Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology clear version in English

speaking is seen as active. Reflective listening prac- tices requires focus, intent, and very active participa- Reflexes tion. The term stems from work done by psychologist Rehabilitation Movements or involuntary reponses initiated by an Carl Rogers who developed client-centered therapy. external stimulus which do not require input from Rogers believed that by listening intently to the client, the brain. a therapist could determine best what the client need- ed. This was unlike psychoanalysis,which had more In a simple reflex, a sensory receptor initiates a formula-like approaches that were used for all pa- nerve impulse in an afferent sensory nerve fiber which tients. Rogers wrote about reflection of attitudes, conducts it to the spinal cord. In the gray matter of the which asserts that a therapist needs to have empathic spinal cord, the afferent nerve impulse is fired over the understanding with his/her client. Empathic under- synaptic gap to an efferent motor fiber which passes standing means understanding a person from his or along the impulse to the appropriate muscle, producing her frame of reference. What a therapist attempts to the reflex. do is reconstruct what the client is thinking and feel- ing and to relay this understanding back to the client. There are other reflexes which involve neural path- By explaining that he or she understands what the ways connected to the brain. When an ice cube is client is saying, a therapist is establishing a trust and touched, cold receptors in the skin are stimulated and that clarifying the client’s expression. For example, a afferent information is transmitted to the gray matter of client may make a statement like, “My mother is such the spinal cord, where it then travels via axons in the white a jerk. She’s always telling me what to do and won’t matter to the brain. There, the sensory information is ana- let me do anything I want to do.” The therapist who lyzed and movement such as dropping the ice cube (or uses reflective listening might respond by saying, “So keeping hold of it) may be initiated. This message is sent you feel frustrated because you’re mother treats you down the axons of the white matter to the appropriate like a child instead of an adult.” This will allow the motor nerves in the gray matter. This efferent motor infor- client to feel understood and open up even more about mation travels to the muscles which initiate the reflex. his or her feelings about being a teenager. Alternately, a client may feel misunderstood and then try again to explain what he or she is thinking or feeling. This will also allow a therapist to make sure he or she is under- Rehabilitation standing the client. A process geared toward helping persons suffering By re-stating or reflecting what clients have ex- from an injury, disease, or other debilitating condi- pressed, the clients then listen to what they have said in a tion to reach their highest possible level of self-suf- new way. They hear their feelings and thoughts in a dif- ficiency. ferent voice and can look at their life through another’s eyes. Such therapy also helps a client to feel validated. Rehabilitation begins once a debilitating condition This type of re-stating what has been heard is also called has been evaluated and treatment is either in progress or mirroring. This technique can be used in one-to-one ther- completed. Impairments are evaluated for their effects on apy or group therapy. the individual’s psychological, social, and vocational functioning. Depending on the type of disability in- Lara Lynn Lane volved, “self-sufficiency” may mean a full-time job, em- ployment in a sheltered workshop, or simply an indepen- dent living situation. Rehabilitation involves a combina- Further Reading tion of medicine, therapy, education, or vocational train- Baker, Ann C. and Patricia J. Jensen and David A. Kolb. In ing. There are special centers for various mental and Conversation: Transforming Experience into Learning. physical problems that require rehabilitation, including Simulation and Gaming, Vol 28(1), March 1997, pp. 6-12. psychiatric disorders, mental retardation, alcohol de- Gerwood, Joseph B. Nondirective Counseling Interventions pendence, brain and spinal cord injuries, stroke, burns, with Schizophrenics. Psychological Reports, vol. 73, and other physically disabling conditions. pp.1147-1151. 1993. Rogers, Carl. Client-Centered Therapy: Its Current Practice, The goal of medical rehabilitation is the restoration Implications, and Theory. Boston: Houghton Mifflin of normal functioning to the greatest degree possible. Company, (1951)1965. Specialities involved include physical, occupational, and Sahakian, William S. History and Systems of Psychology. NY speech therapy, recreation, psychology, and social work. and London: Schenkman Publishing Co., 1975. Medical rehabilitation facilities often include an “activi- GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 541

Rehearsal ties of daily living” (ADL) department, which offers ac- bilitative Services (OSERS). Within OSERS, the Reha- bilitation Services Administration (RSA) supervises the tivities in a simulated apartment setting where patients state offices of vocational rehabilitation. Organizations may learn and practice tasks they will need in everyday living. Also included in the field of medical rehabilita- Rehabilitation Association, the National Association of tion is a special area called rehabilitation technology involved in rehabilitation efforts include the National (formerly rehabilitation engineering), developed during Rehabilitation Facilities, and the President’s Committee the 1970s and 1980s, that deals with prosthetics (devices on Employment of People with Disabilities. attached to the body) and orthotics (equipment used by disabled people). In addition to the actual engineers who Further Information design these products, rehabilitation technology also in- American Paralysis Association 24-hour tool-free information cludes professionals who serve as consultants to manu- and referral hotline. (800) 526–3256. facturers on the design, production, and marketing of National Association of Rehabilitation Facilities. P.O. Box 17675, Washington, D.C. 20041, (703) 648–9300. medical devices. National Rehabilitation Association. 633 S. Washington St., Vocational rehabilitation helps the client achieve a Alexandria, Virginia 22314, (703) 836–0850. specific goal, which can be either a type of employment National Spinal Cord Injury Association . (800) 962–9629. (competitive, sheltered, volunteer) or a living situation. Services include prevocational evaluation, work evalua- tion, work adjustment, job placement, and on-the-job training. Facilities offering vocational rehabilitation in- clude state-supported local units in hospitals, the Veter- Rehearsal ans Administration, sheltered workshops, insurance Mental activities associated with committing infor- companies, and speech and hearing clinics. Rehabilita- mation to memory. tion counseling is a relatively new field whose support personnel offer a variety of services to the disabled, par- Rehearsal is a term used by memory researchers to ticularly that of coordinating and intergrating the various refer to mental techniques for helping us remember infor- types of assistance available to a particular client. The mation. Its technical meaning is not very different from rehabilitation counselor also assists in locating job op- our everyday use of the term. Actors rehearse their lines portunities, interpreting test results, and assisting with so that they won’t forget them. Similarly, if we want to personal problems. retain information over time, there are strategies for en- Since the 1980s, supported employment (employ- hancing future recall. There are two main types of re- ment of the disabled through programs that provide them hearsal. The first is maintenance rehearsal, which in- with ongoing support services) has become increasingly volves continuously repeating the to-be-remembered ma- popular as a means of vocational rehabilitation. Tradi- terial. This method is effective in maintaining informa- tionally, the most common form of supported employ- tion over the short term. We have all had the experience ment has been the sheltered workshop, a nonprofit orga- of looking up a phone number and subsequently forget- nization—often receiving government funds—that pro- ting it (or part of it) before we have dialed it. This illus- vides both services and employment to the disabled. trates the fact that new material will fade from memory Today, sheltered industrial employment mainstreams dis- relatively quickly unless we make a purposeful effort to abled workers into the regular workplace with jobs mod- remember it. One of the advantages of a touch tone tele- ified to meet their needs, especially those of the severely phone is that the number can be dialed more quickly disabled. However, both cutbacks in funding for govern- compared to the old rotary dial phones, thereby reducing ment support services and affirmative action provisions the length of time required to keep the number in memo- of the 1973 Rehabilitation Act pertaining to federal con- ry. Maintenance rehearsal typically involves rote repeti- tractors led to increasing private sector participation ef- tion, either out loud or covertly. It is effective for main- forts in the 1980s. Some firms became involved in career taining relatively small amounts in memory for brief peri- education, offering internships to disabled students, ods, but is not likely to affect retention in the long term. which sometimes led to permanent employment. Other In order to retain information for longer periods of recent trends include rehabilitation of persons with trau- time, elaborative rehearsal is more useful. This second matic brain injuries and severe learning disabilities, and main type of rehearsal involves associating new material rehabilitation of the homebound and the elderly. with information that already exists in long-term memo- The U. S. Department of Education administers ry. There are numerous occasions on which students are most federal programs for rehabilitation of the disabled, required to remember large amounts of relatively com- often through its Office of Special Education and Reha- plex information—certainly more complex than a phone 542 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

number. In these situations, reciting the information over gion of Austria. There his father, Leon Reich, raised cat- and over again is not going to help commit it to memory. tle on a large estate. Reich was educated at home by tu- Such a strategy would be hopelessly inefficient and inef- tors until age 14, when he entered the German gymnasi- Wilhelm Reich fective. Instead, elaboration strategies that engage the um at Czernowitz. At 12, Reich told his father about an learner in understanding the material are helpful, both affair between his mother, Cecile Roniger, and one of his for storing information, and for retrieving it in the future. tutors. After a year of brutal beatings by her husband, Elaboration can take a variety of forms. For example the Reich’s mother committed suicide. Following his fa- learner can generate personal examples that help illus- ther’s death in 1914, Reich managed the farm and cared trate concepts or principles. Enriching the material by for his younger brother while attending school. After concentrating on its meaning not only makes it more un- graduating in 1915, he joined the Austro-Hungarian derstandable, it also helps establish potential pathways army, becoming an officer on the Italian front. for subsequent retrieval. Study groups provide a context for elaborative rehearsal. Discussions or arguments Becomes a disciple of Freud about various topics will enrich the subject matter and add to its meaningfulness. The most effective studying With the end of World War I in 1918, Reich entered techniques are those that enhance understanding. Trying medical school at the University of Vienna. There he en- to explain a concept to a friend is a good way of testing countered Sigmund Freud, joined the Vienna Psychoan- your own grasp of it, and at the same time engages you alytic Society, and began practicing psychoanalysis. He in a form of elaborative rehearsal. earned his M. D. in 1922 and married a fellow medical student and psychoanalyst, Annie Pink. The couple had two daughters. Reich continued to study psychiatry for Timothy Moore two more years at the Neurological and Psychiatric Clin- ic in Vienna. When Freud established the Psychoanalytic Further Reading Polyclinic in 1922, Reich was his first clinical assistant. Reisberg, D. Cognition: Exploring the science of the mind. In 1928, Reich became vice-director. Between 1924 and New York: Norton & Co., 1997. 1930, he was also director of the Seminar for Psychoana- lytic Theory. During this period, Reich developed his theories of “character analysis” and his controversial the- ory of “orgastic potency,” that defined orgasm as the basis for mental health. Wilhelm Reich In 1928, Reich joined the Communist Party and co- 1897-1957 founded the Socialist Society for Sex Consultation and Austrian psychoanalyst whose unorthodox ideas Sexological Research, a clinic that provided workers contributed to the development of psychoanalytic theory. with sex education and birth control information. Reich’s increasing interest in reconciling Marxism and psycho- analysis, culminating with his Dialectic Materialism and Although Wilhelm Reich is remembered primarily Psychoanalysis,first published in Moscow in 1929, was for his legal battle with the United States Food and Drug a factor in his break with Freud. Freud’s rejection left Administration (FDA) over their outlawing of his “or- him deeply depressed. He developed tuberculosis, which gone energy accumulator,” his earlier works were influ- had killed both his father and his brother, and spent sev- ential in the development of psychoanalysis. In The eral months in a sanitarium in Switzerland. Function of the Orgasm, published in German in 1927 and in English in 1942, Reich placed the drive for sexual fulfillment at the center of human psychology and ar- Attacked for unorthodox ideas gued that neuroses resulted from sexual repression. In Reich moved to Berlin, Germany, in 1930, where he his Character Analysis, published in Vienna in 1933 and continued to write prolifically and organize “mental hy- in the United States in 1949, he described how defensive giene” clinics for workers. In 1933 he published The character traits were developed to cope with specific Mass Psychology of Fascism, an attack on Nazism which emotions, and he argued that the goal of therapy was to emphasized the connections between personal and sexu- remove these repressive traits. These ideas have become al issues and political issues. He found himself expelled mainstays of psychoanalytic theory. from the German Communist Party for his sexual and Born in 1897 in Dobrzcynica, in the region of Gala- psychoanalytic views, and from the International Psy- cia that was part of the Austrian Empire, Reich’s family choanalytic Association for his political views. His mar- soon moved to Jujinetz in Bukovina in the Ukrainian re- riage also ended in 1933, and he entered into a marital GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 543

Reinforcement relationship with Elsa Lindenberg, a dancer and fellow Reich, Wilhelm. Beyond psychology: letters and journals, 1934-1939. Edited by Mary Boyd Higgins; translations by communist. In 1934 Reich began moving across Europe, Philip Schmitz, Derek Jordan, and Inge Jordan. New first to Denmark, then Sweden, and finally settling in York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1994. Oslo, Norway. During this period, he developed his theo- Reich, Wilhelm. American odyssey: letters and journals, 1940- ry of “muscular armor,” the outward bodily attributes 1947. Edited by Mary Boyd Higgins; translations by that represent character traits; for example, a stubborn Derek Jordan, Inge Jordan, and Philip Schmitz. New person might develop a stiff neck. Reich used physical York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1999. methods in his therapy to break these patterns, methods Sharaf, Myron. Fury on earth: a biography of Wilhelm Reich. that were adopted by other therapies, including bioener- New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1983. getics and Gestalt psychology. He published The Sexual Wilson, Colin. The quest for Wilhelm Reich. Garden City, NY: Revolution (1936), an indictment of conventional sexual Doubleday, 1981. morality, and undertook experiments on energetic parti- cles that he called “bions.” Reich believed that he had discovered and could measure a new form of energy, the “orgone,” which controlled sexual drive and love. Reinforcement In Norway, Reich came under attack by both the In either classical or operant conditioning, a stimu- medical establishment and the press. In 1939, as a Jew lus that increases the probability that a particular living under the growing Nazi threat, he emigrated to the behavior will occur. United States. Reich moved his laboratory from Oslo to Long Island and lectured at the New School for Social In classical (Pavlovian) conditioning, where the Research in New York City for the next two years. In response has no effect on whether the stimulus will 1940, he built his first “orgone energy accumulator,” or occur, reinforcement produces an immediate response “orgone box.” Reich claimed that this telephone booth- without any training or conditioning. When meat is of- sized machine trapped orgone energy, which could be fered to a hungry dog, it does not learn to salivate, the used to prevent and treat mental and physical illnesses, behavior occurs spontaneously. Similarly, a negative re- particularly cancer. He described his research in The inforcer, such as an electric shock, produces an imme- Cancer Biopathy, published in 1948. In 1944, Reich had diate, unconditioned escape response. To produce a a son with the German-born socialist, Ilse Ollendorff, classically-conditioned response, the positive or nega- and the following year the family moved to Rangeley, tive reinforcer is paired with a neutral stimulus until the Maine, where Reich founded the Orgone Institute, with two become associated with each other. Thus, if the research laboratories and a publishing house. sound of a bell accompanies a negative stimulus such Reich and Ollendorff were divorced in 1954, the as an electric shock, the experimental subject will even- same year that the FDA obtained an injunction against tually be conditioned to produce an escape or avoid- his energy accumulator. The injunction made it a crime ance response to the sound of the bell alone. Once con- not only to build or use the orgone box, but to even men- ditioning has created an association between a certain tion the term “orgone” in print. Reich defied the order. behavior and a neutral stimulus, such as the bell, this He was found in contempt and, in March, 1957, sen- stimulus itself may serve as a reinforcer to condition tenced to two years in the Lewisburg Federal Peniten- future behavior. When this happens, the formerly neu- tiary in Pennsylvania. The following November, he died tral stimulus is called a conditioned reinforcer, as op- of a heart attack in the psychiatric wing of the prison. posed to a naturally positive or negative reinforcer, The FDA destroyed his remaining accumulators, as well such as food or an electric shock. as many of his books on a variety of subjects. However In operant conditioning (as developed by B. F. in recent years, Reich’s contributions to psychoanalysis Skinner), positive reinforcers are rewards that strength- have been re-examined and many of his books have been en a conditioned response after it has occurred, such as translated and reprinted. feeding a hungry pigeon after it has pecked a key. Nega- tive reinforcers are unpleasant stimuli that are removed Margaret Alic when the desired response has been obtained. The appli- cation of negative reinforcement may be divided into two types: escape and avoidance conditioning. In escape Further Reading conditioning, the subject learns to escape an unpleasant Reich, Wilhelm. Passion of youth: an autobiography, 1897- 1922. Edited by Mary Boyd Higgins and Chester M. or aversive stimulus (a dog jumps over a barrier to es- Raphael; translations by Philip Schmitz and Jerri Tomp- cape electric shock). In avoidance conditioning, the sub- kins. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1988. ject is presented with a warning stimulus, such as a 544 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

buzzer, just before the aversive stimulus occurs and studied the psychological value of religion. However, learns to act on it in order to avoid the unpleasant stimu- only a few psychologists, including Paul Meehl, Erich lus altogether. Fromm, Abraham Maslow, and Solomon Asch, deemed belief systems, moral and ethical conduct, and Reinforcement may be administered according to the reasons people abide by a certain religion as signifi- Religion and psychology various schedules. A particular behavior may be rein- cant factors in human behavior. forced every time it occurs, which is referred to as con- tinuous reinforcement. In many cases, however, behav- Psychologist William James studied the intricate in- iors are reinforced only some of the time, which is fluences of religious conversions, mystical experience, termed partial or intermittent reinforcement. Reinforce- saintliness, and prayer on a person’s belief system. ment may also be based on the number of responses or Twenty-first century psychologists investigate such top- scheduled at particular time intervals. In addition, it ics as cults, confession (particularly as it is practiced may be delivered in regularly or irregularly. These vari- among Roman Catholics), ritual, faith healing, and ex- ables combine to produce four basic types of partial re- planations for miracles. Modern psychologists actively inforcement. In fixed-ratio (FR) schedules, reinforce- pursue the interrelationship between religion and psy- ment is provided following a set number of responses chology and note that just as religion influences human (a factory worker is paid for every garment he assem- existence, human perceptions also influence the practice bles). With variable-ratio (VR) schedules, reinforce- of religion. ment is provided after a variable number of responses (a slot machine pays off after varying numbers of at- Psychologists use various methods to study reli- tempts). Fixed-interval (FI) schedules provide for rein- gion. They have used personal revelations, observation forcement of the first response made within a given in- through clinical means, participant observation, surveys terval since the previous one (contest entrants are not and interviews, and examinations of religious docu- eligible for a prize if they have won one within the past ments, treatises, and journals. All these methods must 30 days). Finally, with variable-interval (VI) schedules, be used to help psychologists understand such a com- first responses are rewarded at varying intervals from plex topic. A concept such as faith is not easily catego- the previous one. rized or discussed, despite scientific analysis. Under- standing the psychological origins of religion is difficult See also Avoidance learning; Behavior modification; as well. Modern psychologists tend to focus their study Classical conditioning; Pavlov, Ivan on individual practices rather than the historical nature of religion as a whole. They look for psychological un- Further Reading derpinnings of religion on modern people. This also Craighead, W. Edward. Behavior Modification: Principles, Is- means that an individual’s religion and belief system sues, and Applications. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1976. changes as that person ages. As their mental and emo- Skinner, B.F. About Behaviorism. New York:Knopf, 1974. tional development progresses, so their image of God and religion does also. There are many areas of interest to psychologists. Psychologists hold special interest in the social dynam- Religion and psychology ics of religions and their organized structures. They Psychologists have long studied religion and reli- study the influence that these bodies have on the lives of gious practices. Using principles of traditional psycholo- their members and the communities in which they exist. gy, researchers try to understand religious experience, in- Some psychologists analyze the workings of cults and cluding prayer, cults, and mystical experiences. The how these social groups differ from more traditional reli- study of religion and psychology began in the early gions. Many psychologists and religious leaders are at- twentieth century, but faded before it was revived in the tempting to integrate theology and psychology through 1980s, when the American Psychological Association these pursuits. began to formally investigate aspects of religion in psy- The ever-growing group of psychologists attempt- chology. The only classic text relating to the psychologi- ing to define the psychology of religion include the reli- cal study of religion, Varieties of Religious Experience, giously devout as well as atheists and agnostics. In a was written by William James in 1902. study published in the June 2000 issue of Health Psy- Sigmund Freud,who called religion an “illusion,” chology by the American Psychological Association, nonetheless studied religion with great interest, and Michael E. McCullough, of the National Institute of wrote three books and some papers on his studies of how Healthcare Research noted that “the odds of survival for religion impacted human lives. Later psychoanalysts has people who scored higher on measures of public and GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 545

Research methodology Research shows that religious people, like this man, tend to report greater happiness than non-religious people. (Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbestiz. Reproduced with permission.) private religious involvement were 20 percent higher than those people who scored lower on such measures.” Research methodology The analysis was done of 42 different studies and exam- The wide variety of strategies employed by psy- ined 125,826 people, and shows a correlation between chologists to answer research questions. participation in a religion and an increased life ex- pectancy. As McCullough added, “this is a phenomenon Psychologists use a wide variety of techniques to that deserves a lot more research attention than it has answer research questions. The most commonly used traditionally received.” As a result, religion is likely to techniques include experiments, correlational studies, become a central area of focus in psychology well into observational studies, case studies, and archival research. the twenty-first century. Each approach has its own strengths and weaknesses. Psychologists have developed a diversity of research Jane Spear strategies because a single approach cannot answer all types of questions that psychologists ask. Further Reading Psychologists prefer to use experiments whenever Collins, G. R. Religion and Philosophy. Encyclopedia of Psy- possible because this approach allows them to determine chology, Second Edition. Ray Corsini, Ed. New York: whether a stimulus or an event actually causes something John Wiley & Sons 1994. to happen. In an experimental approach, researchers ran- Neuhaus, Richard John. Religion and Psychology. National domly assign participants to different conditions. These Review, Feb. 19, 1988. conditions should be identical except for one variable Further Information that the researcher is interested in. For example, psychol- American Psychological Association. 750 First Street, N.E., ogists have asked whether people learn more if they Washington, D.C., USA. 20002-4242, 202-336-5500, study for one long period or several short periods. To 800-374-2721. study this experimentally, the psychologist would assign 546 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

people into one of two groups—one group that studies single individual being analyzed because that person for an extended period of time or to another group that may differ in important ways from the average person. studies for the same total amount of time, but in short Finally, psychologists can use archival information segments. to answer questions. Archival research differs consider- Ribonucleic acid (RNA) The researcher would make sure that all the partici- ably from the other approaches because it does not rely pants studied the same material, for the same total time, on direct observation or interaction with the people and were in the same study environment; the only thing being studied. Rather, psychologists use records or other that would differentiate the two groups is whether the already existing information. For example, some psy- learners studied for short or long segments. Thus, any dif- chologists were interested in whether the percentage of ference in the amount of learning should be due only to left-handed people in the population has remained con- the length of the study periods. (This kind of research has stant throughout history. They obviously could not ob- revealed that people learn better with several shorter serve people who have died, so they decided to use exist- study periods.) The experimental approach is useful when ing information about the past. They recorded the per- the research can establish control over the environment; centage of left-handed people in paintings and other such this work is often done in a simple laboratory setting. renderings. After poring over paintings, they concluded that the percentage of left-handed people has not A second approach involves the correlational tech- changed over the last few centuries. More commonly, nique. This approach does not include control of the en- archival information comes from birth and death records vironment by the researcher. Instead, measurements are and other official statistics. made as they naturally occur. For example, a group of See also Correlational method; Scientific method high school students took two tests that required them to solve analogies and to recognize antonyms. The re- Further Reading searchers discovered a correlation between students’ Cozby, Paul C. Methods in Behavioral Science. Mountain abilities to complete analogies correctly and to identify View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company, 1993. antonyms. In general, students who were good at one task were also good at the other; students weak in one task were weak in the other. In correlational research, no attempt is made to state that one thing causes another, only that one thing is predictable from the other. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) A complex organic substance involved in protein Correlational approaches are most useful when the synthesis in cells. researchers cannot control the environment or when the phenomena they want to study are complex. Instead of RNA consists of a five-carbon sugar (ribose), trying to simplify the situation, the researchers observe phosphate, and four nitrogenous bases (adenine, gua- the complex behaviors as they naturally occur. A third nine, cytosine, and uracil). In an RNA molecule, the approach is called naturalistic observation. This kind of sugar and phosphate combine to form a structure to research often is not highly quantitative; that is, observa- tions are likely to be descriptive. The researcher decides on some class of behavior to observe and records the sit- uations in which that behavior occurs and how it devel- ops. A classic example of observational research was done by Jane Goodall in her work with chimpanzees in the wild. She spent years observing their social interac- tions and how the chimp “society” changed over time. The previous techniques all involve observing a group of individuals. Sometimes, psychologists are inter- ested in studying a single person in depth. This is called a case study. This approach is common when clinical psychologists work with a person over a long period of time. The final product in a case study is an in-depth de- scription of a great number of different aspects of the in- dividual’s life and development. The strength of this ap- Computer-generated image of ribonucleic acid. (Photo by proach is that detail is abundant; the weakness is that the Ken Eward. National Audubon Society Collection/Photo psychologist cannot generalize to other people from the Researchers, Inc. Reproduced by permission.) GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 547

Right-brain hemisphere which the nitrogenous bases are attached. These mole- by the other. Thus, right-handed people had no trouble writing, which is usually governed by the left-brain cules range in composition from fewer than 100 to sev- hemisphere in righthanders, but were unable to draw, as eral thousand nitrogenous bases, and vary in shape from helical to uncoiled. RNA is the primary agent of the left brain was cut off from the spatial capacity of the protein formation, and processes genetic information right. When a special apparatus was used to present the image of a spoon only to a split-brain patient’s left from deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules into hemisphere, the subject could name it readily, but when enzymes necessary for life. the same image was presented to the right-brain hemi- sphere, the subject could not, although they were still aware of what it was. Right-brain hemisphere Research on both split-brain and normal subjects since the 1960s has confirmed that both hemispheres of The hemisphere of the brain that neurologically the brain use high-level cognitive modes. That of the left controls the left side of the body and is thought to brain is verbal and analytic, while right brain thought control spatial tasks, musical and artistic endeav- processes are rapid, complex, whole-pattern, spatial, and ors, body control and awareness, and creativity and imagination. specialized for visualimagery and musical ability. The right temporal lobe, in particular, governs visual and au- ditory imagery. People in whom this area is damaged In normal human adults, each hemisphere of the have difficulty recognizing familiar melodies, faces, and brain,working in concert with the other, performs pictures, and learning to identify new ones. The right certain types of functions more efficiently than the brain hemisphere also appears to have special links to other. While the left-brain hemisphere is dominant in emotion. Right-brain damage interferes with both the the areas of language and logic, the right-brain hemi- ability to produce and interpret expressions of emotion. sphere is the center of nonverbal, intuitive, holistic Damage to the front part of the right-brain hemisphere modes of thinking. Each hemisphere mostly receives renders people unable to act on or express strong emo- perceptions from and controls the activities of the op- tions. If the damage is further back in the brain, the per- posite side of the body. Scientists have been aware of son can express emotion but not recognize it in other the specialized functioning of the hemispheres—also people or in pictures. known as lateralization—for over one hundred years, having discovered that language skills are controlled Other general characteristics of right-brain thought by the left side of the brain in approximately 95 per- processes include the tendency to synthesize rather than cent of right-handed people and about two thirds of analyze, and to relate to things in a concrete rather than a left-handed individuals. In the nineteenth century, symbolic fashion. Where left-brain thinking tends to rep- however, this discovery led to the assumption that all resent wholes by abstraction (using one piece of infor- higher reasoning ability resided in the left-brain mation to represent something larger), the right brain is hemisphere, which was thus regarded as dominant more likely to interpret data through analogies ó —see- overall. The right brain hemisphere was thought to ing relationships between wholes. Right-brain function- possess only lower-level capabilities and was consid- ing is nontemporal, nonrational, holistic, and intuitive, ered subordinate to the left. relying on leaps of insight, hunches, or visual images. Discoveries about the right- and left-brain hemispheres Research conducted in the 1950s and 1960s estab- have led some researchers and educators to advocate ed- lished that the two hemispheres of a normally function- ucational reforms that would allow right-brain modes of ing brain—connected by the corpus callosum, a thick thought a greater place in the current educational system, cable of nerves—operate in a complementary fashion which reflects society’s overall tendency to reward the with both hemispheres involved in higher cognitive verbal, analytical left-brain skills. As split-brain re- functioning. The primary difference between them was searcher Roger Sperry notes, our educational system found to involve the mode rather than the level of think- “tends to neglect the nonverbal form of intellect. What it ing. A research group under the direction of Roger Sper- comes down to is that modern society discriminates ry at the California Institute of Technology observed against the right hemisphere.” The artistic, creative right and tested patients who had undergone a surgical proce- brain is relegated to the “minor” subjects of art and dure in which the corpus callosumwas severed to con- music, but the main programs of study do not, as a rule, trol epileptic seizures. In this procedure, the two hemi- focus on developing the right-brain skills of imagina- spheres of the brain, which normally have a strong ten- tion, creativity, or visualization. dency to work together, were uncoupled, and each side of the brain remained ignorant of information received See also Brain; Handedness; Split-brain technique 548 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

Carl Rogers 1902-1987 Carl Rogers American psychologist who developed a nondirec- tive, patient-centered method of psychotherapy known as humanistic psychology. Carl Rogers was born in Oak Park, Illinois. Raised in a fundamentalist Christian home, Rogers attended the University of Wisconsin and studied for the ministry at Union Theological Seminary before deciding to pursue a doctorate in education and clinical psychology at Colum- bia University. Between 1928 and 1939, Rogers worked as a counselor at the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children in Rochester. In 1940, he was appointed to the faculty of Ohio State University. By this time, he had worked out much of his new client-centered system of therapy, which was set forth in his second book, Counsel- ing and Psychotherapy, published in 1942. Rogers believed that the mental condition of virtual- ly all patients, whom he referred to as clients, can be im- proved, given an appropriate psychotherapeutic environ- ment. Central to this environment is a close personal re- lationship between client and therapist. Rogers’s use of the term “client” rather than “patient” expresses his re- Carl Rogers (Corbis-Bettmann. Reproduced with permission.) jection of the traditionally authoritarian relationship be- tween therapist and client, and his view of them as equals. The client determines the general direction of versity of Wisconsin. Between 1956 and 1947, he therapy, while the therapist seeks to increase the client’s served as president of the American Psychological As- insightful self-understanding through informal clarifying sociation. As Rogers gained increasing acclaim, the questions. A hallmark of Rogers’s method is the thera- popularity of his method grew rapidly. Rogerian therapy pist echoing or reflecting the client’s remarks, which is was widely practiced in the 1950s and 1960s, when its supposed to convey a sense of respect as well as a belief tenets of antiauthoritarianism and permissiveness gave it in the patient’s ability to deal with his or her problems. a wide appeal to many. Rogers published Client-Cen- The concept of an alliance between client and therapist tered Therapy: Its Current Practice, Implications, and has affinities with the methods of Carl Jung. Otto Rank Theory in 1951 and produced numerous of papers in the (1884-1939) was also an early influence on the develop- decade that followed. In 1956, the American Psycholog- ment of Rogers’s system. ical Association awarded him its Distinguished Scientif- ic Contribution Award. In the 1960s, Rogers was attract- Rogerian therapy is a natural consequence of its cre- ed to the human potential movement that had begun in ator’s belief that a fundamental element of human nature California, and he adopted some of its principles, in- is the drive to fully actualize one’s positive potential, a cluding its emphasis on frank and open expression of concept based on an essentially positive view of humani- feelings and its use of group therapy. In 1964, he and ty that contrasts with the psychoanalytic view of human his wife moved to La Jolla, California, where he contin- beings as driven by antisocial impulses that are sup- ued to write and lecture, and served as a resident fellow pressed with difficulty and often at great cost. In at the Western Behavioral Science Institute. On Becom- Rogers’s view, the primary task of therapy is to remove ing a Person, published in 1961, became his most wide- the client’s obstacles to self-actualization. A further ly read book. In the last ten years of his life, Rogers be- contrast to psychoanalysis lies in the fact that Rogerian came deeply interested in educational reform. Borrow- therapy emphasizes the current emotions and attitudes of ing a central principle from his therapeutic method, he the client rather than early childhood experiences. came to believe that teachers (like therapists) should After leaving Ohio State in 1945, Rogers served on serve as facilitators rather than judges or mere convey- the faculties of the University of Chicago and the Uni- ors of facts. GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 549

Roger’s other books include Psychotherapy and Role playing/psychodrama Personality Change (1954), Freedom to Learn: A View of pist in an individual treatment session or with group members in group therapy. What Education Might Become (1969), Carl Rogers on Encounter Groups (1970), Carl Rogers on Personal Power (1977), and A Way of Being (1980). See also Client-centered therapy Rorschach technique Further Reading A projective personality assessment based on the Thorne, Brian. Carl Rogers. London: Sage Publications, 1992. subject’s reactions to a series of ten inkblot pictures. Popularly known as the “Inkblot” test, the Rorsc- hach technique, or Rorschach Psychodiagnostic Test is the most widely used projective psychological test. The Role playing/psychodrama Rorschach is used to help assess personality structure A group therapy approach in which clients act out and identify emotional problems. Like other projective their problems to gain new insights and achieve techniques, it is based on the principle that subjects emotional catharsis. viewing neutral, ambiguous stimuli will project their own personalities onto them, thereby revealing a variety Role playing was developed by Jacob Moreno, a Vi- of unconscious conflicts and motivations. Administered ennese psychologist who contended that people could to both adolescents and adults, the Rorschach can also be gain more from acting out their problems than from talk- used with children as young as three years old. The test ing about them. This method requires a protagonist (the provides information about a person’s thought processes, client whose problems are being acted out); auxiliary perceptions, motivations, and attitude toward his or her egos (group members who assume the roles of other peo- environment, and it can detect internal and external ple in the protagonist’s life); an audience (other group pressures and conflicts as well as illogical or psychotic members who observe and react to the drama); and a di- thought patterns. rector (the therapist). The protagonist selects an event The Rorschach technique is named for Swiss psy- from his or her life and provides the information neces- chiatrist Hermann Rorschach (1884-1922), who devel- sary for it to be reenacted. Although every detail of the oped it. Rorschach, whose primary interest was in Jun- event cannot be reproduced, the reenactment can be ef- gian analysis, began experimenting with inkblots as fective if it captures the essence of the original experi- early as 1911 as a means of determining introversion ence. The group members who serve as auxiliary egos and extroversion. The Rorschach technique is adminis- impersonate significant people from the protagonist’s tered using 10 cards, each containing a complicated past or present, following the protagonist’s instructions inkblot pattern, five in color and five in black and white. as closely as possible. Techniques used in the reenact- Subjects look at the cards one at a time and describe ment may include role reversal, doubling, mirror tech- what each inkblot resembles. After the subject has nique, future projection, and dream work. viewed all 10 cards, the examiner usually goes back over The therapist, acting as facilitator and director, as- the responses for additional information. The subject sists the protagonist in orchestrating the scene, offers may be asked to clarify some responses or to describe emotional support, enlists the audience’s response, and which features of each inkblot prompted the responses. helps the protagonist gain new insights from the experi- Test scores are based on several factors. One is loca- ence. Immediately preceding the reenactment is a warm- tion, or what part of the blot a person focuses on: the up period designed to prepare all the participants for the whole blot (W), sections of it (D), or only specific details experience by motivating them and establishing a safe (Dd). Another is whether the response is based on factors and trusting atmosphere. After the reenactment, mem- such as form, color, movement, or shading (referred to as bers of the audience discuss their reactions to the reen- determinants). For example, people who tend to see actment, including ways that it touched on their own ex- movement in Rorschach blots are thought to be intellec- periences. Encouragement and support is offered to the tual and introspective; those who see mostly stationary protagonist, as well as suggestions for responding to the objects or patterns are described as practical and action- problems dealt within the reenactment. oriented. Finally, content refers to which objects, per- Role playing is sometimes employed in a combina- sons, or situations the person sees in the blot (categories tion of techniques in other types of therapy, such as include humans, animals, clothing, and nature). Most ex- Gestalt therapy. The client may role play with the thera- aminers also assess responses based on the frequency of 550 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

Example of a Rorschach ink blot test. (Stan Goldblatt. Photo Researchers, Inc. Reproduced with permission.) Rorschach technique certain responses as given by previous test takers. Many Rorschach, who pioneered the test in 1921, did not psychologists interpret the test freely according to their provide a comprehensive scoring system. In response to subjective impressions, including their impression of the complaints about validity, scoring methods have been de- subject’s demeanor while taking the test (cooperative, vised which aim at providing greater objectivity by clear- anxious, defensive, and so forth). Such interpretations, ly specifying certain personality variables and relating especially when combined with clinical observation and them to clinical diagnoses. The Exner Comprehensive knowledge of a client’s personal history, can help a ther- Rorschach System, released in 1987, is a computer-based apist arrive at a more expansive, in-depth understanding scoring system that provides score summaries and lists of the client’s personality. likely personality and adjustment descriptions for each test taker. To overcome limitations in the Rorschach, While the Rorschach technique is still widely used, Wayne Holtzman and his colleagues developed the Holtz- its popularity has decreased somewhat in recent decades. man Inkblot Test that uses 45 inkblots, scores for 22 char- Unlike objective personality inventories, which can be acteristics and allows for only one response per card. administered to a group, the Rorschach test must be given individually. A skilled examiner is required, and The Rorschach is generally used as part of a battery of the test can take several hours to complete and interpret. tests and must be administered by a trained psychologist. Like other projective tests, it has been criticized for lack See also Personality inventory of validity and reliability. Interpretation of responses is highly dependent on an examiner’s individual judgment: Further Reading two different testers may interpret the same responses Aronow, Edward. The Rorschach Technique: Perceptual Ba- quite differently. In addition, treatment procedures at sics, Content Interpretation, and Applications. Needham mental health facilities often require more specific, ob- Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1994. jective types of personality description than those pro- Lerner, Paul M. Psychoanalytic Theory and the Rorschach. vided by the Rorschach technique. Hillsdale, NJ: Analytic Press, 1991. GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 551

Rosen picture frustration study A projective test administered to assess personality psychology began when he read books by eminent psy- Rosenzweig picture chotherapists Alfred Adler and Sigmund Freud. He at- tended Brooklyn College, where he received a bachelor of frustration study arts degree in chemistry in 1937. While in college he start- ed going to seminars given by Adler as well as attending characteristics, in which the subject is shown meetings of Adler’s Society of Individual Psychology. scenes depicting moderately frustrating situations and asked what the frustrated person depicted After graduating, Rotter entered the State University would probably do, or how the subject would of Iowa. He minored in speech pathology and studied react in such situations. meanings in language. Johnson’s ideas had a great influ- The Rosenzweig Picture Frustration test consists of ence on Rotter in terms of his coming to believe that lan- 24 cartoon pictures, each portraying two persons in a with Wendell Johnson, a linguist whose work focused on guage should be used very carefully in psychology in frustrating situation. Each picture contains two “speech terms of how one defines terms and theoretical con- balloons,” a filled one for the “frustrator” or antagonist, structs. One of Rotter’s instructors in Iowa was Kurt and a blank one for the frustrated person, or protagonist. Lewin, the Prussian-born psychologist known primarily The subject is asked to fill in the blank balloon with his for field theory. Rotter received his master of arts in psy- or her response to the situation, and the responses are chology degree in 1938. Rotter then did a one-year in- scored in relation to a number of psychological defense ternship in clinical psychology at Worcester State Hos- mechanisms. For example, responses are scored as to pital in Massachusetts. At that time there were very few whether, and to what degree, they indicate that the sub- internships in clinical psychology available. He met his ject exhibits aggression toward the source of the frustra- wife to be, Clara Barnes, at the hospital and they married tion, assumes blame or guilt as the cause of the frustra- in 1941. They would have two children. tion, or justifies, minimizes, or denies the frustration. The score is based on a total of nine factors, derived In 1939, Rotter enrolled in Indiana University’s doc- from combinations of three types of aggression (obsta- toral program in clinical psychology, one of the few cle-dominance, ego-defense, and need-persistence) and schools offering such a program at that time. He received three directions of aggression (extraggression, imaggres- his doctorate in 1941. In doing a predoctoral internship sion, and intraggression). However, testers often analyze before receiving his Ph.D. in clinical psychology, he was the subject’s responses more informally and intuitively. one of the first clinical psychologists to be trained in what is now the standard model. During World War II Originally developed for adults by Saul Rosen- Rotter entered the United States Army and served as a zweig, the test is now available in versions for children personnel consultant in the armored force before becom- and adolescents. The empirical validity of the Rosen- ing an aviation psychologist in the Air Force. In 1946 he zweig Picture Frustration Study and other projective joined the faculty of Ohio State University and served as techniques is disputed by some authorities. director for its clinical psychology training program from 1951 to 1959, and in 1962 to 1963. Further Reading Rosenzweig, Saul. The Rosenzweig Picture Frustration (P-F) Rotter was very active in setting up standards for the Study. St. Louis: Rana House, 1978. training of clinical psychologists. In 1949, Rotter partici- pated in what became known as the Boulder Conference where training requirements were developed for clinical psychologists at the doctoral level. He argued that psy- Julian B. Rotter chologists should not be trained as psychiatrists (medical doctors who, after receiving their primary training in 1916- medicine, then focus on the psychological). Rotter felt American psychologist best known for his social learning theory of personality. clinical psychologists should be trained in academic de- partments of psychology as scientists and therapists (the scientist-practitioner model), being steeped in the study Julian B. Rotter was born in Brooklyn, New York. His of general psychology throughout their training. parents were Jewish immigrants, and he was their third son. His father operated a profitable business until it ran While at Ohio State, Rotter began work on his so- into trouble during the Great Depression. The economic cial learning theory of personality and in 1954 Social downturn greatly affected Rotter and his family, and Learning and Clinical Psychology was published. In this made him realize how strongly people are affected by book he laid out the basic tenets of his social learning their environments. In high school, Rotter’s interest in theory, the main idea of which is that personality is real- 552 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

ly the interaction between a person and his or her envi- Rotter, Julian B. “Generalized expectancies for interval versus ronment. Personality does not reside within an individ- external control of reinforcement.” Psychological Mono- ual independent of the environment he or she is in. By graphs, 80, (1966): 1-28. Benjamin Rush the same token, an individual’s behaviors are not simple, Rotter, Julian B. The development and applications of social learning theory: Selected papers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: reflexive responses to an objective environment. Rather, Prentice Hall, 1982. the environment an individual responds to or acts in is Hock, R.R. Forty studies that changed psychology. Englewood dependent on that particular individual’s learning experi- Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1995. ences and life history. What stimuli people respond to are shaped by their experiences. Two people might expe- Further Information rience the same environment in very different ways. For Department of Psychology, U-20 University of Connecticut. example, Joe might respond to a visit to the doctor with 406 Babbidge Road, Storrs, CT, USA. 06269-1020. apprehension because his last visit involved getting a painful shot, whereas Sam would not be apprehensive at all because his last visit was pleasant and did not involve any discomfort. To Rotter, personality is a relatively Benjamin Rush fixed group of dispositions to react to situations in a cer- tain manner. He stressed that most learning takes place 1746-1813 American physician, teacher, and statesman known in social situations with other people. Rotter’s personali- as the “father of American psychiatry” for his work ty theory was the first to comprehensively integrate cog- with the mentally ill. nition, in the form of expectancy, with learning and mo- tivation, in the form of reinforcement. Benjamin Rush was born near Philadelphia. He at- In 1966, Rotter published a monograph entitled Gen- tended the College of New Jersey (the future Princeton eralized Expectancies for Interval Versus External Con- University), intending to enter the ministry. Finally de- trol of Reinforcement, where he explored people’s ex- ciding in favor of medicine, Rush began his medical pectancies as to whether they can influence the reinforce- studies in Philadelphia, serving a six-year apprenticeship ments they receive. At one extreme are people who be- to a local physician. He then enrolled in the University of lieve that reinforcements are due to fate or luck. They Edinburgh, Scotland, where many American physicians would be said to have an external locus of control. At the received their training at the time. Rush earned his M.D. other extreme are those who believe that reinforcements degree in 1768, having concentrated in the study of are a function of one’s behavior. They have an internal chemistry. Returning to America, he began his own pri- locus of control. Rotter also created the Internal-External vate practice the following year, when he was also ap- Locus of Control Scale to measure individual differences pointed to a teaching position at the College of Philadel- in this characteristic. The scale has been widely used, and phia, becoming the first professor of chemistry in North research on I-E flourished in the 1970s. This dimension America and authoring the first chemistry text by an of internal versus external locus of control has come to be American (Syllabus of a Course of Lectures on Chem- seen as a relatively stable dimension of personality. istry). Rush’s medical practice grew rapidly. He was known in particular for his strong endorsement of the Rotter has served as president of the divisions of contemporary practice of treating fevers by bloodletting Clinical Psychology and Social and Personality Psychol- and purges, as a result of his conviction that fevers re- ogy of the American Psychological Association. In 1963, sulted from arterial tension which could only be relieved Rotter left Ohio State to become director of the Clinical by bloodletting. In severe cases, he recommended that as Psychology Training Program at the University of Con- much as four-fifths of the patient’s blood be drained. necticut. He retired in 1987 and is currently Professor Rush played a prominent role in the American Rev- Emeritus of Clinical Psychology. In 1989, Rotter re- olution. In 1776, he served as a member of the Continen- ceived the American Psychological Association’s Distin- tal Congress, and was also a signer of the Declaration of guished Scientific Contribution Award. His wife passed Independence. He also served from 1776 to 1778 as away in 1985. Physician General of the Continental Army. Rush was an enthusiastic supporter of the U.S. Constitution and a Marie Doorey member of the Pennsylvania Convention that ratified it. In 1787, Rush took charge of the treatment of mental Further Reading patients at the Pennsylvania Hospital, beginning the work Rotter, Julian B. Social learning and clinical psychology. En- that eventually earned him the title “father of American glewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1954. psychiatry.” While his treatment methods—which includ- GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 553

Benjamin Rush onment, Rush helped bring mental health under the do- main of medicine. He also authored the first psychiatry book written by an American, Medical Inquiries and Ob- servations upon the Diseases of the Mind, in 1812. In addition to his contributions to medicine and poli- tics, Rush worked on behalf of many social issues of his day, including the establishment of public schools, educa- tion for women, prison reform, and the abolition of slav- ery and capital punishment. He was in the forefront of the struggle against Philadelphia’s yellow-fever epidemics of the 1790s. Although he did note the apparent connec- tion between the disease and the presence of mosquitoes, he continued to advocate bloodletting as the primary method of treatment, unfortunately influencing several generations of physicians who treated similar epidemics in the nineteenth century. (He fell ill when he used his treatment method on himself in 1793.) Rush’s name is also linked with physicians’ rights in relation to freedom of the press. Attacked in the newspapers for his controver- sial medical and political views, he sued his detractors and was awarded damages by a Pennsylvania court. In 1789, Rush gave up his chemistry professorship at the University of Pennsylvania in order to begin teach- ing medicine, which he continued to do for the remain- der of his career, serving as a mentor to a generation of Benjamin Rush (Reproduced with permission.) medical students. In 1797, he was appointed to the posi- tion of treasurer at the United States Mint and held that office until his death in 1813. Rush’s other books include ed bloodletting, purging, intimidation, hot and cold baths, Medical Inquiries and Observations (1794-98) and Es- and chair restraints—can hardly be considered clinical says: Literary, Moral and Philosophical (1798). advances, Rush’s view of mental disease represented a major advance in the understanding of that subject. He Further Reading believed that insanity often has a physical cause, and that Binger, Carl A. Revolutionary Doctor: Benjamin Rush. New mental illnesses, like physical illnesses, may be as treat- York: Norton, 1966. able. Through his insistence that insanity was a disease Weisberger, Bernard A. “The Paradoxical Doctor Benjamin requiring treatment rather than a crime calling for impris- Rush.” American Heritage 27 (1975): 40-47, 98-99. 554 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

S released from jail when the Appeals Court of New Jersey Satanic ritual abuse reversed her conviction. Activities such as cannibalism, animal sacrifice, There is no dispute that children are often abused, and child sexual abuse that are assumed to be car- and that the consequences can be devastating. Raising ried out by organized underground cults. questions about the (assumed) existence of organized, satanic, child-abusing cults is not the same as doubting In 1984, Newsweek printed a feature article on an the existence of actual child abuse, nor to question its “epidemic” of child abuse in day-care settings. During wrongfulness. If organized ritualistic abuse does not the next 10 years or so, numerous newspaper and maga- occur, then how can we explain the widespread belief in zine articles described criminal trials in which reference it? Contributing factors include adults who have been was made to sexual abuse, torture, and ritual worship of persuaded by their therapists that they were abused as one kind or another. For example, in 1988 Kelly children, children who have been interviewed in aggres- Michaels was charged with sexually abusing children in sive and manipulative ways by investigators who believe her care at a nursery school in New Jersey. On the basis the worst, and uncritical and sensationalized media ac- of children’s testimony, she was convicted of 115 counts counts of satanic sexual abuse. of sexual abuse against 20 different children. In Manhat- tan Beach, California, seven teachers were accused of Timothy Moore abusing hundreds of preschool children over a 10-year period. The case was one of the longest and most expen- sive trials in California history. There have been numer- Further Reading ous cases like these in the U.S., Canada, and the U.K. All Bottoms, B.L., and S.L. Davis. “The Creation of Satanic Ritual Abuse.” Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 16 have involved accusations by children that they had been (1997): 112-32. terrorized, abused, and tortured during strange cere- Nathan, D., and M. Snedeker. Satan’s Silence: Ritual Abuse monies with satanic, ritualistic overtones. Some profes- and the Making of a Modern American Witch Hunt. New sional child care workers assumed that the accused per- York: Basic Books, 1995. petrators were members of an organized network of child predators. What evidence is there to support the belief in an or- ganization of child abusers? One study in Great Britain Virginia M. Satir investigated 84 cases of reported ritualistic abuse involv- ing sexual abuse, murder, bestiality, and torture. In only 1916-1988 3 of the 84 cases was there any material evidence to sup- American family therapist who championed the port the allegations, and none of them entailed witchcraft worth of the individual person. or Satanism. In the United States, a nationwide study identified more than 12,000 accusations of cult-like, sa- Although Virginia Satir devoted her career to family tanic, ritual abuse. None of the allegations were substan- therapy, she believed strongly in focusing on the self- tiated, and neither the police nor the FBI have ever un- worth of individuals. The family unit might be critically covered any evidence of child-abusing satanic cults. In important, she felt, but the self-esteem of each member the McMartin Preschool case, none of the accused teach- of the family had to come from within each person. Be- ers was ever convicted of a crime. Kelly Michaels was cause of her studies, her experience based on working GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 555

Savant syndrome with thousands of families, and her instinctive under- focus on working with families. After her second mar- riage (she had previously married Gordon Rodgers) to standing of family issues, she earned a reputation as a pi- Norman Satir ended in 1957, she moved to California, oneer and leader in the field of family therapy. and with two other therapists founded the Mental Health The oldest of five children, Satir was born on a Research Institute (MHRI). In 1962, MHRI obtained a farm in Nellsville, Wisconsin, on June 26, 1916, to Oscar and Minnie Happe Pagenkopf. She displayed begin what would be the first formal family therapy what would be a lifelong desire for knowledge at an grant from the National Institute of Mental Health to training program. Satir published her first book, Con- early age; she was reading by the age of three, and joint Family Therapy, in 1964. She traveled extensively through her childhood she read voraciously, often say- throughout the 1960s and 1970s, conducting workshops ing that she would like to be a detective and unravel and seminars. mysteries when she grew up. As one of five children whose parents had large families (her parents came from Recognizing the importance of networking for families of 13 and seven children), she was able to ob- therapists, Satir founded the International Human Re- serve the family dynamic long before she had thought of sources Learning Network (IHRLN) in 1970 and the becoming a therapist. Avanta Network (now known as Avanta, the Virginia Satir Network) in 1977. During these years, she re- Satir received her early education in a one-room ceived recognition for her important work. She received school, but by the time she was of high school age the a Distinguished Service Award from the American As- family had moved to Milwaukee. She excelled in high sociation for Marriage and Family Therapy, and the school and upon graduation enrolled in Milwaukee State University of Wisconsin awarded her an honorary doc- Teachers College (now part of the University of Wiscon- torate in 1973. sin). She worked her way through school and graduated in 1936 with a bachelor of arts degree in education. Satir continued her work into the 1980s. She estab- lished the Satir Family Camps program through Avanta, which allows families and their therapists to spend one Embarks on social work career or two weeks in selected wilderness settings. She contin- For the first few years after she graduated, Satir was ued to travel and conduct training programs and semi- a schoolteacher. Because she felt she would learn more nars. In the summer of 1988, she was diagnosed with about people by being exposed to a variety of individuals pancreatic cancer. She stayed active through the summer and communities, she traveled to different cities to teach, but the cancer spread, and she died at her home in Menlo including Ann Arbor, Michigan; Shreveport, Louisiana; Park, California, on September 10, 1988. St. Louis, Missouri; and Miami, Florida. She then decid- ed to pursue a career in social work; in 1937 she enrolled George A. Milite at Northwestern University in Chicago, taking classes in the summer and teaching school the rest of the year. After three summers, she enrolled full time at the Uni- Further Reading versity of Chicago, completing her coursework by 1943 Satir, Virginia. Conjoint Family Therapy: A Guide to Theory and Techniques. Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior and her thesis in 1948. Books, 1964. Being a graduate student was a difficult but ulti- Satir, Virginia. Peoplemaking. Palo Alto, CA: Science and Be- mately rewarding experience for Satir. During the 1940s, havior Books, 1972. there was still a stigma against women in graduate pro- grams, even in an ostensibly more liberal discipline such as social work. Satire later said that these experiences made her stronger and more determined to keep going. Savant syndrome A condition characterized by a combination of Begins family therapy training programs below normal intelligence and extraordinary men- After receiving her master’s degree, Satir went into tal abilities in one or a few narrow areas. private practice. She met with an entire family instead of an individual for the first time in 1951, and it convinced Persons who display savant syndrome have tradi- her that therapy that included the family was more effec- tionally been called idiot savants, a term that many tive than working with the individual alone. She lived currently avoid because of its negative connotations. out her lifelong dream of unraveling the mysteries of Alternate terms include retarded savant and autistic sa- family dynamics. Through the 1950s, she continued to vant, the latter referring to the fact that savant syn- 556 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

drome is often associated with autism. It is difficult to arrive at an exact figure for the incidence of savant Scapegoating syndrome. A 1977 study found the incidence among Scapegoating A powerful and destructive phenomenon wherein the institutionalized mentally handicapped in the Unit- a person or group of people are blamed for what- ed States to be 0.06 percent of the population, or one ever is wrong. in roughly 2,000. Most savants are males. Savant skills occur in a number of different areas. In ancient times, there were rituals of scapegoating. A Savants with musical abilities demonstrate an excellent tribe or person would literally sacrifice an animal to the ear for music from an early age, often including per- gods, or send an animal into the desert declaring that that an- fect pitch. They are able to reproduce melodies and imal was carrying away the tribe’s sins. In today’s culture, even entire compositions with great accuracy and often psychology uses the term to discuss certain forms of victim- show considerable performing talent, including both ization. A particular child of an alcoholic family can be technical and interpretive skills. Others show unusual deemed the scapegoat, for instance, and may be the object of talent in the visual arts, which may include the ability a parent’s abuse and the reason for seeking professional to produce life-like reproductions at a very young age, help. The child is “innocent,” but receives the blame for the when most children can turn out only primitive draw- problems in the household. Historically, entire groups of ings. Some savants demonstrate a computer-like ability people have been scapegoated. In Nazi Germany, Hitler and to perform difficult mathematical calculations at light- his army scapegoated the Jewish people. The Nazis declared ning speeds. the Jews to be the reason for their societal ills and further be- lieved that if they eliminated the Jewish people, then their Perhaps the most common area where savants problems would be solved. Currently in America, there is show extraordinary abilities is memory. They may scapegoating of lesbian and gay people. Some heterosexu- memorize historical data, sports statistics, population als, often with strong religious ties, blame lesbian and gay figures, biographical information, or even telephone people for the moral decay in America. directories. One savant with uncommon musical abili- Why scapegoating occurs is rather complex. Scape- ties could also provide biographical information about goating serves the need of the dominant social group to the composer of almost any piece of music, as well as feel better about themselves. It relieves the group’s re- stating the key and opus of the piece. She could de- sponsibility for their own problems. The scapegoated scribe in detail every musical performance she had person or group becomes the focus and the reason for the heard within a 20-year period and provide biographical difficult life condition. It was easier for Hitler to blame information about every member of the local sympho- the problems of German society on the Jews than it ny orchestra. One particular type of memorization would have been for him to truly understand the complex common to a large proportion of savants is calendar socio-political changes that were happening at the time. calculating, the ability to say what day of the week a Scapegoating also allows people to feel united when they particular date will fall (or has already fallen) on. join together to blame someone else. And when action is Some savants can provide this type of information for taken against the scapegoat, the dominant group can feel periods covering hundreds of years. that they have accomplished something. Savants have been studied by researchers investigat- Scapegoating begins with devaluation, or putting ing such topics as the nature of human intelligence and someone else down. Then the scapegoated person or the relative influence of heredity and environment. group is blamed as the cause of a problem. Once a victim has been blamed, they are then dehumanized so that it is Further Reading easier to treat them with less compassion. For instance, Howe, Michael J. A. Fragments of Genius: The Strange Feats in some circles, people with HIV/AIDS are often spoken of Idiots Savants. London: Routledge, 1989. of only as statistics, not as real people who need compas- Obler, L.K., and D. Fein, eds. The Exceptional Brain: Neu- sion and care. ropsychology of Talent and Special Abilities. New York: In many scapegoating situations, the anger and ag- Guilford Press, 1988. gression of the dominant person or group is displaced, or Treffert, D.A. Extraordinary People. New York: Harper and projected, onto the victim. Really the frustration lies Row, 1989. within the person doing the scapegoating. Scapegoating Further Information never truly solves any problems, it merely deflects atten- Autism Society of America (formerly National Society for tion away from the person or group who most needs help. Autistic Children). 8601 Georgia Ave., Suite 503, Silver Spring, MD 20910, (301) 565–0433. Lara Lynn Lane GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 557

Causes of schizophrenia Schizophrenia Further Reading known, it is believed to be caused by a combination of Allport, G.W. The Nature of Prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison While the exact cause of schizophrenia is not Wesley, 1995. Gilmore, Norbert, and Margaret A. Somerville. “Stigmatiza- physiological and environmental factors. Studies have tion, Scapegoating, and Discrimination in Sexually Trans- mitted Diseases: Overcoming ‘Them’ and ‘Us’.” Social disorder. Family members of schizophrenics are ten Science and Medicine vol. 39, no. 9 (November 1994): shown that there is clearly a hereditary component to the 1339-358. times more prone to schizophrenia than the general pop- Hafsi, Mohamed. “Experimental Inquiry into the Psychody- ulation, and identical twins of schizophrenics have a namics of the Relationship between the Group’s Domi- 46% likelihood of having the illness themselves. Rela- nant Basic Assumption Type and Scapegoating Phenome- tives of schizophrenics also tend to have milder psycho- non.” Psychologica: An International Journal of Psychol- logical disorders with some of the same symptoms as ogy in the Orient vol. 41, no. 4 (December 1998): 272-84. schizophrenia, such as suspicion, communication prob- Staub, Ervin. “Cultural-Societal Roots of Violence: The Exam- lems, and eccentric behavior. ples of Genocidal Violence and of Contemporary Youth Violence in the U.S.” American Psychologist vol. 51, no. In the years following World War II, many doctors 2 (February 1996): 117-32. blamed schizophrenia on bad parenting. In recent years, however, advanced neurological research has strengthened Further Information the case for a physiological basis for the disease. It has The Scapegoat Society. Hindleap Corner, Priory Road, Forest Row, East Sussex, England RH18 5JF. http://www.scape- been discovered that the brains of schizophrenics have cer- goat.demon.co.uk/. tain features in common, including smaller volume, re- duced blood flow to certain areas, and enlargement of the ventricles (cavities filled with fluid that are found at the brain’s center). Over the past decade much attention has focused on the connection between schizophrenia and neu- Schizophrenia rotransmitters, the chemicals that transmit nerve impulses within the brain. One such chemical—dopamine—has A mental illness characterized by disordered think- ing, delusions, hallucinations, emotional distur- been found to play an especially important role in the dis- bance, and withdrawal from reality. ease. Additional research has concentrated on how and when the brain abnormalities that characterize the disorder Some experts view schizophrenia as a group of re- develop. Some are believed to originate prenatally for a va- lated illnesses with similar characteristics. The condition riety of reasons, including trauma, viral infections, malnu- affects between one-half and one percent of the world’s trition during pregnancy, or a difference in Rh blood factor population, occurring with equal frequency in males and between the fetus and the mother. Environmental factors females (although the onset of symptoms is usually earli- associated with schizophrenia include birth complications, er in males). Between 1 and 2% of Americans are viral infections during infancy, and head injuries in child- thought to be afflicted with schizophrenia—at least 2.5 hood. While the notion of child rearing practices causing million at any given time, with an estimated 100,000 to schizophrenia has been largely discredited, there is evi- 200,000 new cases every year. Although the name dence that certain family dynamics do contribute to the “schizophrenia,” coined in 1911 by Swiss psychologist likelihood of relapse in persons who already have shown Eugene Bleuler (1857-1939), is associated with the idea symptoms of the disease. of a “split” mind, the disorder is different from a “split personality” (dissociative identity disorder), with Types of schizophrenia which it is frequently confused. Schizophrenia is com- monly thought to disproportionately affect people in the Schizophrenia is generally divided into four types. lowest socioeconomic groups, although some claim that The most prevalent, found in some 40% of affected per- socially disadvantaged persons with schizophrenia are sons, is paranoid schizophrenia, characterized by delu- only more visible than their more privileged counter- sions and hallucinations centering on persecution, and by parts, not more numerous. In the United States, schizo- feelings of jealousy and grandiosity. Other possible phrenics occupy more hospital beds than patients suffer- symptoms include argumentativeness, anger, and vio- ing from cancer, heart disease, or diabetes. At any given lence. Catatonic schizophrenia is known primarily for its time, they account for up to half the beds in long-term catatonic state, in which persons retain fixed and some- care facilities. With the aid of antipsychotic medication times bizarre positions for extended periods of time to control delusions and hallucinations,about 70% of without moving or speaking. However, catatonic schizo- schizophrenics are able to function adequately in society. phrenics may also experience periods of restless move- 558 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

ment. In disorganized, or hebephrenic, schizophrenia, tion, between 25 and 50% of people with schizophrenia the patient is incoherent, with flat or inappropriate emo- abuse drugs or alcohol. As the positive symptoms of the tions, disorganized behavior, and bizarre, stereotyped acute phase subside, they may give way to the negative Schizophrenia movements and grimaces. Catatonic and disorganized symptoms of what is called residual schizophrenia. schizophrenia affect far fewer people than paranoid These include flat or inappropriate emotions, an inability schizophrenia. Most schizophrenics not diagnosed as to experience pleasure (anhedonia), lack of motivation; paranoid schizophrenics fall into the large category of reduced attention span, lack of interest in one’s sur- undifferentiated schizophrenia (the fourth type), which roundings, and social withdrawal. consists of variations of the disorder that do not corre- Researchers have found correlations between child- spond to the criteria of the other three types. Generally, hood behavior and the onset of schizophrenia in adult- symptoms of any type of schizophrenia must be present hood. A 30-year longitudinal research project studied for at least six months before a diagnosis can be made. over 4,000 people born within a single week in 1946 in Over the long term, about one-third of patients experi- order to document any unusual developmental patterns ence recovery or remission. observed in those children who later became schizo- The initial symptoms of schizophrenia usually occur phrenic. It was found that a disproportionate number of between the ages of 16 and 30, with some variation de- them learned to sit, stand, and walk late. They were also pending on the type. (The average age of hospital admis- twice as likely as their peers to have speech disorders at sion for the disease is between 28 and 34.) Disorganized the age of six and to have played alone when they were schizophrenia tends to begin early, usually in adoles- young. Home movies have enabled other researchers to cence or young adulthood, while paranoid schizophrenia collect information about the childhood characteristics tends to start later, usually after the age of 25 or 30. The of adult schizophrenics. One study found that the routine onset of acute symptoms is referred to as the first psy- physical movements of these children tended to be chotic break, or break from reality. In general, the earlier slightly abnormal in ways that most parents wouldn’t the onset of symptoms, the more severe the illness will suspect were associated with a major mental illness and be. Before the disease becomes full-blown, schizophren- that the children also tended to show fear and anger to ics may go through a period called the prodromal stage, an unusual degree. lasting about a year, when they experience behavioral changes that precede and are less dramatic than those of Treatment the acute stage. These may include social withdrawal, trouble concentrating or sleeping, neglect of personal Schizophrenia has historically been very difficult to grooming and hygiene, and eccentric behavior. treat, usually requiring hospitalization during its acute stage. In recent decades, antipsychotic drugs have be- The prodromal stage is followed by the acute phase come the most important component of treatment. They of the disease, which is characterized by “positive” can control delusions and hallucinations, improve symptoms and requires medical intervention. During this thought coherence, and, if taken on a long-term mainte- stage, three-fourths of schizophrenics experience delu- nance basis, prevent relapses. However, antipsychotic sions—illogical and bizarre beliefs that are held despite drugs do not work for all schizophrenics, and their use objections. A typical delusion might be a belief that the has been complicated by side effects, such as akathisia afflicted person is under the control of a sinister force lo- (motor restlessness), dystonia (rigidity of the neck mus- cated in the sewer system that dictates his every move cles), and tardive dyskinesia (uncontrollable repeated and thought. Hallucinations are another common symp- movements of the tongue and the muscles of the face and tom of acute schizophrenia. These may be auditory neck). In addition, many schizophrenics resist taking (hearing voices) or tactile (feeling as though worms are medication, some because of the side effects, others be- crawling over one’s skin). The acute phase of schizo- cause they may feel better and mistakenly decide they phrenia is also characterized by incoherent thinking, don’t need the drugs anymore, or because being depen- rambling or discontinuous speech, use of nonsense dent on medication to function makes them feel bad words, and odd physical behavior, including grimacing, about themselves. The tendency of schizophrenics to dis- pacing, and unusual postures. Persons in the grip of continue medication is very harmful. Each time a schizo- acute schizophrenia may also become violent, although phrenic goes off medication, the symptoms of the dis- often this violence is directed at themselves—it is esti- ease return with greater severity, and the effectiveness of mated that 15-20% of schizophrenics commit suicide out the drugs is reduced. of despair over their condition or because the voices they hear “tell” them to do so, and up to 35% attempt to take Until recently, the drugs most often prescribed for their own lives or seriously consider doing so. In addi- schizophrenia have been neuroleptics such as Haldol, GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 559

Scholastic Assessment Test Prolixin, Thorazine, and Mellaril. A major breakthrough Schizophrenics Anonymous. 1209 California Rd., Eastchester, NY 10709, (914) 337–2252. in the treatment of schizophrenia occurred in 1990 with the introduction of the drug clozapine to the U.S. market. Clozapine, which affects the neurotransmitters in the brain (specifically serotonin and dopamine), has been dramatically successful in relieving both positive and Scholastic Assessment Test negative symptoms of schizophrenia, especially in pa- tients in whom other medications have not been effec- tive. However, even clozapine doesn’t work for all pa- ties and achievement in specific subject areas. tients. In addition, about 1% of those who take it develop agranulocytosis, a potentially fatal blood disease, within A test that measures verbal and mathematical abili- In March 1994, the test formerly known as the the first year of use, and all patients on clozapine must Scholastic Aptitude Test became the Scholastic Assess- be monitored regularly for this side effect. (Clozapine ment Test (SAT). The name change reflects the test’s ob- was first developed decades ago but could not be intro- jectives more accurately, that is, to measure a student’s duced until it became possible to screen for this disor- scholastic ability and achievement rather than his or her der.) The screening itself is expensive, creating another aptitude. The format of the SAT remains basically the problem for those using the drug. Risperidone, a new, same, however; it is a series of tests, given to groups of safer medication that offers benefits similar to those of students. The tests measure verbal and mathematical clozapine, was introduced in 1994 and is now the most abilities and achievement in a variety of subject areas. It frequently prescribed antipsychotic medication in the is offered on Saturday mornings seven months of the United States. Olanzapine, another in the new generation year at locations across the United States. Over 2,000 of schizophrenia drugs, received FDA approval in the colleges and universities use the test scores as part of the fall of 1996, and more medications are under develop- college admissions process. The SAT scores provide an ment. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT, also called elec- indicator of the student’s ability to do college-level tric shock treatments) has been utilized to relieve symp- work. Intended as an objective standard for comparing toms of catatonia and depression in schizophrenics, es- the abilities of students from widely different cultural pecially in cases where medication is not effective. backgrounds and types of schools, the test can also help Although medication is the most important part of students, their parents, and guidance counselors make treatment, psychotherapy can also play an important decisions in the college application process. role in helping schizophrenics manage anxiety and deal The two major components of the test are SAT I: with interpersonal relationships, and treatment for the Reasoning Test, and SAT II: Subject Tests (formerly disorder usually consists of a combination of medication, called Achievement Tests). All SAT test-takers com- therapy, and various types of rehabilitation. Family plete SAT I, a three-hour multiple-choice test. The Test therapy has worked well for many patients, educating of Standard Written English, which prior to 1994 com- both patients and their families about the nature of schiz- prised a half-hour section of SAT I, has been eliminated. ophrenia and helping them in their cooperative effort to The new SAT I has three verbal reasoning and three cope with the disorder. mathematical reasoning sections. However, not all of these are half-hour sections. For both the verbal and Further Reading mathematical components, two sections take 30 min- Atkinson, Jacqueline M. Schizophrenia: A Guide to What It Is and What Can Be Done to Help. San Bernardino, CA: R. utes, and the third takes only 15. This brings the total Reginald Borgo Press, 1989. test time to 2.5 hours. The remaining half hour is devot- ed to an experimental section called Equating, which Hoffer, Abram, and Humphry Osmond. How to Live with can be either a math or a verbal section. This section is Schizophrenia. New York: Carol Publishing Group, 1992. not counted in the student’s score, but the test-taker Lidz, Theodore. The Origin and Treatment of Schizophrenic Disorders. International Universities Press, 1990. does not know which one is the Equating section while Walsh, Maryellen. Schizophrenia: Straight Talk for Families taking the test. and Friends. New York: William Morrow, 1985. The Verbal Reasoning sections in the SAT I no longer Further Information contains antonym questions, and a greater emphasis has been placed on reading comprehension (called Critical American Schizophrenia Association. 900 North Federal High- way, Suite 330, Boca Raton, FL 33432, (407) 393–6167. Reading), which, in some cases, requires the student to an- National Alliance for Research on Schizophrenia and Depres- swer questions on two different text passages instead of sion. 60 Cutter Mill Rd., Suite 200, Great Neck, NY just one. As before, the Verbal Reasoning sections also in- 11202, (516) 829–0091. clude sentence completion and analogy questions. 560 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

The Mathematical Reasoning sections consist of The child with school phobia develops a pattern of multiple-choice questions covering arithmetic, algebra, predictable behavior. At first, the child may begin the and geometry; quantitative comparison (which are also day complaining that he is too sick to go to school, with multiple choice); and a section of problems requiring a headache, sore throat, stomachache, or other symptom. students to calculate their own answers (multiple-choice After the parent agrees that the child may stay home answers are not provided). Students are allowed (and en- from school, he begins to feel better, although his symp- School phobia/School refusal couraged) to use calculators for the math sections. toms often do not completely disappear. By the next morning, the symptoms are back in full intensity. When SAT II includes a variety of tests in subjects such as the child repeats this pattern, or simply refuses to go to English, foreign languages, math, history and social stud- school without complaining of any symptoms of illness ies, psychology, and the sciences. SAT I and II cannot be on a chronic and consistent basis, school phobia is con- taken on the same day. Raw SAT scores are calculated sidered to have evolved into school refusal (or school re- based on the number of correct answers minus a fraction fusal syndrome). of a point for each wrong answer. Subtracting points for wrong answers compensates for guesses made by the School refusal is a diagnostic criterion for separa- test-taker, and is called the “guessing penalty.” The raw tion anxiety disorder, a mental condition characterized score is converted using a scale ranging from 200 to 800, by abnormally high anxiety concerning possible or actu- with separate scores provided for the verbal and math al separation from parents or other individuals to whom sections, and for each subject test in SAT II. Scores are the child is attached. When school refusal is related to reported about six weeks after the test date to students separation anxiety disorder, it is likely that the child will and their high schools, and to the colleges of their choice. also display aversion to other activities (after-school Students may take the SAT more than once, and many do, clubs and sports, birthday parties, summer camp) that in- hoping to improve upon their initial scores. volve being away from the person to whom the child is The SAT has been criticized on grounds of cultural attached. In addition, he may cling to the person, and and gender bias, charges that the revised version has at- refuse to allow her out of his sight for even short periods tempted to rectify. The widespread use of test prepara- of time. Children experiencing separation anxiety disor- tion courses and services for the SAT has also generated der and school refusal may express feelings of fear when controversy, with detractors arguing that the test is unfair left alone in a room. to economically disadvantaged students, who have limit- Refusal to go to school may begin as a result of any ed access to coaching. of the following stresses: birth of a sibling; death of a family member, close friend, or pet; change in school, Further Reading such as a new teacher; loss of a friend due to a move or Bartl, Lisa. 10-Minute Guide to Upping Your SAT Scores. New change in school; or a change in family, such as divorce York: Alpha Books/ARCO, 1996. Carris, Joan Davenport. SAT Success. 5th ed. Princeton, NJ: or remarriage. It may also follow summer vacation or Peterson’s, 1996. holiday break, when the young child has spent more time Inside the SAT. New York: Princeton Review Publications, with his primary caregiver. 1995. (A multimedia format including laser optical disc, Almost every child will display behavior to avoid reference manual, and practice test.) going to school—for academic or social reasons—at Introducing the New SAT: The College Board’s Official Guide. some point during his school career. In these cases, the New York: College Entrance Examination Boards, 1993. situation the child is trying to avoid is usually tempo- rary—an argument with a friend, the threat of a bully, or the consequences of a missed homework assignment, for example. When the avoidance of school becomes a School phobia/School refusal chronic pattern, the child may develop serious social and academic problems. A professional counselor or child Reluctance or refusal to attend school. psychiatrist working with the child’s teacher and other school personnel can all support the family in overcom- School phobia is an imprecise, general term used to ing a child’s refusal to go to school. describe a situation in which a child is reluctant to go to school. According to the American Academy of Child and Returning the child to school is the highest priority Adolescent Psychiatry, refusal to go to school is most com- so that disruption to the child’s educational and emo- mon in the period from preschool through second grade. In tional development is minimized. Depending on the most cases, school phobia is a symptom of an educational, severity of the fears that produced the symptom of social, or emotional problem the child is experiencing. school refusal, ongoing counseling or psychiatric treat- GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 561

The scientific method involves a wide array of ap- School psychology ment may be necessary for a length of time, even after proaches and is better seen as an overall perspective the child is successfully back in school. rather than a single, specific method. The scientific Further Reading method that has been adopted was initially based on the Kahn, Jack. Unwillingly to School. New York: Pergamon Press, concept of positivism, which involved the search for 1981. general descriptive laws that could be used to predict natural phenomena. Once predictions were possible, sci- entists could attempt to control the occurrence of those phenomena. Subsequently, scientists developed underly- School psychology ing explanations and theories. In the case of psychology, the goal would be to describe, to predict, then to control One of the human service fields of psychology behavior, with knowledge based on underlying theory. whose aim is to help students, teachers, parents, and others understand each other. Although the positivist approach to science has un- dergone change and scientists are continually redefining Developed in 1896 at the University of Pennsylvania the philosophy of science, the premises on which it was in a clinic that studied and treated children considered based continue to be the mainstream of current research. morally or mentally defective, the field of school psy- One of the prime requisites of a scientific approach is chology today includes 30,000 psychologists, most of falsifiability; that is, a theory is seen as scientific if it whom work in educational systems throughout the Unit- makes predictions that can be demonstrated as true or ed States. false. Another critical element of the scientific method is that it relies on empiricism, that is, observation and data School psychologists, in various roles within the collection. school systems they serve, focus on the development and adjustment of the child in his or her school setting. Research often involves the hypothetico-inductive School psychologists minimally are required to have method. The scientist starts with a hypothesis based on completed two years of training after earning a bache- observation, insight, or theory. A hypothesis is a tentative lor’s degree; those who have earned their Ph.Ds. may statement of belief based on the expert judgment of the hold administrative or supervisory positions and are researcher. This hypothesis must be subject to falsifica- often involved in training teachers and psychologists. tion; that is, the research needs to be set up in such a way School psychologists play a key role in the development that the scientist is able to conclude logically either that of school policies and procedures. the hypothesis is correct or incorrect. In many cases, a re- School psychologists administer and interpret tests search project may allow the scientist to accept or reject a and assist teachers with classroom-related problems and hypothesis and will lead to more research questions. learning difficulties. School psychologists play a key Psychologists employ a diversity of scientific ap- role in addressing behavior issues in the classroom, and proaches. These include controlled experiments that in working with parents and teachers to develop strate- allow the researcher to determine cause and effect rela- gies to deal with behavior problems. tionships; correlation methods that reveal predictable re- In some cases, the school psychologist provides lations among variables; case studies involving in-depth teachers and parents with information about students’ study of single individuals; archival approaches that progress and potential, while advising them how to help make novel use of records, documents, and other exist- students increase their achievement. They also promote ing information; and surveys and questionnaires about communication between parents, teachers, administra- opinions and attitudes. tors, and other psychologists in the school system. Because the scientific method deals with the ap- See also National Association of School Psycholo- proach to research rather than the content of the re- gists. search, disciplines are not regarded as scientific because of their content, but rather because of their reliance on data and observation, hypothesis testing, and the falsifi- ability of their ideas. Thus, scientific research legitimate- ly includes the study of attitudes, intelligence, and other Scientific method complicated human behaviors. Although the tools that An approach to research that relies on observation psychologists use to measure human behavior may not and data collection, hypothesis testing, and the fal- lead to the same degree of precision as those in some sifiability of ideas. other sciences, it is not the precision that determines the 562 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

scientific status of a discipline, but rather the means by necessary transition between the child’s outside and inside which ideas are generated and tested. worlds once the child has formed a sufficient relationship with the mother. It helps augment feelings of personal See also Research method. Security objects control and continuity of the self. Ethological theory ar- gues that the comfort object substitutes for the mother and should form only if attachment to the mother is secure. Social learning theory states that the physical characteris- Security objects tics of the object (softness, warmth, fuzziness, etc.) can be rewarding per se. Furthermore, if the mother’s nuturing A soft, clingable object that provides the child with and distress-reducing presence is associated with the inan- security and comfort in mildly or moderately fear- imate object, attachment behaviors toward the object may ful situations. ensue. Because the child is able to control a security ob- ject more readily than the mother, attachment to it should Security objects are items, usually soft and easily begin to develop relatively independently of the mother. held or carried, that offer a young child comfort. Securi- It is not, however, clear from any of these theories ty objects are also referred to as attachment objects, why some children engage in comfort habits while oth- inanimate attachment agents, nonsocial attachments, ers do not. Child-rearing practices are frequently cited as comfort habits, transitional objects, not-me possessions, contributing factors, especially children’s sleeping substitute objects, cuddlies, treasured possessions, arrangements and parental behavior at bedtime, but evi- soothers, pacifiers, special soft objects, Linus phenome- dence has largely been inconclusive. Cultural and so- non, and security blankets. cioeconomic factors have received stronger support, al- though, again, the exact mechanisms underlying the dif- Early history ferential acquisition of nonsocial attachments remain un- clear. A mother’s sensitivity to her children’s security In the 1940s, attachment to a special object was re- needs may be relevant, but the quality of the mother- garded as a childhood fetish reflecting pathology in the child relationship seems not to be. However, preliminary relationship between the mother and her child (Wulff, evidence suggests that the security of a child’s attach- 1946). D. W. Winnicott (1953), however, regarded the ob- ment to the mother does predict how a security object ject as necessary for normal development: it was a “tran- will be used in novel situations. sitional” experience, intermediate between the infant’s ability to distinguish the inner subjective world from out- One problem in evaluating attachments to objects is side reality. John Bowlby considered transitional objects the lack of uniformity in definitions and criteria. Diver- to be a “substitute” for the absent mother, and he deemed gent theoretical positions as well as cultural backgrounds the child’s attachment to them normal and even desirable. have brought forth a variety of interpretations. Another complication involves the unreliability of adults’ recollec- Nevertheless, throughout the 1970s, but progressive- tions about former treasured possessions. In studies at- ly less in the 1980s and 1990s, a stigma remained at- tempting to link older children’s or adults’ current behav- tached to children who hugged a blanket in times of iors with their previous relationships to a special object, stress. The popular—but now generally discredited— they—or their parents—are requested to recall details. stereotype was that these children, being overly anxious However, such retrospective reports may misrepresent ac- and insecure, were better off without their blanket. As a tual events. When college students and their mothers result, the blanket was often taken away from the child, were questioned, 24% of the pairs disagreed totally about sometimes forcibly, just when it could have been benefi- whether there had been a childhood attachment, and an cial. Although some disagreement and inconsistency per- additional 19% disagreed on what the object was (Mahal- sist in the research literature, there is no justification for ski, 1982). In a follow-up study one year later, 18% of the such drastic actions. Evidence does not support ascribing students contradicted their earlier statements about hav- psychopathology to children just because they demon- ing had a security object! Clearly, mothers’ concurrent re- strate an attachment to a security object. Blanket-at- ports and investigators’ direct observations are necessary tached children appear to be neither more nor less mal- to generate reliable information about security objects. adjusted or insecure than other children. Theoretical underpinnings Cultural issues Three current theories pertain to nonsocial attach- Despite current theoretical assertions that attach- ment. Psychoanalytic theory surmises that it is created as a ment to transitional objects is normal and almost univer- GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 563

Security objects sal, it should be pointed out that this attachment is cul- various objects are now regarded as conventional throughout the first five years of life. ture-specific. For instance, in the United States, 60% of children have at least a mild degree of attachment to a soft, inanimate object some time during their life, and Advantages of having security objects 32% exhibit strong attachment (Passman and Halonen, 1979). The incidence of attachments to soft objects in the Netherlands, New Zealand, and Sweden is compara- Being attached to a security object can be beneficial to a child. Left in an unfamiliar playroom with a support- ble to that in the United States. Korean children have ive agent (mother or transitional object), children played, substantially fewer attachments to blankets (18%) than explored, and refrained from crying more so than did do American children, but Korean-born children living in children who had their favorite hard toy or who had no the United States display an intermediate percentage supportive agent available (Passman & Weisberg, 1975). (34%). Only 5% of rural Italian children have transition- Thus, children’s attachment to a special soft object is al objects, compared to 31% of urban Romans and 62% something qualitatively different from their relationship of foreign children living in Rome. However, just 16% of with a noncuddly toy. The blanket provided comfort as Londoners’ children have a special security object. well as the mother did—but only if the children were at- tached to it; nonattached children entering the room with Developmental trends their blanket adapted relatively poorly, with greater dis- may. The security blanket, therefore, is aptly named; it In a cross-sectional investigation surveying the indeed provides security to those attached to it. mothers of almost 700 children in the United States Because security objects may serve as a substitute through their first 63 months of life, R. H. Passman and for the mother in her absence, they can be employed J. S. Halonen (1979) examined children’s attachments to practicably by parents, teachers, doctors, babysitters, and various classes of objects. The percentage of children other professionals. Besides facilitating separation from who are not attached to any object remains relatively the mother or father, the attachment object can promote stable throughout the first three years, averaging around interactions with strangers. At bedtime, it can soothe and 40%, with a low of 28% at three months of age. From facilitate sleep. A study by G. J. Ybarra, R. H. Passman, 33 months, it rises consistently to a high of 84% at 63 and C. Eisenberg found that during a routine third-year months. The number of children having at least a slight pediatric examination, the security object enhanced rap- attachment to a favorite hard toy (like blocks or a toy port with the examining nurse. Children attached to a truck) remains steady and low through the first four blanket who were allowed access to it were rated as less years, averaging approximately 14%, but then drops distressed and experienced less physiological stress—as swiftly toward 0% through 63 months. Attachment to a evidenced by heart rate and systolic blood pressure— pacifier peaks early at three months, with 66% reported than children undergoing the medical evaluation without as having at least some attachment. Pacifier usage de- their security object. The comfort provided by a blanket clines quickly through the first 18 months, after which in novel situations has even been shown to enhance chil- attachments are extremely unusual (averaging under dren’s learning (Passman, 1977). 3%) through 63 months. Attachment to blankets begins at a later age than it does to pacifiers. Mild attachment to a blanket is rare at 3 months (8%), but increases Alternatives to blankets somewhat through 15 months (22%), peaks rapidly at 18 months (60%), stays near this level through 39 A variety of soft objects besides the blanket (e.g., di- months (57%), tapers off to 40% at 48 months, and falls apers, pillow cases, sheepskins, soft toys, stuffed animals, suddenly to 16% through 63 months. Simultaneous at- dolls, napkins, handkerchiefs) may also provide security. tachment to both a pacifier and a blanket is infrequent; it Furthermore, research has shown that representations of rises from 4% at 3 months to 12% at 9 months, remains the mother (e.g., films, videotapes, photographs, audio- at a relative plateau through 21 months, then drops tapes of her) can also help children’s adjustment. Al- sharply, averaging about 1% thereafter. Passman and though most children are thought to respond to their spe- Halonen also investigated children’s intense attachments cial object through touching or sucking, merely seeing to these objects and found similar patterns with respect (or hearing) it seems sufficient. Even an object as tactile to age. At three months, 16% are strongly attached to as the security blanket does not have to be touched; visual pacifiers. Strong attachment to blankets peaks at 18 and contact alone evokes its soothing effects. For children too 24 months (32%), stays near this high level through 39 young for an attachment to a blanket, the pacifier seems months, and diminishes steadily to 8% through 63 to share many of the same functional characteristics (al- months. Generally in the United States, attachments to though its origins may be different). 564 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

Limitations Van Ijzendoorn, M. H., F. A. Goosens, L. W. C. Tavecchio, M. M. Vergeer, and F. O. A. Hubbard. “Attachments to Soft The positive effects of an attachment to an object Objects: Its Relationship with Attachment to the Mother have restrictions. If the situation is particularly arousing and with Thumbsucking.” Child Psychiatry and Human Self-actualization or threatening, the attachment object can be less effective Development 14, 1983, pp. 97-105. in providing security than the child’s mother. Winnicott, D. W. “Transitional Objects and Transitional Phe- nomena: A Study of the First Not-Me Possession.” Inter- national Journal of Psycho-analysis 34, 1953, pp. 89-97. Richard H. Passman Ph.D. Wulff, M. “Fetishism and Object Choice in Early Childhood.” Psychoanalytic Quarterly 15, 1946, pp. 450-71. Further Reading Greenberg, Mark T., Dante Cicchetti, and E. Mark Cummings, eds. Attachment in the Preschool Years: Theory, Research, and Intervention. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990. Self-actualization Adams, R. E., and R. H. Passman. “Effects of Visual and Audi- A prominent term in humanistic psychology that tory Aspects of Mothers and Strangers on the Play and refers to the basic human need for self-fulfillment. Exploration of Children.” Developmental Psychology 15, 1979, pp. 269-74. The term self-actualization was used most exten- Haslam, N. “Temperament and the Transitional Object.” Child sively by Abraham Maslow,who placed it at the apex Psychiatry and Human Development 22, 1992, pp. 237-47. of his hierarchy of human motives, which is conceived as Hong, K. M., and B. D. Townes. “Infants’Attachment to Inani- mate Objects: A Cross-Cultural Study.” Journal of the a pyramid ascending from the most basic biological American Academy of Child Psychiatry 15, 1976, pp. 49-61. needs, such as hunger and thirst, to increasingly complex Mahalski, P. “The Reliability of Memories for Attachment to ones, such as belongingness and self-esteem. The needs Special, Soft Objects During Childhood.” Journal of the at each level must be at least partially satisfied before American Academy of Child Psychiatry 21, 1982, pp. those at the next can be addressed. Thus, while Maslow 465-67. considered self-actualization to be the highest motiva- Mahalski, P. A., P. A. Silva, and G. F. S. Spears. “Children’s tion possible and the essence of mental health, he rec- Attachment to Soft Objects at Bedtime, Child Rearing, ognized that most people are too preoccupied with more and Child Development.” Journal of the American Acade- basic needs to seek it actively. my of Child Psychiatry 24, 1985, pp.442-46. Passman, R. H. “Arousal-Reducing Properties of Attachment To arrive at a detailed description of self-actual- Objects: Testing the Functional Limits of the Security ization, Maslow studied historical figures—including Blanket Relative to the Mother.” Developmental Psychol- Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), Jane Addams (1860- ogy 12, 1976, pp. 468-69. 1935), Albert Einstein (1879-1955), Eleanor Roosevelt ———. “Providing Attachment Objects to Facilitate Learning (1884-1962), and Martin Luther King, Jr. (1929- and Reduce Distress: Effects of Mothers and Security 1968)—whom he believed had made extraordinary use Blankets.” Developmental Psychology 13, 1977, pp. 25-28. of their potential and looked for common characteris- ———. “Attachments to Inanimate Objects: Are Children tics. He found that self-actualizers were creative, spon- Who Have Security Blankets Insecure?” Journal of Con- taneous, and able to tolerate uncertainty. Other com- sulting and Clinical Psychology 55, 1987, pp. 825-30. mon qualities included a good sense of humor, con- Passman, R. H., and R. E. Adams. “Preferences for Mothers cern for the welfare of humanity, deep appreciation of and Security Blankets and Their Effectiveness as Rein- the basic experiences of life, and a tendency to estab- forcers for Young Children’s Behavior.” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 23, 1982, pp. 223-36. lish close personal relationships with a few people. Passman, R. H., and J. S. Halonen. “A Developmental Survey Maslow also formulated a list of behaviors that he be- of Young Children’s Attachments to Inanimate Objects.” lieved could lead to self-actualization. These included Journal of Genetic Psychology 134, 1979, pp. 165-78. such directives as: experience life with the full absorp- Passman, R. H., and L. A. Lautmann. “Fathers’, Mothers’, and tion and concentration of a child; try something new; Security Blankets’ Effects on the Responsiveness of listen to your own feelings rather than the voices of Young Children during Projective Testing.” Journal of others; be honest; be willing to risk unpopularity by Consulting and Clinical Psychology 50, 1982, pp. 310-12. disagreeing with others; assume responsibility; work Passman, R. H., and P. Weisberg. “Mothers and Blankets as hard at whatever you do; and identify and be willing to Agents for Promoting Play and Exploration by Young give up your defenses. Children in a Novel Environment: The Effects of Social and Nonsocial Attachment Objects.” Developmental Psy- Carl Rogers also emphasized the importance of chology 11, 1975, pp. 170-77. self-actualization in his client-centered therapeutic GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 565

Self-concept The way in which one perceives oneself. Self-concept Self-concept—the way in which one perceives one- self—can be divided into categories, such as personal self-concept (facts or one’s own opinions about oneself, such as “I have brown eyes” or “I am attractive”); social self-concept (one’s perceptions about how one is regard- ed by others: “people think I have a great sense of humor”); and self-ideals (what or how one would like to be: “I want to be a lawyer” or “I wish I were thinner”). While a number of philosophers and psychologists have addressed the idea that behavior is influenced by the way people see themselves, investigation into the importance of self-concept is most closely associated with the writings and therapeutic practices of Carl Rogers. The self—and one’s awareness of it—lie at the heart of Rogers’ client-centered therapy and the phi- losophy behind it. According to Rogers, one’s self-con- Abraham Maslow studied strong historical figures, like Eleanor Roosevelt, in his studies on self-actualization. (The cept influences how one regards both oneself and one’s Library of Congress. Reproduced with permission.) environment. The self-concept of a mentally healthy person is consistent with his or her thoughts, experi- ences, and behavior. However, people may maintain a approach and theoretical writings. Like Maslow, he self-concept that is at odds with their true feelings to used the term to designate a universal and innate ten- win the approval of others and “fit in,” either socially or dency toward growth and fulfillment that governs the professionally. This involves repressing their true feel- human personality. Rogers believed that self-actual- ings and impulses, which eventually causes them to be- ization is closely related to each individual’s per- come alienated from themselves, distorting their own ceived reality and self-concept—the way one thinks experience of the world and limiting their potential for of oneself. According to Rogers, one’s self-concept self-actualization, or fulfillment. The gulf between a can become distorted by the need for approval by oth- person’s self-concept and his or her actual experiences ers, which can lead to alienation from one’s true be- (which Rogers called incongruence) is a chronic source liefs and desires and suppression of one’s self-actual- of anxiety and can even result in mental disorders. Ac- izing tendency. Rogers’ client-centered therapy is cording to Rogers, a strong self-concept is flexible and based on the idea that people will instinctively allows a person to confront new experiences and ideas choose the path to self-actualization on their own without feeling threatened. once it becomes clear to them. Social psychologists have pointed out that self-con- cept also plays an important role in social perception— The Personal Orientation Inventory, a test designed the process by which we form impressions of others. At- to measure self-actualization, is based on Maslow’s writ- tribution—how we explain the causes of our own and ings and consists of 12 scales, including time compe- other people’s behavior—is particularly influenced by tence, inner directedness, spontaneity, self-acceptance, our own self-concept. Social learning theory is also con- and capacity for intimate contact. cerned with the ways in which we view ourselves, espe- cially in terms of our perceived impact on our environ- Further Reading ment. In the first major theory of social learning, Julian Maslow, Abraham. Toward a Psychology of Being. Princeton: B. Rotter claimed that the expected outcome of an action Van Nostrand, 1968. and the value we place on that outcome determine much of our behavior. For example, people whose positive self- ———. Motivation and Personality. 2d ed. New York: Harper concept leads them to believe they will succeed at a task and Row, 1970. are likely to behave in ways that ultimately lead to suc- Rogers, Carl. On Becoming a Person: A Therapist’s View of cess, while those who expect failure are much more likely Psychotherapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970. to bring it about through their own actions. In a general 566 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

theory of personality he developed subsequently with tions; however, in the case of self-conscious emotions, two colleagues, Rotter designated variables based on the the elicitor is a cognitive event. This does not mean that ways that individuals habitually think about their experi- the earlier primary emotions are elicited by noncognitive ences. One of the most important was I-E, which distin- events. Cognitive factors may play a role in eliciting any guished “internals,” who think of themselves as control- emotion,but the nature of the cognitive events is much Self-conscious emotions ling events, from “externals,” who view events as largely less articulated and differentiated in the primary than in outside their control. Internal-external orientation has the self-conscious emotions. been found to affect a variety of behaviors and attitudes. Those who study self-conscious emotions have begun to determine the role of the self in such emotions, Further Reading and in particular the age at which the notion of self Rogers, Carl. Client-Centered Therapy. Boston: Beacon Press, 1952. emerges in childhood. Rogers, Carl, and B. Stevens. Person to Person: The Problem Recently, models of these emotions are beginning to of Being Human. New York: Pocket Books, 1967. emerge. These models provide testable distinctions be- Rotter, Julian B., June Chance, and Jerry Phares. Applications tween often-confused emotions, such as guilt and shame. of a Social Learning Theory of Personality. New York: Moreover, nonverbal tools for studying these emotions in Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1972. children are being developed. As a result, models exist to explain when and how self-conscious emotions develop. The self-conscious emotions depend on the develop- Self-conscious emotions ment of a number of cognitive skills. First, individuals must absorb a set of standards, rules, and goals. Second, Emotions such as guilt, pride, shame, and hubris. they must have a sense of self. And finally, they must be able to evaluate the self with regard to those standards, Succeeding or failing to meet the standards, rules, rules, and goals and then make a determination of suc- and goals of one’s group or society determines how well cess or failure. an individual forms relationships with other members of As a first step in self-evaluation, a person has to de- the group. Living up to one’s own internalized set of cide whether a particular event is the result of his or her standards—or failing to live up to them—is the basis of own action. If, for example, an object breaks while you complex emotions. The so-called self-conscious emo- are using it, you might blame yourself for breaking it, or tions, such as guilt, pride, shame, and hubris, require a you might decide the object was faulty. If you place the fairly sophisticated level of intellectual development. To blame on yourself, you are making an internal attribu- feel them, individuals must have a sense of self as well tion. If you decide the object was defective, then you are as a set of standards. They must also have notions of making an external attribution. If you don’t blame your- what constitutes success and failure, and the capacity to self, chances are you will give the matter no more evaluate their own behavior. thought. But if you do blame yourself, you are likely to Self-conscious emotions are difficult to study. For one go on to the next step of evaluation. Whether a person is thing, there are no clear elicitors of these emotions. Joy inclined to make an internal or an external attribution de- registers predictably on a person’s face at the approach of a pends on the situation and on the individual’s own char- friend, and caution appears at the approach of a stranger. acteristics. Some people are likely to blame themselves But what situation is guaranteed to elicit pride or shame, no matter what happens. guilt or embarrassment? These emotions are so dependent Psychologists still do not entirely understand how on a person’s own experience, expectations, and culture, people decide what constitutes success and failure after that it is difficult to design uniform experiments. they have assumed responsibility for an event. This as- Some psychoanalysts, notably Sigmund Freud and pect of self-evaluation is particularly important because Erik Erikson,argued that there must be some universal the same standards, rules, and goals can result in radical- elicitors of shame, such as failure at toilet training or ex- ly different feelings, depending on whether success or posure of the backside. But the idea of an automatic failure is attributed to oneself. Sometimes people assess noncognitive elicitor does not make much sense. Cogni- their actions in ways that do not conform to the evalua- tive processes are likely to be the elicitors of these com- tion that others might give them. Many factors are in- plex emotions. It is the way people think or what they volved in producing inaccurate or unique evaluations. think about that becomes the elicitor of pride, shame, These include early failures in the self system, leading to guilt, or embarrassment. There may be a one-to-one cor- narcissistic disorders, harsh socialization experiences, respondence between certain thoughts and certain emo- and high levels of reward for success or punishment for GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 567

Self-conscious emotions failure. The evaluation of one’s own behavior in terms of shamed person seems to shrink, as if to disappear from the eye of the self or others. Because of the intensity of success and failure plays a very important role in shap- this emotional state, and the global attack on the self sys- ing an individual’s goals and new plans. tem, all that individuals can do when presented with such In a final evaluation step, an individual determines a state is to attempt to rid themselves of it. Its global na- whether success or failure is global or specific. Global at- ture, however, makes it very difficult to dissipate. tributions come about when a person is inclined to focus The power of shame drives people to employ strate- on the total self. Some individuals, some of the time, at- tribute the success or failure of a particular action to the may generate behavior that is generally considered ab- total self: they use such self-evaluative phrases as “I am bad (or good).” On such occasions, the focus is not on the gies to rid themselves of this feeling. These strategies normal. Some people readjust their notions of success behavior, but on the self, both as object and as subject. and failure, at least as they apply to their own actions. Using such global attribution results in thinking of noth- The narcissistic personality, for example, perceives its ing else but the self. During these times, especially when actions to be successful while others perceive them as the global evaluation is negative, a person becomes con- failure. The narcissist is characterized by an exaggerated fused and speechless. The individual is unable to act and sense of his or her own accomplishments and is likely to is driven away from action, wanting to hide or disappear. appear hubristic. But underlying the bombast is an at- tempt to avoid the exaggerated shame the narcissist may In some situations, individuals make specific attribu- really feel. In contrast to the narcissist, a depressed per- tions focusing on specific actions. Thus, it is not the total son may be acutely aware of shame and feel helpless, self that has done something wrong or good; instead, a hopeless, and worthless. particular behavior is judged. At such times, individuals will use such evaluative phrases as, “What I did was Shame and guilt are not produced by any specific wrong, and I must not do it again.” Notice that the indi- situation, but rather by an individual’s interpretation of vidual’s focus here is not on the totality of the self, but on an event. Even more important is the observation that the specific behavior of the self in a specific situation. shame is not necessarily related to whether the event is public or private. Although many theorists hold that The tendency to make global or specific attributions shame is a public failure, this need not be so. Failure at- may be a personality style. Global attributions for nega- tributed to the self can be public or private, and can cen- tive events are generally uncorrelated with global attribu- ter around moral as well as social action. tions for positive events. It is only when positive or nega- tive events are taken into account that relatively stable Guilt is produced when an individual evaluates his and consistent attributional patterns are observed. Some or her behavior as a failure, but focuses on the specific individuals are likely to be stable in their global and spe- features of the self that led to the failure. A guilty person cific evaluations under most conditions of success or is likely to feel responsible and try to repair the failure. failure. Such factors are thought to have important con- Guilty individuals are pained by their evaluation of fail- sequences for a variety of fixed personality patterns. For ure. Guilt is often associated with a corrective action that example, Beck (1979) and others have found that de- the individual can take (but does not necessarily take) to pressed individuals are likely to make stable, negative, repair the failure and prevent it from happening again global attributions, whereas nondepressed individuals (Barrett, 1995; Tangney, 1990). In guilt, the self is differ- are less likely to be stable in their global attributions. entiated from the object. Shame and guilt Hubris and pride An important determinant of whether shame or guilt Self-consciousness is not entirely a negative feeling. follows failure to live up to a standard is whether a per- Self-evaluation can also lead to positive and even overly son believes he could have avoided the violating act. If positive emotions. Hubris, defined as exaggerated pride not, shame is likely. If the person feels he could have or self-confidence, is an example of the latter. Hubris is done otherwise, guilt is likely to occur. the emotion elicited when success with regard to one’s standards, rules, and goals is applied to a person’s entire Shame or guilt occurs when an individual judges his self. People inclined to be hubristic evaluate their actions or her actions as a failure in regard to his or her standards, positively and then say to themselves: “I have succeeded. rules, and goals and then makes a global attribution. The I am a success.” Often, hubris is considered an undesir- person wishes to hide, disappear, or die (Lewis, 1992; able trait to be avoided. Nathanson, 1987). It is a highly negative and painful state that also disrupts ongoing behavior and causes confusion Hubris is difficult to sustain because of its globality. in thought and an inability to speak. The body of the The feeling is generated by a nonspecific action. Be- 568 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

cause such a feeling is alluring, yet transient, people what we might call the “social self.” Eysenck (1954) has prone to hubris ultimately derive little satisfaction from characterized people as social or asocial by genetic dis- the emotion. Consequently, they seek out and invent situ- position, and recently Kagan, Reznick, and Snidman ations likely to repeat this emotional state. According to (1988) have pointed out the physiological responses of Morrison (1989), this can be done either by altering their children they call “inhibited.” Inhibited children are Self-conscious emotions standards, rules, and goals, or by reevaluating what con- withdrawn, are uncomfortable in social situations, and stitutes success. appear fearful. Shyness may be a dispositional factor not related to self-evaluation. Rather, it may simply be the An individual who considers himself or herself discomfort of being in the company of other social ob- globally successful may be viewed with disdain by oth- jects; in other words, it is the opposite of sociability. ers. Often the hubristic person is described as “puffed up” or, in extreme cases, grandiose or narcissistic. The If shyness does not seem to rely on self-evaluation, hubristic person may be perceived as insolent or con- embarrassment often does. It is important, however, to temptuous. Hubristic people have difficulty in interper- distinguish among types of embarrassment. Sometimes, sonal relations, since their hubris likely makes them in- the self-consciousness of shyness can lead a person to sensitive to the wishes, needs, and desires of others, become embarrassed (Buss, 1980). In certain situations leading to interpersonal conflict. Moreover, given the of exposure, people become embarrassed, but this is not contemptuousness associated with hubris, other people related to negative evaluation. Perhaps the best example are likely to be shamed by the nature of the actions of the of this is the case of a compliment. A speaker might feel hubristic person. Narcissists often derive pleasure in embarrassed after a particularly flattering introduction. shaming others by claiming their superiority. Surprisingly, praise, rather than the displeasure resulting If hubris is the global emotion that follows a positive from negative evaluation, elicits such embarrassment. assessment of an action, then pride is the specific emo- Another example of this type of embarrassment can tion. A person experiencing pride feels joyful at the suc- be seen in people’s reactions to public display. When peo- cessful outcome of a particular action, thought, or feeling. ple observe someone looking at them, they are apt to be- Here the focus of pleasure is specific and related to a par- come self-conscious, look away, and touch or adjust their ticular behavior. In pride, the self and object are separat- bodies. Women being observed often adjust or touch their ed, as in guilt, and unlike shame and hubris, where sub- hair. Men may adjust their clothes or change their body ject and object are fused. Heckhausen (1984, 1987) and posture. In few cases do the observed people look sad; if Stipek et al. (1992) have made a particularly apt compari- anything, they appear pleased by the attention. The com- son between pride and achievement motivation, where bination of a briefly averted gaze and nervous touching succeeding at a particular goal motivates activity. Be- characterizes the first type of embarrassment. cause the positive state engendered by pride is associated with a particular action, individuals are able to reproduce A related example of embarrassment from exposure the emotion: pride’s specific focus allows for action. can be seen in the work of Lewis et al. (1991) which demonstrates that embarrassment can be elicited just by exposure. In their experiment, a professor, announcing Shyness and embarrassment that he is going to randomly point to a student, and In addition to the emotions already discussed, two shows that pointing is random and does not reflect a others bear mention—embarrassment and shyness, judgment about the person, closes his eyes and points. which are frequently confused. Some consider shyness The pointing invariably elicits embarrassment in the stu- to be sheepishness, bashfulness, uneasiness, or psycho- dent selected, even though the student has done nothing, logical discomfort in social situations. According to this good or bad, to deserve attention. definition, shyness is related to fear and is a nonevalua- In each of these examples, there is no negative eval- tive emotion precipitated by an individual’s discomfort uation of the self in regard to standards, rules, and goals. with others. Such a description fits Buss’s (1980) notion Nevertheless, work with children has shown that a sense of shyness as an emotional response elicited by experi- of self is a prerequisite for feeling embarrassment (Lewis ences of novelty or conspicuousness. For Buss (1980), et al., 1989). In these situations, it is difficult to imagine shyness and fear are closely related and represent fear of embarrassment as related to shame. Since praise cannot others. One way of distinguishing shyness from shame, readily lead to an evaluation of failure, it is likely that with which it is sometimes confused, is that it appears embarrassment resulting from compliments, from being much earlier in childhood than either shame or guilt. looked at, and from being pointed to, has more to do This approach to shyness seems reasonable because with the exposure of the self than with evaluation. Situa- it fits with other notions relating the self to others, or tions other than praise come to mind, in which a negative GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 569

Self-esteem evaluation is inferred (perhaps incorrectly). Take, for ex- Beck, A.T. Cognitive Therapy and the Emotional Disorders. New York: Times Mirror, 1979. ample, walking into a crowded meeting room before the Buss, A.H. Self Consciousness and Social Anxiety. San Fran- speaker has started to talk. It is possible to arrive on time cisco: W.H. Freeman, 1980. only to find people already seated. When walking into the room, eyes turn toward you, and you may experience Dweck, C.S., and E.L. Leggett. “A Social Cognitive Approach embarrassment. One could say that there is a negative to Motivation and Personality.” Psychological Review 95, self-evaluation: “I should have been earlier, I should not (1988): 256-73. have made noise.” However, the experience of embar- Edelman, R.J., and S.E. Hampson. “The Recognition of Em- barrassment.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin rassment in this case may not be elicited by negative 7, (1981): 109-116. self-evaluation, but simply by public exposure. Ferguson, T.J., and H. Stegge. “Children’s Understanding of In contrast, a second type of embarrassment is close- Guilt and Shame.” Child Development 62, (1991): 827- ly related to shame and is therefore dependent on self- 39. evaluation. For Izard (1977) and Tomkins (1963), embar- Eysenck, H.J. The Psychology of Politics. London, England: rassment is distinguished from shame by the intensity of Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1954. the latter. Whereas shame appears to be strong and dis- Heckhausen, H. “Emotional Components of Action: Their On- ruptive, embarrassment is clearly less intense and does togeny as Reflected in Achievement Behavior.” In D. Glitz and J.F. Wohlwill (Eds.). Curiosity, Imagination and not involve disruption of thought and language. Further- Play: On the Development of Spontaneous Cognitive and more, people who are embarrassed do not assume the Motivational Processes. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1987, pp. posture of someone wishing to hide, disappear, or die. In 326-48. fact, their bodies reflect an ambivalent approach and Izard, C. Human Emotions. New York: Plenum Press, 1977. avoidance posture. An embarrassed person alternatively Kagan, J., and N. Snidman. “Biological Bases of Childhood looks at people and then looks away, smiling all the Shyness.” Science 240, (1988): 167-71. while. In contrast, the shamed person rarely smiles while Lewis, M., M.W. Sullivan, and P. Barone. “Changes in Embar- averting his or her gaze. Thus, from a behavioral point of rassment as a Function of Age, Sex, and Situation.” view, shame and embarrassment appear to be different. British Journal of Developmental Psychology 9, (1991): 485-92. The difference in intensity can probably be attrib- Lewis, M., M.W. Sullivan, C. Stanger, and M. Weiss. “Self-De- uted to the nature of the failed standard, rule, or goal. velopment and Self-Conscious Emotions.” Child Devel- Some standards are more or less associated with the core opment 60, (1989): 146-56. of self; for one person, failure at driving a car is less im- Lewis, M. Shame, the Exposed Self. New York: The Free Press, portant than failing to help someone. Failures associated 1992. with less important and less central standards, rules, and Morrison, A.P. Shame: The Underside of Narcissism. Hillsdale, goals result in embarrassment rather than shame. NJ: Analytic Press, 1989. The study of self-conscious emotions has only recent- Nathanson, D.L., ed. The Many Faces of Shame. New York: ly begun. The model outlined here offers an opportunity to Gilford Press, 1987. consider and to define carefully some of the self-con- Stipek, D.J. and S. McClintic. “Self-Evaluation in Young Chil- scious emotions. Unless we develop a more accurate tax- dren.” Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 57 (Serial No. 226), 1992. onomy, we will be unable to proceed in our study of these Tangney, J.P., “Assessing Individual Differences in Proneness emotions. Given the renewed interest in emotional life, it to Shame and Guilt: Development of the Self-Conscious is now appropriate to consider these more complex emo- Affect and Attribution Inventory.” Journal of Personality tions rather than the primary ones. Moreover, as others and Social Psychology 59, (1990): 102-111. have pointed out, these self-conscious emotions are inti- Tangney, J.P., and K.W. Fischer, eds. Self-Conscious Emotions: mately connected with other emotions, such as anger and Shame, Guilt and Pride. New York: Guilford, 1995. sadness. Finally, given the place of self-evaluation in adult Tomkins, S.S. Affect, Imagery, and Consciousness: Volume 2: life, it seems clear that the self-conscious evaluative emo- The Negative Affects. New York: Springer, 1963. tions are likely to stand in the center of our emotional life. Michael Lewis Self-esteem Further Reading Barrett, K. “A Functionalist Approach to Shame and Guilt.” In Considered an important component of emotional J. Tangney and K. Fischer (Eds.). Self-Conscious Emo- health, self-esteem encompasses both self-confi- tions. New York: Guilford, 1995, pp. 25-63. dence and self-acceptance. 570 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

Psychologists who write about self-esteem generally with the opposite sex can become a major source of con- discuss it in terms of two key components: the feeling of fidence or insecurity. being loved and accepted by others and a sense of com- petence and mastery in performing tasks and solving Further Reading problems independently. Seligman, Martin E.P. The Optimistic Child. Boston: Houghton Self-fulfilling prophecy Mifflin Co., 1995. Much research has been conducted in the area of de- veloping self-esteem in children. Martin Seligman claims that in order for children to feel good about them- selves, they must feel that they are able to do things well. He claims that trying to shield children from feelings of Self-fulfilling prophecy sadness, frustration, and anxiety when they fail robs them of the motivation to persist in difficult tasks until An initial expectation that is confirmed by the be- they succeed. It is precisely such success in the face of havior it elicits. difficulties that can truly make them feel good about themselves. Seligman believes that this attempt to cush- One’s beliefs about other people determine how one ion children against unpleasant emotions is in large part acts towards them, and thus play a role in determining responsible for an increase in the prevalence of depres- the behavior that results. Experiments have demonstrated sion since the 1950s, an increase that he associates with this process in a variety of settings. In one of the best- a conditioned sense of helplessness. known examples, teachers were told (falsely) that certain students in their class were “bloomers” on the verge of Self-esteem comes from different sources for chil- dramatic intellectual development. When the students dren at different stages of development. The develop- were tested eight months later, the “special” students ment of self-esteem in young children is heavily influ- outperformed their peers, fulfilling the prediction that enced by parental attitudes and behavior. Supportive had been made about them. During the intervening peri- parental behavior, including the encouragement and od, the teachers had apparently behaved in ways that fa- praise of mastery, as well as the child’s internalization of cilitated the students’ intellectual development, perhaps the parents’ own attitudes toward success and failure, are by giving them increased attention and support and set- the most powerful factors in the development of self-es- ting higher goals for them. teem in early childhood. Later, older children’s experi- In another experiment, a group of men became ac- ences outside the home—in school and with peers—be- quainted with a group of women by telephone after see- come increasingly important in determining their self-es- ing what they thought were pictures of their “partners.” teem. Schools can influence their students’ self-esteem The supposedly attractive women were considered more through the attitudes they foster toward competition and interesting and intelligent. Researchers concluded that diversity and their recognition of achievement in acade- the men’s own behavior had been more engaging toward mics, sports, and the arts. By middle childhood, friend- those women whom they thought were attractive, draw- ships have assumed a pivotal role in a child’s life. Stud- ing livelier responses than the men who thought their ies have shown that school-age youngsters spend more partners were unattractive. time with their friends than they spend doing homework, watching television, or playing alone. In addition, the Racial and ethnic stereotypes can become self-ful- amount of time they interact with their parents is greatly filling prophecies if members of disadvantaged groups reduced from when they were younger. At this stage, so- are discouraged from setting ambitious goals because of cial acceptance by a child’s peer group plays a major other people’s low expectations. The term self-fulfilling role in developing and maintaining self-esteem. prophecy can also refer to the effect that people’s beliefs about themselves have on their own behavior. Those who The physical and emotional changes that take place expect to succeed at a task, for example, tend to be more in adolescence, especially early adolescence, present successful than those who believe they will fail. new challenges to a child’s self-esteem. Boys whose growth spurt comes late compare themselves with peers Further Reading who have matured early and seem more athletic, mascu- Halloran, James D. Attitude Formation and Change. Westport, line, and confident. In contrast, early physical maturation CT: Greenwood Press, 1976. can be embarrassing for girls, who feel gawky and self- Harvey, Terri L., Ann L. Orbuch, and John H. Weber, eds. At- conscious in their newly developed bodies. Fitting in tributions, Accounts, and Close Relationships. New York: with their peers becomes more important than ever to Springer-Verlag, 1992. their self-esteem, and, in later adolescence, relationships Weary, Gifford. Attribution. New York: Springer-Verlag,1989. GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 571

Self-help groups Wyer, R. S., and T. K. Srull, eds. Handbook of Social Cogni- the-clock access to peer support. Many large-scale con- tion. 2d ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates, 1994. sumer healthcare web sites provide forums for discus- sion on countless diseases and disorders, and major on- line commercial services such as America Online (AOL) provide sites for healthcare and patient support. In some cases, these groups may be moderated by a healthcare Self-help groups professional, although many are exclusively peer orga- Groups that support communities of peers with a nized and populated. Some long-established self-help similar interest or illness. groups such as the LaLeche league now hold some of their meetings online, often out of their own web site. Since the advent of managed health care and the cost-controls that have accompanied it, self-help groups have grown in popularity. Individuals who are offered Benefits limited mental health coverage through their healthcare The accessibility of self-help groups is one of their plan often find self-help a positive and economical way most attractive features. Since no dues or fees are required, to gain emotional support. except for small voluntary contributions to cover meeting expenses, organizations such as AA are the most cost-ef- Overview fective treatment option available. In addition, meetings are usually easy to locate through local hospitals, healthcare Twelve-step groups, one of the most popular types centers, churches, and other community organizations. For of self-help organizations, have been active in the United AA and sister organizations, where daily attendance is en- States since the founding of Alcoholics Anonymous couraged if possible, the number of meetings held each (AA) in 1935. AA and other 12-step programs are based week often number in the hundreds in large metropolitan on the spiritual premise that turning one’s life and will areas. And with the proliferation of new online support over to “a higher power” (i.e., God, another spiritual en- communities and rapid growth of access to the Internet, tity, or the group itself) for guidance and self-evaluation self-help groups are becoming as accessible to individuals is the key to recovery. Outside of AA and its sister orga- in rural areas as they are to those in large cities. Online nizations (Narcotics Anonymous, or NA; Cocaine self-help also offers the added benefit of anonymity and Anonymous, or CA), a number of 12-step programs have breaks down any barriers of age discrepancies, physical sprung up to treat a range of mental disorders, such as disabilities, race and culture differences, or other possible Gambler’s Anonymous (GA), Schizophrenics Anony- inhibiting factors in a face-to-face encounter. mous (SA), and Overeaters Anonymous (OA). Participation in self-help groups provides an essen- Self-help organizations also provide support for in- tial sense of community and belonging. For individuals dividuals who are ill or have health issues. Support exists suffering from mental and organic illnesses, who may be for people dealing with weight management, HIV, multi- lacking emotional support and empathy from their ple sclerosis, muscular dystrophy, cancer, and inconti- friends and family, this environment is a critical part of nence, and for the families of individuals who suffer recovery. In addition to relieving emotional isolation, from these conditions. Self-help has moved beyond what self-help groups tend to empower an individual and pro- are considered “problem” conditions to assist people mote self-esteem. For example, AA encourages sponsor- who share interests or circumstances, including support ship (building a mentor relationship with another mem- groups for women who breast-feed (LaLeche league), ber), speaking at meetings, and other positive interac- singles, older adults, and new parents. tions with peers. Family self-help groups are also available. Al- Introspection is another essential feature of many Anon, an organization for friends and family of alco- self-help groups, particularly in organizations that follow holics, is a companion organization to AA, as is Alateen, a 12-step program of recovery. For example, the fourth a program for teenagers who have been affected by alco- step of AA is for members to make “a searching and holics. Support groups for caregivers of individuals with fearless moral inventory” of themselves, and the tenth life-threatening illnesses, such as cancer, often meet at step mandates that members continue “to take personal treatment centers and hospitals that specialize or treat the inventory” and admit wrongdoings. Such introspection illness in question. may be beneficial to individuals who are having difficul- A growing trend in self-help is the creation of online ties coming to terms with the thoughts and emotions that support communities. Chat-rooms, bulletin boards, and may be guiding their behavior. In this respect, a 12-step electronic mailing lists all provide convenient, around- program may resemble cognitive therapy to a degree, in 572 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

that recognition of maladaptive thoughts can ideally lead memory. Most people have experienced this situation to a change in negative behavior. where they are trying to recall a person’s name. As the person searches through his or her memory for the name Stern, for example, he or she will recall other similar Sensitivity training Results names—Stone, Stein—but not Douglas or Zimmer. Se- Several major studies have shown that 12-step pro- mantic memory appears to categorize information that has grams can be just as, if not more, effective in treating al- similar meaning (in this case, surnames), that begins with cohol- and drug-dependent patients as a regime of cogni- the same letter, and has the same number of syllables. tive-behavioral therapy or psychotherapy. Further, if an Words and other memories that are stored in seman- inpatient is started on a 12-step program while in a tradi- tic memory contribute to episodic memory and the two tional treatment or therapy, setting and the program is work together to function as an effective long-term encouraged by the patient’s healthcare provider, then the memory system. patient is more likely to remain in the 12-step program after traditional treatment has ended. Further Reading See also Alcohol abuse and dependence; Drugs/ Bolles, Edmund Blair. Remembering and Forgetting: Inquiries Drug abuse Into the Nature of Memory. New York: Walker and Co., 1988. Paula Ford-Martin Further Reading Sensitivity training American Self-Help Clearinghouse. Self-Help Sourcebook On- line. http://mentalhelp.net/selfhelp/ A group experience that gives people new insight into how they relate to others. Further Information Alcoholics Anonymous World Services, Inc. General Service Sensitivity training began in the 1940s and 1950s Office. P.O. Box 459, Grand Central Station, New York, with experimental studies of groups carried out by psy- NY, USA. 10163, fax: 212-870-3003, 212-870-3400. chologist Kurt Lewin at the National Training Labora- http://www.alcoholics-anonymous.org. National Self-Help Clearinghouse. Graduate School and Uni- tories in Maine. Although the groups (called training or versity Center of The City University of New York, 365 T-groups) were originally intended only to provide re- 5th Avenue, Suite 3300, New York, NY, USA. 10016, search data, their members requested a more active role 212-817-1822. Email: [email protected]. www.self- in the project. The researchers agreed, and T-group ex- helpweb.org. periments also became learning experiences for their subjects. The techniques employed by Lewin and his colleagues, collectively known as sensitivity training, were widely adopted for use in a variety of settings. Ini- Semantic memory tially, they were used to train individuals in business, in- dustry, the military, the ministry, education, and other The part of long-term memory dealing with words, professions. In the 1960s and 1970s, sensitivity training their symbols, and meanings. was adopted by the human potential movement,which introduced the “encounter group.” Although encounter Semantic memory allows humans to communicate groups apply the basic T-group techniques, they empha- with language. In semantic memory, the brain stores in- size personal growth, stressing such factors as self-ex- formation about words, what they look like and repre- pression and intense emotional experience. sent, and how they are used in an organized way. It is un- Encounter groups generally consist of between 12 usual for a person to forget the meaning of the word and 20 people and a facilitator who meet in an intensive “dictionary,” or to be unable to conjure up a visual image weekend session or in a number of sessions over a period of a refrigerator when the word is heard or read. Seman- of weeks or months. The group members work on reduc- tic memory contrasts with episodic memory, where ing defensiveness and achieving a maximum of openness memories are dependent upon a relationship in time. An and honesty. Initially, participants tend to resist express- example of an episodic memory is “I played in a piano ing their feelings fully, but eventually become more open recital at the end of my senior year in high school.” in discussing both their lives outside the group and the The “tip of the tongue” phenomenon provides some interactions within the group itself. Gradually, a climate insight into the way information is stored in semantic of trust develops among the group members, and they in- GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 573

Sensory deprivation creasingly abandon the defenses and facades habitually confinement is often regarded as the most severe form of punishment in prisons. used in dealing with other people. Although the in- creased self-awareness resulting from sensitivity training The deterioration in both physical and psychological is presumed to change a person’s behavior in daily life, functioning that occurs with sensory deprivation has been studies of encounter-group participants have raised linked to the need of human beings for an optimal level of doubts as to whether their training experiences actually effect long-lasting behavioral changes. In addition, the and impair a person’s mental and physical abilities. Thus, usefulness of encounter groups is limited to psychologi- arousal. Too much or too little arousal can produce stress appropriate degrees of sensory deprivation may actually cally healthy individuals, as the intense and honest na- have a therapeutic effect when arousal levels are too high. ture of the group discussions may prove harmful to per- A form of sensory deprivation known as REST (restricted sons with emotional disorders. environmental stimulation), which consists of floating for See also Group therapy several hours in a dark, soundproof tank of water heated to body temperature, has been used to treat drug and Further Reading smoking addictions, lower back pain, and other condi- Kanfer, Frederick H., and Arnold P. Goldstein, eds. Helping tions associated with excessive stress. People Change: A Textbook of Methods, 4th ed. New York: Pergamon Press, 1991. Further Reading Zimbardo, Philip G. The Psychology of Attitude Change and Lilly, John Cunningham. The Deep Self: Profound Relaxation Social Influence. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, and the Tank Isolation Technique. New York: Simon and 1991. Schuster, 1977. Solomon, Philip. Sensory Deprivation: A Symposium Held at Harvard Medical School. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni- versity Press, 1961. Sensory deprivation An experimental procedure involving prolonged Separation anxiety reduction of sensory stimuli. Distress reaction to the absence of the parent or caregiver. Sensory deprivation experiments of the 1950s have shown that human beings need environmental stimula- tion to function normally. In a classic early experiment, Separation anxiety emerges according to a develop- college students lay on a cot in a small, empty cubicle mental timetable during the second half year in human nearly 24 hours a day, leaving only to eat and use the infants. This development reflects advancing cognitive bathroom. They wore translucent goggles that let in light maturation, rather than the onset of problem behaviors. but prevented them from seeing any shapes or patterns, As illustrated in the accompanying figure, infants and they were fitted with cotton gloves and cardboard from cultures as diverse as Kalahari bushmen, Israeli cuffs to restrict the sense of touch. The continuous hum kibbutzim, and Guatemalan Indians display quite similar of an air conditioner and U-shaped pillows placed patterns in their response to maternal separation, which around their heads blocked out auditory stimulation. peaks at the end of the first year and gradually becomes less frequent and less intense throughout later infancy Initially, the subjects slept, but eventually they be- and the preschool years. This fact has been interpreted to came bored, restless, and moody. They became disori- mean that the one-year-old is alerted by the absence of ented and had difficulty concentrating, and their perfor- the parent and tries to understand that discrete event. If it mance on problem-solving tests progressively deteriorat- fails, fear is created and the child cries. ed the longer they were isolated in the cubicle. Some ex- perienced auditory or visual hallucinations. Although Cultural practices have an impact on separation anx- they were paid a generous sum for each day they partici- iety. Infants who remain in constant contact with their pated in the experiment, most subjects refused to contin- mothers may show an earlier onset of separation anxiety, ue past the second or third day. After they left the isola- and possibly more intense and longer periods of reactivi- tion chamber, the perceptions of many were temporarily ty. For example, Japanese infants who are tested in distorted, and their brain-wave patterns, which had Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation show more intense slowed down during the experiment, took several hours reactions to the separation, presumably as a result of cul- to return to normal. The intensity of the discomfort tural norms prescribing constant contact between mother these volunteers experienced helps explain why solitary and infant for the first several years of life. 574 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

Like separation anxiety, researchers who observe in- fant emotions and behavior in the first month or two of life generally agree that no specific fear reaction is pre- sent at this early stage. Rather, infants become distressed Separation anxiety due to unpleasant stimulation involving pain, discom- fort, or hunger. Typically researchers have found that by five to six months, if a stranger stares in silence at an infant, the in- fant will often return the look and after about 30 seconds begin to cry. Bronson has termed this distress reaction to a stranger’s sober face “wariness.” Because of the grad- ual building up of tension in the infant, Bronson inter- prets the emotional distress as a reaction to the failure to assimilate the unfamiliar face to a more familar schema. In another words, the older infant can distinguish be- Children who cried during separation (in percent).These tween familiar and unfamiliar faces, tries to understand graphs show the course of separation distress in children the distinction, and becomes upset if the new face does of the African Bushmen, the Guatemalan Indians, lower- not match the now familiar pattern. class families from Antigua, Guatemala, and infants from an Israeli kibbutz. A few months later, infants may react immediately to strangers, especially if approached suddenly or picked up by the stranger. This fear reaction, which can be readily As infants acquire more experience in dealing with elicited in most infants between seven and twelve months, unfamiliar persons at family outings, visits to the home, has been called stranger distress or stranger anxiety. or in day care, they no longer become distressed at the sight of a stranger. Young children show a wide variety The context and qualitative aspects of the stranger’s of responses depending on the situation, their past expe- approach are critical in determining how an infant might riences, and their level of sociability. Parents will want to respond. If the stranger approaches slowly when the encourage their child’s natural curiosity and friendliness, caregiver is nearby, smiling and speaking softly, offering while at the same time teaching them that they should al- a toy, the infant will often show interest or joy, and dis- ways rely on parental guidance and approval in dealing tress is unlikely. Also, the degree of distress shown by an with strangers. infant to the silent intrusion of the stranger varies greatly from baby to baby, a finding that many believe to be The study of these two common fears of infancy un- rooted in the temperament of the infant. Finally, if the derscores the important links between emotion and cog- infant finds the stranger’s approach to be ambiguous, the nition. Discrepancy theories originating in the work of caregiver’s reaction will often influence the infant’s re- Hebb and Jean Piaget provide an account of the steps in sponse. Should the parent smile and warmly greet the the development of this basic emotional system in infan- new person, the older infant will often use these emo- cy and demonstrate its dependence on perceptual and tional reactions as cues for how to respond. cognitive development. In addition, the importance of context and meaning have been clearly shown in the Stranger distress was originally described by Rene work of Jerome Kagan, Alan Sroufe, and others to be Spitz as an emotion that suddenly appears in all infants the hallmark of the mature fear response, as distinct from at about 8 months. While we now understand how im- the general distress of early infancy. portant a role context and cognition play in determining this response, there is nevertheless evidence suggesting a While stranger distress and separation anxiety are precise timetable for its emergence across different cul- normal for one-year-old infants, should a parent become tures, including Uganda, Hopi Indian, and the United concerned if they persist into the toddler or preschool States. A genetic basis has also been shown by twin re- years? The key to answering this question depends upon search, with identical twins showing more similar onset the nature of the child’s response, its intensity, and per- of stranger distress than fraternal twins. Rather than indi- sistence over time. For example, it is commonplace for cating emotional difficulties, the emergence of a fear of young preschoolers to show some distress at separation strangers in the second half of the first year is an indica- from their parents during the first week or two of day- tor of cognitive development. For example, EEG and care in a new setting. Typically this settling in period heart rate patterns in human infants both show a major does not last too long. If a preschooler persists in show- developmental shift at this time in response to the pre- ing excessive separation anxiety even after several weeks sentation of threatening stimuli. at a new preschool and this interferes with the child’s GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 575

Serial learning participation with peers and teachers, parents should ferson, and continue with their serial anticipation, using each president as a cue for the next one. Somewhere in consult with the teacher and other child care profession- the middle of the list, though, students fail to remember als. Childhood anxieties of this sort are generally quite names, then, toward the end of the presidents, perfor- responsive to treatment, and this may be a better option than waiting for the problem to resolve itself. more recent presidents. Quite often, people show similar See also Strange situation; Stranger anxiety mance improves as the students retrieve the names of patterns when attempting to memorize poems, prayers, or a short text such as the Declaration of Independence. Peter LaFreniere These behaviors conform with the serial position effect that is typical for most serial learning studies. See also Free-recall learning. Serial learning Recalling patterns of facts or stimuli in the order in which they were presented. Serial position function The predictable patterns of memory and forgetting In some research on memory for words, the learner of lists of stimuli. is exposed to stimuli to be remembered and later recalls those stimuli in the same order in which they initially ap- When a person attempts to recall a set of stimuli that peared. This procedure is called serial learning. In gener- exceeds about seven items, there is a high likelihood that al, when people must recall stimuli in a particular order, he or she will forget some of them. The generally accept- they remember less material than when allowed to en- ed limit to memory for material that is not rehearsed is gage in free recall, which imposes no constraints on the referred to as “the magic number seven” (plus or minus order or recall. two items). Most studies in this area have employed lists Hermann Ebbinghaus is credited with conducting of words or nonsense syllables, but the research results the first studies of verbal memory involving serial learn- hold true for a wide range of stimuli. ing. Most serial learning studies use a procedure called As a rule, if free recall is engaged, the words that are serial anticipation, where one stimulus is presented at a best remembered are those from the end of the list, and time and the learner uses that word as a cue for the next they are also likely to be the first to be recalled. This ten- word. The second word then serves as a cue for the third, dency for the best memory for recently presented items and so on. One of the most consistent findings in re- is referred to as the recency effect. (The tendency for re- search involving single words or nonsense syllables in- trieving words from the beginning of a list is called the volves the serial position function or effect: learners primacy effect.) Recall will be poorest for items in the show greatest recall for stimuli at the beginning of the middle of the list, unless a stimulus has special charac- list, and good but somewhat less recall for items appear- teristics and stands out. ing at the end of the list. Stimuli in the middle of the list fare least well. When learners must remember single When a learner must use serial recall, or recall of words or nonsense syllables in free recall, the greatest the stimuli in their order of presentation, the items ap- recall usually occurs at the end of the list, with good but pearing first and last on the list still show an advantage lower recall at the beginning. If the words to be learned over those in the middle, but the items at the beginning are meaningfully related, such as those in a sentence, of the list are recalled more often than items at the end of people tend to remember them by using serial anticipa- the list, a reversal of the pattern in free recall. tion, even when they are allowed to use free recall. The The serial position effect occurs due to three factors: first seven items in a list are often the easiest to learn. distinctiveness, constraints of short-term memory, and in- This fact is consistent with the research that indicates hibition. First, the primacy and recency effects occur be- that, regardless of the type of learning, humans can re- cause items at the beginning and the end of the list are member “the magic number seven” items without rely- distinct or isolated from the other stimuli due to their po- ing on rehearsal or other mnemonic strategies. sitions. Second, short-term memory involves keeping Serial learning occurs when students attempt to some information in active, working memory; this infor- learn school-related material. For example, when trying mation is likely to be the most recently presented stimuli. to remember the names of the American presidents, stu- Third, inhibition hampers memory. Words in a list tend to dents typically begin with Washington, Adams, and Jef- interfere with one another. When they are at the begin- 576 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

ning or at the end of the list, they are not surrounded by ies of the sexes, made sweeping generalizations, such as as many words that could interfere with them; words in women are more nurturing because they have babies. In the middle, on the other hand, must compete for space in part this information may have been true, but generaliza- Sex differences working memory with more words around them. tions lead to stereotypes and stereotypes can be wrong and mistaken as truth, which can aid in developing self- See also Free-recall learning. fulfilling prophesies. For example, if it is widely be- Further Reading lieved, or stereotyped, that girls are not as good in math Squire, Larry R. Memory and Brain. New York: Oxford Uni- as boys, then some girls might not even try to be good at versity Press, 1989. math, or teachers may not make the same effort to teach math to girls. In the beginning of the twentieth century, psychoan- alytic psychology was studying psychosexual differences Sex differences and making connections between sexual organs and be- haviors. By the mid-20th century, Abraham Maslow es- Physical and mental differences between men and poused a humanistic theory of personality which point- women. ed to more similarity between the sexes than differences. By the late 20th century, psychologists and medical sci- The most basic question of sex differences is entists made even greater progress in the study of the whether the differences between the sexes are a result of sexes through the work of sexology, endocrinology, neu- our sex chromosomes, and genetic in nature, or did hu- rophysiology, psychology, genetics, evolutionary theory, mans learn them from our social and cultural environ- and sociobiology. Today, sex differences and similarities ments? This argument, usually referred to as the nature- can be examined from many different aspects. nurture controversy, is one that is common in psycho- logical work. Most psychologists attribute our differ- ences to a combination of nature and nurture factors. The biological process of sexual However, psychologists must be careful in their study of sex differences. After all, men and women are much differentiation more similar to each other than they are different. In the There is a genetic sex differentiation at conception. past, too, many more apparent differences—either men- Every human being starts out as 46 chromosomes tal or physical—between the sexes were assumed to be arranged in 23 pairs. Twenty-two of the pairs determine inherent before they were proven untrue. hereditary characteristics, like eye color and disease po- There are many issues to consider when consider- tential, the 23rd pair are the sex chromosomes. This ing general differences between the men and women. chromosome alone is completely different in males and The modern study of sex differences can fuel stereo- females. If the chromosome pair is an “XX”, then the types and lead to greater misunderstanding between the embryo will be female, but if it is an “XY”, it will be sexes. Also, research is discussed in terms of statistics, male. If there is a “Y” chromosome present, then the em- which does not speak of specific people. For instance, bryonic gonadal (sex glands) become a penis. If there is some men may be very nurturing even though, as a no “Y” chromosome present, the human embryo is auto- group, statistics show that men tend to be less nurturing matically female. In extremely rare cases, there are em- than women. Another issue is that animals, such as bryos that have different combinations of chromosomes, mice and rats and even primates, are often used to study which are called hermaphrodites because they are tech- biological sex differences, and this information does nically both sexes. not always translate to human beings. And lastly, After the embryonic development of the sex glands, throughout history, psychological exploration, like hormones, which are powerful chemical substances, are many of the sciences, has focused on male subjects and secreted into the blood stream and reach every cell of the male theorizing. While this work is important, there is a embryo. These hormones form a defined reproductive great deal of work yet to be accomplished in studying tract in females and tell a male’s reproductive tract not to the psychology of women. form. The hormones also force the development of exter- In the time of ancient Greece and Rome, many nal genitalia (sex organs on the outside of the body). Fi- philosophers theorized that women were incomplete nally, the hormones travel to the brain and cause differ- men. These theories seem to have influenced the early ences between males and females to occur there. For ex- psychologists as well. The functional psychologists of ample, in a female brain there are lifelong cycles or pat- the late 19th century, who put forth very academic stud- terns of hormone release. GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 577

Sexism The social process of sexual differentiation Further Reading Solheim, Bruce Olav. On top of the world. Westport, CT: Biological organisms are modified once they are Greenwood Press, 2000. born. Every individual is born into an existing social Classen, Constance. The color of angels. London: Routledge, context, so if it is time on the planet when females are, 1998. according to the social structure, supposed to be nurtur- Lips, Hilary M., and Nina Lee Colwill. The psychology of sex dif- ing, then girls will be taught to be that way from a very ferences. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1978. early age. Behavior that fits that structure will be reward- Christen, Yves. Trans. by Nicholas Davidson. Sex differences: ed and reinforced, and behavior that goes against that modern biology and the unisex fallacy. New Brunswick, norm will be discouraged. Throughout human history USA. and London: Transaction Publishers, 1991. opposing principles have been ascribed male/female la- Sayers, Janet. Sexual contradictions: psychology, psychoanaly- bels. The sun, for instance, has been thought of as male sis, and feminism. London and New York: Tavistock Pub- energy, while the more passive moon is seen as female. lications, 1986. Mythology has reinforced human behavior, because peo- Wright, Elizabeth, ed. Feminism and psychoanalysis: a critical dictionary. Oxford, England and Cambridge, MA: Basil ple make up mythology. Likewise, if most literature is Blackwell, Ltd., 1992. written by males and those males portray women in a certain way, such as being content with less political power,then the literature is reinforcing that stereotype. Most sex differences are a combination of biologi- cal and social processes. Differences in ability, for in- Sexism stance, do seem to exist according to research. Men tend to be physically larger and more muscular than See Gender bias women, while women have proven to be constitutional- ly stronger, that is, less prone to certain diseases and having longer life spans. Men perform better on some cognitive tests, like visualizing 3D objects. Women tend to have greater verbal abilities. These differences Sex roles are biological, but are accentuated by cultural environ- mental influences. Differences in achievement studies Sets of attributes, including attitudes, personality traits, abilities, interests, and behaviors that are de- show that there is not a great difference in motivation, fined as appropriate for each sex. but motivation is activated under different conditions for males and females. These differences are socially Men and women are different not only in anatomy, reinforced. In looking at differences in aggression but also in terms of how they behave and in the interests (nonaccidental behavior that causes harm), studies re- they express. Certain behavioral differences are believed peatedly show that men are more aggressive than to be biologically determined. For example, the male sex women. This may be due to evolutionary processes. If hormone testosterone is believed to be the reason why women were busy having babies and nursing babies, males are considered more aggressive than females. then men had to go and hunt and ward off enemies, However, many nonanatomical differences appear to be forcing men into a more aggressive role. It is possible based on sex roles that are learned by every individual. that this information has come down genetically to In other words, people are born male or female but are modern men. Yet, studies also show that learning by ex- taught how to be masculine or feminine. ample is one way that behavior evolves. If a father is physically aggressive with his family, sons tend to be Roles are sets of norms that define how people in a that way also. In addition to evolutional and learned be- given social position ought to behave. For example, peo- haviors, there are physiological reasons, such as hor- ple who have a particular occupation are subjected to a mones and brain design, which can account for greater set of expectations concerning the work performed and levels of aggression found in men. the style in which it is accomplished. While one might anticipate a mechanic’s soiled appearance, such an ap- There are many factors that account for our differ- pearance would be considered unsanitary and unprofes- ences, and there are many similarities among us, too. In sional for a dentist. In contrast to specific roles based on exploring sex differences, it is important to look at the occupations (e.g., teacher, firefighter) or family relation- questions from many angles. ships (e.g., mother, son), sex roles are diffuse because they pertain to virtually all people and apply to all parts Lara Lynn Lane of one’s daily life. It is therefore important to understand 578 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

A little girl practices a typically feminine sex role, caring for an infant. (Vanessa Vick. Photo Researchers, Inc. Reproduced with Sex roles permission.) how each of us learns his or her own sex role and the sig- who remember birthdays and send greeting cards. Rather nificance it has on our daily lives. it is simply a cultural expectation that gets passed on from generation to generation. A sex-role concept is a set of shared expectations that people hold about the characteristics suitable for in- dividuals on the basis of their gender. The notion of these roles being shared implies that most people endorse the Sex-role stereotypes expected behaviors as appropriate for men and for Sex-role beliefs become sex-role stereotypes when women. We all have beliefs about what males or females individuals employ those sets of behaviors as rules to be do and are supposed to do. In your family, whose job is it applied to all males and females. In western society, for to send greeting cards to friends, buy gifts, remember a example, women have traditionally been regarded as niece’s birthday, organize parties, prepare food, and keep more delicate and compassionate than men. Stereotypes in touch with extended family members? You are proba- for femininity include expectations to be domestic, bly thinking of a woman because the above activities are warm, pretty, emotional, dependent, physically weak, considered part of the woman’s role in most cultures. and passive. By contrast, men are thought of as being There is no direct relationship between biological more competitive and less emotional than women. Mas- sex and the various social aspects of sex roles. Accord- culinity stereotypes can be described by words such as ingly, some psychologists have recommended that the unemotional, physically strong, independent, active, and term sex be used to designate biological maleness/fe- aggressive. These implicit or explicit expectations are maleness as opposed to the term gender role, which taught from a very early age. For instance, it is not un- refers to basic notions of masculinity and femininity. common to see family and friends play more roughly Much of what we consider masculine and feminine is with baby boys than with baby girls. In terms of career learned as a result of socialization experiences. It is not expectations, until fairly recently women have tradition- a biological necessity that women tend to be the ones ally been associated with homemaking and a relatively GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 579

Sex roles narrow range of occupations such as nursing or teaching, children’s sex-role behavior and attitudes. Boys and girls learn new sex roles by observing and imitating their par- while men have been expected to hold a wide variety of ents or some other person important to them of the same jobs outside the home in business, politics, and industry. Although certain common beliefs regarding the way sex. For instance, little girls copy their mother’s groom- ing activities by putting on makeup and dressing up in each sex should behave are present across societies, sub- her jewelry while young boys imitate their father’s be- stantial variations exist between cultures when examin- haviors by pretending to shave or work in the garage. ing sex roles and their accompanying stereotypes. For Furthermore, parents seem to reinforce sex-typed activi- example, after studying the behaviors of men and ties in their children by either rewarding (e.g., a smile or women in three cultures in New Guinea, Margaret laughter) their son for playing with trucks and their Mead found that each culture had its own sex roles and daughter for playing with dolls. They may also respond stereotypes. Interestingly, few of them corresponded to negatively (e.g., a frown or removal of the toy) when the the stereotypes expressed in industrialized nations. This form of play does not meet sex-role expectations. Anoth- finding provides some support for sex roles as cultural er explanation for sex-role development is found in a constructions. The diverse characteristics associated with cognitive developmental theory proposed by Lawrence sex roles are not biologically determined, but rather cul- Kohlberg. It is based on the view that children play an turally transmitted. active role in the reinforcement of appropriate sex roles. Stereotyping itself is a normal cognitive process. In Once children become aware of their gender label, they fact, this act of forming general impressions is of great come to value behaviors, objects, and attitudes associat- help in allowing us to categorize the tremendous amount ed with their sex. Each child becomes highly motivated of information we continually experience. However, the to learn about how members of his or her own sex act excessive use of masculine and feminine labels can place and then behaves in the way that is considered appropri- undue restrictions on people’s behaviors and attitudes. ate for that gender. Certain beliefs about sex-appropriate behaviors can de- termine the types of experiences to which we are ex- Sex-role development has been an area of extensive posed during the course of our lifetime. For example, research over the past several decades. The first step in some grade school teachers may form quick assumptions this process consists of acquiring gender identity. This about a student’s scholastic abilities largely on the basis is the point at which the child is able to label herself or his or her sex. As a result, a boy may be encouraged in himself accurately and can categorize others appropriate- math class while little effort is given to refining his talent ly as male or female. For example, a two-year old child for writing poetry. At more advanced levels, males may who is shown pictures of a same-sex child and an oppo- be more encouraged than females to enroll in mathemat- site sex child and is asked “which one is you?” will cor- ics, science, and engineering courses. rectly choose the same-sex picture. By age four, most children understand that they will remain the same sex throughout their life, a concept known as gender stabili- Sex-role socialization ty. A child’s ability to recognize that someone remains From infancy to adulthood, people receive informal male or female despite a change of clothing or altered but potent impressions of the role they are expected to hair length demonstrates the development of true gender play in society. As infants, little girls may be cuddled and constancy that is not typically achieved until about the handled in a more delicate manner than little boys. As age of five or six. children mature, family members continue to cultivate Since the 1960s, sex roles in North America have masculinity and femininity by encouraging a child to act become increasingly flexible. Whereas “masculinity” in ways and develop interests the family members feel are and “femininity” had long been considered to be oppo- appropriate for the child’s sex, while at the same time dis- site ends of the same continuum, (meaning a person couraging any conduct considered inappropriate. For ex- could be one or the other but not both), psychologists ample, parents may reward a daughter’s interest in sewing today conceive of masculinity and femininity as two sep- and housekeeping with praise and encouragement while arate dimensions. Therefore, a person can be both com- actively discouraging a son who shows similar interest. passionate and independent, both gentle and assertive. Once a child is of school age, his or her peers generally Many people no longer regard fearfulness or tenderness provide additional information about what is considered as unmanly emotions nor is it considered unfeminine if a acceptable or unacceptable within one’s own sex role. woman is assertive. Men and women can also hold jobs In the 1960s, social learning theorists such as Walter that were once considered inappropriate for their sex. Mischel and Albert Bandura emphasized the role of For instance, most women work outside their homes and both direct reinforcement and modeling in shaping are, in increasing numbers, entering professions tradi- 580 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

tionally considered to be almost exclusively male occu- Masters and Johnson out, postmoderns in pations such as medicine, engineering, and politics. Masters and Johnson were pioneers in sex therapy. Their research focused on three basic ideas: first, on en- Sex therapies Timothy Moore couraging couples to engage in completely new experi- ences; second, on persuading couples to perform in a pre- Further Reading viously prohibitive way that would hopefully dissolve their Jacobs, J. A., ed. Gender inequality at work. Thousand Oaks, sexual conflicts; and third, on allowing couples to openly CA: Sage, 1995. discuss such taboo subjects as premature ejaculation. By Leaper, D., ed. Childhood gender segregation: Causes and the 1990s, however, other researchers began noting that consequences. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1994. this form of therapy was not as useful with the coming of Macoby, E. The two sexes: Growing up apart, coming together what is termed the “postmodern” age. In this new era, a Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998. different approach to sex therapy was deemed necessary. Love and intimacy in the postmodern era affords the luxury of modern medicine and biology. Once medical factors are ruled out, a more ominous issue arises, that of Sex therapies desire disorders. Postmodern sex therapies consider Various psychological treatments for the correction many complex problems when approaching sexual dys- of sexual dysfunction which cannot be identified function. According to current research, sexual disorders by a biological inadequacy. might have a host of underlying causes. These causes might even make sexual dysfunction desirable to the per- Changing attitudes towards sex son suffering from such problems. For example, if a cou- ple is having problems with intimacy, trust, or control in Sex therapy, the treatment of sexual disorders, has their relationship, creating sexual problems might be a evolved from early studies on sexual behavior made over way of avoiding dealing directly with the real issues. 50 years ago. During these 50 years, the approach to sex Low self-esteem, unresolved family or parental con- therapy has changed immensely. When William Mas- flicts, or using energy for performance at work instead of ters and Virginia Johnson published Human Sexual In- for sex are all examples of problems that a couple must adequacy in 1970, the sexual revolution, born in the address before any promising sex therapy can begin. 1960s, was not yet in full force. Due in part to the devel- opment of the oral contraceptive known as “the pill” and Benefits the rise in the politics of feminism, society began to take If medical issues have been ruled out, once a person a different, more open view of sexuality. For many, the resolves whatever problem is causing a difficulty with sexual morals of the Victorian age and strict religious intimacy, loving sexual relationships will be able to pro- backgrounds had lingered even into the years after World ceed. In an age of mobility with computers and email War II. Traditionally, women were afraid to admit an in- replacing interpersonal contact, avoiding intimacy is terest in or even pleasure from sex. Men were permitted rather easy. Such technological “advances” as relying even less freedom to discuss sexual problems such as im- on automatic teller machines to hand out money, using potence. The rise in sex therapy addressed those issues computer keyboards to order products and services, and as they had never been addressed before, in the privacy even machines to check out groceries all eliminate the of a doctor’s office. opportunity for conversation or to release tension In addition to shifting attitudes about sex, develop- through personal contact. When people are allowed, or ments in medicine allowed more people to experience a even expected, to become self-absorbed, sexual desire satisfying sex life. By the 1990s, medications were de- becomes even less necessary. In this age of over-achiev- veloped that addressed the biological nature of sexual ers and cyberspace millionaires, living a life of all work dysfunctions. Before these developments, if a man or a and no play is considered a virtue. With so many issues woman had trouble functioning sexually, the cause was at hand, a qualified sex therapist is often needed to help often considered merely “psychological” and not a med- a person reach to the core of his or her problems. Most ical matter. Such medical treatments as penile implants, experts agree, sex therapies that address people and the prescription drug Viagra, and surgery or hormone re- their personal histories, and not only problems that are placement therapy for women can now be used to solve manifested at the time of therapy, are those that have the sexual disorders. If medical treatment does not solve a best chance for success. patient’s disorder, sexual pleasure becomes a key issue for therapists. Jane Spear GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 581

Sexual abuse Further Reading resulted in false accusations, overzealous prosecution of innocent people, or manipulation of victims by unquali- Gochros, Harvey L. Sexual Distress. The Encyclopedia of So- cial Work, 19th edition. Edwards, Richard L., Ed.-in- fied therapists. Chief. Washington, D.C.: NASW Press, 1995. Victims of sexual abuse often feel guilty and believe Hight, T. L. Sex Therapy. The Baker Encyclopedia of Psychol- ogy. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1999. that they are at fault for the abuse. Sexual assault on an Packer, Jennifer. Get Rid of the Fears That Keep You from True adult often involves violence or the threat of violence. Intimacy. Knight Ridder/Tribune, The Dallas Morning Although violence may be involved in the sexual abuse News, June 6, 2000. of children, most often the coercion is based upon the in- herent power that the adult has over the child. An infant Further Information or very young child has no defense against an abuser. Al- American Psychological Association. 750 First Street, N.E., though an older child may be bribed or threatened, the Washington, D.C., USA. 20002-4242, 202-336-5500, child usually has been taught to acquiesce to adult de- 800-374-2721. mands. The abuser usually insists that the child keep “their secret,” and the shame and guilt felt by the child reinforces the need for secrecy. Sexual abuse Historical perspectives Any sexual act or sexual exposure that is not con- sensual or that occurs between a child and an The definition of sexual abuse varies among cultures older individual. and has changed over time. Feminist movements have promoted broader definitions of what constitutes sexual abuse. Although most societies view sex between children Sexual abuse includes any sexual act or experience and adults as inappropriate, mores concerning appropriate which is forced upon a person or which occurs as a result ages and age differences for sexual partners vary. Even of coercion. In general, any sexual experience or expo- today, there are individuals and organizations that promote sure that occurs between a child and an older child, an sex between children and adults and argue for the elimina- adolescent, or an adult, for the gratification of the older tion of laws against incest and statutory rape. individual, is considered to be sexual abuse. Sexual abuse includes rape, incest, inappropriate touching, ex- The early work of psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud hibitionism, and physical or verbal harassment. Expos- suggested that, for many of his patients, repressed mem- ing children to pornographic material or using children ories of childhood incest lay at the root of neuroses. in the production of pornography also constitutes sexu- However, many of Freud’s colleagues argued that the al abuse. early sexual encounters described by patients in psycho- analysis were actually memories of childhood sexual Since many or even most cases of sexual abuse are fantasies. Freud himself later adopted this position, al- not reported to the authorities, it has been difficult to de- though his colleague, Sandor Ferenczi, confirmed the in- termine the extent of sexual abuse in our society. The volvement of childhood sexual abuse in many psycho- victims of sexual abuse can be males or females of any logical disorders. As a result of Freud’s influence, re- age, from infants to the elderly. The perpetrators of sexu- ports of sexual abuse often were discounted as the prod- al abuse are predominantly male, but include some fe- ucts of a child’s imagination. When the evidence of males, and come from all socioeconomic classes and abuse was undeniable, the child was viewed as having al- racial and ethnic groups. They may be educated profes- lowed or encouraged the abuse. To some extent, these at- sionals, working people, or unemployed. They may or titudes survive today. may not be under the influence of alcohol or drugs. Many abusers were themselves abused as children. Al- In the 1940s and 1950s, Alfred Kinsey and his though the abuser may be a stranger to the victim, most coworkers first documented the extent of childhood sex- often it is a family member, friend or acquaintance, or a ual abuse. However, they did not view these early sexual caregiver. In recent years, an increased public awareness experiences as particularly significant. It was not until of sexual abuse has resulted in more abuse reports and the women’s movement of the 1970s that the extent and prosecutions, as well as increasing the development of significance of sexual abuse began to be appreciated. recovery programs for victims and treatment programs for abusers. Furthermore, there have been major initia- Immediate effects of sexual abuse tives aimed at preventing the sexual abuse of both chil- dren and adults. Unfortunately, in a few cases this The victim’s initial response to sexual abuse is usual- heightened awareness of the problem of sexual abuse has ly horror and disbelief. This may be followed by a false 582 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

sense of calm, brought on by fear. Many victims report begin to recover these memories. However, in a few that they mentally leave their bodies, to dissociate them- cases, overzealous counselors and therapists have elicited selves from the physical event. This passivity may be mis- memories of childhood sexual abuse from patients who Sexual abuse interpreted as consent by both the abuser and the victim. apparently were never abused. In the popular press, this Sexual abuse may or may not result in physical injury. has become known as “false memory syndrome.” Following the experience, the victim of sexual abuse Once the abuse is recognized, the victim may try to may be confused, frightened, furious, resentful, and de- excuse it, rationalize it, or minimize it by suggesting that pressed. These emotions can continue for a very long it was not really significant. Eventually, recovering vic- time. Child victims may become withdrawn, may regress tims come to accept that the abuse had major conse- to earlier developmental stages, or may display preco- quences in their lives and that it was not their fault. The cious sexualized behavior. Non-abusive parents of later stages of recovery include anger, sadness, and final- abused children, as well as the innocent partners of adult ly, acceptance. Many law enforcement agencies provide victims, may experience many of these same emotions. support services to victims of sexual abuse. Trained ther- This is called “secondary victimization.” apists and self-help groups, including 12-step programs, may be indispensable for the recovery process. Individu- Many victims of sexual abuse blame themselves. als who have recovered from the effects of sexual abuse They may be overwhelmed by guilt and shame. Some often are referred to as survivors. victims repress all memories of the experience or ratio- nalize it in a way that makes it seem insignificant. The sexual offender Long-term effects of sexual abuse Many sexual offenders abuse multiple victims. The perpetrators of sexual abuse are usually angry individu- Victims of sexual abuse may develop many of the als who are driven by a need to dominate or control oth- symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorders. For chil- ers. They may be psychotic or have personality disor- dren, the guilt, fear, shame, and anger brought on by ders. Some sexual abuse is perpetrated by pedophiles sexual abuse, if untreated, can last into adulthood. Long- who are sexually attracted to prepubescent children. term effects of sexual abuse can include chronic anxiety, Other sexual abuse appears to be situational. For exam- low self-esteem, and problems with intimacy and sexu- ple, incest may occur only when the parent is intoxicated ality. Victims may become severely depressed, even sui- or under stress. cidal, or develop psychotic symptoms. They may suffer from alcohol or drug abuse or eating disorders. Many Most sexual offenders deny that the abuse occurred. victims experience marital and family difficulties. In se- If they do admit to it, they usually blame it on the victim vere cases, a victim’s efforts to dissociate from the expe- or the circumstances. They also may blame alcohol or rience can lead to the development of multiple personal- drugs. A limited number of treatment programs are avail- ity disorder. able for sexual offenders, both inside and outside of pris- ons. Recidivism is usually high for chronic sexual abusers. Many factors influence the effects of sexual abuse on the victim. These include the type of abuse, the age of the victim, the frequency of abuse, and the relationship Margaret Alic of the victim to the abuser. Children who are victimized by a trusted adult experience the betrayal of this trust. Further Reading Victims who obtain support from family, friends, and Adams, Caren, and Jennifer Fay. No More Secrets: Protecting trained professionals following the abuse are less likely Your Child from Sexual Assault. San Luis Obispo, CA: to experience long-term effects. In general, abused chil- Impact Publishers, 1981. dren who have been coerced into maintaining secrecy Adams, Caren, and Jennifer Fay. Helping Your Child Recover suffer from the most serious long-term effects. from Sexual Abuse. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1992. Bass, Ellen, and Laura Davis. The Courage to Heal: A Guide Recovery from sexual abuse for Women Survivors of Child Sexual Abuse. 3rd ed. New York: HarperPerennial, 1994. Recovery from sexual abuse occurs in recognizable Bass, Ellen, and Louise Thornton, eds. I Never Told Anyone: stages. These stages are analogous to those of the griev- Writings by Women Survivors of Child Sexual Abuse. New ing or mourning process. Often, the first stage is a denial, York: HarperPerennial, 1991. which may involve the suppression or even total repres- Hagans, Kathryn B., and Joyce Case. When Your Child Has sion of memories of the abuse. In therapy or self-help Been Molested: A Parent’s Guide to Healing and Recov- groups, adults who were sexually abused as children may ery. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1988. GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 583

Sexual deviations Hunter, Mic. Abused Boys: The Neglected Victims of Sexual helpful in sex therapy. Her approach was further justified Abuse. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1990. by the fact that epidemiological studies during the 1980s Pendergrast, Mark. “Daughters Lost.” In Fathering Daughters: showed a disproportionate incidence of treatment-resistant Reflections by Men, edited by DeWitt Henry and James desire disorders in the sex-therapy clinical populations of Alan McPherson. Boston: Beacon Press, 1998. the United States and Northern Europe. It is clear that the Westerlund, Elaine. Women’s Sexuality After Childhood Incest. proliferation of erotic material available to the general New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1992. public (pornographic publications, movies, videos, sex Further Information toys, Internet sites, etc.) from the 1970s to the 1990s par- National Coalition Against Sexual Assault. 125 N. Enola Drive, alleled the therapeutic effort to enhance sexual desire Enola, PA, USA. 17025, fax: 717-728-9781, 717-728-9764. rather than treat sexual performance. Email: [email protected]. http://ncasa.org/main.html. However, by the 1990s, human sexuality was emerg- ing as a complex bio-psychosocial phenomenon. Con- temporary studies view the great majority of sexual dys- function cases as having somatic or organic rather than Sexual deviations psychologic etiologies, or at least as being “comorbid” in origin. This is particularly true in male disorders, where See Paraphilias up to 80 percent of ED is the result of physical conditions which interfere with nerves and blood vessels. Most com- monly, vascular disease is blamed for decreased blood flow to the penis. Once a physical condition affects the ability to maintain penile erection, psychological distress Sexual dysfunction and performance anxiety sets in, complicating the prob- lem. This leads to avoidance of sexual activity and the The persistent or recurrent inability or lack of desire to perform sexually or engage in sexual activity. male may become socially withdrawn or depressed. It is generally believed that for women, more so than Sexual dysfunction involves both somatic and psy- for men, sexual drives and satisfactions are more complex chic phenomena which contribute to an overall inability and organized around the entire sexual relationship or sex- or lack of interest in performing sexually. In males, the ual partner. Moreover, collateral factors such as birth con- condition is most associated with erectile dysfunction trol, abortion, fear of sexually-transmitted diseases, and (ED), formerly referred to as male “impotence.” Studies feminism have greatly affected womens’ general approach estimate that 10-20 million American males have some to sexual activity and sexual behavior. Key psychological degree of ED, which clinically presents as a persistent causes associated with sexual dysfunction range from past inability to attain or maintain penile erection sufficient sexual abuse, to unsatisfactory emotional relationships for sexual intercourse. with sexual partners, to poor self-assessment regarding body image or appearance. Another factor to be consid- Female sexual dysfunction falls into four main cate- ered is that half of all women over the age of 60 are with- gories: (1) a low libido or aversion to sex; (2) difficulty out a partner (even though they have forestalled in attaining sexual arousal; (3) inability to experience or menopause with hormone replacement therapy), and the attain orgasm; and (4) pain during sexual intercourse. “use it or lose it” thinking about sexual activity has proven Research in this area indicates that as many as 4 in 10 to have some medical basis. (Research suggests that long American women experience some form of sexual dys- periods of sexual inactivity may result in loss of elasticity function. to the vagina in females, and muscle atrophy in the penis of males.) All of these factors may put pressure on both Assessment sexes to “perform” or engage in sexual activity more often, even if sexual intercourse results in physical pain. As recently as the mid-twentieth century, sexual dys- Thus, “remedicalization” of dysfunction from the psycho- function was considered a psychological condition or dis- logical to the medical arena may not always address the order. The Kinsey Reports and Masters and Johnson’s coexisting psychosocial aspects of the condition. Adjunct studies tended to isolate “performance anxiety” as the root psychological therapy may be warranted. of most sexual disorders. Later, in the 1970s, Helen Singer Kaplan impressed many colleagues and practitioners with her focus on enhancing sexual desire rather than sexual Treatment performance. Her biological approach to sexuality, i.e., The recent emphasis on physical rather than psycho- equating sexual desire with physical appetite, was indeed logical etiology in addressing sexual dysfunction corre- 584 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

lates with the widespread success of prescription and Further Reading non-prescription drug therapy for ED, such as that ”FDA Approves First Device to Aid Female Version of Impo- Sexuality found in Viagra (sildenafil citrate), which effectively in- tence.” Jet, (May 22, 2000): 33. creases blood flow to the genitals. By 2000, doctors in- ”It Takes Two: Coping With Erectile Dysfunction.” Harvard creasingly considered therapeutic doses of testosterone Womens Health Watch, (March 2000): 2. to both male and female patients, as testosterone is Dosa, Laszlo. “Careful History Essential in All Patients With known to enhance sexual libido in both sexes. ED.” Urology Times, (May 2000): 19. Kring, Brunhild. “Psychotherapy of Sexual Dysfunction.” For women, treatment of sexual dysfunction has American Journal of Psychotherapy, (Winter 2000): 97. been more varied because of the varying causes and pre- Leland, John, Kalb, Claudia, and Nadine Joseph. “The Science senting symptoms. During 1999, studies were com- of Women and Sex.” Newsweek, (May 29, 2000): 48. menced to test the efficacy of Viagra on females who Miller, TA. “Diagnostic Evaluation of Erectile Dysfunction.” complained of low sexual desire or inability to become American Family Physician, (January 2000): 95. sexually aroused. However, initial results published in Henderson, C.W. “Lahey Clinic to Study Effects of Viagra on May 2000 indicated that Viagra proved no more effective Women.” Women’s Health Weekly, (April 1, 2000): 27. than a placebo in the female group. This finding may further support the belief that a synergy between the mind and body provides the best relief for female sexual dysfunction. Sexuality Notwithstanding, for both genders, several physical The full range of thoughts and actions that describe conditions greatly affect sexual functioning. These in- sexual motivation and behavior. clude diabetes, obesity,vascular disease, stress,fatigue, and untoward affects of medication. Menopausal and While sex is not necessary for an individual’s sur- post-menopausal women may experience pain with sex- vival, without it a species would cease to exist. The de- ual intercourse caused by decreased lubrication of mu- terminants of sexual motivation and behavior include an cous membranes and tissues. In all of the above, treat- individual’s physiology, learned behavior, the physical ment of the underlying medical condition may render the environment, and the social environment. sexual dysfunction as nonexistent or effectively relieved. A person’s sex is determined at conception by Some studies have shown that a decrease in dietary whether one out of the 23 chromosomes in the father’s minerals, particularly zinc, may adversely affect libido. sperm is either X (female) or Y (male). All female eggs Such dietary deficits are related to pituitary hormone contain an X chromosome, so each fertilized egg, or em- production of prolactin, which, at high levels, contributes bryo, has a genotype of either XX (female) or XY to sexual dysfunction. It is therefore believed that some (male). Reproductive hormones produced by the gonads persons may be helped by increasing their dietary intake (male testes and female ovaries) determine the develop- of red meats, dark meat poultry, seafood, leafy greens, ment of the reproductive organs and the fetal brain,es- and whole grains (all rich in zinc). pecially the hypothalamus. All the human reproductive Finally, in treating sexual dysfunction, clients and hormones are found in both sexes but in different couples are encouraged to refrain from thinking of sexu- amounts. The principal female hormones are estrogens al intercourse as the only or the ultimate goal of sexual and progesterone (of which the main ones are estradiol activity. Therapists advise couples to frequently engage and progesterone); the primarily male hormones are an- in non-coital sexual activity, including oral and manual drogens (mainly testosterone). In males, levels of testos- stimulation, and to continue to provide such sexual plea- terone remain fairly constant, regulated by a feedback sure even if the male loses his erection. Further, couples loop to the brain and pituitary gland, which control hor- are encouraged to make sexual activity a priority and not mone secretion. In females, hormone levels fluctuate an incidental happening when they retire at night. This is within each menstrual cycle, rising at ovulation. Repro- because testosterone levels are in fact lower in the ductive hormones have two types of effects on the body. evening hours, and both persons may be tired. Added to Organizational effects, which occur primarily before this is the fact that with age, it takes both sexes longer to birth,are irreversible and permanently govern an indi- become sexually stimulated. Partners should also try to vidual’s response to further hormone secretion. Activa- incorporate sensual and affectional feelings into their ac- tional effects govern behavior temporarily while hor- tivities, for obvious benefit. mone levels are elevated. Human females are born with about 400,000 im- Lauri R. Harding mature eggs. Each one is contained in a sac called a GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 585

Sexuality follicle. When a girl reaches puberty, one or more sufficient for intercourse. While impotence can have physical origins, including fatigue, diabetes, alco- eggs mature every month, stimulated by the release of holism, and the side effects of certain medications, it is a hormone from the pituitary gland. As the egg ma- tures, it secretes the hormone estrogen, causing the usually psychological in nature. In females, a common uterine lining to thicken in anticipation of the implan- sexual dysfunction is the inability to reach orgasm, also tation of a fertilized egg. This is followed by ovula- called arousal disorder, which is also associated with tion, as the follicle ruptures, releasing the mature egg such psychological factors as self-consciousness, lack which travels through the fallopian tube towards the of self-confidence, depression, and dissatisfaction with uterus. If the egg is not fertilized by sperm, it disinte- the nature of the romantic relationship itself. grates and the uterine lining leaves the body, a process called menstruation. Women remain fertile until Although human sexual activity is primarily hetero- menopause, which normally occurs around the age of sexual, between 5 and 10 percent of males and 2 to 6 fifty. Unlike the production of female eggs, the male percent of females in the United States are homosexu- production of sperm is not cyclical and men remain als, individuals in whom sexual attraction and behavior fertile throughout their lives, although they may pro- are directed at members of their own sex. (Persons duce fewer sperm as they age. A man produces several whose sexual behavior is directed at members of both billion sperm each year, releasing 300 to 500 million sexes are known as bisexuals.) Researchers have found sperm in an average ejaculation. evidence of both biological and environmental origins of homosexuality. While no significant differences Unlike that of other species, human sexual behavior have been found in the levels of hormones that circulate is not bound to the female reproductive cycle. Women in the blood of homosexuals and heterosexuals, expo- may engage in or refrain from sexual intercourse at any sure to high levels of certain reproductive hormones time during the cycle. Some women have reported in- during fetal development has been linked to homosexu- creased sexual interest at the time of ovulation, others ality. In addition, anatomical differences have been around the time of menstruation, and still others experi- found between the hypothalamus of heterosexual and ence no link at all between their sexual behavior and homosexual men, and studies of twins have found dis- menstrual cycle. After their initial organizational effects tinct evidence of a hereditary component to homosexu- at birth, hormone levels stay low until puberty when acti- ality. Environmental influences include early family re- vational effects first begin, triggering the reproductive lationships and the modeling of behaviors observed in system and generating an interest in sexual behavior. the parent of the opposite sex, as well as social learning Whether or not sexual activity actually occurs at this throughout the life span. point, however, depends on the interaction of physical readiness, social skills, and opportunity. For adults, as for adolescents, sexuality is not governed solely by hor- Sexual preference—the gender to which one is at- mones but also by a repertoire of learned attitudes and tracted—is only one aspect of human sexual orientation. behaviors. This learning begins in childhood with the Also involved is gender role, a general pattern of mascu- development of gender roles and continues throughout line or feminine behaviors that is strongly influenced by the life span, and it depends on attitudes prevalent in a cultural factors. Distinct from this is sex identity, refer- culture at a given time. ring to whether individuals consider themselves to be male or female. Transsexualism, a condition in which a The laboratory research conducted by William person believes he or she is of the wrong sex, occurs in Masters and Virginia Johnson in the 1950s and 1960s approximately one in 20,000 in men and one in 50,000 yielded important information about the human cycle in women. Today, these individuals have the option of a of sexual response. This cycle has four phases for both sex change operation that allows them to live as a mem- men and women: initial excitement, a plateau stage, or- ber of the sex with which they identify. gasm, and resolution, during which the person returns to a state of relaxation. Males experience a refractory See also Gender Identity Disorder; Heterosexuality. period after orgasm during which they are temporarily insensitive to sexual stimulation. Further Reading The same combination of physical, psychological, Fisher, Seymour. Sexual Images of the Self: The Psychology of and social factors that govern sexuality may contribute Erotic Sensations and Illusions. Hillsdale, NJ: L. Erlbaum to sexual dysfunction,any condition that inhibits the Associates, 1989. desire for, or ability to have, satisfying sexual experi- ences. In males, the most common dysfunction is impo- Levand, Rhonda. Sexual Evolution. Berkeley, CA: Celestial tence, or the inability to have or maintain an erection Arts, 1991. 586 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

treatable. Through his work with patients, Shakow made David Shakow clear that, whatever their condition, they were still human beings and needed to be treated compassionately. 1901-1981 David Shakow American psychologist who conducted ground- He put forth the idea that patients should be allowed to breaking studies on schizophrenia. serve as “partners” in those studies in which they partici- pated, not merely experimental subjects. In a career that spanned nearly 50 years, David During his years at Worcester, Shakow began one Shakow conducted research that led to a vastly improved of the nation’s first clinical psychology internship pro- understanding of schizophrenia, one of the most com- grams. He also continued his work on his doctoral dis- plex mental disorders. Shakow’s research covered all as- sertation, the focus of which he had shifted as a result pects of the disease, but in particular he focused on the of his research on schizophrenia. In 1946, the complet- mental deterioration that accompanied its progression. ed dissertation, The Nature of Deterioration in Schizo- He was a strong advocate for patients of schizophrenia, phrenia was not only accepted enthusiastically, it was which helped lessen the stigma that so often accompa- also recognized as a classic study on the psychology of nies them. the disease. Shakow was born on January 2, 1901 in New York Shakow also chaired a committee of the American City. Growing up in the lower east side of New York, Psychiatric Association charged with defining the stan- which he later described as a “most auspicious place to dards of education and training of the developing field have one’s beginnings” because of the strength of the of clinical psychology. Results of the committee report community, was an important influence on him. set the agenda for the famous Boulder Conference of 1949 that defined clinical psychology as a scientist/practitioner model. Begins clinical work at Worcester Shakow went on to Harvard, where he received both Continues research at NIMH his bachelors’ and master’s degrees in science. He em- Shakow left Worcester that same year, heading to barked upon a doctorate in psychology, but his disserta- the University of Illinois Medical School as a professor tion research progressed more slowly than he had antici- in the psychiatry department. He was named a professor pated. He was married, and he and his wife Sophie had of psychology at the University of Chicago two years begun their family. Shakow decided that to support his later; he held both positions concurrently. After a few family he needed to take a more practical career ap- years of teaching, Shakow decided that he wanted to de- proach over the short term, and he accepted a position at vote more time to research and accepted an appointment the nearby Worcester State Hospital in 1932. It was at to the National Institute of Mental Health in 1954. There, Worcester that he began his research into schizophrenia. he served as the first head of the Laboratory of Psycholo- Schizophrenia is not a “split personality” disorder gy in NIMH’s Intramural Research Program. as many people mistakenly believed at that time. Under Shakow’s 12-year tenure, the laboratory de- Rather, it is a disease in which symptoms can range veloped special sections to study not only schizophrenia, from mild confusion to violent self-destructive out- but also perception, aging, childhood development, and bursts. Those who sufferer from the disease often show personality. The laboratory published more than 500 ar- marked deterioration in their ability to function nor- ticles highlighting its research during those years. mally, frequently becoming less aware of their condi- Shakow retired from his position in 1966 but stayed on tion. (One of the common difficulties associated with as senior research psychologist. During the 1970s he and schizophrenic patients is their refusal to take medica- his staff continued to do important research on schizo- tion to control their symptoms.) phrenia. During these years he was awarded both the What Shakow tried to ascertain through his re- Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award and the search was how much of the loss of normal function Distinguished Professional Contribution Award of the was the result of deterioration (which is reversible) and American Psychological Association. deficit (which is not). Among his findings, true deterio- Shakow continued his work at NIMH, conducting re- ration in the schizophrenic occurs at a basic, reflexive search, writing articles, and working on his scientific level, while deficit occurs at the cognitive and percep- memoirs. In late February 1981, he suffered a heart attack tual levels. while at work and died a few days later on February 26. Shakow entered the world of psychology at a time when the mentally ill were considered dangerous and un- George A. Milite GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 587

Shaping Further Reading motivating a child to succeed, actually create nothing more than a craving for further rewards. Garmezy, Norman, and Philip S. Holzman. “David Shakow.” American Psychologist. June 1984, pp. 698-699. Shakow, David. Clinical psychology as a science and profes- sion: a forty-year odyssey. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Zoran Minderovic Co., 1969. Shakow, David. Schizophrenia: selected papers. New York: In- Further Reading ternational Universities Press, 1977. Nye, Robert D. The Legacy of B.F. Skinner: Concepts and Per- spectives, Controversies and Misunderstandings. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1992. Shaping A gradual, behavior modification technique in which successive approximations to the desired William Herbert Sheldon behavior is rewarded. 1898-1977 American physician and psychologist who attempt- Shaping, or behavior-shaping, is a variant of operant ed to correlate body type with personality. conditioning. Instead of waiting for a subject to exhibit a desired behavior, any behavior leading to the target be- William Herbert Sheldon developed “constitutional havior is rewarded. For example, B. F. Skinner (1904- psychology,” the study of the relationships between 1990) discovered that, in order to train a rat to push a physical attributes and personality traits. To describe lever, any movement in the direction of the lever had to physical build, Sheldon studied thousands of pho- be rewarded, until finally, the rat was trained to push a tographs and developed a rating system for three major lever. Once the target behavior is reached, however, no components or somatotypes—endomorphy, mesomor- other behavior is rewarded. In other words, the subject phy, and ectomorphy—and three secondary components. behavior is shaped, or molded, into the desired form. Likewise, he developed a rating system for three primary Although rejected by many orientations within the components of temperament. He found a correlation field of psychology, behavioral techniques, particularly between the physical and temperamental ratings. Shel- shaping, are widely used as therapeutic tools for the don was the first to use standardized photography for treatment of various disorders, especially those affecting studying physical traits. verbal behavior. For example, behavior shaping has been Born in 1898, Sheldon grew up on a farm in War- used to treat selective, or elective, mutism, a condition wick, Rhode Island, as one of three children of William manifested by an otherwise normal child’s refusal to Herbert and Mary Abby (Greene) Sheldon. Educated at speak in school. local public schools, Sheldon, whose father was a natu- Therapists have also relied on behavior shaping in ralist, worked as an ornithologist while studying at treating cases of severe autism in children. While autis- Brown University. After serving in the army as a second tic children respond to such stimulus objects as toys and lieutenant during World War I, Sheldon received his A.B. musical instruments, it is difficult to elicit speech from degree in 1919. Subsequently, he worked as an oil field them. However, researchers have noted that behavior scout, a wolf hunter in New Mexico, and a high school shaping is more effective when speech attempts are rein- teacher before earning his master’s degree at the Univer- forced than when speech production is expected. When sity of Colorado and his Ph.D. in psychology from the unsuccessful efforts to produce speech are rewarded, the University of Chicago in 1925. That year he married child feels inspired to make a greater effort, which may Louise Steger, although they later divorced. Sheldon lead to actual speech. taught psychology at the University of Texas in Austin, at the University of Chicago, and at the University of While recognizing the effectiveness of behavior Wisconsin. In 1933 he earned his M.D. from the Univer- shaping in the laboratory and in therapy, experts, particu- sity of Chicago. Following an internship, he won a fel- larly psychologists who do not subscribe to behavior- lowship to study psychiatry with Carl Jung in Zurich, ism,have questioned the long-term validity of induced Switzerland. behavior change. For example, researchers have noted that people have a tendency to revert to old behavior pat- In 1936, Sheldon became a professor of psychology terns, particularly when the new behavior is not reward- at the University of Chicago. After two years, he moved ed any more. In many cases, as Alfie Kohn has written, to Harvard University to collaborate with Smith S. behavior-shaping techniques used in school, instead of Stevens, an experimental psychologist. After serving in 588 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

the Army as a lieutenant colonel during the Second A native Californian, Shinn was born in 1858 to par- World War, in 1945, he married Milancie Hill. The fol- ents who emigrated from the East and established a farm- Shyness lowing year, Sheldon became Director of the Constitu- ing homestead in Niles, California, where she lived her tion Clinic and Laboratory at the Columbia University entire life. In 1879, at the age of 25, she became editor of College of Physicians and Surgeons, and he began exam- the Overland Monthly, a literary magazine that had fallen ining the relationships between physical attributes and on hard times in post-Civil War California. Dividing her disease. In 1959, he became a clinical professor of medi- time between the family ranch and the journal, Shinn cine at the University of Oregon Medical School in Port- cared for her aging parents, ran the ranch with her brother land. From 1951 until 1977, he directed the Oregon fol- and his wife, and helped care for their daughter, Ruth, low-up studies in constitutional medicine. Concurrently, who was born in 1890. Inspired by personal interest in he held positions as the director of research for the Bio- her niece, Shinn applied her writer’s skills to create a logical Humanics Foundation of Cambridge, Massachu- carefully recorded and minutely detailed two-year ac- setts, as a research associate at the Institute of Human count of her niece’s physical growth and emotional de- Development at the University of California at Berkeley, velopment. Delivered as a paper entitled “The First Two and as attending chief of research at Rockland State Hos- Years of the Child” at the World’s Columbian Exposition pital in Orangeburg, New York. Sheldon became emeri- in Chicago in 1893, Shinn’s observational study was tus professor at the University of Oregon in 1970. hailed as the first of its kind in America. Convinced by others that her work represented a significant contribution Sheldon authored several books in the “Human to child psychology, Shinn resigned from the Overland Constitution Series,” as well as two books of essays in Monthly in 1894 and enrolled as a doctoral candidate at which he tried to merge religion with social psychiatry. the University of California at Berkeley, completing the He believed that the correlations he observed between degree with the publication of her dissertation in 1898. physique and personality reflected both the rewards based on behavior for a given physical type, and societal Compelling family needs and pressures led Shinn to expectations based on physical appearance. Sheldon also abandon her scholarly pursuits and return to the family examined relationships between physique and delinquent ranch to care for her invalid mother and aging father. By behavior and physique and psychopathology. He used 1913, in her mid-fifties and in ill-health herself, Shinn three primary components to define psychopathology. In undertook the education of her younger brother’s four later years, Sheldon replaced his somatotyping scheme children, devoting the rest of her life to her family until with a method called the Trunk Index. her death in 1940. Sheldon’s correlations remain unproven and, in Further Reading 1995, it was revealed that many of the photographs Shel- Scarborough, Elizabeth, and Laurel Furumoto. Untold Lives: don studied were obtained by requiring students at uni- The First Generation of American Women Psychologists. versities to be photographed naked and without informed 52-69. New York: Columbia University Press, 1987. consent as to how the pictures might be used. Sheldon died of heart disease in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1977. Shyness Margaret Alic Uneasiness experienced when confronted by new people and situations. Most people, from social recluses to the rich and fa- Milicent W. Shinn mous, probably have experienced feelings of shyness at 1858-1940 various times in their lives. Physiological symptoms may American child psychologist best known for her include blushing, increased heart rate, sweating, and seminal systematic observational study of a child. shaking. Just as these outward manifestations vary in type and intensity from person to person, so do the inner As the first woman to earn a Ph.D. from the Univer- feelings. Anxious thoughts and worries, low self-esteem, sity of California, Milicent Shinn is credited today for self-criticism, and concern over a lack of social skills, her outstanding early American study, “Notes on the De- real or imagined, are common. The causes of shyness are velopment of a Child.” First published in 1898 as a doc- not known. Some researchers believe it results from a toral dissertation, this work is still hailed as a master- genetic predisposition. Others theorize that uncommu- piece and a classic in its field. nicative parents restrict a child’s development of the so- GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 589

Sibling rivalry cial skills that compensate for discomfort caused by new idea of a threshold. Instead, the theory involves treating detection of the stimulus as a decision-making process, experiences and people, resulting in shyness. Variously, part of which is determined by the nature of the stimulus, it has been considered a symptom of social phobia or a by how sensitive a person is to the stimulus, and by cog- simple characteristic of introversion. Psychological research that follows large numbers of tect more intense sounds or lights more easily than less children from very early childhood to adulthood has nitive factors. In other words, a person will be able to de- intense stimuli. Further, a more sensitive person requires found that a tendency to be shy with others is one of the less stimulus intensity than a less sensitive person would. most stable traits that is preserved from the first three or Finally, when a person is quite uncertain as to whether four years of life through young adulthood. Learning or the stimulus was present, the individual will decide improving social skills through self-help courses or formal based on what kind of mistake in judgment is worse: to training in assertiveness and public speaking are some of say that no stimulus was present when there actually was the methods used to diminish the effects of shyness. one or to say that there was a stimulus when, in reality, Further Reading there was none. Izard, C. Human Emotions. New York: Plenum Press, 1977. An example from everyday life illustrates this point. Kagan, Jerome. Galen’s Prophecy: Temperament in Human Suppose a person is expecting an important visitor, Nature. New York: Basic Books, 1994. someone that it would be unfortunate to miss. As time Kagan, J., and N. Snidman. “Biological Bases of Childhood goes on, the person begins to “hear” the visitor and may Shyness.” Science 240, 1988, pp. 167-71. Tangney, J.P., and K.W. Fischer, eds. Self-Conscious Emotions: open the door, only to find that nobody is there. This per- Shame, Guilt and Pride. New York: Guilford, 1995. son is “detecting” a stimulus, or signal, that is not there because it would be worse to miss the person than to check to see if the individual is there, only to find that the visitor has not yet arrived. Sibling rivalry In a typical sensory experiment that involves a large number of trials, an observer must try to detect a very See Birth order faint sound or light that varies in intensity from clearly below normal detection levels to clearly above. The per- son responds positively (i.e., there is a stimulus) or nega- tively (i.e., there is no stimulus). There are two possible responses, “Yes” and “No.” There are also two different Signal detection theory possibilities for the stimulus, either present or absent. The accompanying table describes the combination of an ob- A psychological theory regarding a threshold of server’s response and whether the stimulus is actually sensory detection. there. The table refers to a task with an auditory stimulus, but it could be modified to involve stimuli for any sense. One of the early goals of psychologists was to measure the sensitivity of our sensory systems. This ac- Psychologists have established that when stimuli are tivity led to the development of the idea of a threshold, difficult to detect, cognitive factors are critical in the de- the least intense amount of stimulation needed for a cision an observer makes. If a person participates in an person to be able to see, hear, feel, or detect the stimu- experiment and receives one dollar for each Hit and there lus. Unfortunately, one of the problems with this con- is no penalty for a False Alarm, then it is in the person’s cept was that even though the level of stimulation re- best interest to say that the stimulus was present whenev- mained constant, people were inconsistent in detecting er there is uncertainty. On the other hand, if the person the stimulus. Factors other than the sensitivity of sense loses two dollars for each False Alarm, then it is better receptors influence the signal detection process. There for the observer to be cautious in saying that a stimulus is no single, fixed value below which a person never occurred. This combination of rewards and penalties for detects the stimulus and above which the person always correct and incorrect decisions is referred to as the Pay- detects it. In general, psychologists typically define off Matrix. If the Payoff Matrix changes, then the per- threshold as that intensity of stimulation that a person son’s pattern of responses will also change. This alter- can detect some percentage of the time, for example, 50 ation in responses is called a criterion shift. percent of the time. There is always a trade-off between the number of An approach to resolving this dilemma is provided Hits and False Alarms. When a person is very willing to by signal detection theory. This approach abandons the say that the signal was present, that individual will show 590 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION