CU - BA - Sem IV - English Literature-IV

["1. What are bound morphemes? 2. What is a free morpheme? 3. What is a root morpheme? 4. How many classes of morphemes are there? 5. What are the learning objectives of Morphology? Long Questions 1. What are the functions of morphology in linguistics? 2. What are the two main functions of morphology? 3. What is morphology in linguistics? 4. What is inflectional morphology and how does it differ from derivational morphology? 5. Explain the terms of morphology. B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. The assumption in conversation that you will \u201cnot say that which you believe to be false or for which you lack adequate evidence is a. Description b. Primary sign c. Prefix d. Quality maxim 2. The study of relationship between language and society is called a. Speech act b. Sociolinguistics c. Source d. Speech accommodation 3. Using activities involving information exchanges and problem solving as a way of developing ability in language a. Task based learning b. Tautology c. Tense d. Temporal deixis 4. A property of language whereby linguistic forms have two simultaneous levels of sound production and meaning, is called: a. Duality b. Babbling 151","c. Gender d. Fricative 5. A syllable that ends with a vowel and has no coda is a. Phonology b. Polysemy c. Open syllable d. Close syllable Answers 1-d, 2-b, 3-a. 4-a, 5-c 12.7 REFERENCES References book \uf0b7 Taft, M., & Forster, K. (1975). Lexical storage and retrieval of prefixed words. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 14, 638\u2013647. \uf0b7 Toman, J. (1998). Word syntax. In A. Spencer & A. Zwicky (Eds.), The handbook of morphology (pp. 322\u2013334). Oxford: Blackwell. \uf0b7 Trips, C. (2009). Lexical semantics and diachronic morphology. The development of - hood, -dom and -ship in the history of English. T\u00fcbingen, Germany: Niemeyer. \uf0b7 Valera, S. (2014). Conversion. In R. Lieber & P. \u0160tekauer (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of derivational morphology (pp. 154\u2013168). Oxford: Oxford University Press. \uf0b7 van Marle, J. (1985). On the paradigmatic dimension of morphological creativity. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Foris. \uf0b7 Yu, A. (2007). A natural history of in fixation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Textbook references \uf0b7 Marchand, H. (1969). The categories and types of present-day English word formation. Munich: Beck. \uf0b7 Plag, I. (1999). Morphological productivity: Structural constraints in English derivation. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. \uf0b7 \u0160tekauer, P., & Lieber, R. (2005). Handbook of word formation. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer. 152","\uf0b7 \u0160tekauer, P., Valera, S., & K\u00f6rtv\u00e9lyessy, L. (2012). Word-formation in the World\u2019s languages: A typological survey. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. \uf0b7 Yu, A. (2007). A natural history of in fixation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Website \uf0b7 Egocentricity in Child Language | Forms | Human Behaviour | Psychology \uf0b7 Brain Function and Language Behaviour | Human Behaviour | Psychology 153","UNIT - 13 DERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGY: COMPOUND STRESS PATTERN STRUCTURE 13.0 Learning Objectives 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Derivational Morphology: Compound Stress Pattern. 13.3 Summary 13.4 Keywords 13.5 Learning Activity 13.6 Unit End Questions 13.7 References 13.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES \uf0b7 To understand how Derivational morphology is concerned with forming new lexemes, that is, words that differ either in syntactic category (part of speech) or in meaning from their bases. \uf0b7 To know how Derivation is typically contrasted with inflection, which is the modification of words to fit into different grammatical contexts. \uf0b7 Words formed by derivation are complex in the sense that they typically have a base or root that has been modified in some systematic way to form a new word. \uf0b7 To understand the most widespread of techniques for derivation is affixation, the addition of prefixes, suffixes, infixes, circumfixes, and so on. \uf0b7 How new words are often formed by other means such as reduplication, internal modification or rearrangement of consonants and vowels, or by subtraction of segments. \uf0b7 How languages frequently have means of derivation that form agents, patients, or locations from verbs or other syntactic categories, or verbs of various sorts from nouns or adjectives. \uf0b7 How adjectives may be formed from either nouns or verbs. 154","\uf0b7 Why words may also undergo derivation that does not change their category but rather modifies their meaning, maintaining category. \uf0b7 Adjectives, nouns, or verbs may be negated, concrete nouns can be made abstracts or collectives, verbs may be made transitive or causative. \uf0b7 Most general reference works on morphology treat derivation alongside inflection. 13.1 INTRODUCTION Derivational morphology is a process where one word is changed into another. The process takes a word stem like \u2018national\u2019 and adds a prefix, suffix or infix to make a new word such as \u2018international\u2019 or \u2018nationality.\u2019 The word fragments added to the stem word are called morphemes, hence morphology. There are many common morphemes in English. Such changes in derivational morphology are used to convert nouns, adjectives and verbs into one another. Using an existing word to make a new word is called derivation. The term occurs because the meaning of the new word derivates from and away from the original meaning. It is separate from inflection, which adds additional letters, not morphemes, to a word to change its grammatical function. In this sense, changing \u2018national\u2019 to \u2018nationalize\u2019 is derivation, but turning \u2018nationalize\u2019 into \u2018nationalizing\u2019 or \u2018nationalized\u2019 is inflection and not derivation. There are many derivational morphology combinations such as turning verbs into adjectives or nouns. Adjectives can be converted into adverbs, nouns, verbs and other adjectives. Nouns can be converted into verbs and adjectives. It is possible for each class to be converted into another word in the same class like \u2018red\u2019 and \u2018reddish.\u2019 The ability to convert one class of word into another class of word is a sign of the flexibility of English. Types of English Affixes: Derivational and Inflectional Prefixes and Suffixes An affix is a bound morpheme that attaches to another morpheme to form either a new word or a new form of the same word. The two types of affixes in English are prefixes and suffixes. Affixes may be derivational or inflectional. Derivational affixes create new words. Inflectional affixes create new forms of the same word. Derivational Derivational is an adjective that refers to the formation of a new word from another word through derivational affixes. 155","In English, both prefixes and suffixes are derivational. Inflectional Inflectional is an adjective that refers to the formation of a new form of the same word through inflectional affixes. In English, only suffixes are inflectional. Base Many morphemes that other sources list as prefixes or suffixes are actually bases. A base is a morpheme that forms the foundation of a word. A free base is a morpheme that can stand on its own as a word. A bound base must attach to another morpheme to create a word. Bound bases are often misidentified as prefixes or suffixes. Prefixes A prefix is a bound morpheme that attaches to the beginning of another morpheme to form either a new word or a new form of the same word. Prefixes are types of affixes. All prefixes in English are derivational, meaning the affixes create new words. A connecting vowel often follows a prefix. Suffixes A suffix is a bound morpheme that attaches to the end of another morpheme to form either a new word or a new form of the same word. Suffixes are types of affixes. Suffixes in English may be derivational, meaning the suffixes create new words, or inflectional, meaning the suffixes create new forms of the same word. Affixes are bound morphemes that attach to the stem of a word to form either a new word or a new form of the same word. Prefixes and suffixes are the two types of affixes in the English language. 13.2 DERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGY: COMPOUND STRESS PATTERN Derivational morphology often involves the addition of a derivational suffix or other affix. Such an affix usually applies to words of one lexical category (part of speech) and changes them into words of another such category. For example, one effect of the English derivational suffix -ly is to change an adjective into an adverb (slow \u2192 slowly). 156","Here are examples of English derivational patterns and their suffixes: \uf0b7 adjective-to-noun: -ness (slow \u2192 slowness) \uf0b7 adjective-to-verb: -en (weak \u2192 weaken) \uf0b7 adjective-to-adjective: -ish (red \u2192 reddish) \uf0b7 adjective-to-adverb: -ly (personal \u2192 personally) \uf0b7 noun-to-adjective: -al (recreation \u2192 recreational) \uf0b7 noun-to-verb: -fy (glory \u2192 glorify) \uf0b7 verb-to-adjective: -able (drink \u2192 drinkable) \uf0b7 verb-to-noun (abstract): -ance (deliver \u2192 deliverance) \uf0b7 verb-to-noun (agent): -er (write \u2192 writer) \uf0b7 derivational affixes do not necessarily alter the lexical category; they may change merely the meaning of the base and leave the category unchanged. A prefix (write \u2192 re-write; lord \u2192 over-lord) rarely changes the lexical category in English. The prefix un- applies to adjectives (healthy \u2192 unhealthy) and some verbs (do \u2192 undo) but rarely to nouns. A few exceptions are the derivational prefixes en- and be-. En- (replaced by em- before labials) is usually a transitive marker on verbs, but it can also be applied to adjectives and nouns to form transitive verbs: circle (verb) \u2192 encircle (verb) but rich (adj) \u2192 enrich (verb), large (adj) \u2192 enlarge (verb), rapture (noun) \u2192 enrapture (verb), slave (noun) \u2192 enslave (verb). \uf0b7 When derivation occurs without any change to the word, such as in the conversion of the noun breakfast into the verb to breakfast, it's known as conversion, or zero derivation. \uf0b7 Derivation that results in a noun may be called nominalization. It may involve the use of an affix (such as with employ \u2192 employee), or it may occur via conversion (such as with the derivation of the noun run from the verb to run). In contrast, a derivation resulting in a verb may be called verbalization (such as from the noun butter to the verb to butter). Relation of Derivation with: 1. Inflection 2. Compounding 3. Conversation 1. Derivation and inflection 157","\uf0b7 Derivation can be contrasted with inflection, in that derivation produces a new word (a distinct lexeme), whereas inflection produces grammatical variants (or forms) of the same word. \uf0b7 Generally speaking, inflection applies in more or less regular patterns to all members of a part of speech (for example, nearly every English verb adds -s for the third person singular present tense), while derivation follows less consistent patterns (for example, the nominalizing suffix -ity can be used with the adjectives modern and dense, but not with open or strong). However, it is important to note that derivations and inflections can share homonyms, that being, morphemes that have the same sound, but not the same meaning. For example, when the affix -er, is added to an adjective, as in small- er, it acts as an inflection, but when added to a verb, as in cook-er, it acts as a derivation. \uf0b7 A derivation can produce a lexeme with a different part of speech but does not necessarily. For example, the derivation of the word \\\"uncommon\\\" from \\\"common\\\" + un- (a derivational morpheme) does not change its part of speech (both are adjectives). \uf0b7 An important distinction between derivational and inflectional morphology lies in the content\/function of a listeme. Derivational morphology changes both the meaning and the content of a listeme, while inflectional morphology doesn't change the meaning, but changes the function. \uf0b7 A non-exhaustive list of derivational morphemes in English: -full, -able, am-, un-, -ing, -er \uf0b7 A non-exhaustive list of inflectional morphemes in English: -er, -est, -ing, -in, -ed, -s Derivation and other types of word formation \uf0b7 Derivation can be contrasted with other types of word formation such as compounding. For full details see Word formation. \uf0b7 Note that derivational affixes are bound morphemes \u2013 they are meaningful units, but can only normally occur when attached to another word. In that respect, derivation differs from compounding by which free morphemes are combined (lawsuit, Latin professor). It also differs from inflection in that inflection does not create new lexemes but new word forms (table \u2192 tables; open \u2192 opened). Productivity Derivational patterns differ in the degree to which they can be called productive. A productive pattern or affix is one that is commonly used to produce novel forms. For example, the negating 158","prefix un- is more productive in English than the alternative in-; both of them occur in established words (such as unusual and inaccessible), but faced with a new word which does not have an established negation, a native speaker is more likely to create a novel form with un- than with in-. The same thing happens with suffixes. For example, if comparing two words Thatcherite and Thatcherite, the analysis shows that both suffixes -ite and -ist are productive and can be added to proper names, moreover, both derived adjectives are established and have the same meaning. But the suffix -ist is more productive and, thus, can be found more often in word formation not only from proper names. Derivational morphology is a type of word formation that creates new lexemes, either by changing syntactic category or by adding substantial new meaning (or both) to a free or bound base. Derivation may be contrasted with inflection on the one hand or with compounding on the other. It is argued that compounds are created according to four structural patterns: 1. stem-stem 2. stem-word 3. word-stem 4. word-word The first two being the most frequent patterns. The choice of a specific structure is based on two criteria: The form of the rightward inflectional suffix and the position of stress. [stem- stem] and [word-stem] compounds are subject to a compound-specific stress rule which assigns stress on the antepenultimate syllable and most often display a different inflectional ending from that of the right-hand member when taken in isolation. In contrast, [stem-word] and [word-word] compounds preserve both the stress and the inflectional ending of their right-hand constituent. It is also shown that compounding is subject to recursion which develops compound structures towards the left, while rightward expansion is less frequent in Greek and subject to limitations. One of the jobs that morphology can do is inflection. The other big job that morphemes have is a derivation. The derivation is the process of creating a new word. The new, derived word is related to the original word, but it has some new component of meaning to it, and often it belongs to a new category. One of the most common ways that English derives new words is by affixing a derivational morpheme to a base. For example, if we start with a verb that describes an action, like teach and we add the morpheme \u2013er, we derive a morphologically complex noun, teacher, 159","that refers to the person who does the action of teaching. That same -er morpheme does the same job in singer, dancer, baker, and writer. Verb Suffix Noun teach -er teacher sing -er singer dance -er dancer bake -er baker write -er writer If we start with an adjective like happy and add the suffix \u2013ness, we derive the noun that refers to the state of being that adjective, happiness. Verb Suffix Noun teach -er teacher sing -er singer dance -er dancer bake -er baker write -er writer Adding the suffix \u2013full to a noun derives an adjective, like hopeful. Noun Suffix Adjective hope -full hopeful joy -full joyful care -full careful dread -full dreadful Adding the suffix\u2013ize to an adjective like final derives a verb like finalize. Adjective Suffix Verb final -ize finalize modern -ize modernize social -ize socialize public -ize publicize Notice that each of the morphologically complex derived words is related in meaning to the base, but it has a new meaning of its own. English also derives new words by prefixing, and while adding a derivational prefix does lead to a new word with a new meaning, it often doesn\u2019t lead to a category change. Prefix Verb Verb 160","re- write rewrite re- read reread re- examine reexamine re- assess reassess Each instance of derivation creates a new word, and that new word could then serve as the base for another instance of derivation, so it\u2019s possible to have words that are quite complex morphologically. 2. Derivation with Compounding Compounding is the morphological operation that\u2014in general\u2014puts together two free forms and gives rise to a new word. The importance of compounding stems from the fact that there are probably no languages without compounding, and in some languages (e.g., Chinese) it is the major source of new word formation. Compounds are particularly interesting linguistic constructions for a number of reasons. First, they constitute an anomaly among grammatical constructions because they are \u201cwords,\u201d but at the same time exhibit a type of \u201cinternal syntax.\u201d Compounds, furthermore, represent a contact point between several crucial linguistic and non- linguistic notions such as syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationships, syntax and morphology, and linguistic knowledge and pragmatic knowledge. As for the relationship between syntax and morphology, it has often been observed that compounds are the morphological constructions that are closest to syntactic constructions, to the extent that there is no general agreement on which component of the grammar is responsible for their formation. Compounds: Putting roots together The last main \u201ctype\u201d of morphology is compounding. Compounds are words built from more than one root (though they can also be built from derived words): if you find a word that contains more than one root in it, you are definitely dealing with a compound. Compounding differs from both derivation and inflection in that it doesn\u2019t involve combinations of roots and affixes, but instead roots with roots. English is a language that builds compounds very freely\u2014this is like other languages in the Germanic language family, like German and Dutch. For almost any two categories, you can find examples of compounds in English. \uf0b7 Noun-Noun compounds include: \uf0b7 doghouse \uf0b7 website \uf0b7 basketball 161","\uf0b7 sunflower \uf0b7 moonlight \uf0b7 beekeeper \uf0b7 heartburn \uf0b7 spaceship \uf0b7 Adjective-Noun compounds include: \uf0b7 greenhouse \uf0b7 bluebird \uf0b7 Verb-Noun compounds include: \uf0b7 breakwater \uf0b7 baby-sit \uf0b7 Noun-Adjective compounds include: \uf0b7 trustworthy \uf0b7 watertight \uf0b7 Adjective-Adjective compounds include: \uf0b7 purebred \uf0b7 kind-hearted \uf0b7 blue-green \uf0b7 Noun-Verb compounds include: \uf0b7 browbeat \uf0b7 manhandle \uf0b7 sidestep \uf0b7 Adjective-Verb compounds include: \uf0b7 blacklist Compounds and Spelling In English we don\u2019t spell compounds in a constant way. Some compounds which are older ones\u2014are spelled without a space, while others are spelled with a hyphen. Many new compounds are spelled with spaces, as though they are separate words. We can tell that some sequences of \u201cwords\u201d are compounds, though, in a few different ways. First of all, there is a difference in pronunciation. Compounds are always stressed (given emphasis) on their first member, while phrases (sequence of words) get stress on their last member. So the compounds: \uf0b7 blackboard 162","\uf0b7 greenhouse \uf0b7 bluebird Are pronounced differently than the corresponding phrases with adjectives followed by nouns: \uf0b7 black board \uf0b7 green house \uf0b7 blue bird Another difference is in the interpretation: a blackboard need not be black, and a greenhouse usually isn\u2019t green (though you grow green things in it). There\u2019s a syntactic difference. There\u2019s no way to string nouns together in English syntax, without connecting them with prepositions or verbs. When we see a string of \u201cwords\u201d in English that all look like nouns, we are dealing with a compound. English really likes building very long compounds out of nouns, though this is something many English users associate with German. In German, unlike in English, compounds are always spelled without spaces. So you get words like: (1) Donaudampfschiffahrtsgesellschaftskapit\u00e4n Donau-dampf-schiffahrts-gesellschafts-kapit\u00e4n \u201cDanube steam shipping company captain\u201d The second row in (1) inserts the hyphens in this German compound so that you can see the roots more clearly. But if you look at the English translation, it actually trails all the same nouns in the German example. English writing has just implemented the convention of writing long or novel compounds with spaces. Structurally, English compounds work just like their German counterparts. Compounds and Headedness If compounds have more than one root in them, which root determines the category of the word? Most compounds especially new compounds you might discover on the spot\u2014have a head. The head of a compound determines its interpretation (a sunflower is a type of flower, a bluebird is a type of bird, etc.) as well as its category. In English, the head of a compound is always on its right. English is a right-headed compound language. Compounds that have a head are called endocentric. This is the same endo\u2013 morpheme you find in endo-skeleton. An animal (like a human) with a skeleton inside of it is end skeletal, and a compound with a head inside of it is endocentric. 163","What about the compound correspondent of exo-skeletal, animals that have a carapace instead of a skeleton (like insects or crabs)? Compounds that are exocentric don\u2019t have a head inside of them\u2014they don\u2019t describe either of their members. Some exocentric compounds don\u2019t have an interpretive head, but still have what we might call a category head, in that the root on the right matches the category of the whole compound. For example: 1. Redhead (\u201cperson with red hair\u201d) is often listed as an exocentric compound, because it does not describe a type of head. 2. Sabretooth is exocentric because it doesn\u2019t describe a type of tooth. But both of these are noun-noun compounds that are themselves nouns, so their right-hand member is almost a head. 3. A spoilsport (\u201cperson who spoils other people\u2019s fun\u201d) is not a type of sport, but it is still a noun. But other exocentric compounds don\u2019t even have a head in this sense. For example: 1. Outcome looks like a compound of a preposition and a verb, but is a noun. 2. Dust-up is a compound of a noun and a preposition, but is a noun. 3. Tell-all is a compound of a verb and a determiner (all), but is an adjective. Finally, there is a special kind of compound usually called dvandva compounds. This term comes from Sanskrit, where dvandva means \u201cpair\u201d. Dvandva compounds can be thought of as \u201cco-headed\u201d\u2014they can be paraphrased with an \u201cand\u201d between the two members. Many dvandva compounds in English involve two roots that only occur in the compound, and that mirror each other\u2019s sounds. These are sometimes called reduplicative. \uf0b7 zigzag \uf0b7 helter skelter \uf0b7 flip flop \uf0b7 riff raff \uf0b7 hocus pocus But we also have some other dvandva compounds: \uf0b7 bittersweet \uf0b7 secretary-treasurer \uf0b7 parent-child (as in \u201ca parent-child bond\u201d) 164","\uf0b7 blue-green (and many other terms for intermediate colours) Overall, dvandva compounds are less common than other types of compounds in English. 3. Conversion In linguistics, conversion, also called zero derivation or null derivation, is a kind of word formation involving the creation of a word (of a new word class) from an existing word (of a different word class) without any change in form, which is to say, derivation using only zero. For example, the noun green in golf (referring to a putting-green) is derived ultimately from the adjective green. Conversions from adjectives to nouns and vice versa are both very common and unnotable in English; much more remarked upon is the creation of a verb by converting a noun or other word (e.g., the adjective clean becomes the verb to clean). Verbification Versification, or verbing, is the creation of a verb from a noun, adjective or other word. In English In English, versification typically involves simple conversion of a non-verb to a verb. The verbs to verify and to verb, the first by derivation with an affix and the second by zero derivation, are themselves products of verification (see auto logical word), and, as might be guessed, the term to verb is often used more specifically, to refer only to verbification that does not involve a change in form. (Verbing in this specific sense is therefore a kind of anthimeria.) Examples of verbification in the English language number in the thousands, including some of the most common words such as: mail and email, strike, talk, salt, pepper, switch, bed, sleep, ship, train, stop, drink, cup, lure, mutter, dress, dizzy, divorce, fool, merge, to be found throughout the dictionary. Thus, verbification is by no means confined to slang and has furnished English with countless new expressions: \\\"access\\\", as in \\\"access the file\\\", which was previously only a noun, as in \\\"gain access to the file\\\". Similar mainstream examples include \\\"host\\\", as in \\\"host a party\\\", and \\\"chair\\\", as in \\\"chair the meeting\\\". Other formations, such as \\\"gift\\\", are less widespread but nevertheless mainstream. Verbification may have a bad reputation with some English users because it is such a potent source of neologisms. Although some neologistic products of verbification may meet considerable opposition from prescriptivism authorities (the verb sense of impact is a well- known example), most such derivations have become so central to the language after several centuries of use that they no longer draw notice. 165","In many cases, the verbs were distinct from their noun counterparts in Old English, and regular sound change has made them the same form: these can be reanalysed as conversion. \\\"Don't talk the talk if you can't walk the walk\\\" is an example of a sentence using those forms. A modern case of zero derivation in slang from pop culture might be seen in cringe, in the noun sense of \\\"awkwardness, inducement of second-hand embarrassment\\\". In other languages In other languages, verbification is a more regular process. However, such processes often do not qualify as conversion, as they involve changes in the form of the word. For example, in Esperanto, any word can be transformed into a verb, either by altering its ending to -i, or by applying suffixes such as -igi and -i\u011di; and in Semitic languages, the process often involves changes of internal vowels, such as the Hebrew word \\\"\u202b( \\\"\u05d2\u05d2\u05dc\u202cGig\u00e9l, \\\"He\/it googled\\\"), from the proper noun \u202b( \u05d2\u05d5\u05d2\u05dc\u202cGoogle). In Toki Poona, any content word may function as a noun, verb or adjective depending on syntax. For example, moku may either mean food or to eat. Formal Means of Derivation Derivation may be accomplished by any formal morphological means including affixation, reduplication, internal modification of bases, and subtraction. By far the most common morphological processes used for derivation is affixation, and in particular prefixation and suffixation, with suffixation apparently more frequent than prefixation (\u0160tekauer, Valera, & K\u00f6rtv\u00e9lyessy, 2012). Infixation is well-represented as well, but circumfixation is rather rare in the languages of the world. Reduplication is also well-attested. Processes of internal modification include internal vowel and consonant changes as well as root and pattern or templatic systems. Formal processes of truncation or subtraction appear to be rather rare. We deal with each of these formal techniques in turn. A good resource for typological patterns of derivation is \u0160tekauer et al. 2.1 Affixation 1. Prefixation involves the attachment of a bound morpheme before a free or bound base (a). Suffixation involves the attachment of a bound morpheme after a free or bound base (b). 166","2. Circumfixation is a form of affixation that involves simultaneous bound morphs, one prefix ally and one suffix ally crucially, in cases of circumfixation neither the prefix plus the base nor the suffix plus the base can be shown alone to contribute a recognizable part of the meaning of the derived form. For example, in the Tagalog example ka- before the base and -an after the base together create collective nouns. 3. Infixation involves the insertion of a bound morpheme into a base. For example, in Karok (a language isolate of California), an infix <eg> inserted after the onset of the first syllable of the base creates the intensive form of the verb (a), and in Hua, a Trans-New Guinean language, an infix <\u2019a> inserted before the last syllable of the base forms a negative (b): 4. While other affixes are simply attached to one or the other of the edges of the base, the position of an infix must be specified with respect to some phonological landmark or \u2018pivot\u2019 in the base, for example, the initial or final vowel, consonant, or consonant cluster, the stressed syllable, and so on. Much attention has been devoted in recent research to determining the nature of those pivots (Yu, 2007; Blevins, 2014). 2.2 Reduplication 1. Reduplication uses repetition of all or part of the base as a means of word formation. Samoan, for example, uses full reduplication of a verb to form a related noun: 167","2. Partial reduplication repeats a portion of the base, frequently but not always a prosodic constituent like a syllable, foot, or minimal word: In Mokilese, for example, reduplication copies a heavy syllable, that is, a syllable that either ends in a consonant or contains a long vowel. Researchers have worked to define the scope and limits of reduplication as a morphological phenomenon, to identify subtypes of reduplication, and to account in theoretical terms for restrictions on reduplication such as whether the repetition always involves some sort of prosodic constituent or where the site of reduplication can be. Inkelas (2014a) is an excellent survey of the literature. More extensive theoretical treatments can be found in Inkelas (2014b) and Inkelas and Zoll (2005). 2.3 Templatic Derivation So-called templatic or root and pattern morphology is sometimes treated as a species of affixation, called \u2018trans fixation,\u2019 but in recent years it has typically been analyzed as a distinct formal means of word formation rather than as a complex form of affixation. Templatic morphology involves the intercalation of segments according to a template or abstract pattern of consonants (C) and vowels (V). For example, in Arabic and Hebrew roots typically consist of three consonants that constitute the semantic core of words. Vowels may be interspersed among the root consonants in different patterns to express distinctions that are often inflectional. The example in shows words based on the root ktb, all of which have something to do with writing: 168","In the Arabic example, the root consonants occur in a fixed order and modifications to meaning can be effected by interspersing different vowels, or by varying the arrangement of consonants and vowels. The pattern CVCVC is associated with the verb \u2018write,\u2019 but the pattern CVCCVC is a causative verb \u2018cause to write\u2019 and the pattern CVVCVC can have a reciprocal meaning (\u2018corresponded\u2019 = \u2018wrote to each other\u2019). Templatic word formation is most familiar in the Semitic languages, but it is attested in other languages as well, as the examples in Davis and Tsujimura (2014) show. 2.4 Subtraction Derivation more often than not involves some incremental addition to a base, but it can also involve truncation or deletion of material from a base. For example, some verbs in the Uto- Aztecan language Tohono O\u2019Odham derive a perfective verb from an imperfective one by deleting a final consonant (Davis & Tsujimura, 2014, p. 205): English uses a process of deletion to form hypocoristic, for example, Tom from Thomas or Pat from Patricia. It is increasingly believed that subtraction is in fact a form of templatic morphology, one in which a longer base is made to fit a smaller template, resulting in the deletion of segments (Lappe, 2007; Davis & Tsujimura, 2014). 2.5 Internal Changes 1. Derivation may be effected by internal modifications to a base that may include changes to vowels or consonants, changes in stress or tonal patterns, or combinations of these. Internal vowel changes are often referred to as rules of umlaut or ablaut. Historically, umlaut involves the fronting (and sometimes raising) of a base vowel triggered by the front vowel in an adjacent suffix. The suffixal vowel may subsequently change (a) or be lost entirely, leaving the base vowel as the sole exponent of the morphological distinction, as in the German plural example in (1b). 169","2. Other vowel changes are generally referred to as \u2018ablaut\u2019or \u2018apophony.\u2019 For example, female terms are derived from male terms in Manchu by fronting vowels, as illustrated in (11): 3. Internal modification of bases may also involve changes in consonants, a process that is sometimes called consonant mutation. McLaughlin (2000, p. 335), for example, illustrates a process of diminutivization in the West Atlantic language Seereer-Siin. In this language diminutives are formed by prenasalizing a consonant in the base. 13.3 SUMMARY \uf0b7 Derivational morphology is a type of word formation that creates new lexemes, either by changing syntactic category or by adding substantial new meaning (or both) to a free or bound base. \uf0b7 Derivation may be contrasted with inflection on the one hand or with compounding on the other. \uf0b7 The strong similarity between compounding and derivation leads to the conclusion that derivational affixes do exist as constituents in the morphological structure of words, just like the constituents of compounds. \uf0b7 Derivational morphemes function as building blocks in morphological structure. \uf0b7 The structural similarity between compounding and affixal derivation can be expressed by means of word formation schemas that express generalizations about sets of existing words, and can also be used to make new words. \uf0b7 Dutch has right-headed compounds, suffixed nouns, and prefixed nouns. \uf0b7 In English, one of the most common ways to derive a new word is by adding a derivational affix to a base. 170","\uf0b7 The newly-derived word can then serve as a base for another affix. \uf0b7 Inflection is one of the jobs that morphology can do. \uf0b7 The other big job that morphemes have is a derivation. 13.4 KEYWORD \uf0b7 derivation \uf0b7 inflection \uf0b7 word formation \uf0b7 affixation \uf0b7 reduplication \uf0b7 productivity \uf0b7 lexical semantics \uf0b7 polysemy \uf0b7 transposition \uf0b7 blocking \uf0b7 competition \uf0b7 Affixation \uf0b7 Reduplication \uf0b7 Templatic \uf0b7 Derivation \uf0b7 Subtraction 13.5 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1. What is the structural similarity between compounding and affixal derivation? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. How does morphology work? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 171","3. Do derivational affixes exist in the morphological structure of words? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 13.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS A. Descriptive Questions Short Questions 1. What is derivation in morphology? 2. What is syntactic aspect of derivational morphology? 3. How does morphology work? 4. Does derivational morphology have a developmental sequence? 5. What are the learning objectives of Derivational Morphology? Long Questions 1. Should derivation and compounding be excluded from morphology? 2. What is the structural similarity between compounding and affixal derivation? 3. Do derivational affixes exist in the morphological structure of words? 4. What is morphology compounding? B. Multiple Choice Questions 1. Pronunciation of a sound with air flowing through the nose, typically before a nasal consonant is a. Vocal sound b. Neologism c. Interdental d. Nasalization 2. A semantic change in which a word is used with a less general meaning is a. Broad b. Input c. Narrowing d. Out put 172","3. An articulatory parameter in ASL describing the type of motion used in forming sign is a. Movement b. Pitch c. Pharynx d. Larynx 4. A part of the brain that controls muscle movement is called a. Nasal b. Motor cortex c. Natural class d. Oralism 5. The soft area at the back of the root of the mouth also called the \u201csoft palate\u201d and a. Velar b. Uvular c. Velum d. Turn Answers 1-d, 2-c, 3-a. 4-b, 5-c 13.7 REFERENCES References book \uf0b7 Aron off, M. (1976). Word formation in generative grammar. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. \uf0b7 Bauer, L. (2001). Morphological productivity. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. \uf0b7 Bauer, L., Lieber, R., & Plag, I. (2013). The Oxford Reference Guide to English Morphology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. \uf0b7 Bauer, L., & Valera, S. (2005). Approaches to conversion\/zero derivation. New York. Munich: Waxmann. \uf0b7 Beard, R. (1995). Lexeme morpheme base morphology. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. \uf0b7 Inkelas, S., & Zoll, C. (2005). Reduplication: Doubling in morphology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 173","\uf0b7 Lappe, S. (2007). English prosodic morphology. Dordrecht: Springer. Textbook references \uf0b7 Alexiadou, A. (2001). Functional structure in nominals: Nominalization and ergativity. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Benjamins. \uf0b7 Anderson, S. (1982). Where\u2019s morphology. Linguistic Inquiry, 13, 571\u2013612. \uf0b7 Anshen, F., & Aron off, M. (1981). Morphological productivity and morphological transparency. Canadian Journal of Linguistics, 26, 63\u201372. \uf0b7 Aronoff, M. (1976). Word formation in generative grammar. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. \uf0b7 Aronoff, M., & Fuhrhop, N. (2002). Restricting suffix combinations in German and English: Closing suffixes and the monosuffix constraint. Natural Language and Linguistic Theory, 20, 451\u2013490. \uf0b7 Baayen, H. (1989). A corpus-based approach to morphological productivity (PhD diss.). Free University of Amsterdam. \uf0b7 Crystal, David (1999): The Penguin Dictionary of Language, Penguin Books, England. \uf0b7 Sobin, Nicholas (2011). Syntactic Analysis the Basics. West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 17\u201318. ISBN 978-1-4443-3895-9. Website \uf0b7 Egocentricity in Child Language | Forms | Human Behaviour | Psychology \uf0b7 Relationship between Thought and Language | Human Behaviour | Psychology \uf0b7 Brain Function and Language Behaviour | Human Behaviour | Psychology 174"]