speaking and listening would become more effective, to-the-point and foolproof. Intonation does not require specific practice but learning to speak any language fluently would result in automatic accuracy. Correct intonation and stress are the key to speaking English fluently with good pronunciation. Intonation and stress refer to the music of the English language. Words that are stressed are key to understanding and using the correct intonation brings out the meaning. English is considered a stressed language while many other languages are considered syllabic. It means that, in English, we give stress to certain words while other words are quickly spoken (some say eaten!). In other languages, such as French or Italian, each syllable receives equal importance. There is stress, but each syllable has its own length. Many speakers of syllabic languages don't understand why we quickly speak, or swallow, a number of words in a sentence. In syllabic languages, each syllable has equal importance, and 92","therefore equal time is needed. English however, spends more time on specific stressed words while quickly gliding over the other, less important, words. Problems There are three types of intonation in spoken English and they are: 1. Rising Intonation (\u279a) Rising Intonation refers to the rise of tone at the end of the sentence. The yes-no questions usually end in a raised intonation. (The pitch of the voice rises at the end of a sentence.) Rising intonation invites the speaker to continue talking. It is normally used with yes\/no questions, and question tags that are real questions. \uf0b7 Yes\/no Questions (Questions that can be answered by 'yes' or 'no'.) \uf0b7 Do you like your new \u279ateacher? \uf0b7 Have you finished \u279aalready? \uf0b7 May I borrow your \u279adictionary? \uf0b7 Do you have any \u279amagazines? \uf0b7 Do you sell \u279astamps? \uf0b7 Questions tags that show uncertainty and require an answer (real questions). \uf0b7 We've met already, \u279ahaven't we? \uf0b7 You like fish, \u279adon't you? \uf0b7 You're a new student \u279aaren't you? \uf0b7 The view is beautiful, \u279aisn't it? We sometimes use a combination of rising and falling intonation in the same sentence. The combination is called Rise-Fall or Fall-Rise intonation. 2. Falling Intonation (\u2798) The tone of the voice falls at the final stressed syllable of a phrase and that is Falling Intonation. The WH questions tend to finish with a falling intonation. \uf0b7 Where are you headed? \uf0b7 How are you still doing that? The falling intonation comes into play when there is assurance and definite clarity in speech. 93","\uf0b7 Here is the magazine you asked for. \uf0b7 You\u2019ve just been outplayed. (The pitch of the voice falls at the end of the sentence.) Falling intonation is the most common intonation pattern in English. It is commonly found in statements, commands, wh-questions (information questions), confirmatory question tags and exclamations. \uf0b7 Statements \uf0b7 Nice to meet \u2198you. \uf0b7 I\u2019ll be back in a \u2198minute. \uf0b7 She doesn\u2019t live here \u2198anymore. \uf0b7 Dad wants to change his \u2198car. \uf0b7 Here is the weather \u2198forecast. \uf0b7 Cloudy weather is expected at the end of the \u2198week. \uf0b7 We should work together more \u2198often \uf0b7 I'm going for a walk in the \u2198park. \uf0b7 Commands \uf0b7 Write your name \u2198here. \uf0b7 Show me what you\u2019ve \u2198written. \uf0b7 Leave it on the \u2198desk. \uf0b7 Take that picture \u2198 down. \uf0b7 Throw that \u2198out. \uf0b7 Put your books on the \u2198table. \uf0b7 Take your hands out of your \u2198pockets. \uf0b7 Wh- questions (requesting information.) (questions beginning with 'who', 'what', 'why', 'where', 'when', 'which', and 'how') \uf0b7 What country do you come \u2198from? \uf0b7 Where do you \u2198work? \uf0b7 Which of them do you \u2198prefer? \uf0b7 When does the shop \u2198open? \uf0b7 How many books have you \u2198bought? \uf0b7 Which coat is \u2198yours? \uf0b7 Whose bag is \u2198this? 94","\uf0b7 Questions Tags that are statements requesting confirmation rather than questions Not all tag questions are really questions. Some of them merely ask for confirmation or invite agreement, in which case we use a falling tone at the end. \uf0b7 He thinks he\u2019s so clever, doesn\u2019t \u2198he? \uf0b7 She's such a nuisance, isn't \u2198she? \uf0b7 I failed the test because I didn't revise, did \u2198 I? \uf0b7 It doesn't seem to bother him much, does \u2198 it? \uf0b7 Exclamations \uf0b7 How nice of \u2198 you! \uf0b7 That's just what I \u2198need! \uf0b7 You don't \u2198 say! \uf0b7 What a beautiful \u2198 voice! \uf0b7 That's a \u2198surprise! 3. Circumflex Intonation With the circumflex intonation, the voice falls and then rises. This variant of intonation is heard when someone isn\u2019t sure about the statement or uses tentative phrasing in it. \uf0b7 I don\u2019t need any help at the moment. \uf0b7 It rained every day during the first week. This circumflex intonation is used in questions that request information and invite someone to do or have something. In this case, with the right intonation pattern, the inquiry sounds more polite. \uf0b7 Is this your camera? \uf0b7 Would you like some coffee? A. Rise-Fall Intonation (\u279a\u2798) (The intonation rises and then falls.) We use rise-fall intonation for choices, lists, unfinished thoughts and conditional sentences. \uf0b7 Choices (alternative questions.) \uf0b7 Are you having \u279asoup or \u2798salad? \uf0b7 Is John leaving on \u279aThursday or \u2798Friday? \uf0b7 Does he speak \u279aGerman or \u2798French? \uf0b7 Is your name \u279aAva or \u2798Eva? 95","\uf0b7 Lists (rising, rising, rising, falling) Intonation falls on the last item to show that the list is finished. \uf0b7 We've got \u279aapples, pears, bananas and \u2798oranges. \uf0b7 The sweater comes in \u279ablue, white pink and \u2798black. \uf0b7 I like \u279afootball, tennis, basketball and \u2798volleyball. \uf0b7 I bought \u279aa tee-shirt, a skirt and a \u2798handbag. \uf0b7 Unfinished thoughts (partial statements) In the responses to the following questions, the rise-fall intonation indicates reservation. The speaker hesitates to fully express his\/her thoughts. \uf0b7 Do you like my new handbag? Well the \u279aleather is \u2798nice... ( but I don't like it.) \uf0b7 What was the meal like? Hmm, the \u279afish was \u2798good... (but the rest wasn't great). \uf0b7 So you both live in Los Angeles? Well \u279aAlex \u2798does ... (but I don't). \uf0b7 Conditional sentences (The tone rises in the first clause and falls gradually in the second clause.) \uf0b7 If he \u279acalls, ask him to leave a \u2798message. \uf0b7 Unless he \u279ainsists, I'm not going to \u2798go. \uf0b7 If you have any \u279aproblems, just \u2798contact us. B. Fall-Rise Intonation (\u2798\u279a) (The voice falls and rises usually within one word.) The main function of fall-rise intonation is to show that the speaker is not certain of the answer they are giving to a question, or is reluctant to reply (as opposed to a falling tone used when there is no hesitation). It is also used in polite requests or suggestions. \uf0b7 Hesitation\/reluctance: \uf0b7 So you'd be willing to confirm that? ...Well ... I \u2798sup\u279apose so ... \uf0b7 You didn't see him on Monday? I don't quite \u2798re\u279amember ... \uf0b7 Politeness-Doubt-Uncertainty: (You are not sure what the answer might be.) \uf0b7 Perhaps we could \u2798vis\u279ait the place? \uf0b7 Should we \u2798cop\u279ay the list? 96","\uf0b7 Do you think it's \u2798al\u279alowed? Remedial Measures \uf0b7 Remember that intonation is relevant to any speaking activity, and makes interesting remedial\/revision work. \uf0b7 Remember that students don't always have to 'know' we're focusing on intonation: every time I drill phrases they're hearing intonation models. \uf0b7 Provide realistic and clear contexts. \uf0b7 Avoid going into theory. \uf0b7 Help students find patterns \/ rules-of-thumb, wherever possible. \uf0b7 Use a consistent system for marking intonation on the board for example: arrow for tone; tonic-syllable in CAPITALS; double lines ( \/\/ ) for tone-unit boundaries. \uf0b7 Keep it positive and don't expect perfection. The last thing I'd want is to make my students so anxious about their intonation that they stop speaking! \uf0b7 A good exercise to improve pronunciation would be to listen to short recordings of everyday dialogues and then 'shadow read' the script, or read it along with the tape using the same stress and intonation as the speaker. Students can repeat this exercise until their voice sounds similar to the voice on the recording. \uf0b7 It is also a good idea to note down or record some examples of everyday conversations (either from real life or from film or television dialogues) and repeat them as often as possible, copying the stress and intonation of the speakers. \uf0b7 Modern English songs are also a useful way of learning English stress, rhythm and intonation. To begin with, try singing (or saying loudly) the lyrics of songs that you find easy to understand. \uf0b7 You will be surprised how quickly your pronunciation will improve with the help of audio materials. It will be a reward for all your hard work! 8.3 SUMMARY \uf0b7 Intonation, in phonetics, the melodic pattern of an utterance. \uf0b7 It conveys differences of expressive meaning (e.g., surprise, anger, or delight), and it can also serve a grammatical function. \uf0b7 Intonation is primarily a matter of variation in the pitch of the voice. 97","\uf0b7 In such languages as English, it is often accompanied by stress and rhythm to produce meaning. (Tone is also a form of pitch modulation, but the term describes the use of pitch to differentiate words and grammatical categories.) \uf0b7 In many languages, including English, intonation distinguishes one type of phrase or sentence from another. \uf0b7 The different intonations a person can use to say, \u201cThe cup of water is over there\u201d demonstrate this grammatical function: when a person begins with a medium pitch and ends with a lower one (falling intonation), this sentence is a simple assertion, but when a person uses a rising intonation (high final pitch), it is a question. 8.4 KEYWORD \uf0b7 Intonation \uf0b7 Rising Intonation \uf0b7 Falling Intonation \uf0b7 Circumflex Intonation \uf0b7 Syllable \uf0b7 Word Stress \uf0b7 Sentence Stress \uf0b7 Weak Forms \uf0b7 Rhythm in Connected Speech \uf0b7 Intonation \uf0b7 Accentual Functions \uf0b7 Attitudinal Functions \uf0b7 Toner \uf0b7 Pitch \uf0b7 Prosodic \uf0b7 Paralinguistic \uf0b7 Grammatical intonation \uf0b7 Discourse intonation 98","8.5 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. What are the intonation difficulties in non-native languages? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. What are the critical issues in the study of intonation? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 3. Why is intonation important? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 8.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. What is the function of intonation? 2. What are some examples of intonation patterns in English? 3. How can i Improve my intonation in English? 4. How do you Mark intonation? 5. Why is intonation a grammatical function? Long Questions 1. What is Intonation? 2. What are the types of Intonation in Spoken English? 3. What is intonation & why is it important? 4. How can learners' raise awareness of intonation? 5. How do you teach a word with no intonation? B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Nasalization can be represented with a small diacritic (~), called. a. Vowel b. Nasal c. Tilde d. Transcription 99","2. What does IPA stands for? a. Indian phonetic alphabet b. Illustrated phonetic alphabets c. International phonetic alphabets d. None of these 3. The aspect of the relationship between words and objects is described as _______. a. Displacement b. Arbitrariness c. Arbitrary d. Both B and C 4. Human language is organized at two levels simultaneously. This property is called. a. Productivity b. Dual sound c. Reference d. Duality 5. Which consonants are made with both lips? a. Bilabial b. Labiodentals c. Dentals d. Voiceless Answers 1-c, 2-c, 3-b. 4-d, 5-a 8.7 REFERENCES References book \uf0b7 Abram, D., Spell of the Sensuous (New York, NY: Vintage Books, 1997) \uf0b7 Allan, K. and Kate Burridge, Forbidden Words: Taboo and the Censoring of Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006) \uf0b7 Brown, G., \u201cExplaining,\u201d in The Handbook of Communication Skills, ed. Owen Hargie (New York, NY: Routledge, 2006) \uf0b7 Crystal, D., How Language Works: How Babies Babble, Words Change Meaning, and Languages Live or Die (Woodstock, NY: Overlook Press, 2005) 100"]