Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology clear version in English

A test subject is hooked up to machines that monitor his reactions to violent television scenes. (Will & Deni McIntyre. Photo Temperament Researchers, Inc. Reproduced with permission.) symbolic and seems an easy solution to a difficult situa- being received. These locking devices are becoming tion. There is little differentiation between a hero’s and a more sophisticated, with the advent of the so-called “V- villain’s use of violence, and realistic portrayals of in- chip”—a computer chip that can be programmed to jured victims and perpetrators, grieving relatives and block out programs with violent content. friends, as well as other tragic consequences of violence are often not dramatized. A. Woodward There have been recurring attempts by public inter- est groups to censor television violence or to persuade Further Reading television industry executives to agree to censor them- Huesmann, L. Rowell, and Leonard D. Eron, eds. Television and selves. Such campaigns run into problems, not only with the Aggressive Child: A Cross National Comparison. Hills- issues of free speech, but also with accountability, as the dale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1986. Reiss, Albert J. Jr., and Jeffrey A. Roth, eds. Understanding television industry claims to be providing what their and Preventing Violence. Washington, D.C.: National viewers want and to be reflecting a violent society, rather Academy Press, 1993. than creating one. Since television is broadcast indis- criminately, any attempt to regulate what some people watch will impinge on the freedom of others to view what they want. Some recent proposals for federal regu- Temperament lation of television violence, short of direct censorship, An individual’s characteristic emotional nature, in- resulted in a ratings system, similar to that for movies, cluding energy level, prevailing mood and sensitiv- which includes warnings, before broadcasts, about the ity to stimulation. possible ill effects of viewing violence. Since 1984, all cable companies have been required Individual variations in temperament are most readi- to offer a lock box that prevents certain programs from ly observed in newborn babies. Even immediately after GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 641

While supporting the belief that temperament is bi- Lewis Terman birth, some babies are calm while others cry a lot. Some ologically based, many personality experts also main- respond favorably to being held while others squirm and tain that temperament can develop and change over the protest. Some are soothed by soft music and others do not stop crying long enough to hear it. Because of these course of a person’s life in response to personal experi- immediately observable variations, temperament is often grow to be placid toddlers. Similarly, passive infants considered a biologically based characteristic. ences and environmental conditions. Fussy babies can sometimes grow up to be classroom troublemakers. In- Hippocrates discussed variations in temperament as teraction with parents, siblings, and other social con- early as the 5th century B.C. His hypothesis that there are tacts as well as life experiences affect an individual’s four basic human temperaments that correspond to vari- predisposition toward a particular temperament. Doreen ous bodily characteristics—choleric, sanguine, melan- Arcus in her study observed infants in their homes for cholic, and phlegmatic— endured for many years before their first year of life. Highly reactive infants were less modern theories became accepted. American psychologist likely to become timid and inhibited one-year-olds Gordon Allport (1897-1967), who came to dislike psy- when their mothers were firm and direct in their limit- choanalytic theory and behaviorism because of their em- setting behavior in response to infant transgressions like phasis on seeking universal theories to explain all human pulling at plants or getting into the cat food. When behavior and disorders, believed temperament was one of mothers were highly permissive and indirect in their dis- three “raw materials” that distinguish individuals from cipline, highly reactive infants tended to become fearful one another and from other living beings. Along with in- and inhibited. Emmy Werner in a study found that tem- telligence and physique, temperament was genetically de- perament could ease difficult circumstances in the envi- termined and unique within each person. Allport wrote ronment. An easy, sociable temperament provided a pro- that temperament includes a person’s susceptibility to tective buffer for children growing up in difficult cir- emotional stimulation, strength and speed of response, cumstances. The environment can nurture changes both and mood. In a longitudinal study in New York starting positive and negative to reshape an infant’s natural ten- in 1956 with data from more than 100 children that they dencies. Natural tendencies can ameliorate or worsen tracked through adolescence,child psychiatrists Stella environmental situations. Acknowledging the interac- Chess and Alexander Thomas identified at birth nine dif- tions of both temperament and environment during de- ferent temperament characteristics. These characteristics, velopment should make possible continued progress in which could be observed at widely varying degrees in ba- understanding of the intricate multiple influences on a bies influenced their development: activity level, rhyth- human’s life and growth. Neither temperament nor biol- micity or regularity in biological functions, tendency to ogy is destiny. approach or withdraw, adaptability, threshold of respon- siveness, intensity or energy level of reactions, quality of Further Reading mood, distractibility and attention span, and persistence. Bates, J.E., and Wachs, T.D. Temperament: Individual Differ- From these nine dimensions emerged three major tem- ences at the Interface of Biology and Behavior. Washing- peramental types: easy-going children, difficult children, ton, D.C.: APA Press, 1994. and slow-to-warm-up children. Chess and Thomas also Carey, W.B., and McDevitt, S.C. Coping With Children’s Tem- examined the goodness of fit between the individual child perament: A Guide for Professionals. New York: Basic and the environment of the child. Books, 1995. Chess, Stella, and Thomas, Alexander. Know Your Child. Assuming that temperamental qualities can be rated Northvale, N.J.: Jason Aronson, 1996. on continuous dimensions across individuals, some ap- proaches focus the study of temperament on traits. Is- abel Myers, with her mother, Katherine Briggs, pub- lished the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator in 1962, identi- fying 16 different behavior patterns and drawing upon Lewis Terman Carl Jung’s four psychological types. The test was wide- 1877-1956 ly used by psychologists in individual and couples coun- American psychologist whose notable work was seling, as well as in business to provide greater self-un- concentrated in the areas of intelligence testing derstanding. Adults as well as children display tempera- and the comprehensive study of intellectually gift- ments that are individually and uniquely determined by ed children. biology. Discussion in this field has centered on the de- gree to which temperament is inborn nature and the de- Terman was born in Indiana and attended Indiana gree to which temperament is nurtured or coaxed along University and Clark University. He served on the fac- by an infant or child’s environment. ulty of Stanford University as professor of education 642 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

Test anxiety Thalamus A condition characterized by persistent anxiety in test situations that is severe enough to seriously in- terfere with performance. Physical symptoms of test anxiety include a rapid heartbeat, dry mouth, sweating, stomach ache, dizziness, and desire to urinate. The anxiety interferes with concen- tration and memory, making it difficult or impossible to recall previously memorized material and resulting in test performance that does not accurately reflect a person’s intelligence or the amount of effort spent preparing for the exam. Often, the memorized material is recalled once the test is over and the person leaves the test room. People with text anxiety are usually conscientious stu- dents who work hard and have high expectations of them- selves. The condition may begin with inadequate perfor- mance on a particular test, which then creates a general fear of the testing situation that hampers future performance, creating a vicious cycle of anxiety and low scores. Very cre- ative students may develop test anxiety when unorthodox responses to questions result in low grades that make them question their own abilities and intelligence. Test anxiety can interfere significantly with a person’s academic accom- Lewis Terman (Archives of the History of American Psychology. Reproduced with permission.) plishment and impair confidence and self-esteem. Sometimes teachers are willing to consider alterna- tive testing procedures, such as oral exams instead of writ- and as professor of psychology. In 1916, Terman pub- ten tests. In some cases, test anxiety can be reduced or lished the first important individual intelligence test to eliminated by having a person work on test-taking skills, be used in the United States, the Stanford-Binet Intel- such as strategies for answering different types of ques- ligence scales. This test was an American revision and tions, and then hone them through practice testing (includ- expansion of the Binet-Simon intelligence test, which ing timed testing if this is a source of apprehension). Both had been developed in France. Along with the Stanford- creating and taking practice tests can help defuse anxiety. Binet, Terman introduced the term intelligence quo- Other techniques that have been used to treat test tient, or I.Q., and its formulation. This concept, and the anxiety include hypnotherapy and biofeedback. The Stanford-Binet test, became very widely used in the beta blocker Inderal, taken on an as-needed basis, has measurement of intelligence. Terman believed that so- helped some people overcome anxiety in test situations. ciety has a need to identify academically gifted chil- dren and to provide them with appropriate educational Further Reading opportunities. In 1921, he began a thoroughly exhaus- Erwin, Bette, and Elza Teresa Dinwiddie. Test Without Trau- tive and very long term study of such children. The re- ma: How to Overcome Test Anxiety and Score Higher on sults of this study, which are scheduled to be an- Every Test. New York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1983. nounced in the year 2010, may be found in Genetic Studies of Genius (1926). Terman’s other books in- clude: The Measurement of Intelligence (1916), Sex and Personality (1936), and The Gifted Child Grows Up (1947). Thalamus See also Binet, Alfred. A collection of cell body clusters located in the middle of the forebrain. Further Reading Minton, Henry L. Lewis M. Terman. New York: New York Uni- The thalamus is a relatively large collection of cell versity Press, 1988. body clusters shaped like two small footballs. It is in- GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 643

Thematic Apperception Test volved in receiving sensory information from the eyes Edward Thorndike was born in Williamsburg, Edward Thorndike and other sense organs, processing that information, and then transmitting it to primary sensory zones in the cere- 1874-1949 bral cortex. The thalamus also processes pain signals American educational psychologist best known for from the spinal cord as well as information from differ- his experimentally derived theories of learning and ent parts of the cerebral hemispheres, and relays it to the his influence on behaviorism. cerebellum and the medulla. Together with the hypo- thalamus, the thalamus forms part of the forebrain called the diencephalon. England towns where his father served as a Methodist By registering the sensory properties of food, such as minister. After receiving his bachelor’s degree from texture and temperature, the thalamus plays a role in ap- Massachusetts, and grew up in a succession of New petite. It is also known to be involved in the control of Wesleyan University, Thorndike did graduate work in sleep and wakefulness. Cognitive researchers have found psychology, first at Harvard under the guidance of that the thalamus activates or integrates language func- William James and later at Columbia under James Mc- tions, plays a role in memory, and that a portion of the Keen Cattell. His first major research project—under- thalamus, called the pulvinar, helps in refocusing atten- taken while he was still a graduate student—involved tion. Together with the hippocampus and parts of the cor- trial-and-error learning, using first chickens and then tex, it is instrumental in the formation of new memories, cats. Observing the behavior of cats attempting to es- which are then thought to be stored in the cerebral cortex. cape from enclosed “puzzle boxes,” Thorndike noted that responses that produced satisfaction—escape from See also Brain. the box and subsequent feeding—were “stamped in” and more likely to be repeated in the future, while re- sponses that led to failure, and thus dissatisfaction, tended to be “stamped out.” Thorndike termed this ob- Thematic Apperception Test servation the law of effect, one of two laws of learning he derived from his research. The other law, called the Assesses personality. law of exercise, stated that associations that are prac- ticed are stamped in, while others are extinguished. Ap- The Thematic Apperception Test is an untimed, in- plied to humans, these laws became an important foun- dividually administered psychological test used for per- dation of both behaviorist psychology and modern sonality assessment. Suitable for ages 14-40, it is used to learning theory. Thorndike based his doctoral disserta- identify dominant drives, emotions, and conflicts, as tion on his research, which he also published in the well as levels of emotional maturity, observational skills, form of a monograph in 1898. After earning his Ph.D., imagination, and creativity. The subject is shown a se- Thorndike spent a year on the faculty of Case Western ries of pictures, one at a time, and asked to make up a Reserve University, after which he was appointed pro- story about each one, and his or her responses are evalu- fessor of educational psychology at Columbia’s ated by a trained psychologist. The test is usually given Teachers’ College, where he remained until his retire- in two sessions, with 10 pictures shown in each one. Ses- ment. Thorndike made many early and significant con- sions are untimed but generally last about an hour. (For tributions to the field of experimental animal psycholo- children ages 3-10, see Children’s Apperception Test.) gy, successfully arguing that his findings had relevant implications for human psychology. Further Reading McCullough, Virginia. Testing and Your Child: What You Upon his return to New York, Thorndike turned his Should Know About 150 of the Most Common Medical, attention to a new research area—termed “transfer of Educational, and Psychological Tests. New York: Plume, training”—which was concerned with the effect of per- 1992. formance in one discipline on performance in others. Shore, Milton F., Patrick J. Brice, and Barbara G. Love. When The belief in such a connection had sustained the tradi- Your Child Needs Testing: What Parents, Teachers, and tional system of instruction in formal disciplines, such as Other Helpers Need to Know about Psychological Test- the classics, through the rationale that achievement in a ing. New York: Crossroad, 1992. given field equipped students for success in other areas. Walsh, W. Bruce, and Nancy E. Betz. Tests and Assessment. 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990. Working together with his friend and colleague, Robert Wodrich, David L., and Sally A. Kush. Children’s Psychologi- Woodworth, Thorndike found that training in specific cal Testing: A Guide for Nonpsychologists. 2nd ed. Balti- tasks produced very little improvement in the ability to more, MD: Brookes Publishing Co., 1990. perform different tasks. These findings, published in 644 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

gence (1926), The Fundamentals of Learning (1932), The Psychology of Wants, Interests, and Attitudes (1935), and Human Nature and the Social Order (1940). Further Reading Edward Chace Tolman Clifford, G. J. Edward L. Thorndike: The Sane Positivist. Mid- dletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1984. Edward Chace Tolman 1886-1959 American psychologist and one of the leaders of the behaviorist movement. Edward Tolman was born on April 14, 1886, in Newton, Massachusetts. After graduation from the New- ton public schools in 1907 and from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1911, he did graduate study in psychology at Harvard. At Harvard (1911-1915), Tolman witnessed the initial reaction of the academic world to two new sets of psychological ideas: those of the Gestalt psychologists (Wolfgang Köhler, Kurt Koffka, and Max Wertheimer) and those of John B. Watson, the be- Edward L.Thorndike (The Library of Congress. Reproduced haviorist. with permission.) Tolman’s later theory of behavior is rooted in these two schools. From Gestalt psychology he bor- rowed the idea of pattern: in Tolman’s theory, percep- 1901, helped undermine the tradition of formal disci- tion, motivation, and cognition are regarded as plines in favor of educational methods that were more processes in which patterns of stimulation are identi- specifically task-oriented. fied and interpreted and patterns of reactions are planned and executed. From behaviorism he borrowed Continuing to focus on human learning, Thorndike the idea that such mental processes must be objectively became a pioneer in the application of psychological defined in terms of behavioral properties that can be principles to areas such as the teaching of reading, lan- objectively recorded. Such objectivity is necessary, he guage acquisition, and mental testing. In 1903, he pub- thought, not only in our study of the mental processes lished Educational Psychology, in which he applied the of rats, cats, monkeys, and so on, but also in our study learning principles he had discovered in his animal re- of our own mental processes. Whatever is private or search to humans. In the following year, Thorndike’s In- subjective in our mental processes is, he claimed, for- troduction to the Theory of Mental and Social Measure- ever protected from scientific scrutiny because by defi- ments (1904), which provided administrators and users nition such intrinsically private states have no influ- of intelligence tests access to statistical data about test ence on our overt behavior. results. Thorndike also devised a scale to measure chil- In 1918, Tolman went to the University of Califor- dren’s handwriting in 1910 and a table showing the fre- nia at Berkeley, where he began to study maze learning quency of words in English (The Teacher’s Word Book of in rats—a research program that made the department of 30,000 Words, 1944), which has been useful to re- psychology at Berkeley world-famous. In 1932, Tolman searchers who rely on dictionary words. As a teacher of published Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men. This teachers, Thorndike was directly and indirectly responsi- book presented Tolman’s purposive behaviorism and re- ble for a number of curricular and methodological viewed the new research on rat learning done in his changes in education throughout the United States. A Berkeley laboratory. prolific writer, Thorndike produced over 450 articles and books, including The Elements of Psychology (1905), From 1932 on, Tolman and his students turned out a Animal Intelligence (1911), The Measurement of Intelli- constant flood of papers on animal learning. Tolman’s GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 645

Touch Touch The skin sense that allows us to perceive pressure and related sensations, including temperature and pain. The sense of touch is located in the skin, which is composed of three layers: the epidermis, dermis, and hy- podermis. Different types of sensory receptors, varying in size, shape, number, and distribution within the skin, are responsible for relaying information about pressure, temperature, and pain. The largest touch sensor, the Pacinian corpuscle, is located in the hypodermis, the in- nermost thick fatty layer of skin, which responds to vi- bration. Free nerve endings—neurons that originate in the spinal cord, enter and remain in the skin—transmit information about temperature and pain from their loca- tion at the bottom of the epidermis. Hair receptors in the dermis, which are wrapped around each follicle, respond to the pressure produced when the hairs are bent. All the sensory receptors respond not to continued pressure but rather to changes in pressure, adapting quickly to each new change, so that, for example, the skin is unaware of the continual pressure produced by clothes. Once stimu- lated by sensation, the receptors trigger nerve impulses Edward Chase Tolman (Archives of the History of American which travel to the somatosensory cortex in the parietal Psychology. Reproduced with permission.) lobe of the brain, where they are transformed into sensa- tions. Sensitivity to touch varies greatly among different only other book was Drives toward War (1942). This parts of the body. Areas that are highly sensitive, such as book surveyed studies of animal behavior in search of an the fingers and lips, correspond to a proportionately explanation of the motives that drive men to war and a large area of the sensory cortex. description of the social controls that would have to be Sensory receptors encode various types of informa- enforced in a warless society. The book also shows the tion about objects with which the skin comes in contact. strong impact of Sigmund Freud upon Tolman’s theory We can tell how heavy an object is by both the firing rate of motivation. of individual neurons and by the number of neurons stimulated. (Both the firing rate and the number of neu- On June 14, 1949, the regents of the University of rons are higher with a heavier object.) Changes in the fir- California handed an ultimatum to the Academic Sen- ing rate of neurons tell us whether an object is stationary ate: sign the new special loyalty oath or face dismissal! or vibrating, and the spatial organization of the neurons On that day Tolman became the leader of the nonsign- gives us information about its location. ers, those who were fired by the regents for refusing to submit to this naked attack upon academic freedom. The temperature of human skin is usually about After a 10-year court battle, the regents’ case was repu- 89°F (32°C). Objects or surroundings at this level— diated by the courts: the special loyalty oath was de- known as physiological zero—produce no sensation of clared unconstitutional, and the nonsigners were rein- temperature. Warmth is felt at higher temperatures and stated with back pay. On November 19, 1959, Tolman coldness at lower ones. Some of the sensory receptors in died in Berkeley. the skin respond specifically to changes in temperature. These receptors are further specialized, as certain ones Further Reading sense warmth and increase their firing rates in tempera- Tolman, Edward Chace. Purposive behavior in animals and tures of 95 to 115°F (33 to 46°C), while others sense men. 1932. cold. Sensations of warmth and coldness are differentiat- Tolman, Edward Chace. Collected papers in psychology. 1951. ed on a skin area as small as one square centimeter. Taylor, Charles. The explanation of behavior. 1964. Within that area, cold will be felt at about six points and Stewart, George R. The year of the oath 1950. warmth at two. When cold and warm stimuli are touched 646 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

at the same time, a sensation of extreme heat is felt, a in two forms: motor and vocal tics. Motor tics are uncon- phenomenon known as “paradoxical hotness.” Touch and trollable body movements, such as blinking, grimacing, temperature interact in some sensors, producing phe- shrugging, or tossing one’s head.Vocal tics, which involve nomena such as the fact that warm and cold objects feel the muscles that produce speech, take the form of uncon- Tourette syndrome heavier than those at moderate temperatures. trolled speech and involuntary noises, including snorting, hissing, yelping, sniffing, grunting, throat-clearing, and With free nerve endings as receptors, pain carries in- yelling. For a diagnosis of Tourette syndrome to be made, formation to the brain about a real or potential injury to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-IV) of the the body. Pain from the skin is transmitted through two American Psychiatric Association specifies criteria, in- types of nerve fibers. A-delta fibers relay sharp, pricking cluding multiple motor tics and at least one vocal tic, oc- types of pain, while C fibers carry dull aches and burning curring numerous times every day or almost daily for a sensations. Pain impulses are relayed to the spinal cord, period of over one year, with no tic-free period longer than where they interact with special neurons that transmit three months, and onset of symptoms before the age of 18. signals to the thalamus and other areas of the brain. There are two basic types of tics: simple and complex. Each neuron responds to a number of different pain Simple tics are isolated movements (such as blinking, stimuli. Pain is carried by many types of neurotransmit- kicking, or twitching) that involve only one part of the ters, a fact that has made it possible to develop numerous body. Complex tics are more involved and take the form types of pain-relieving medications. Many factors affect of recognizable actions, such as poking, hitting, biting, how pain is experienced. Pain thresholds vary with the and grooming behaviors (such as smoothing one’s hair). individual and the occasion. Intensely concentrated ac- They also include imitating the actions of others and mak- tivity may diminish or even eliminate the perception of ing involuntary obscene gestures. Complex vocal tics in- pain for the duration of the activity. Natural mechanisms, volve recognizable words (or animal sounds) as opposed including replacement by input from other senses, can to simple noises. These may include the repetition of short block pain sensations. The brain can also block pain by phrases, such as “Oh, boy,” the repetition of a single word, signals sent through the spinal cord, a process that in- repetition of the words of others (echolalia), or involun- volves the neurotransmitter serotonin and natural tary swearing (coprolalia), which is one of the most publi- painkillers known as endorphins. cized symptoms of the disorder, although it affects fewer than 10% of people with TS. Besides tics, there are several types of behavior often associated with Tourette syndrome. At least half the per- Tourette syndrome sons affected with TS show symptoms of obsessive-com- A genetic, neurological disorder characterized by pulsive disorder (OCD), a psychological condition that motor and vocal tics and associated behavioral fea- involves repeated intrusive and senseless thoughts (obses- tures including obsessions and compulsions and sions) and repetitive behavior (compulsions) intended to hyperactivity. stop them. An obsession may be an ordinary but inappro- priately intense desire (such as a preoccupation with vis- Tourette syndrome (TS) affects roughly one in every iting a certain store) or an outlandish idea, such as a wish 2,500 persons. The incidence of the condition is at least to walk across the dinner table or touch a stranger. Com- three times higher in males than in females. Historically, pulsions are pointless activities that a person with OCD Tourette syndrome has been a largely misunderstood can not help repeating, such as turning lights on and off, condition; it has been identified as demonic possession, counting things over and over, or arranging objects in a epilepsy, schizophrenia, and other mental disorders, and certain pattern. OCD symptoms can be extremely debili- was formerly thought to be the result of emotional prob- tating, taking time away from normal pursuits, including lems due to faulty childrearing. The condition was first schoolwork and social activities. The other major behav- identified as a physiological disorder in 1885 by the ior disorder associated with Tourette syndrome is atten- French neurologist Gilles de la Tourette. Although the tion deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), whose causes of Tourette syndrome are still not fully under- symptoms include hyperactivity, inability to concentrate, stood, researchers have made substantial progress in un- and impulse control disorders. Some persons with derstanding and treating the condition. Tourette syndrome have both OCD and ADHD. Symptoms Causes and onset of Tourette syndrome Tics—sudden, repetitive, involuntary muscular move- Tourette syndrome, once thought to be caused by ments—are the hallmark of Tourette syndrome, appearing psychological problems, is now known to be a genetic GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 647

Symptoms of Tourette syndrome usually appear be- Tourette syndrome The Tourette Syndrome Association (TSA) is a na- fore the age of 18. Children with TS develop their first TOURETTE SYNDROME tics at the age of six or seven, but show other signs of the ASSOCIATION, INC. disorder, including sleep problems, language difficulties, and oppositional behavior, in early childhood, often by tional voluntary non-profit membership organization tic, often in the head area (most frequently repeated whose mission it is to identify the cause, find the cure for and control the effects of, Tourette Syndrome (TS). TS the age of two or three. TS usually starts with a single blinking). The initial tics are generally simple motor tics is a neurological disorder characterized by various in the head and upper extremities. As the disorder pro- motor and vocal tics, ranging from mild to severe. Mem- gresses, the tics gradually move downward to include the bers of TSA include those with the disorder, their fami- torso and lower extremities. Vocal tics usually begin at lies, and other interested and concerned individuals. about the age of nine; complex vocal tics such as copro- The Tourette Syndrome Association was founded in lalia are among the last to appear. Tics in people with TS 1972 in order to disseminate information to interested are suppressed under certain conditions, usually during individuals, health professionals and agencies in the sleep and when an individual is engaged in an activity fields of education and government and to coordinate that requires intense concentration. In some cases, chil- support groups for affected individuals and their fami- dren with TS can even manage to keep their tics under- lies. TSA also funds research to find the cause of TS and control voluntarily in situations where they fear embar- its ultimate cure and to find improvedmedications and rassment, although this takes an immense effort and af- treatments. Today, its membership includes many thou- terwards the suppressed tics emerge with even greater sands of individuals and organizations. force than usual. The symptoms of Tourette syndrome The activities of TSA are diverse, ranging from sup- increase through childhood and peak during adoles- port and counseling to the publication of educational cence, after which their intensity usually decreases. An materials. For instance, TSA offers direct help to families estimated 20-30% of all children with TS outgrow the in crisis situations through its National Service Response condition entirely by adulthood. Team. In addition, the Association maintains a data base of those diagnosed with TS, sponsors a Brain Bank Pro- gram for collection of tissue needed for research, and Treatment maintains a state-by-state list of doctors who diagnose and treat TS. The Association also represents the interests Although there is no medical cure for Tourette syn- of members to the government on crucial policy issues. drome, medications can relieve many of its symptoms. Currently, the medications of choice for the suppression The Tourette Syndrome Association, Inc. has avail- of tics are antihypertensives, notably Catapres, which re- able an extensive list of publications and video tapes duces tics by 60% in most patients with only minor side concerning symptoms, diagnosis and treatment options for TS discussed in detail. TSA also publishes a quarterly effects. Related drugs that have proven effective in tic newsletter outlining the latest treatments, research pro- suppression are Tenex, another antihypertensive, and grams and scientific discoveries. Klonopin, an antianxiety medication. Another class of drugs, theneuroleptics (including Haldol, Orap, and Pro- lixin) are even more effective than antihypertensives in disorder. About 90% of children with TS have a family suppressing tics, but for most children their advantages history of TS or related disorders, such as other condi- are outweighed by side effects, including concentration tions involving tics. Some persons are genetic carriers of and memory impairment, weight gain, and drowsiness. Tourette syndrome without actually having symptoms In addition to drugs used for the suppression of tics, themselves (these are almost always females; roughly additional medications are used to treat other behavioral 99% of males who carry the genetic tendency toward the symptoms associated with Tourette syndrome. Antide- disorder develop symptoms). The biological basis for pressants, such as Prozac and Anafranil, are effective in Tourette syndrome is an imbalance in the brain’s neuro- treating obsessive compulsive symptoms, and ADHD is transmitters, chemicals that transport messages between commonly treated with Ritalin or other stimulants. Com- nerve cells. The main neurotransmitter affected in peo- bining these different types of medications can be a diffi- ple with TS is dopamine, which controls movement. Re- cult balancing act, and their effects need to be carefully search has shown that two other neurotransmitters, norep- monitored by both parents and physicians. For example, inephrine and serotonin, also play a role in the condition. the Ritalin used for ADHD may worsen a child’s tics, In addition, imaging techniques, such as brain scans, have and tricyclic antidepressants such as Norpramin and shown abnormalities in the size and functioning of cer- Anafranil may have to be considered as an alternative tain parts of the brain in persons affected by TS. treatment for ADHD symptoms. Another symptom of 648 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

Tourette syndrome that is sometimes treated with med- Bruun, Ruth Dowling, and Bertel Bruun. A Mind of Its Own: ication is uncontrolled aggression, which may be de- Tourette’s Syndrome, A Story and a Guide. New York: Ox- creased by Tegretol or lithium carbonate. Although med- ford University Press,1994. ications are universally considered the first line of treat- Comings, David. Tourette Syndrome and Human Behavior. Tourette syndrome ment for Tourette syndrome, relaxation techniques, in- Duarte, CA: Hope Press, 1990. Fowler, Rick. The Unwelcome Companion: An Insider’s View cluding self-hypnosis, can also be very helpful in of Tourette Syndrome. Cashiers, NC: Silver Run Publica- reducing symptoms of the disorder, which worsen with tions,1995. tension. Physical activity is also an excellent way for Haerle, Tracy, ed. Children with Tourette Syndrome: A Parents’ children with TS to reduce tension and work off their Guide. Rockville, MD: Woodbine House,1992. extra energy. Koplewicz, Harold. It’s Nobody’s Fault: New Hope and Help for Difficult Children and Their Parents. New York: Ran- Effects on schoolwork dom House, 1996. Kurlan, Roger, ed. Handbook of Tourette’s Syndrome and Re- In spite of the variety of possible symptoms associ- lated Tic and Behavioral Disorders. New York: M. ated with Tourette syndrome, about half of all children Dekker,1993. who have the disorder require only minor adjustments in Seligman, Adam, and John S. Hilkevich, eds. Don’t Think- order to function successfully in school. The rest require About Monkeys: Extraordinary Stories by People with special educational programs to accommodate their Tourette Syndrome. Duarte, Calif.: Hope Press, 1992. needs. TS can disrupt a child’s schoolwork in a number Further Information of different ways. Tics can make it difficult to concen- Tourette Syndrome Association, Inc. 42-40 Bell Boulevard, trate or to perform certain tasks. Ironically, the effort re- Bayside, NY 11361–2820, (800) 237–0717, (718) quired to suppress them can be just as disruptive because 224–2999. it requires so much energy. Tics can also interfere with Tourette Syndrome Clinic. City of Hope National Medical the normal school experience by impeding the develop- Center. 1500 E. Duarte Rd., Duarte, CA 91010, (818) ment of social skills if youngsters feel ostracized by their 359–8111. peers because of their unusual behavior. OCD symptoms also interfere with school performance because preoccu- pation with obsessive thoughts and the time spent per- forming compulsive actions make it difficult for children Traits to concentrate on and complete theiracademic tasks. Children whose TS symptoms include ADHD have trou- Characteristics that differ from one person to an- ble with the organizational and concentration skills and other in a continuous and consistent way. the self-control needed for successful performance in school. Fortunately, medication helps alleviate tics and Traits include such personality characteristics as in- symptoms of OCD and ADHD in many children, giving troversion,aggressiveness, generosity, nervousness, and them a better chance of succeeding in school. However, creativity. Systems that address personality as a combi- about 40% of children with Tourette syndrome often nation of qualities or dimensions are called trait theories. have additional learning disabilities that require atten- The first comprehensive trait theory was that of Gor- tion, including problems with reading, math, handwrit- don Allport (1897-1967). Over a period of thirty years, ing, and spelling. In many children with TS, educational Allport investigated over 18,000 separate traits, propos- problems peak between the ages of 11 and 13 and then ing several principles to make this lengthy list manage- gradually decrease in severity. Parents of children with able for practical purposes. One was the distinction be- Tourette syndrome whose symptoms interfere with their tween personal dispositions, which are peculiar to a sin- ability to learn in a regular classroom environment gle individual, and common traits, which can be used for should become familiar with their children’s rights to an describing and comparing different people. While person- individualized education program under Public Law 94- al dispositions reflect the individual personality more ac- 142, the 1975 federal law aimed at insuring an adequate curately, one needs to use common traits to make any education for children with special needs. kind of meaningful assessment of people in relation to each other. Allport also claimed that about seven central Further Reading traits dominated each individual personality (he described Baton Rouge Tourette’s Support Group. Toughing Out- these as the type of characteristic that would appear in a Tourette’s. Baton Rouge, LA: Baton Rouge Tourette’s Support Group,1989. letter of recommendation). Another concept devised by Buehrens, Adam. Hi, I’m Adam. Duarte, CA:Hope Press, 1991. Allport was the cardinal trait—a quality so intense that it [Juvenile] governs virtually all of a person’s activities (Mother GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 649

Transference is the tendency for a client in psy- Traits Theresa’s cardinal trait would be humanitarianism, for chotherapy, known as the analysand, to transfer emo- example, while that of the fictional character Ebenezer Scrooge would be avarice). Secondary traits, in contrast, tional responses to their therapists that reflect feelings are those that govern less of a person’s behavior and are the analysand has for other significant people in his or more specific to certain situations. her life. Transference often echoes clients’ relationships with their parents or with other persons who played a Using the statistical technique of factor analysis, central role in their childhood. They may become ex- Raymond B. Cattell reduced Allport’s list of traits to a cessively dependent on or sexually attracted to the ther- much smaller number and then proceeded to divide these apist; they may develop feelings of hostility or detach- into clusters that express more basic dimensions of per- ment. Whatever form transference takes, it is considered sonality (for example, the pairs talkative-silent, open-se- to be at the heart of the therapeutic process. Sigmund cretive, and adventurous-cautious can all be grouped Freud believed that clients need to relive the central under the overall source trait of extroversion). Eventual- emotional experiences of their lives through transfer- ly he arrived at 16 fundamental source traits and devel- ence in order to become convinced of the existence and oped a questionnaire to measure them—the Sixteen Per- power of their own unconscious attachments and moti- sonality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF)—which uses the vations. The awareness gained through transference answers to over 100 yes-or-no questions to arrive at a helps clients understand the sources of their behavior personality profile. and actively aids them in working through and resolving Hans Eysenck has also proposed a factor-analytic their problems. trait model of human personality. However, Eysenck’s Sigmund Freud described the workings of transfer- model focuses on the following three dominant dimen- ence using an analogy to chemistry. Likening the clients’ sions that combine various related traits: psychoticism symptoms to precipitates resulting from earlier emotional (characterized by various types of antisocial behavior), attachments, he compared the therapist to a catalyst and introversion-extroversion, and emotionality/neuroticism- the effects of transference to a higher temperature at stability. Eysenck has also combined the introversion-ex- which the symptoms could be transformed. According to troversion and emotionality-stability scales into a model Freud, the phenomenon of transference is not unique to containing four quadrants whose groupings of traits cor- the psychoanalytic relationship between client and thera- respond roughly to the four types of personality outlined pist—significant patterns of relationship are commonly by the physician Hippocrates over 2,000 years ago in an- re-enacted with “substitutes” other than psychotherapists. cient Greece—sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic, and Psychoanalysis,however, is unique in drawing attention melancholic. to this process and utilizing it for therapeutic purposes. Other trait-oriented theories include those of J.P. Guilford and David McClelland. Currently, a number of Further Reading psychologists interested in a trait approach to personality Freud, Sigmund. New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanaly- believe that the following five factors, rather than sis. New York: W. W. Norton, 1933. Eysenck’s three, are most useful in assessing personality: Hall, Calvin S. A Primer of Freudian Psychology. New York: extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroti- Harper and Row, 1982. cism, and openness to experience. A questionnaire called the NEO Personality Inventory, often called “the big five,” has been developed to assess these factors. Further Reading Transgender Allport, Gordon W. Personality and Social Encounter: Select- Condition in which an individual wishes to live as ed Essays. Boston: Beacon Press, 1960. if he or she were of the opposite gender, sometimes Eysenck, Hans. The Structure of Human Personality. London: seeking surgical procedures to change from one Methuen, 1970. sex to the other. Transgender, or transsexualism, a condition in which the individual defines him or herself as male or fe- male in opposition to their physical gender, or feels Transference strongly that he or she wants to live as a member of the The tendency of clients to transfer to the therapist other gender, is rare. By some estimates, no more than 1 their emotional responses to significant people in person in 350,000 believes he or she was born the wrong their lives. gender. 650 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

As they progress through childhood, their inability other multiple births include the mother’s race and age, to relate to their own gender identity increases. Some and the number of previous births. The rate of twin Twins seek the advice of a physician, and by the time they births in Japan is 0.7 percent, while the Yoruba of Nige- reach early adulthood, begin to take medical action to ria have a rate as high as 4 percent. Dizygotic twinning alter their gender. Since more males than females are di- appears to be a sex-linked genetic trait passed on by fe- agnosed as transsexuals, it is more common for males to male relatives in the same family. The chances of hav- receive hormone treatment to develop secondary sex ing fraternal twins are increased about five times if a characteristics, such as breasts. In some cases, a surgical woman is a fraternal twin, has fraternal twin siblings or procedure is performed to alter the male sex organs to fraternal twin relatives on her side of the family, or has physically complete the transformation from one gender already given birth to fraternal twins (one in twenty to the other. chance). While the rate of identical twin births is stable for all ages of childbearing women, the chance of any At the Netherlands Institute for Brain Research in mother bearing fraternal twins increases from the age Amsterdam, scientists studied six male-to-female trans- of 15 to 39 and then drops after age 40. For women of sexuals and found evidence that a section of the hypo- all ages, the more children they have had previously, thalamus that controls sexual function appeared to be the more likely they are to bear twins. Since the 1960s, more like the type found in women than that found in fertility drugs have also been linked to the chances of men. Because human embryos destined to become males producing twins. The majority of research indicates differentiate early in the development process, the that fathers’ genes have little effect on the chances of Netherlands study raises the question of whether the de- producing twins. veloping embryo could receive mixed hormonal signals to portions of the brain and the developing genitalia. There are four types of monozygotic twins, deter- Thus, as of the late 1990s, research seems to indicate mined by the manner in which the fertilized egg, or zy- that there may be physical reasons for transsexualism. gote, divides and the stage at which this occurs. Two in- dependent embryonic structures may be produced im- Further Reading mediately at division, or the zygote may form two inner Glausiusz, Josie. “Transsexual Brains.” Discover 17, January cell masses, with each developing into an embryo. A 1996, p. 83. late or incomplete division may produce conjoined, or Gorman, Christine. “Trapped in the Body of a Man?” Time 146, November 13, 1995, pp. 94+. Siamese twins. As the zygote develops, it is encased in membranes, the inner of which is called the amnion, and the outer one the chorion. Among monozygotic twins, either or both of these membranes may be either sepa- rate or shared, as may the placenta. Together, the Twins arrangement of these membranes and the placenta oc- Two children or animals born at the same birth. curs in four possible permutations. Among dizygotic twins, each one has separate amnion and chorion mem- Identical, or monozygotic, twins are of the same sex branes, although the placenta may be shared. Ascertain- and are genetically and physically similar because they ing zygosity, or the genetic make up of twins, can be both come from one ovum, which, after fertilization, di- done by analyzing the placenta(s) to determine if it is a vides in two and develops into two separate individuals. single placenta with a single membrane or a double pla- Fraternal, or dizygotic, twins occur when the mother centa, which account for one-third of identical twins produces two eggs in one monthly cycle and both eggs and all fraternal twins. In the case of same-sex twins are fertilized. The conceptions may take place on two with two placentas, a DNA or blood test can determine separate occasions and could involve different fathers. whether they share the same genes or blood groups. Fraternal twins, who are no more genetically alike than The scientific study of twins, pioneered by Sir ordinary siblings, may be of the same or different sex Francis Galton in 1876, is one effective means of deter- and may bear some similarity of appearance. Twin preg- mining genetic influences on human behavior. The most nancies occur on the average in one out of every 80 to widely used method of comparison is comparing 100 births. However, the incidence of twins reflects the monozygotic and dizygotic twins for concordance and number of twin babies born per thousand completed discordance of traits. Concordant traits are those pos- pregnancies, and it is a fact that many more twins are sessed by either both or neither of a pair of twins; discor- conceived than are born. dant traits are possessed by only one of the pair. The causes of identical twinning are not fully un- Monozygotic twins who are discordant for a particular derstood. Factors affecting the frequency of twin and trait can be compared with each other with reference to GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 651

Twins These identical twins in San Francisco make an effort to act and dress alike. (Alison Wright. Photo Researchers, Inc. Reproduced with permission.) other traits. This type of study has provided valuable in- research seemed to indicate that persons with a type A formation on the causes of schizophrenia. Personality were at higher risk for coronary heart dis- ease—a medical condition that consists of a narrowing Another common type of twin research compares of the blood vessels that supply blood to the heart. monozygotic twins reared together with those reared Type A people are achievement oriented, irritable, im- apart, providing valuable information about the role of en- patient with delays, and seem to be always in a hurry. vironment in determining behavior. In general, monozy- The association between heart disease and type A be- gotic twins reared apart are found to bear more similarities haviors was evident, even when other risk factors such to each other than to their respective adoptive parents or as smoking, obesity, or family history were ruled out. siblings. This finding demonstrates the interaction be- In contrast to type As, type B people are less competi- tween the effects of environment and genetic predisposi- tive, and more easygoing than their type A counter- tions on an individual’s psychological development. parts. In a traffic jam, a type A might curse, fume, and See also Nature-Nurture Controversy. change lanes. A type B might relax and listen to the car stereo. While most people do not fall into the extreme ends of the continuum, there are significant numbers of people who do seem to be far more intense and re- active than others. Type A personality A collection of traits consisting of competitiveness, These initial findings provoked widespread public urgency, high achievement, and irritability. interest. Checklists in the popular press allowed people to identify their own personality type. But subsequent In the 1970s, psychologists started investigating studies showed that the relationship between type A be- possible links between personality and health. Initial havior and heart disease was less clear than the initial 652 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

study had suggested. In the initial 1974 study, over 3,000 More recent research has demonstrated that the fea- men aged 35 to 59 were interviewed and classified as ei- ture of type A behavior that is particularly “toxic” is hos- ther type A or type B. Of those who suffered a heart at- tility. Men who are cynical, resentful, chronically angry, tack during the next nine years, 69% were type As. How- and mistrustful are far more likely than non-hostile men Type A personality ever, if they survived the first attack, they subsequently to get heart disease. The picture is less clear for women lived longer than the type Bs. What could account for because fewer women have been included in the studies. this apparent contradiction? It turns out that the descrip- The physiological explanation of the link between hostil- tion of type A behavior needs to be more carefully re- ity and heart disease continues to be a focus of research. fined if we are to learn anything useful about its link with heart disease. Type As are not only reactive, they Timothy Moore are also achievement oriented and highly motivated to succeed. They enjoy challenge and like to know how Further Reading well they are doing. These qualities are likely to cause Miller, T., et al. A meta-analytic review of research on hostility heart attack victims to change their lifestyles in order to and physical health. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 322- prevent a recurrence. 348, 1996. GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 653

U Unconscious Unconscious motivation The part of the mind whose contents people resist Motivating impulses that influence behavior with- bringing into awareness. out conscious awareness. Sigmund Freud assumed that the human mind Unconscious motivation plays a prominent role in was divided into three divisions: the id, ego, and super- Sigmund Freud’s theories of human behavior. According ego, which, in turn, had both conscious and uncon- to Freud and his followers, most human behavior is the scious portions. The id, motivated by two biological result of desires, impulses, and memories that have been drives—sex and aggression—operates according to the repressed into an unconscious state, yet still influence pleasure principle, seeking satisfaction and avoiding actions. Freud believed that the human mind consists of pain. Guided by the reality principle, the ego’s goal is a tiny, conscious part that is available for direct observa- to find safe and socially acceptable ways of satisfying tion and a much larger subconscious portion that plays the id’s desires without transgressing the limits im- an even more important role in determining behavior. posed by the superego. Developing from the ego in The term “Freudian slip” refers to the manifestation childhood, the superego, or conscience, has as its goal of these unconscious impulses. For example, a person to apply moral values in satisfying one’s wishes. Both who responds “Bad to meet you” instead of the usual the ego and superego operate consciously and uncon- “Glad to meet you” may be revealing true feelings. The sciously, according to Freud, while the id is entirely un- substitution of “bad” for “glad” is more than a slip of the conscious. tongue; it is an expression of the person’s unconscious In psychoanalytic theory, developed by Freud in the feelings of fear or dislike. Similarly, a talented athlete treatment of normal and abnormal personalities, the who plays an uncharacteristically poor game could be preconscious and unconscious minds are the reposito- acting on an unconscious desire to punish overbearing or ries of secret or sexual desires that threaten our self-es- inattentive parents. Unknown to the athlete, the substan- teem, or ego. Once in the unconscious, these repressed dard performance actually is communicating an impor- desires and fears give rise to anxiety and guilt, which in- tant message. fluence conscious behavior and thoughts. Freud attrib- Freud also contended that repressed memories and uted the cause of many psychological disorders to the desires are the origins of most mental disorders. Psycho- conflict between conscious and unconscious urges. In analysis was developed as a method of assisting patients order to understand abnormal behaviors and eliminate in bringing their unconscious thoughts to consciousness. them, he theorized, an expert was required, who, in a This increased awareness of the causes for behavior and trusting relationship with the patient, would employ feelings then would assist the patient in modifying the techniques such as dream analysis and free association undesired aspects of behavior. to retrieve materials buried in the unconscious mind. Thus, the driving forces behind behavior could be under- See also Memory; Repression. stood, and unresolved unconscious conflicts and anxiety could become a source of insight for the patient, elimi- Further Reading nating the primary source of abnormal behavior. Atkinson, Rita L.; Richard C. Atkinson; Edward E. Smith; and Ernest R. Hilgard. Introduction to Psychology. 9th ed. San See also Repression. Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1987. 654 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

Clark, David Stafford. What Freud Really Said. New York: pressure may be another factor contributing to under- Schocken Books, 1965. achievement. Parents, educators, and the student can all work to- Underachiever gether to counter underachievement. First, working with the family and school personnel, the student must under- Underachiever stand the factors that contribute to low academic achievement. Factors may include poor time manage- Also referred to as a latent achiever, a person whose ment, self-defeating thought patterns (“I could never get performance is significantly below that which a B in science.”), weak writing skills, poor (or no) study would be predicted by educators. environment (i.e., homework done while watching tele- vision), friends or role models who do not value academ- Although the term “underachiever” commonly ic performance, or self-destructive habits like alcohol or refers to anyone, child or adult, who performs below his drug abuse. Next, the student needs to acknowledge that or her potential, psychologists typically use the term to she could be more successful in school. Parents and refer to a student whose performance in academic stud- teachers can help the student compile a list of strengths, ies falls significantly below his scores on standardized both academic and other, that she can build upon. They tests of aptitude or ability. A student may also be consid- can also help direct the student to peer groups (through ered to be underachieving based on the educator’s evalu- clubs, sports, or other extracurricular activities) that sup- ation of her learning potential in relation to the quality of port academic success. In addition, role models can be the work she does on class assignments. presented to the student to help her focus on the possibil- There are many explanations for achievement that ities in academic life, rather than the limitations. Finally, falls below evaluated potential. Some problems may be where necessary, families can seek counseling and treat- the educational experience itself: bright students may ment for problems such as alcohol abuse that prevent the be bored by class assignments, and therefore do not student from focusing on school. give them much attention; or a student’s learning style may conflict with the method of instruction used in his Further Reading school. Underachievers may also have learning disabil- Griffin, Robert S. Underachievers in Secondary School: Edu- cation Off the Mark. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum ities that prevent them from making full use of their Associates, 1988. capabilities. Family factors may also contribute to a Holt, John. How Children Fail. Revised edition. Reading, MA: pattern of underachievement in a variety of ways. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1995. When parents’ expectations are low or nonexistent (the Lehr, Judy Brown. At-Risk, Low-Achieving Students in the family doesn’t expect the student to do more than Classroom. Washington, D.C.: National Education Asso- pass), the student may work “just hard enough”—well ciation, 1988. below his full potential—to get by. When a student’s Varma, Ved. How and Why Children Fail. Philadelphia: J. peer group does not value academic achievement, peer Kingsley, 1993. GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 655

V personal management styles in many American corpo- Violence rations have been linked to the increase in workplace violence, nearly one-fourth of which end in the perpe- The use of unjustified physical force with the inten- trator’s suicide. tion to injure or damage. One type of violence that has received increased at- The high incidence of violence in the United tention in recent years is domestic violence, a crime for States is of great concern to citizens, lawmakers, and which statistics are difficult to compile because it is so law enforcement agencies alike. Between 1960 and heavily underreported—only about one in 270 incidents 1991, violent crime in the U.S. rose over 370 percent, are thought to be reported to authorities. Estimates of the and over 600,000 Americans are victimized by hand- percentage of women who have been physically abused gun crimes annually. Violent acts committed by juve- by a spouse or partner range from 20 percent to as high niles are of particular concern: the number of Ameri- as 50 percent. According to the FBI, a woman is beaten can adolescents arrested for homicide has increased by every 18 seconds in the United States, and almost one- 85 percent between 1987 and 1991, and more juveniles third of American females murdered in 1992 were killed are committing serious crimes at younger ages than by their husbands or boyfriends. Battering is experienced ever before. Young African American males are partic- by women of all ages, races, ethnic groups, and social ularly at risk for becoming either perpetrators or vic- classes. A chronic pattern of ongoing physical violence tims of violent crime. The Centers for Disease Control and verbal abuse may produce a variant of post-traumat- (CDC) has identified homicide as the leading cause of ic stress disorder referred to as Battered Woman Syn- death for this demographic group, estimating that one drome, in which the victim experiences depression, in every 28 black males born in 1987 is likely to be guilt, passivity, fear, and low self-esteem. murdered. For white males born in 1987, the ratio is Various explanations have been offered for the high one in 205. prevalence of violence in the United States, which is by The threat of violence is particularly disturbing be- far the most violent nation in the industrialized world. cause of new variants—including carjackings, drive-by Among the most prominent has been the argument that shootings, and workplace killings—that threaten Amer- violence depicted in the mass media—including televi- icans in places or situations formerly considered safe. sion, movies, rock and rap music videos, and video The CDC has declared workplace violence an epidem- games—have contributed to the rise in violence in soci- ic, with the number of homicides in the workplace ety. Quantitative studies have found that prime time tripling in the last ten years. Workplace violence may television programs average 10 violent acts per hour, be divided into two types: external and internal. Exter- while children’s cartoons average 32 acts of violence nal workplace violence is committed by persons unfa- per hour. On-screen deaths in feature films such as miliar with the employer and employees, occurring at Robocop and Die Hard range from 80 to 264. It has also random or as an attempt at making a symbolic state- been argued that experiencing violence vicariously in ment to society at large. Internal workplace violence is these forms is not a significant determinant of violent generally committed by an individual involved in either behavior and that it may even have a beneficial cathartic a troubled spousal or personal relationship with a co- effect. However, experimental studies have found corre- worker, or as an attempt to seek revenge against an em- lations between the viewing of violence and increased ployer, usually for being released from employment. interpersonal aggression, both in childhood and, later, The rising percentage of layoffs, downsizing, and im- in adolescence. Viewing violence can elicit aggressive 656 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

The fence surrounding the Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City bears the memories of the victims of the building’s Violence 1995 bombing. Violent crime rates in the U.S. have dramatically increased in recent years. (Pat J. Carter. AP/Wide World Photos. Reproduced with permission.) behavior through modeling, increasing the viewer’s a person commits a violent act, the probability that he or arousal, desensitizing viewers to violence, reducing re- she will commit more violent acts increases. Psychoses, straints on aggressive behavior, and distorting views including schizophrenia,major affective disorders, and about conflict resolution. paranoid states are also closely linked to violence, as is erotomania, or romantic obsession. This condition in- Other causal factors that have been linked to vio- volves an idealized romantic love (often for someone, lence include the prevalence of gangs, the introduction of such as a celebrity, with whom one has no personal rela- crack cocaine in the mid-1980s, the increase in single- tionship) that becomes a fixation. Such actions as unso- parent families, and the lack of tighter restrictions on gun licited letters and phone calls, and stalking eventually ownership. In addition, scientists have found a possible lead to violence, either out of revenge for being rejected link between violence and heredity: studies have shown or so that the object of the fixation may not become in- that males born with an extra Y chromosome (type XYY) volved with anyone else. are more likely than normal to be inmates of prisons or Depression is also associated with violence, often in mental hospitals. The significance of these findings has the form of suicide. Two personality disorders related to been disputed, however, as XYY males in the general violence—particularly in the workplace—are antisocial population are not more violent than other males. The ef- personality disorder (“sociopaths”) and borderline fects of a genetic predisposition are also tempered by in- personality disorder (characterized by instability and teraction with a variety of environmental factors. Of the lack of boundaries in interpersonal relationships). Chem- men who are genetically predisposed to violence, only a ical dependence can lead to violence by interfering with minority will actually commit acts of aggression. the ability to distinguish right from wrong, removing so- There are a number of more credible predictors of cial inhibitions, and inducing paranoia and/or aggres- individual violence, most of them psychological. The sion. Other possible indicators of violence include neu- most reliable indicator is a history of violence: each time rological impairment, an excessive interest in weapons, a GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 657

Vision high level of frustration with one’s environment, and the discrimination, and unemployment—through direct so- cioeconomic intervention. pathological blaming of others for one’s problems. In recent years, a public health approach to violence has been widely advocated. This orientation stresses out- reach to those segments of the population among whom Vision violence is most prevalent in an attempt to alter attitudes and behaviors that contribute to it, and to teach the skills The process of transforming light energy into neur- necessary for the nonviolent resolution of conflicts. al impulses that can then be interpreted by the Teenagers, in particular, as well as their parents, are tar- brain. geted in these efforts, especially in areas with high crime rates. This approach has been criticized by those who be- The human eye is sensitive to only a limited range lieve that violence should be dealt with by addressing its of radiation, consisting of wavelengths between approxi- underlying structural causes—including poverty, racial mately 400 to 750 nanometers (billionths of a meter). A human has a field of vision that covers almost 180°, although binocular vision is limited to the approximately 120° common to both eyes. The field extends upward about 60° and down about 75° Eye Optic nerve Optic chiasm Optic tract Lateral geniculate nucleus Optic radiations Primary visual cortex Because the nerve fibers from the left half of the retina of the left eye go to the left side of the brain and fibers from the left half of the right eye cross the optic chiasm and go to the left side of the brain as well, all the information from the two left half-retinas ends up in the left half of the brain. And because the lens of the eye reverses the image it sees, it is information from the right half of the visual field that is going to the left visual cortex. Likewise, information from the left half of the visual field goes to the right visual cortex. How the eye works. (Hans & Cassidy. Gale Research. Reproduced with permission.) 658 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

The full spectrum of visible color is contained within area, which contains no receptor cells, creates a blind this range, with violet at the low end and red at the high spot in each eye, whose effects are offset by using both end. Light is converted into neural impulses by the eye, eyes together and also by an illusion the brain creates to whose spherical shape is maintained by its outermost fill in this area when one eye is used alone. Branches of layer, the sclera. When a beam of light is reflected off an the optic nerve cross at a junction in the brain in front of Vocational Aptitude Test object, it first enters the eye through the cornea, a round- the pituitary gland and underneath the frontal lobes ed transparent portion of the sclera that covers the pig- called the optic chiasm and ascend into the brain itself. mented iris. The iris constricts to control the amount of The nerve fibers extend to a part of the thalamus called light entering the pupil, a round opening at the front of the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN), and neurons from the eye. A short distance beyond the pupil, the light pass- the LGN relay their visual input to the primary visual es through the lens, a transparent oval structure whose cortex of both the left and right hemispheres of the brain, curved surface bends and focuses the light wave into a where the impulses are transformed into simple visual narrower beam, which is received by the retina. When sensations. (Objects in the left visual field are viewed the retina receives an image, it is upside down because only through the right brain hemisphere, and vice versa.) light rays from the top of the object are focused at the The primary visual cortex then sends the impulses to bottom of the retina, and vice versa. This upside-down neighboring association areas which add meaning or “as- image must be rearranged by the brain so that objects sociations” to them. can be seen right side up. In order for the image to be fo- cused properly, light rays from each of its points must Further Reading converge at a point on the retina, rather than in front of Hubel, David. Eye, Brain, and Vision. New York: Scientific or behind it. Aided by the surrounding muscles, the lens American Library, 1987. of the eye adjusts its shape to focus images properly on the retina so that objects viewed at different distances can be brought into focus, a process known as accommo- dation. As people age, this process is impaired because Visual angle the lens loses flexibility, and it becomes difficult to read or do close work without glasses. In viewing an object through one eye, the visual angle is the angle formed at the nodal point of the eye by The retina, lining the back of the eye, consists of ten straight lines from opposite edges of the object. layers of cells containing photoreceptors (rods and cones) that convert the light waves to neural impulses through a photochemical reaction. Aside from the differences in shape suggested by their names, rod and cone cells con- tain different light-processing chemicals (photopig- Vocational Aptitude Test ments), perform different functions, and are distributed A predictive test designed to measure an individ- differently within the retina. Cone cells, which provide ual’s potential for success and satisfaction in any of color vision and enable us to distinguish details, adapt various occupations and professions. quickly to light and are most useful in adequate lighting. Rod cells, which can pick up very small amounts of light As a general example, a vocational aptitude test but are not color-sensitive, are best suited for situations in might consist of an instrument that assesses an individ- which lighting is minimal. Because the rod cells are ac- ual’s abilities, personality characteristics, and interests, tive at night or in dim lighting, it is difficult to distinguish and compares the individual’s responses to those persons colors under these circumstances. Cones are concentrated considered to be successful in their occupations and pro- in the fovea, an area at the center of the retina, whereas fessions, with a notation of points of similarity and dis- rods are found only outside this area and become more similarity. numerous the farther they are from it. Thus, it is more dif- Vocational aptitude tests are valuable to both em- ficult to distinguish colors when viewing objects at the ployers and prospective employees in a given occupa- periphery of one’s visual field. tion. To the prospective employee, the test results offer The photoreceptor cells of the retina generate an guidance in choosing a particular career. To the employ- electrical force that triggers impulses in neighboring er, they aid in the process of screening suitable employ- bipolar and ganglion cells. These impulses flow from the ees. Vocational aptitude tests measure a wider variety of back layer of retinal cells to the front layer containing skill areas than scholastic aptitude tests. For example, the fibers of the optic nerve,which leaves the eye the Differential Aptitude Test, one of the most widely though a part of the retina known as the optic disk. This used vocational tests, measures verbal, numerical, ab- GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 659

Voyeurism stract, and mechanical reasoning; spatial relations; cleri- proach, focusing on personal characteristics linking an individual to various vocational groups, and Super’s de- cal speed and accuracy; and language usage. velopmental self-concept theory, which regards voca- Vocational aptitude tests have three primary orienta- tions. The interactional perspective stresses the interac- tional choice as a means of self-expression. Roe’s per- sonality theory concentrates on individuals employed in tion between the individual and the work environment scientific fields and their relative degree of interest in as the determining factor in vocational success and satis- people and things. Finally, the environment perspective faction. The theories of John Holland and the widely views vocational choice and performance as primarily a used tests based on them are an example of this ap- function of environmental or situational factors. proach. The central focus for Holland is congruence be- tween an individual’s personality type (realistic, inves- Further Reading tigative, artistic, social, enterprising, or conventional) Gale, Barry. Discover What You’re Best At. New York: Simon and his or her vocational environment. Research has in- & Schuster, 1990. dicated that congruent person-environment interactions lead to personal and vocational stability and fulfillment. Tests based on the person perspective emphasize the individual, rather than the work environment, as the cru- Voyeurism cial variable in vocational success. Theories associated with this orientation include Osipow’s Trait Factor ap- See Paraphilias 660 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

W Margaret Floy Washburn 1871-1939 American psychologist. Margaret Floy Washburn was the first woman ever to receive a doctorate in psychology and the second woman to be elected to the National Academy of Sci- ences (1931), the most eminent scientific society in the United States. The only child of Francis Washburn and Elizabeth Floy Davis, Washburn was raised in a middle class home in New York. The women in her family were exceptional and attained high levels of academic accom- plishment for the era. Educated both in public and pri- vate schools, Washburn graduated from Vassar College in 1891 with a keen interest in science and philosophy. She audited graduate courses taught by James McKeen Cattell at Columbia University, but in spite of his full support, she was denied admission to the graduate pro- gram due to gender restrictions. Admitted as a degree candidate at Cornell University, she won the Susan Lynn Sage Fellowship in Philosophy and Ethics. In two short years, working with the noted researcher Edward B. Titchener (1886-1927) in experimental psychology, Washburn earned her Ph.D., the first woman ever to re- ceive a doctorate in psychology. In 1894, she was elected Margaret Floy Washburn (Archives of the History of American Psychology. Reproduced with permission.) to membership in the American Psychological Associa- tion where she eventually became a council member, es- tablishing policy and serving on many committees. ed all women on the grounds that their presence would inhibit “frank discussion” among the male members. In Because women were not eligible to be hired as reg- 1903, Washburn became Assistant Professor of Philoso- ular faculty in psychology or philosophy departments in phy at Vassar College, where she was promoted to pro- any major Eastern university at the close of the nine- fessor in 1908, eventually becoming professor emeritus teenth century, Washburn held a series of teaching posi- in 1937. tions at women’s colleges, including Wells College (1894), Sage College at Cornell University (1900) and Washburn was known primarily for her work in ani- the University of Cincinnati (1902). Although Edward mal psychology. The Animal Mind, which she published Titchener had been her mentor at Cornell, he refused to in 1908, was the first book by an American in this field admit her to the Society of Experimental Psychologists and remained the standard comparative psychology he formed in 1904. While this group was expressly de- textbook for the next 25 years. (Subsequent editions ap- signed to help young researchers, he summarily exclud- peared in 1917, 1926, and 1936.) In Movement and Men- GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 661

John Broadus Watson tal Imagery (1916), she presented her motor theory of Johns Hopkins University from 1908 to 1920, when he was dismissed because of his relationship with a graduate consciousness, in which she attempted to mediate be- student, Rosalie Rayner. He divorced his wife, married tween the structuralist, or “introspective” tradition of Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) and Titchener, in which Rosalie, and had a successful career in advertising. In she had been schooled, and the opposing behaviorist 1957, he was awarded a gold medal by the American Psy- view. These competing movements had divorced con- chological Association (of which he had been the sciousness from behavior, with the structuralists study- ing only the former, while the behaviorists maintained Developmental issues were crucial for behaviorism. that psychology should only be concerned with the latter. youngest president, in 1915). Watson died in 1958. According to Watson, unhealthy adult personalities re- Washburn’s theory reconciled these two perspectives by sulted from habit systems carried over from infancy. exploring the ways in which thoughts and perceptions Early childhood was key, and a detailed knowledge of produce motor reaction. child development was indispensable for designing a In 1925, Washburn was named one of four coeditors behavioral social technology. The significance of child- of the American Journal of Psychology. She was elected hood and child-study for behaviorism is summed up in president of the American Psychological Association in Watson’s most famous statement: “Give me a dozen 1921 and elected to the National Academy of Sciences in healthy infants . . . and my own specified world to bring 1931, the second woman ever to be chosen for that them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random honor. Altogether, Washburn published over 200 articles and train him to become any type of specialist I might and reviews, including more than 70 research articles select . . . regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, during her 33-year tenure at Vassar. In her writings, she abilities, vocations, and the race of his ancestors.” developed her theory of consciousness at greater length By 1917, Watson had focused his research on chil- and explored such diverse topics as individual differ- dren. He carried out pioneering observational and experi- ences, color vision in animals, aesthetic preferences for mental work on newborns and infants, produced Experi- colors and sounds, after-images, and psychology of the mental Investigation of Babies (1919), one of the first psy- affective processes. chology films done in the United States, wrote the best- selling manual Psychological Care of Infant and Child, Further Reading and became a popular child-rearing expert. Much of his Scarborough, Elizabeth, and Laurel Furumoto. Untold Lives: The First Generation of American Women Psychologists. research was directed at distinguishing unlearned from New York: Columbia University Press, 1987, pp. 109-29. learned behavior. Observations of hundreds of babies re- vealed that sneezing, hiccoughing, crying, erection of penis, voiding of urine, defecation, smiling, certain eye movements and motor reactions, feeding responses, grasp- John Broadus Watson ing, and blinking were unlearned, but that they began to become conditioned a few hours after birth. Crawling, 1878-1958 swimming, and handedness appeared to be learned. Wat- American psychologist and founder of behaviorism. son also traced the beginnings of language to unlearned vocal sounds, and found that three forms of emotional John Broadus Watson is best known as the founder (“visceral”) response can be elicited at birth by three sets of behaviorism, which he defined as an experimental of stimuli: fear (by loss of support and loud sounds; Wat- branch of natural science aimed at the prediction and con- son did not notice that his conditioning fear of fire trol of behavior. Its model was based on Ivan Pavlov’s through burning alone contradicted his view), rage (by studies of conditioned reflex: every conduct is a response hampering of bodily movement), and love (by stroking of to a stimulus or to a complex set of stimulus situations. the skin, tickling, gentle rocking, patting). Just as there From birth,a few stimuli elicit definite reactions. But was no innate fear of darkness, there was no instinctive most behaviors are conditioned; they result from the asso- love of the child for the mother; all “visceral habits” were ciation of unconditioned stimuli to other stimuli. shaped by conditioning. In one of the most controversial experiments of all psychology, Watson conditioned Watson was born in 1878 to a poor, rural South Car- eleven-month-old “little Albert” to fear furry objects; this olina family. His mother was a pious Baptist; his father case was for him proof that complex behavior develops by left the family in 1891. After taking a traditional classical conditioning out of simple unlearned responses. curriculum at Furman University, he studied philosophy at the University of Chicago. Disappointed with John Watson considered the ultimate aim of psychology Dewey’s teaching, he began work in animal psychology, to be the adjustment of individual needs to the needs of and received his Ph.D. in 1903. Watson was a professor at society. He encouraged parents to approach childrearing 662 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

Cohen, D. Behaviorism. [1924, 1930], New York: W.W. Nor- ton, 1970. ———. Psychological Care of Infant and Child. New York: W.W. Norton, 1928. David Wechsler ———. J.B. Watson: The Founder of Behaviorism. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979. David Wechsler 1896-1981 American experimental and clinical psychologist who developed new types of intelligence tests. David Wechsler developed the first standardized adult intelligence test, the Bellevue-Wechsler Scale, in 1939. Likewise, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Chil- dren, published in 1949 and revised in 1974, was consid- ered to be the best test available. The concept that intelli- gence involves the abilities necessary to succeed in life was one of Wechsler’s major contributions to psycholo- gy. He promoted the idea that intelligence includes per- sonality traits and emotional states, as well as mental abilities, and that all of these should be measured to as- sess intelligent behavior in one’s environment. Wechsler John B. Watson (The Library of Congress. Reproduced with also promoted the idea that educational, cultural, and so- permission.) cioeconomic factors must be considered when evaluating intelligence. The author of more than 60 books and arti- cles, Wechsler served as president of the American Psy- as a professional application of behaviorism. Psychologi- chopathology Association in 1959-60 and earned the cal Care of Infant and Child (1928) is dedicated “to the Distinguished Professional Contribution Award of the first mother who brings up a happy child.” Such a child American Psychological Association in 1973. would be an autonomous, fearless, self-reliant, adapt- able, problem-solving being, who does not cry unless Born in Lespedi, Romania, in 1896, Wechsler was physically hurt, is absorbed in work and play, and has no the youngest of seven children of Moses S. Wechsler, a great attachments to any place or person. Watson warned Hebrew scholar, and Leah W. Pascal, a shopkeeper. The against the dangers of “too much mother love,” and ad- family moved to New York City in 1902, and Wechsler vocated strict routines and a tight control over the child’s graduated from the City College of New York in 1916. He environment and behavior. His disapproval of thumb- earned his master’s degree in experimental psychopathol- sucking, masturbation, and homosexuality was not ogy the following year, working with Robert S. Wood- moral, but practical, and he encouraged parents to be worth at Columbia University. His dissertation was pub- honest about sex. He agreed with psychoanalysts on the lished in 1917. importance of sexuality. Partly because of the premature end to Watson’s university career, his views did not have Recognizes the limitations of intelligence a decisive influence on academic child psychology. They contributed, however, to professionalizing child- testing rearing, and bolstered contemporary arguments, by Fred During the First World War, Wechsler worked at and John Dewey for example, on the determining life- Camp Yaphank on Long Island under E. G. Boring, scor- long effects of early development. ing intelligence tests for the army as a civilian volunteer. He continued working with intelligence testing while Further Reading serving with the army’s Psychological Division of the Buckley, K.W. Mechanical Man. John Broadus Watson and the Sanitary Corps at Fort Logan, Texas. These experiences Beginnings of Behaviorism. New York: Guilford Press, convinced Wechsler of the limitations of available intelli- 1989. gence tests, particular for uneducated or foreign-born GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 663

Wechsler Intelligence Scales adults. After serving in France, Wechsler became an army Wechsler’s tests measured abilities in performing tasks as well as mental abilities. He also introduced the devia- student at the University of London in 1919, where he tion quotient, a new calculation that compared individu- studied with Karl Pearson and Charles Spearman,who als with their peer group, rather than calculating a “men- shared his interests in intelligence testing. Wechsler then tal age” as in the Binet tests. The deviation quotient cor- obtained a two-year fellowship to study in Paris with the rected for abilities that changed with age and made it physiologist Louis Lapique and the experimental psychol- ogist Henri Piéron. Wechsler’s research focused on the easier to detect abnormalities. In 1939, Wechsler pub- psychogalvanic response, the changes in electrical con- lished The Measurement of Adult Intelligence. ductivity of the skin that accompany emotional changes. Wechsler never lost sight of the limitations of his in- After spending the summer of 1922 working at the Psychopathic Hospital in Boston, Wechsler returned to telligence tests. Although his tests often are interpreted as a clear measure of intelligence, Wechsler himself be- New York City, as a psychologist with the Bureau of lieved that they were useful only in conjunction with Child Guidance. There, for the next two years, he admin- other clinical measurements. To Wechsler, assessments istered psychological tests. Concurrently, he completed were far superior to mere testing. his Ph.D. dissertation at Columbia under Woodworth. Wechsler’s first wife, Florence Felske, died in an au- This work, “The Measurement of Emotional Reactions: tomobile accident three weeks after their marriage in Researches on the Psychogalvanic Reflex,” was pub- 1934. In 1939, he married Ruth A. Halpern and the cou- lished in Archives of Psychology in 1925. ple had two children. During World War II, Wechsler During the next seven years, Wechsler had a private acted as special consultant to the secretary of war and, clinical practice, as well as working as acting secretary beginning in 1948, he was consultant to the Veterans Ad- of the Psychological Corporation, which later published ministration. In 1947, Wechsler participated in a mission his intelligence tests. He also was a psychologist at the to Cyprus to form a mental health program for Holo- Brooklyn Jewish Social Service Bureau. Wechsler con- caust survivors. A founder of Hebrew University in tinued to look for more broadly based measurements of Jerusalem, he was Beber Visiting Professor of Clinical intelligence. His 1930 article in The Scientific Monthly Psychology there in 1967, the year he retired from his was expanded into his 1935 book, The Range of Human posts at Bellevue and New York University. Wechsler Capacities. In this work, Wechsler argued that psycholo- was the recipient of numerous awards, including a spe- gists had overestimated the range of variations among in- cial award from the American Association on Mental dividuals and that human beings were actually surpris- Deficiency and an honorary doctorate from Hebrew Uni- ingly similar. He further argued that abilities peaked at a versity. Wechsler died in New York City in 1981. certain age and then began to decline. Wechsler began devising a variety of different types of tests. In 1926, he Margaret Alic developed “Tests for Taxi Cab Drivers” for the Yellow Cab Company of Pittsburgh. Further Reading Carson, John. “Wechsler, David.” In American national biog- Develops new ways to measure intelligence raphy, edited by John A. Garraty and Mark C. Carnes. Vol 22. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. In 1932, Wechsler began his long career as chief Wechsler, David. Selected papers of David Wechsler. With in- psychologist at the Bellevue Psychiatric Hospital in New troductory material by Allen J. Edwards. New York: Aca- York and, the following year, joined the faculty of the demic Press, 1974. New York University College of Medicine. Although he engaged in a variety of research projects, his major focus continued to be intelligence. At Bellevue, Wechsler test- ed both children and adults from a wide variety of back- Wechsler Intelligence Scales grounds and with numerous problems. Again, he found that traditional testing methods were not suitable. In par- A widely used series of intelligence tests developed ticular, he concluded that the commonly used Binet tests by clinical psychologist David Wechsler. of intelligence were too narrow in scope and were inap- propriate for adults. In addition to his well-known tests The Wechsler Intelligence Scales are divided into for adults and children, Wechsler developed the Army two sections: verbal and nonverbal (or “performance”), Wechsler (1942), the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale with separate scores for each. Verbal intelligence, the in 1955 which he revised in 1981, and the Wechsler component most often associated with academic success, Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence in 1967. implies the ability to think in abstract terms using either 664 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

tracting, counting); sentences (repeating progressively longer sentences); and similarities (responding to ques- tions such as “How are a pen and pencil alike?”). The Carl Wernicke Performance section includes picture completion; copy- ing geometric designs; using blocks to reproduce de- signs; working through a maze; and building an “animal house” from a model. The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), now in its second revision (WISC-III, 1991), is designed for children and adolescents ages six to sixteen. The WISC differs from the WIPPSI in the following no- table ways: geometric designs are replaced by assembly of three-dimensional objects; children arrange groups of pictures to tell simple stories; they are asked to remem- ber and repeat lists of digits; a coding exercise is per- formed in place of the animal house; and mazes are a subtest. For all of the Wechsler scales (which also in- clude the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, or WAIS), separate verbal and performance scores, as well as a total score, are computed. These are then converted using a scale divided into categories (such as average and superi- or), and the final score is generally given as one of these categories rather than as a number or percentile ranking. See also Intelligence Quotient, I.Q. test; Stanford- Binet Intelligence Scales. Carl Wernicke A test subject performs the block test portion of the Wechsler intelligence scales. (Will & Deni McIntyre. Photo 1848-1905 Researchers, Inc. Reproduced with permission.) German neuroanatomist, pathologist, and psychia- trist who made fundamental discoveries about brain function. words or mathematical symbols. Performance intelli- gence suggests the ability to perceive relationships and Carl Wernicke was an influential member of the fit separate parts together logically into a whole. The in- nineteenth-century German school of neuropsychiatry, clusion of the performance section in the Wechsler scales which viewed all mental illnesses as resulting from de- is especially helpful in assessing the cognitive ability of fects in brain physiology. A practicing clinical neu- children with speech and language disorders or whose ropsychiatrist, Wernicke also made major discoveries in first language is not English. The test can be of particular brain anatomy and pathology. He believed that abnor- value to school psychologists screening for specific malities could be localized to specific regions of the learning disabilities because of the number of specific cerebral cortex and thus could be used to determine the subtests that make up each section. functions of these regions. Wernicke was one of the first to conceive of brain function as dependent on neural The Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scales of In- pathways that connected different regions of the brain, telligence (WPPSI) have traditionally been geared to- with each region contributing a relatively simple senso- ward children ages four to six, although the 1989 version ry-motor activity. At the time, most scientists conceived of the test (WPPSI-III, 1989) extends the age range of the brain as functioning as a single organ. Wernicke down to three years and upward to seven years, three also helped demonstrate dominance by either the right or months. The Verbal section covers the following areas: left hemispheres of the cerebrum. general information (food, money, the body, etc.); vocab- ulary (definitions of increasing difficulty); comprehen- Wernicke was born in 1848 in the German town of sion (responses to questions); arithmetic (adding, sub- Tarnowitz in Upper Silesia, in what is now Tarnowskie GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 665

Max Wertheimer Gory, Poland. He earned his medical degree at the Uni- cluded many of Wernicke’s original observations on brain anatomy, pathology, and clinical manifestations. Based versity of Breslau in 1870 and stayed on to work with Heinrich Neumann. Wernicke also spent six months on his observations, he predicted the symptoms that studying with Theodor Meynert in Vienna. He earned his would result from blockage of the posterior inferior cere- bellar artery. Again, his hypothesis was later confirmed. psychiatry qualification in 1875 and moved to Berlin, where he spent three years at the Charité Hospital as as- sistant to Karl Westphal, before starting a private prac- In the second volume, Wernicke described for the first time a syndrome resulting from the ingestion of sulfuric tice in Berlin. With his mentors, Meynert and Westphal, acid, which caused specific mental and motor abnormali- Wernicke continued the neuropsychiatric tradition begun ties and paralysis of muscles in the eyes. He called this by Wilhelm Griesinger. syndrome acute hemorrhagic superior polioencephalitis. It now is called Wernicke’s encephalopathy and is known to be caused by a nutritional thiamine deficiency. Describes Wernicke’s aphasia In 1885, Wernicke became an associate professor of In 1873, Wernicke studied a patient who had suf- neurology and psychiatry at the University of Breslau. fered a stroke. Although the man was able to speak and Five years later, he was awarded the department chair. his hearing was unimpaired, he could barely understand Wernicke’s clinical studies were published as Grundriss what was said to him. Nor could he understand written der Psychiatrie in klinischen Vorlesungen in 1894, with a words. After he died, Wernicke found a lesion in the rear second edition in 1906, and as Krankenvorstellungen aus parietal/temporal region of the patient’s left brain hemi- der psychiatrischen Klinik in Breslau, in the years 1899- sphere. Wernicke concluded that this region, which is 1900. Between 1897 and 1903, Wernicke published the close to the auditory region of the brain, was involved in three-part Atlas des Gehirns on neuroanatomy and speech comprehension. Wernicke named the syndrome pathology. His last work on aphasia appeared in 1903 sensory aphasia, although now it is usually called Wer- and was translated into English in 1908. nicke’s aphasia. The affected region of the brain is known as Wernicke’s area. The syndrome is sometimes Wernicke moved to the University of Halle in 1904 called fluent aphasia since the victim is capable of as a full professor. The following year, he died in Dör- speech; however words may be misused and the speech rberg im Geratal, Germany, of injuries suffered in a bicy- may be disordered or even without content. For this rea- cling accident. Wernicke’s research laid the foundation son, scientists now believe that Wernicke’s area may be for the Wernicke-Geschwind model of language, which involved in semantic processing, and it is sometimes predicted the neural pathways involved in simple lan- called the receptive language area. guage tasks, such as reading a word aloud. Wernicke published The Aphasic Symptom Complex in 1874 when he was 26. In this work, he developed Margaret Alic many of his ideas about brain localization, and he related different types of aphasia to specific damaged regions of Further Reading the brain. In contrast to Wernicke’s aphasia, motor apha- Bynum, William F. “Wernicke, Carl.” In Dictionary of Scientif- sia involves damage to the part of the brain known as ic Biography, edited by Charles Coulston Gillispie. Vol. Broca’s area. With this syndrome, a patient understands 14. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1970. speech, but cannot speak himself. Wernicke postulated Lanczik, M., and G. Keil. “Carl Wernicke’s Localization Theo- that Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area were connected, ry and its Significance for the Development of Scientific and he predicted that damage to this connection would Psychiatry.” History of Psychiatry 2 (1991): 171-180. cause conduction aphasia, a syndrome wherein a patient could both speak and understand language, but would misuse words and could not repeat words. Wernicke’s prediction turned out to be correct. Two of Wernicke’s early aphasia papers were published in English in 1994. Max Wertheimer 1880-1943 German psychologist who was the originator of Describes Wernicke’s encephalopathy Gestalt psychology, which had a profound influ- The three volumes of Wernicke’s comprehensive ence on the whole science of psychology. work, Textbook of Brain Disorders,appeared between 1881 and 1883. In this work, based on careful case stud- Max Wertheimer was born in Prague on April 15, ies, Wernicke attempted to relate all known neurological 1880. At the University in Prague he first studied law diseases to specific regions of the brain. The volumes in- and then philosophy; he continued his studies in Berlin 666 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

blesome findings, while leaving the old framework in- tact. Other scholars, seeing the inadequacy of the cus- tomary approach, denied that the problems of psycholo- gy could be treated scientifically. Max Wertheimer For Wertheimer, neither line of criticism went to the core of the problem. The difficulties of the older psy- chology went far beyond its failure to explain special laboratory findings. Everything that was vital, meaning- ful, and essential seemed to be lost in the traditional ap- proach. The trouble, he held, was not in the scientific method itself but rather in an assumption generally made about that method—that it must be atomistic. But science need not only be analytical in this sense. The viewing of complex wholes as “and-sums,” to be re- duced to accidentally and arbitrarily associated elements, Wertheimer described as an approach “from below,” whereas many situations need to be approached “from above.” In these cases, what happens in the whole cannot be understood from a knowledge of its components con- sidered piecemeal; rather the behavior of the parts them- selves depends on their place in the structured whole, in the context in which they exist. These are precisely the situations which are most important for psychology, those in which we find mean- Max Wertheimer (Corbis-Bettmann. Reproduced with ing, value, order. Thus, apparent movement cannot be permission.) understood if one knows only the “stills” by which it is produced; nor can the form of a circle, the peacefulness of a landscape, the sternness of a command, the in- and then in Würzburg, where he received his doctorate in evitability of a conclusion be understood from a knowl- 1904. During the following years, his work included re- edge of independent elements. Here, whole properties search on the psychology of testimony, deriving no are primary, and the characteristics of parts are derived doubt from his early interest in law and his abiding inter- from the dynamics of their wholes. est in the nature of truth; he also carried on research in music, another lifelong interest. Wertheimer became a lecturer in Frankfurt in 1912. Later he went to Berlin and in 1929 returned to Frankfurt In 1910, Wertheimer performed his now famous ex- as professor. All this time he was developing his ideas periments on apparent movement, that movement which and influencing students who themselves became distin- we see when, under certain conditions, two stationary guished psychologists. Although he preferred the spoken objects are presented in succession at different places (a to the written word as a vehicle for communication, he phenomenon familiar in moving pictures). This was the wrote some notable articles applying the new approach beginning of Gestalt psychology—a major revolution in “from above” to the organization of the perceptual field psychological thinking. and to the nature of thinking. The phenomena which Wertheimer was investigat- Just before the German elections in 1933, Wertheimer ing could not be explained by the then-prevailing psy- heard a speech by Hitler over a neighbor’s radio. He de- chology. Psychology was, in 1910, characteristically an- cided that he did not want his family to live in a country alytical: in naive imitation of the natural sciences, it at- where such a man could run, with likelihood of success, tempted to reduce every complex phenomenon to sim- for the highest office in the land; and the next day the fam- pler ones, the elements which were supposed to make up ily moved to Marienbad, Czechoslovakia. Soon the whole. Wertheimer realized that Hitler was not a passing phe- But it was already clear that this analytical proce- nomenon, and he accepted an invitation from the New dure could not account for many well-known psycholog- School for Social Research in New York City to join its ical facts. Some advocates of the older psychology tried University in Exile (later the Graduate Faculty of Political to patch it up by adding assumptions to take care of trou- and Social Science). He resumed his studies of thinking, GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 667

Joseph Wolpe’s groundbreaking work as a behaviorist Withdrawal behavior completing his major work, Productive Thinking, a highly was grounded in his belief that behavior therapy was as original and penetrating examination of the processes that much an applied science as any other aspect of medicine. occur in thinking at its best. In a series of articles, he showed the application of Gestalt thinking to problems of He is probably best known for his work in the areas of de- sensitization and assertiveness training, both of which truth, ethics,freedom, and democracy. Unfortunately, he did not live to write his projected Gestalt logic. have become important elements of behavioral therapy. See also Gestalt principles of organization He was born on April 20, 1915 in Johannesburg, South Africa, to Michael Salmon and Sarah Millner Further Reading Wolpe. He grew up in South Africa and attended college Köhler, Wolfgang. The task of Gestalt psychology. 1969. there, obtaining his M.D. from the University of Witwa- tersrand. When the Second World War began, he joined the South African army as a medical officer. He worked in a military psychiatric hospital, and witnessed soldiers Withdrawal behavior who were suffering from what would today be called post-traumatic stress syndrome. At the time, it was Tendency to avoid either unfamiliar persons, loca- tions, or situations. known as “war neurosis,” and Wolpe and his colleagues first tried to treat the problem with drug therapy. The results were marginally helpful, however, and Wolpe de- Withdrawal behavior is characterized by the tenden- cided to work on finding more effective means for deal- cy to avoid the unfamiliar, either people, places, or situa- ing with the problem. tions. Though withdrawal, or avoidance, can be the result of a temperamental tendency toward inhibition to unfa- He came up with the concept now known as desen- miliar events, anxiety over the anticipation of a critical sitization. Reasoning that much of our behavior, both evaluation, or a conditioned avoidant response, often good and bad, is learned, there was no reason why it called a phobia, can produce withdrawal. These are could not be unlearned. Wolpe’s initial experiments were three different mechanisms, each of which can mediate with cats. These animals were given mild electric shocks withdrawal behavior. accompanied by specific sounds and visual stimuli. Once the cats knew to equate the unpleasant shock with these Withdrawal behavior is typically seen in children. images or sounds, the images and sounds created a feel- The withdrawal or avoidance that is seen in the ing of fear. By gradually exposing the cats to these same preschool years is, most of the time, due to a tempera- sights and sounds—with food being given instead of mental bias that makes some children uncertain over un- shocks—the cats gradually “unlearned” their fear. familiar events. During later childhood, withdrawal or avoidance occurs due to very specific events, like light- Those who suffer phobias—whether rational or un- ening, animals, insects, or foods. At this point, withdraw- founded—know that exposure to the object of fear can al is usually not the result of a temperamental bias, but be crippling. Modern desensitization techniques include more often is due to conditioning experiences in which teaching patients relaxation techniques and gradually re- the child had a painful or frightening experience in asso- hearsing stressful situations, until the patient is finally ciation with the event he avoids. able to handle the fear-inducing objects. A small group of children who appear withdrawn Sometimes, as Wolpe found out, the problem may may have serious mental illness, including schizophre- not be fear of the object per se, but a negative association nia or autism. However, these are relatively rare illnesses coming from another source. In one instance, Wolpe and therefore the average child who appears withdrawn tried to desensitize a woman to an inordinate fear of in- will probably not be afflicted with these problems. sects. The usual methods did not work; then Wolpe found out that the woman’s husband, with whom she had Jerome Kagan not been getting along, was nicknamed for an insect. The key then was to work on the marital problems. Once these had been dealt with, the woman’s phobia gradual- ly disappeared. Wolpe’s research also led to assertiveness training. Joseph Wolpe As with desensitization, it requires a gradual move into 1915-1997 new behaviors. People who have trouble asserting them- South African-born American psychiatrist who selves are very much like phobics in that they fear con- made significant contributions to behavior therapy. frontation and conflict, anger in others, and rejection. 668 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

Assertiveness training gives them the framework to build tion is stored in memory. Studies have demonstrated their confidence, relax in formerly stressful situations, that word associations are almost always based on a and conquer their fear. word’s meaning, as opposed to its physical properties. For example, a typical response to the word KNIFE Perhaps Wolpe’s most important contribution to Wilhelm Max Wundt might be FORK or perhaps SPOON, but not WIFE or psychiatry was that he managed to combine two seem- LIFE. Over the years, psychologists have collected word ingly disparate disciplines. Many psychologists and psy- association norms that describe the relative frequencies chiatrists felt that methods based in applied science with which various responses are given to different lacked the humanistic touch they felt was so important words. These frequencies are then used as a measure of when dealing with people. What Wolpe did was show the associative strength between the words. If 90% of a that effective, compassionate therapy could be combined large sample of people give the word DOCTOR as a re- with empirical methods in a way that used both to their sponse to the word NURSE, this percentage (90) is used best advantage. Among his writings, his books as an index of the associative connection between DOC- Pyschotheraphy by Reciprocal Inhibition (1958) and The TOR and NURSE. Another way of determining the Practice of Behavior Therapy (1969) are considered strength of an association is to measure how much time classics in behavior therapy studies. it takes to produce a response in a word association test. After the war, Wolpe worked at the University of High frequency associates are also the ones with the Witwatersrand; later, he moved to the U.S., where he fastest reaction times. initially taught at the University of Virginia. In 1965, he became a professor of psychiatry at Temple University By comparing children’s word associations to those Medical School in Philadelphia, a post that he held until of adults, we can learn something about how word mean- 1988. During this time, he also served as director of the ings are acquired. Five year-olds are likely to respond to behavior therapy unit at the nearby Eastern Pennsylva- the word LONG with a response like GRASS—indicat- nia Psychiatric Institute. He served as the second presi- ing that words are organized in their memory according dent of the Association for the Advancement of Behav- to real world situations and personal experience. By age ior Therapy, from which he received a lifetime achieve- 10, the most common response is SHORT, thereby re- ment award. vealing a growing awareness of linguistic relations and grammatical categories. Wolpe retired in 1988 and moved to California. Once he had settled in California, however, his retire- See also Free association ment did not last long. He began lecturing at Pepperdine University and continued until a month before his death. Timothy E. Moore He was married twice. His first wife, whom he married in 1948, was Stella Ettman. She died in 1990, and he married Eva Gyarmati in 1996. He had two children and three stepchildren. Lung cancer claimed Wolpe’s life on December 4, 1998. George A. Milite Wilhelm Max Wundt 1832-1920 German psychologist and philosopher who found- ed experimental psychology. Word association test Wilhelm Wundt was born on August 16, 1832, in Baden, in a suburb of Mannheim called Neckarau. As a A procedure for investigating how word meanings child, he was tutored by Friedrich Müller. Wundt attend- are stored in memory. ed the Gymnasium at Bruschel and at Heidelberg, the University of Tübingen for a year, then Heidelberg for In a word association test, the researcher presents a more than three years, receiving a medical degree in series of words to individual respondents. For each word, 1856. He remained at Heidelberg as a lecturer in physiol- participants are instructed to respond with the first word ogy from 1857 to 1864, then was appointed assistant (i.e., associate) that comes to mind. Freud believed that professor in physiology. The great physiologist, physi- such responses provided clues to peoples’ personalities cist, and physiological psychologist Hermann von (free association). Cognitive psychologists, however, Helmholtz came there in 1858, and Wundt was his assis- use this procedure to investigate how semantic informa- tant for a period of time. GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 669

Wilhelm Max Wundt G. Stanley Hall, Wundt’s first American student, arrived, followed by many other Americans. From this first labo- ratory for experimental psychology,a steady stream of psychologists returned to their own countries to teach and to continue their researches. Some founded psycho- logical laboratories of their own. In 1881, Wundt founded Philosophische Studien as a vehicle for the new experimental psychology, especial- ly as a publication organ for the products of his psycho- logical laboratory. The contents of Philosophische Studi- en (changed to Psychologische Studien in 1903) reveal that the experiments fell mainly into four categories: sensation and perception; reaction time; time percep- tion and association; and attention, memory,feeling, and association. Optical phenomena led with 46 articles; audition was second in importance. Sight and hearing, which Helmholtz had already carefully studied, were the main themes of Wundt’s laboratory. Some of the contri- butions to the Studien were by Wundt himself. Helmholtz is reported to have said of some of Wundt’s experiments that they were schlampig (sloppy). Compar- ing Wundt to Helmholtz, who was a careful experimen- talist and productive researcher, one must conclude that Wundt’s most important contributions were as a system- atizer, organizer, and encyclopedist. William James Wilhelm Wundt (Corbis-Bettmann. Reproduced with considered Wundt “only a rather ordinary man who has permission.) worked up certain things uncommonly well.” Wundt’s Grundriss der Psychologie (1896; Outline During the period from 1857 to 1874, Wundt of Psychology) was a less detailed treatment than his evolved from a physiologist to a psychologist. In these Principles, but it contained the new theory of feeling. A years he also wrote Grundzüge der physiologischen psy- popular presentation of his system of psychology was chologie (Principles of Physiological Psychology). The Einführung in die Psychologie (1911; Introduction to two-volume work, published in 1873-1874, stressed the Psychology). His monumental Völkerpsychologie (1912; relations between psychology and physiology, and it Folk Psychology), a natural history of man, attempted to showed how the methods of natural science could be understand man’s higher thought processes by studying used in psychology. Six revised editions of this work language, art, mythology, religion, custom, and law. Be- were published, the last completed in 1911. sides his psychological works he wrote three philosophi- cal texts: Logic (1880-1883), Ethics (1886), and System As a psychologist, Wundt used the method of inves- of Philosophy (1889). Wundt died near Leipzig on Au- tigating conscious processes in their own context by “ex- gust 31, 1920. periment” and introspection. This technique has been re- ferred to as content psychology, reflecting Wundt’s be- Further Reading lief that psychology should concern itself with the imme- Brett, George Sidney. Brett’s history of psychology. R. S. Pe- diate content of experience unmodified by abstraction or ters, ed. 1953. 2nd rev. ed. 1965. reflection. Hall, G. Stanley. Founders of modern psychology. 1912. Flugel, J.C. A hundred years of psychology. 1933. rev. 1965. In 1874, Wundt left Heidelberg for the chair of in- Boring, Edwin G. A history of experimental psychology. 1929. ductive philosophy at Zurich, staying there only a year. 2nd ed. 1950. He accepted the chair of philosophy at the University of Wolman, Benjamin B. Historical roots of contemporary psy- Leipzig, and in 1879 he founded the first psychological chology. 1968. laboratory in the world. To Leipzig, men came from all Wundt studies: a centennial collection. Toronto: C.J. Hogrefe, over the world to study in Wundt’s laboratory. In 1879, 1980. 670 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

Y Robert Yerkes 1876-1956 American psychologist who made important con- tributions to the fields of comparative animal psy- chology, particularly in the areas of animal intelli- gence and behavior. Robert Yerkes was born in Pennsylvania, and was ed- ucated at Harvard University, where he received his doc- torate in psychology in 1902. He served as professor of psychology at Harvard, the University of Minnesota, and Yale University, and as a member of the National Re- search Council. In 1919, Yerkes founded the Yale Labora- tories of Primate Biology and served as its director from 1929 to 1941, when the lab was moved to Orange Park, Florida. A year later, it was renamed the Yerkes Laborato- ries of Primate Biology. A pioneer in the field of compar- ative psychology,Yerkes studied the intelligence and be- havior of many forms of animal life, from jellyfish to hu- mans, but he focused most of his attention on primates. Among his findings were the discovery that chimpanzees imitate both each other and human beings, and the obser- vation that orangutans can pile boxes on top of one anoth- er to reach food after seeing this demonstrated, thus trans- ferring this experience to other learning problems. Robert Mearns Yerkes (The Library of Congress. Reproduced with permission.) Yerkes also worked on the Yerkes-Dodson Law, which states that for every task there is an optimum level of motivation, and that motivation that is too strong can human mental ability. He was also a principal figure in actually interfere with the ability to perform a difficult the development of human multiple choice testing. Dur- task. Yerkes also pioneered the use of monochromatic ing World War I, Yerkes directed a team of 40 psycholo- light to study color vision in animals. In 1911, he devel- gists charged with assessing the abilities of army recruits oped the first multiple-choice test for animals, designed for training, assignment, and discharge purposes. To- to test abstraction abilities. A row of nine or fewer boxes gether they developed the Army Alpha test, a written in- were shown to the animal, which had to determine which telligence test, and Army Beta, a pictorial test for the 40 of the open boxes had food in it and then remember that percent of draftees who were functionally illiterate. By box in subsequent rounds of testing. the end of the war, these tests had been used to classify Turning his attention to human testing, Yerkes re- some 1.75 million men. As a result of taking these tests, vised the Stanford-Binet Intelligence scales in 1915 to some 8,000 had been discharged as unfit, while the create a widely used point scale for the measurement of Alpha test played a role in the selection of two thirds of GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 671

Robert Yerkes the 200,000 men who served as commissioned officers several colleagues devised one of several pencil-and- paper tests that were marketed to school administrators during the war. throughout the country. The National Research Council, In addition to its impact on the military, the wartime the test’s sponsor, described it as deriving from “the ap- testing developed by Yerkes and his colleagues had a far- reaching effect on civilian life after the war. Unlike the plication of the army testing methods to school needs.” By 1930, it had been administered to seven million Stanford Binet scale, which had to be individually ad- schoolchildren. (The Scholastic Aptitude Test was devel- ministered by a tester, the Alpha and Beta tests were de- oped by one of Yerkes’ colleagues during this same peri- veloped to be administered to groups, making them od.) Yerkes’ books include: Introduction to Psychology faster, simpler, and far less expensive to use. After the (1911), The Mental Life of Monkeys and Apes (1916), war, this breakthrough in mental measurement led to a The Great Apes (1929) (coauthored with Ada Yerkes), dramatic expansion in intelligence testing. Yerkes and and Chimpanzees: A Laboratory Colony (1943). 672 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

Z or those with severe learning disabilities, to develop and Edward F. Zigler be better prepared to face life later on. 1930- Zigler is frequently called as an expert witness be- Developmental psychologist who has focused on fore congressional committees and to comment on social maximizing the potential of children from under- policy issues that concern children and families in the privileged backgrounds, and who has significantly United States. He has also chaired numerous conferences contributed to national programs for children such concerned with children. Notably, he was appointed as as the Head Start program. Honorary Commissioner for the National Commission on the Year of the Child in 1979. Edward Frank Zigler was born in 1930 to Louis Zigler and Gertrude (Gleitman) Zigler of Kansas, Mis- Zigler served on the President’s Committee on souri. His parents and two older sisters immigrated to the Mental Retardation and was requested by president United States from Poland. After attending a vocational Ford to chair the Vietnamese Children’s Resettlement high school in Kansas City, Zigler earned his B.S. at the Advisory Group. In 1980, at President Carter’s request, University of Missouri, Kansas City. He went on to ob- he chaired the fifteenth anniversary Head Start Commit- tain his Ph.D. in developmental psychology from the tee. This committee was charged with planning future University of Texas at Austin in 1958. He then taught for policy for this government-run intervention program. As a year at the University of Missouri at Columbia before director of the Office of Child Development, Zigler is going to Yale in 1959, where he became director of the also credited with conceptualizing and initiating other Yale University department of child development in programs such as Health Start, Home Start, Education 1961. Zigler married Bernice Gorelick in 1955 and has for Parenthood, the Child Development Associate Pro- one son, Scott. gram and the Child and Family Resource Program. In 1993, Zigler was appointed as head of a national In 1970, Zigler was appointed by President Nixon to committee of distinguished Americans who were the post of first director of the office of Child Develop- charged with looking into the possibilities for legislation ment, which has since been renamed the Administration to make infant care leave a reality in the United States. of Children, Youth and Families. He was also appointed The work of this committee culminated in the Family as chief of the U.S. Children’s Bureau. While he was the and Medical Leave act of 1993. director of the Office of Child Development in Washing- Zigler has written 26 books and over five hundred ton, Zigler administered the nation’s Head Start Pro- articles about his research and theories. In addition, he is gram, which was established by the United States Con- a member of the editorial boards of ten professional jour- gress in 1965, and funded by the U.S. Department of nals, Associate Editor of Children and Youth Services Health and Human Services as part of the “war on pover- Review, and consulting editor of the Merril-Palmer ty” legislation of 1964. Its purpose is to provide educa- Quarterly. In August 1999, Zigler published Personality tional, health, and social services for pregnant mothers, Development in Individuals with Mental Retardation, children from birth to age five, and their families consolidating forty years of his research on the subject. through the channels of preschool education, medical treatment, and developmental screenings. The Head Start Zigler has been awarded numerous honors, among theory is that all of a child’s early needs must be met in them the Harold W. McGraw, Jr., Prize in Education, order for them to reach their full potential later on. Theo- awards from the Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr., Foundation, the retically, the program enables underprivileged children, American Psychological Association, the American GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 673

Edward F. Zigler Academy of Pediatrics, the National Association for Re- Social Policy. His laboratory is notable for the range of basic and applied studies of child development and fami- tarded Citizens, the American Association on Mental De- ly functioning studies in which it is engaged. ficiency, the National Academy of Sciences, the Ameri- can Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, the See also Child development National Head Start Association, and the American Or- thopsychiatric Association. Currently Sterling Professor of Psychology at Yale, Further Reading Patricia Skinner Zigler is head of the Yale Child Study Facility and also Sheehy, et al, eds. Biographical dictionary of psychology. New director of the Bush Center in Child Development and York: Routledge, 1997. 674 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

GLOSSARY Antisocial behavior. A pattern of behavior that is A verbally or physically harmful to other people, animals, or property, including behavior that severely violates so- Absolute threshold. The minimal amount of energy cial expectations. necessary to stimulate the sensory receptors. Antisocial personality disorder. A behavior disor- Action potential. A momentary electrical event oc- der characterized by disregard for social norms and laws, curring through the membrane of a nerve cell fiber in re- manipulation, impulsivity, recklessness, and lack of re- sponse to a stimulus, forming a nerve impulse. morse; also known as sociopathy or psychopathy. Addiction/addictive personality. A wide spectrum Anxiety/anxiety disorders. An unpleasant emotion- of complex behaviors that arises from dependence on al state characterized by apprehension, worry, and fear. drugs or participation in some other activity. Apgar score. The sum of numerical results indicat- Adjustment disorders. The development of signifi- ing a newborn infant’s overall medical condition. cant emotional or behavioral symptoms in response to an identifiable event that precipitated psychological or so- Aphasia. A condition in which a person’s previous cial stress. capacity to understand or express language is impaired. Alcoholic psychoses. Acute reactions to alcohol Archetype. Primordial images and symbols found characterized by alcohol idiosyncratic intoxication, alco- in the collective unconscious that are passed on from hol withdrawal delirium, hallucinations, and irreversible generation to generation. brain damage involving severe memory loss. Arousal. An increase in the level of an individual’s Alexia. Inability to read; a form of dyslexia. readiness for activity. Ambivalence. The concurrent existence of contrast- Associationism. The view that mental processes can ing, opposing, or contradictory feelings, emotions, or at- be explained in terms of the association of ideas. titudes regarding a person, object, or idea. Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Ames room. Specially constructed space that Disorder characterized by inattention, impulsivity, and demonstrates aspects of visual perception. hyperactivity. Anal stage. The second stage in Sigmund Freud’s Attribution theory. A term used to describe how theory of psychosexual development characterized by people explain the causes of behavior, both their own concerns over elimination, usually taking place around and those of others. two years of age. Authoritarian personality. A personality pattern Anonymity. A condition in which the identity of an characterized by rigidity, dependence on authority, con- individual is not known to others. formity to group values, and intolerance of ambiguity. Anorexia. An eating disorder in which preoccupa- Autoeroticism. Commonly referred to as masturba- tion with dieting and thinness leads to excessive and dan- tion, self-stimulation of the genital organs with the inten- gerous weight loss. tion of producing sexual arousal and orgasm. Anoxia. Lack of oxygen in the blood supply; also Autohypnosis. The ability to hypnotize oneself called oxygen starvation. without the aid of another person. GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 675

Bipolar disorder. A condition traditionally called Autonomic nervous system. The nervous system Autonomic nervous system responsible for regulating automatic bodily processes, manic depression in which a person alternates between the two emotional extremes of depression and mania. such as breathing and heart rate. It also involves the processes of metabolism, or the storage and expenditure Borderline personality. Mental illness character- of energy. ized by erratic and impulsive self-destructive behavior and an intense fear of abandonment. Aversive conditioning. Also referred to as aversion therapy, a technique that links undesired behavior with Bowen theory. An approach to family therapy pro- physical or psychological discomfort. taught to reestablish their “real” identities. Avoidance learning. An individual’s response to avoid an unpleasant or stressful situation; also known as posed by Murray Bowen in which family members are Brainstem. Connector between the brain and the escape learning. spinal cord. Avoidant personality. Personality disorder charac- Brief reactive psychosis. An uncommon acute terized by social withdrawal and fear of rejection. mental disorder precipitated by an event that causes in- tense psychological stress. Axon. One of two types of short, threadlike fibers that extend from the cell body of a nerve cell, or neuron Broca’s aphasia. Type of aphasia characterized by (the other type are called dendrites), and which sends slow, labored, “telegraphic” speech with propositions electrochemical signals. and articles missing. Bulimia. Eating disorder marked by episodes of binge eating followed by behaviors to control weight. Bystander effect. The effect of the presence of others on an individual’s perception of and response to a situation. B Battered child syndrome. A group of physical and mental symptoms arising from long-term physical vio- C lence against a child. Castration anxiety. The fear of losing one’s penis. Bayley Scales of Infant Development. A compre- In Freudian terms, this fear causes the boy to abandon hensive developmental test for infants and toddlers from his incestuous attachment to his mother and begin to two to 30 months of age. identify with his father. Behavior modification. A treatment approach, Catharsis. The release of repressed psychic energy. based on the principles of operant conditioning, that re- Cathexis. The investment of psychic energy in a per- places undesirable behaviors with more desirable ones son or object connected with the gratification of instincts. through reinforcements. Central nervous system. The portion of the ner- Behavior therapy. A goal-oriented, therapeutic ap- vous system that lies within the brain and spinal cord; it proach that treats disorders as maladaptive learned re- receives impulses from nerve cells throughout the body, sponses that can be replaced by healthier ones. regulates bodily functions, and directs behavior. Behaviorism. A theory of human development initi- Cerebellum. Located below the cerebrum and be- ated by Edward Thorndike and developed by John Wat- hind the brainstem, it controls subconscious activities, son and B.F. Skinner, emphasizing the study of measur- such as balance and muscular coordination. able and observable behavior. Cerebral cortex. Cerebrum’s outer layer consisting Bender-Gestalt test. Diagnostic assessment test to of nerve cell bodies. identify learning disability, neurological disorders, and Cerebral palsy. A permanent motor disability developmental delay. caused by brain damage associated with birth. Bestiality. Sexual feelings or behaviors involving Cerebrum. Divided into two hemispheres (left and animals; also referred to as zoophilia. right), the part of the brain that interprets sensory im- Binocular depth cues. Properties of the visual sys- pulses. The left side functions mainly in speech, logic, tem that facilitate depth perception by the nature of mes- writing, and arithmetic. The right side is linked with sages that are sent to the brain. imagination, art, symbols, and spatial relations. 676 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

Childhood amnesia. The common inability to re- Conditioned stimulus. Stimulus that leads to a call childhood experiences during the first three to five learned response. Dendrites years of life. Conduct disorder. Childhood antisocial behavior Classical conditioning. The process of closely as- disorder characterized by aggressive and destructive ac- sociating a neutral stimulus with one that evokes a re- tions that harm others or property. flexive response so that eventually the neutral stimulus Consciousness. Awareness of external stimuli and alone will evoke the same response. of one’s own mental activity. Clinical psychology. The application of psychologi- Convergent thinking. The ability to narrow the cal principles to diagnosing and treating persons with number of possible solutions to a problem by applying emotional and behavioral problems. logic and knowledge. Codependence. A term used to describe a person Conversion reaction. A psychological disorder who is intimately involved with a person who is abusing characterized by physical symptoms for which no physi- or addicted to alcohol or another substance. ological cause can be found. Cognition. A general term for the higher mental Correlational method. A technique used to mea- processes by which people acquire knowledge, solve sure the likelihood of two behaviors or events relating to problems, and plan for the future. each other. Cognitive behavior therapy. A therapeutic ap- Counterconditioning. Weakening or eliminating an proach based on the principle that maladaptive moods undesired response by introducing and strengthening a and behavior can be changed by replacing distorted or second response that is incompatible with it. inappropriate ways of thinking with thought patterns that are healthier and more realistic. Covert conditioning. A method for changing be- havior that involves the client using imagination to target Cognitive dissonance. Inconsistency between atti- unwanted behavior. tude (or belief) and behavior. Cross-cultural psychology. A subfield of psycholo- Cognitive psychology. An approach to psychology gy concerned with observing human behavior in con- that focuses on the relationship between cognitive or trasting cultures. mental processes and behavior. Cross-sectional study. Research that collects data Cognitive restructuring. Process of replacing neg- simultaneously from people of different ages. ative thoughts with alternative thoughts that are positive and calming. Cybernetics. The study of artificial intelligence sys- tems and their comparison to human brain functions. Collective unconscious. Consciousness that is shared by all people regardless of generation or culture. Combat neurosis. Mental disturbances related to the stress of military combat. Comparative psychology. A subfield of experimen- D tal psychology that focuses on the study of animals for the purpose of comparing the behavior of different species. Deductive reasoning. Way of thinking that relates ideas to one another in reaching conclusions. Compensation. A defense mechanism in which an individual unconsciously develops or overdevelops one Defense mechanisms. Unconscious strategies for area of personality as substitutive behavior to make up avoiding or reducing threatening feelings such as fear for a deficiency or inferiority in another area. and anxiety. Concept formation. Learning process by which Delusion. Beliefs that are in stark contrast to reality, items are categorized and related to each other. often having to do with persecution or an exaggerated sense of importance or glory. Concrete operational stage. Third stage of Jean Pi- aget’s theory of cognitive development. At this stage, Dementia. A gradual deterioration of mental func- children begin to develop clearer methods of thinking, al- tioning affecting all areas of cognition, including judg- though they have difficulty conceiving abstract thought. ment, language, and memory. Conditioned response. Behavior that is learned in Dendrites. Nerve cell fibers that receive signals response to a particular stimulus. from other cells. GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 677

Divergent thinking. The ability to come up with Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). An organic sub- Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) stance that encodes and carries genetic information and original and unique ideas and to envision multiple solu- tions to a problem. is the fundamental element of heredity. Double bind. Term used to describe situations in Dependent personality disorder. Disorder charac- which communication and behavior conflict (for exam- terized by a lack of self-confidence coupled with exces- ple, using warm, comforting voice while administering sive dependence on others. physical punishment to a child). Dependent variable. Variable measured in an ex- Draw-a-person test. A test that measures nonverbal periment or study; what the experimenter measures. Depression. An emotional state or mood character- orders. ized by one or more of these symptoms: sad mood, low intelligence or to screen for emotional or behavioral dis- Drive reduction theory. A popular theory of the energy, poor concentration, sleep or appetite changes, 1940s and 1950s that attributed behavior to the desire to feelings of worthlessness or hopelessness, and thoughts reduce tension produced by primary (biological) or sec- of suicide. ondary (acquired) drives. Derealization. Type of dissociation in which a per- Dyslexia. A reading disability that is not caused by son perceives reality in a grossly distorted way. an identifiable physical problem. Desensitization. Behavioral modification technique in which undesired behavior, such as anxiety, is paired with another response that is incompatible with it, such as relaxation. Determinism. A scientific perspective that specifies E that events occur in completely predictable ways as a re- Echolalia. Repetition of another person’s words or sult of natural and physical laws. phrases. Developmental delay. Any delay in a person’s Ectomorph. A body type proposed by William physical, cognitive, behavioral, emotional, or social de- Sheldon, who characterized ectomorphs as thin and in- velopment, due to any number of reasons. tellectual or artistic. Developmental psychology. The study of the ways Effector. Peripheral tissue at the outer end of an ef- in which people develop physically, emotionally, intel- ferent neural path (one leading away from the central lectually, and socially over the course of their lives. nervous system). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Dis- Ego. In psychoanalytic theory, the part of human orders (DSM-IV). A reference work developed by the personality that combines innate biological impulses (id) American Psychiatric Association and designed to pro- or drives with reality to produce appropriate behavior. vide guidelines for the diagnosis and classification of Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Also known as mental disorders. shock therapy, the application of mild electric current to Diencephalon. Located above the brainstem, the the brain to produce an epileptic-like seizure as a means site of the thalamus and hypothalamus. of treating certain psychological disorders, primarily se- vere depression. Differential psychology. The area of psychology concerned with measuring and comparing differences in Electroencephalograph (EEG). A device used to individual and group behavior. record the electrical activity of the brain. Displacement. A defense mechanism in which an Emotional intelligence. The ability to perceive and unacceptable impulse, such as aggression, is redirected constructively act on both one’s own emotions and the to something more acceptable, such as participating in a feelings of others. boxing match. Empiricism. Type of research that is based on di- rect observation. Dissociative identity disorder. A disorder in which a person’s identity dissociates, or fragments, creating ad- Encounter group. Group of individuals who en- ditional, distinct identities that exist independently of gage in intensive and psychotherapeutic interaction, with each other within the same person; also known as multi- the general intention of increasing awareness of self and ple personality disorder. sensitivity to others, and improving interpersonal skills. 678 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

Endocrine glands. Ductless glands that secrete hor- Forensic psychology. The application of psycholo- mones into the bloodstream. gy to lawmaking, law enforcement, the examination of witnesses, and the treatment of the criminal; also known Endomorph. A body type proposed by William Group therapy as legal psychology. Sheldon, who characterized endomorphs as heavy and easy-going. Forgetting curve. The general, predictable pattern Enuresis. Also known as bedwetting, the inability of the process of forgetting learned information. to control urination during periods of sleep. Formal operations stage. The fourth stage in Jean Equilibrium sense. One of two proprioceptive sen- Piaget’s theory of cognitive development characterized sory systems that provide input about the positions of by a person’s ability to reason about abstract concepts. one’s body. Fragile x syndrome. A genetic disorder that causes Ethology. The study of animal behavior as observed mental retardation. in the natural environment and in the context of evolu- Free-recall learning. The presentation of material tionary adaptation. to the learner with the subsequent task of recalling as Etiology. The study of how and why diseases or dis- much as possible about the material without any cues. orders originate. Frequency distribution. Systematic representation Eugenics. The systematic attempt to increase desir- of data, arranged so that the observed frequency of oc- able genetic traits and to decrease undesirable ones in a currence of data falling within certain ranges, classes, or population. categories is shown. Experimental design. Careful and detailed plan of Frustration-aggression hypothesis. Theory that an experiment. aggression is a response to the frustration of some goal- directed behavior by an outside source. Experimenter bias. The subtle and unintentional influence of the experimenter on the subjects in an ex- Fugue. A dissociative disorder in which a person periment. has no recollection of events during an amnesic episode. Exposure-response prevention. A behavioral treat- Functional disorder. A psychological disorder for ment technique in which a person is exposed to an anxi- which no organic cause can be found. ety-producing event and kept from responding in an un- Functionalism. A psychological approach that fo- desirable manner. cuses on how consciousness functions to help human be- Extinction. The elimination of a conditioned re- ings adapt to their environment. sponse by withholding reinforcement. F G Failure to thrive. Failure of an infant, toddler, or Gender identity disorder. A condition in which an child to grow at a normal rate. individual develops a gender identity inconsistent with his or her anatomical and genetic sex. Familial retardation. Mild mental retardation at- tributed to environmental causes and generally involving General adaptation syndrome. A profound physi- some degree of psychosocial disadvantage. ological reaction to severe stress. Family therapy. The joint treatment of two or more Genital stage. The fifth and last stage in Sigmund members of the same family in order to change un- Freud’s theory of psychosexual development in which a healthy patterns of communication and interaction. person’s sexual drives are increased and parental attach- ments are dissolved. Fetal alcohol effect (FAE) and Fetal alcohol syn- drome (FAS). The adverse and chronic effects of mater- Gestalt psychology. A field of psychology that em- nal alcohol abuse during pregnancy on her infant. FAS is phasizes the study of experience and behavior as wholes the leading cause of mental retardation. rather than independently functioning, disparate parts. Figure-ground perception. The ability to visually Group therapy. The simultaneous treatment of sev- differentiate between a sensory stimulation and its back- eral clients who meet regularly under the guidance of a ground. therapist to receive support or to pursue personal change. GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 679

Impulse control disorders. A psychological disor- Hallucinations have no foundation in reality. der characterized by the repeated inability to refrain H from performing a particular action that is harmful either Hallucinations. Perception of things or feelings that to oneself or others. Hallucinogens. Substances that cause hallucination Independent variable. The variable the experi- menter manipulates in an experiment. when ingested. Inductive reasoning. Way of thinking that uses Halo effect. A type of bias in which one characteris- comparison to reach conclusions. tic of a person or one factor in a situation affects the evaluation of the person’s other traits. Industrial psychology. A subfield of applied psy- chology in which practical problems in the workplace Heuristics. A methodical procedure for discovering are addressed through the application of psychological solutions to problems. principles. Histrionic personality disorder. A maladaptive or Information-processing theory. An orientation that inflexible pattern of behavior characterized by emotional focuses on how people select, process, and internalize instability, excitability, over-reactivity, and self-dramati- information and how they use it to make decisions and zation. guide their behavior. Holtzman inkblot technique. A projective test Instrumental behavior. Behavior exhibited by per- used to assess personality characteristics. sons in response to certain stimuli. Human potential movement. A movement that fo- Intellectualization. A type of defense mechanism cuses on helping people achieve their full potential in which a person detaches himself from a painful or through an eclectic combination of therapeutic methods anxiety-producing situation by dealing with it solely in and discipline. intellectual, abstract terms and ignoring its emotional Humanistic psychology. A theoretical and thera- components. peutic approach that emphasizes people’s uniqueness Interest inventory. A test that determines a person’s and their power to control their own destinies. preference for specific fields or activities. Hydrocephalus. A condition in which fluid collects Intermittent explosive disorder. Uncontrollable inside the skull. episodes of aggression, where the person loses control Hypnosis. A temporary narrowing of conscious and assaults others or destroys property. awareness. Hypochondria. A disorder characterized by an ex- cessive and habitual preoccupation with personal health and a tendency to interpret insignificant conditions as ev- idence of serious disease. J Hypothalamus. A section of the forebrain that is in- Just noticeable difference. Scientific calculation of volved in such aspects of behavior as motivation, emo- the average detectable difference between two measur- tion, eating, drinking, and sexuality. able qualities. I K Id. In psychoanalytic theory, the most primitive, un- Kinesthetic sense. The ability to know accurately conscious element of human personality. the positions and movements of one’s skeletal joints. Identification. A type of defense mechanism in Kleptomania. Overwhelming impulse to steal. which a person takes on the characteristics of someone else. Kohlberg’s theory. A theory advanced by Lawrence Kohlberg on the six stages of moral development. Imprinting. A type of learning characteristic of fowls that occurs only during a critical period of devel- Kohs block test. Intelligence test most often used opment soon after birth. with persons with language or hearing handicaps. 680 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

Melancholia. Outdated term for depression itself and L a clinically defined characteristic of major depression. Language acquisition device. Notion that some Menarche. The first menstrual period, which occurs knowledge about language is built into the brain of the at an average age of 12.8 years for girls in the United Muscular dystrophy human child. States. Latency stage. The fourth stage in Sigmund Freud’s Meningitis. Inflammation of the meninges, most theory of psychosexual development, in which a person’s often caused by infection. sexuality is dormant and his or her attentions are focused outside the family. Mental age. A scale used to correlate intelligence to a child’s chronological age. Law of effect. Principle that states that behavior that leads to a satisfying outcome is likely to be repeated, Merrill-Palmer scales of mental development. while behaviors that lead to undesired outcomes are less Tests that measure intelligence for children ages 18 likely to be repeated. months to four years of age. Learned helplessness. An apathetic attitude stem- Mesomorph. A body type proposed by William ming from the conviction that one’s actions do not have Sheldon, who characterized mesomorphs as muscular the power to affect one’s situation. and aggressive. Learning theory. Theory about how people learn Metapsychology. General term used to describe the and modify pre-existing thoughts and behavior. attempt to establish principles to explain all psychologi- Learning-to-learn. The phenomenon of greater im- cal phenomena. provement in speed of learning as one’s experience with learning increases. Methylphenidate. The generic name for the drug Ritalin, the most commonly prescribed medication for Lobotomy. The severing of the nerves connecting treating attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. the frontal lobes of the brain and the thalamus or hypo- thalamus. Midbrain. Also called mesencephalon, the small Locus of control. A personality orientation charac- area near the lower middle of the brain that controls terized either by the belief that one can control events by smooth and reflexive movements and regulates attention, one’s own efforts or that the future is determined by sleep, and arousal. forces outside one’s control. Milgram’s obedience experiment. A controversial Longitudinal study. Research method used to study experiment on conformity and obedience to authority changes over time. conducted in the early 1960s by Stanley Milgram. Minimal brain dysfunction. Term used in connec- tion with hyperactivity and/or attention deficit disorder. M Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory. Test used to gather information on personality, attitudes, Magnetic resonance imaging. Technique for study- and mental health. ing the brain using magnetic fields. Mnemonic strategies. Any technique used for the Mania. Mood of elation without apparent cause or purpose of memorizing or improving the function of justification. memory in general. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Theory of human Mode. The most frequently occurring member of a motivation developed by Abraham Maslow that empha- set of numbers. sizes developing one’s full potential. The hierarchy is de- picted as a pyramid with five levels, ranging from the Montessori method. A progressive system of edu- most basic needs at the bottom to the most complex and cation for early childhood through adolescence devel- sophisticated at the top. oped by Maria Montessori, emphasizing individualized, Mean. The sum of the values of the points in a data self-directed study. set divided by the number of points. Muscular dystrophy. A category of inherited, in- Median. The middle value in a group of measure- curable, and often life-threatening diseases in which the ments. limb and trunk muscles deteriorate. GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 681

Oral stage. The first stage in Sigmund Freud’s theo- Narcissism Narcissism. Excessive preoccupation with self and ry of psychosexual development in which a child is pri- N marily concerned with gratification through sucking. lack of empathy for others. Organic disorder. Disorder caused by a known pathological condition. Narcolepsy. A sleep disorder whose primary symp- toms is irresistible attacks of sleepiness during the day- time. Negativism. Tendency to resist complying with sug- gestions or directions. P Neocortex. The exterior covering of the cerebral Paired-associate learning. Pairing of two items hemispheres of the brain. (usually words) as stimulus and response. Nervous system. An electrochemical conducting network that transmits messages from the brain through Panic/panic disorders. Acute feelings of intense the nerves to locations throughout the body. fear, accentuated by increased heart rate, shortness of breath, sweating, and mild convulsions. Neuron. Technical term for nerve cell, responsible Paralysis agitans. Another name for Parkinson’s for sending, receiving, and storing signals through a disease, a relatively common degenerative disorder of unique blend of electricity and chemistry. the central nervous system. Neurosis. Term used to describe conditions involv- ing anxiety or psychological distress. Paranoia. A pervasive feeling of distrust of others. Neurosurgery. Surgery of the nervous system. Paraphilia. Sexual feelings or behaviors that may involve sexual partners that are not human, not consent- Neurotransmitter. Chemical substances or mole- ing, or that involve suffering by one or both partners. cules that aid in message transmission between neurons. Common types of paraphilia are bestiality, exhibition- Nicotine. Addictive substance in cigarettes. ism, masochism, pedophilia, sadomasochism, and Night terrors. A childhood sleep disorder featuring voyeurism. behavior that appears to be intense fear. Parapsychology. The study of paranormal phenom- ena, the most significant being ESP and psychokinesis. Parasomnia. Sleeping disorder that involves unusu- al phenomena such as nightmares, sleep terrors, and O sleepwalking that occur during sleep or during the period between sleeping and waking. Obsessive-compulsive disorder. Mental illness Passive-aggressive personality. A pattern of behav- characterized by the recurrence of intrusive, anxiety-pro- ior characterized by indirect resistance to the demands or ducing thoughts accompanied by repeated attempts to expectations of others, usually by covert means. suppress these thoughts through the performance of cer- tain irrational, often ritualistic, behaviors. Pedophilia. Sexual activity with a child, generally under the age of 13. Oedipus complex. Theory set forth by Sigmund Freud that children are torn between feelings of love for Penis envy. According to psychoanalytic theory, a one parent while feeling a sense of competition with the girl’s wish for a penis; she blames her mother for depriv- other. ing her of a penis and desires her father because he pos- sesses one. Operant conditioning. Approach to human learn- ing based on the premise that human intelligence and Perception. Area of psychology associated with the will operate on the environment rather than merely re- functioning of sensory systems and how information spond to the environment’s stimuli. from the external world is interpreted. Opiates. Addictive narcotic drug derived from Perfectionism. Tendency to set unrealistically high opium. standards for performance of oneself and others, along with the inability to accept mistakes or imperfections. Oppositional-defiant disorder. A form of antiso- cial behavior disorder characterized by opposition to au- Pervasive development disorder. A group of con- thority figures and by excessive anger and hostility. ditions involving serious impairment in several areas of 682 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

development, including physical, behavioral, cognitive, Psychoanalysis. A method of treatment developed social, and language development. by Sigmund Freud that emphasizes thorough examina- tion of a person’s unconscious motivations, feelings, and Phallic stage. The third stage in Sigmund Freud’s Rationalization relationships. theory of psychosexual development in which a child ex- periences and resolves the Oedipal crisis and assumes Psychobiology. Developed by Adolf Meyer, the in- his or her sexual identity. tegration of psychology and biology to treat the whole person. Phenomenological therapy. Also called humanistic therapy, an approach emphasizing a close, supportive re- Psychokinesis. The ability to manipulate physical lationship between the client and the therapist. Two well- objects with the mind. known forms of phenomenological therapy are client- Psycholinguistics. The psychology of language. centered therapy and Gestalt therapy. Psychophysics. Subfield of psychology that studies Phenylketonuria (PKU). An inherited metabolic the transformation from the physical to the psychological. disease caused by a defect in the liver enzyme that pre- vents the conversion of the protein called phenylalanine Psychosexual stages. Stages of development de- into a useful form. scribed by Sigmund Freud that focuses on the location of sexual impulses at different ages. Phobia. An intense, irrational, persistent fear that interferes with normal functioning. Psychosis. A symptom of mental illness character- ized by a radical change in personality and a distorted or Phonation disorders. Disturbances in speech tim- diminished sense of objective reality. bre, intensity, or pitch. Placebo effect. A scientifically significant response Psychosomatic disorders. Physical illnesses that that cannot be explained by physiological variables and are believed to be psychologically based. is assumed to be psychological in origin. Psychostimulants. Also called stimulants, drugs Positron emission tomography. Technique for that produce increased levels of mental and physical en- studying the chemistry and activity of the brain and to ergy and alertness and an elevated mood by stimulating diagnose abnormalities such as tumors. the central nervous system. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). A psycho- Psychosurgery. Medical procedure in which specif- logical disorder that develops in response to an extreme- ic areas of the brain are destroyed or disabled through ly traumatic event that threatens a person’s safety or life. surgery as treatment for mental illness. Preconscious. According to Sigmund Freud, that Psychotherapy. The treatment of mental or emo- part of the human mind that lies between the conscious tional disorders through the use of psychological tech- and the unconscious, which can be accessed and brought niques rather than through physical or biological means. into consciousness without the use of special techniques. Pyromania. Irresistible urge to start fires. Preoperational stage. The second stage in Jean Pi- aget’s theory of cognitive development characterized by egocentrism, centration, and irreversibility in thought. Primal therapy. A type of treatment method where early traumas are re-experienced in physical ways. R Programmed learning. A method of self-instruc- Rating scale. Any instrument designed to assist in tion that enlists machines or specially prepared books to the measurement of subjective evaluation. teach information. Rational-emotive behavior therapy. A mode of Projection. A type of defense mechanism in which treatment developed by Albert Ellis in which a client is a person assigns to others characteristics or motivations challenged to examine his or her irrational beliefs and that an individual would prefer not to recognize in him- taught to think more rationally with the goal of reducing self. emotional problems. Projective techniques. Unstructured tests used in Rationalization. A type of defense mechanism in personality assessment that rely on the subject’s interpre- which a person gives an intellectual reason or rationale tation of ambiguous stimuli. for an emotionally motivated action in order to assign Psychoactive drugs. Category of drugs that affect socially acceptable motives to one’s behavior or to mask mood and behavior. disappointment. GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 683

Reaction formation. A type of defense mechanism Scapegoating. A powerful and destructive phenom- Reaction formation in which a person deals with unacceptable feelings by enon wherein a person or group of people are blamed for whatever is wrong. adopting diametrically opposite ones. Schemas. A term defined by Jean Piaget as the Readiness test. A test designed to assess the devel- opmental condition of an individual to determine whether basic units of knowledge that a person uses to organize he or she would benefit from some particular experience. Schizophrenia. A mental illness characterized by Reflective listening. A way of responding to a per- past experiences and to understand new ones. son in order to create empathy. Often used in a therapeu- disordered thinking, delusions, hallucinations, emotional tic setting, this technique involves accepting the person as disturbance, and withdrawal from reality. he is and trying to understand the other person’s reality. Scholastic Assessment Test. Series of tests used to Regression. A type of defense mechanism in which measure verbal and mathematical abilities and achieve- a person reverts to behavior characteristic of an earlier ment in specific subject areas. period of life in order to gain access to the sources of Seasonal affective disorder. A bipolar disorder as- gratification experienced during that period. sociated with lack of light and melatonin excess in the Reinforcement. A stimulus that increases the prob- body. It generally corresponds to the seasons and how ability that a particular behavior will occur. much light a person experiences. Reliability (in testing). Term used in testing to de- Seizures. A temporary series of uncontrollable mus- scribe tests that produce consistent and reproducible re- cle spasms brought on by unusual electrical activity in sults. the brain. Repression. A principal defense mechanism in Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). which a person selectively forgets disturbing material. A category of antidepressants, including Prozac, Zoloft, and Paxil. Ribonucleic acid (RNA). A complex organic sub- stance involved in protein synthesis in cells. Self-actualization. The final and most complex step in Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of human motives, en- Rorschach technique. Popularly known as the compassing the basic need for self-fulfillment. “Inkblot Test,” a widely used projective psychological test used to assess personality structure and identify Self-conscious emotions. Emotions such as guilt, emotional problems. pride, shame, and hubris. Semantic memory. The part of long-term memory Rosenzweig picture frustration study. A projec- dealing with words, their symbols, and meanings. tive test consisting of 24 cartoon pictures, each portray- ing a frustrating situation, used to assess personality Sensitivity training. A group experience that gives characteristics. people new insight into how they relate to others. Sensorimotor stage. The first stage in Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development characterized by a child’s ability to grasp properties of objects and the con- cept of object constancy. S Sensory deprivation. An experimental procedure involving prolonged reduction of sensory stimuli. Sadomasochism. Sexual behavior in which an indi- Serial learning. Recalling patterns of facts or stim- vidual achieves gratification either by experiencing pain uli in the order in which they were presented. or inflicting pain on another person. Serial position function. The predictable patterns Satanic ritualistic abuse. Activities such as canni- of memory and forgetting when a person is presented balism, animal sacrifice, and child sexual abuse that are with a list of stimuli. assumed to be carried out by organized underground cults. Shaping. A gradual behavior modification tech- nique in which successive approximations to the desired Savant syndrome. A condition in which a person behavior is rewarded. has below normal intelligence combined with a special talent or ability in a specific area; also known as autistic Signal detection theory. A psychological theory re- savant or idiot savant. garding a threshold of sensory detection. 684 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

Significance level. A method to describe the relia- bility of test results. T Skinner box. A specially made cage with levers for Unconscious Tay-Sachs disease. A genetically transmitted dis- releasing food. ease of the central nervous system affecting young chil- Sleep apnea. Disrupted breathing that wakens a per- dren. son repeatedly during the night. Temperament. An individual’s characteristic emo- Social cognitive theory. Also known as social tional nature, including energy level, prevailing mood, learning theory. and sensitivity to stimuli. Social learning theory. A theory that posits that Thalamus. A collection of cell body clusters locat- people learn behavior by copying “models” and receiv- ed in the middle of the forebrain that process sensory in- ing reinforcements. formation. Social referencing. The process by which infants Thematic apperception test. A psychological test, seek out and interpret the emotional responses of their in which subjects are shown a series of pictures and parents to form their own emotional understanding of asked to make up a story, used to assess personality. unfamiliar events, objects, or persons. Tourette syndrome. A genetic, neurological disor- Sociobiology. A field of study combining biology der characterized by motor and vocal tics and associated and social sciences. behavioral features including obsessions and compul- Somnambulism. Also known as sleepwalking, a sions and hyperactivity. disorder that involves getting out of bed and moving Traits. A stable, relatively permanent characteristic. about while still asleep. Transference. The tendency of clients to transfer to Specific language impairment. A condition of the therapist their emotional responses to significant markedly delayed language development in the absence people in their lives. of any apparent handicapping conditions. Split-brain technique. Procedures used to study the Transsexualism. Condition in which a person de- activities of the two hemispheres of the brain separately, fines him or herself as male or female in opposition to and independent of each other. physical gender, sometimes seeking surgical procedures to change from one sex to the other. Stanford-Binet intelligence scales. A widely used test to measure intelligence. Triangulation. A situation in which two persons deal with the tension between them by using a third per- Stanford Progressive Matrices (SPM). A test that son as a buffer. assesses intelligence nonverbally in children and adults. Trichotillomania. Uncontrollable or overwhelming Strange situation. A research technique developed urge to pull out one’s own hair. by Mary Ainsworth and used in the assessment of attach- ments. Type A personality. A personality characterized by Stranger anxiety. Fear of people with whom a child competitive achievement, time urgency, and aggressive- is not familiar. ness or hostility when frustrated. Sublimations. A type of defense mechanism in which unacceptable impulse is diverted to a more appro- priate or socially acceptable form. It differs from dis- placement in that sublimations are generally associated with the conversion of impulses to scientific, artistic, and U other creative or intellectual activities. Superego. In psychoanalytic theory, the part of the Unconditioned response. Response that is natural human personality that represents a person’s inner values and not learned, such as jerking the hand from a hot and morals; also known as conscience. stove. Sympathetic nervous system. Part of the autonom- Unconditioned stimulus. Stimulus that naturally ic nervous system that mobilizes the body for action. elicits behavior, such as food. Synapse. The tiny gap through which communica- Unconscious. The part of the mind whose contents tion between two neurons takes place. people resist bringing into awareness. GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 685

Validity (in testing) scribe tests that measure what they are intended to mea- V Validity (in testing). Term used in testing to de- sure. Vocational aptitude test. A predictive test designed to measure an individual’s potential for success and sat- isfaction in any of various occupations and professions. Voyeurism. A sexual disorder in which a person finds sexual excitement in watching unsuspecting people who are nude, undressing, or having sex. W Wechsler intelligence scales. Series of intelligence tests encompassing both verbal and nonverbal abilities. Wernicke’s aphasia. A type of aphasia in which a person’s speech is overflowing with words that do not convey meaning. 686 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

PSYCHOLOGICAL ORGANIZATIONS Albert Ellis Institute E-Mail: [email protected] New York, NY 10001-6008 USA 45 E. 65th St. URL: http://www.abpp.org Phone:(212) 647-1890 New York, NY 10021 USA Fax: (212) 647-1865 Phone:(212) 535-0822 American Board of Psychological Toll-Free: 800-685-AABT Fax: (212) 249-3582 Hypnosis (ABPH) E-Mail: [email protected] Toll-Free: 800-323-4738 c/o Samuel M. Migdole, Ed.D., ABPH URL: http://www.aabt.org/ E-Mail: [email protected] North Shore Counseling Center URL: http://www.rebt.org 23 Broadway Beverly, MA 01915 USA Association for Advancement of Alfred Adler Institute (AAI) Phone:(978) 922-2280 Psychology (AAP) 24 E. 21st St., Fl. 8 Fax: (978) 927-1758 PO Box 38129 New York, NY 10010-7200 USA Colorado Springs, CO 80937 USA Phone:(212) 254-1048 American Psychological Association Phone:(719) 520-0688 Fax: (212) 254-8271 (APA) Fax: (719) 520-0375 750 First St. NE Toll-Free: 800-869-6595 American Academy of Child and Washington, DC 20002-4242 USA Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP) Phone:(202) 336-5500 Association for Child Psychology and 3615 Wisconsin Ave. NW Fax: (202) 336-5997 Psychiatry (ACPP) Washington, DC 20016-3007 USA Toll-Free: 800-374-2721 St. Saviours House Phone:(202) 966-7300 E-Mail: [email protected] 39/41 Union St. Fax: (202) 966-2891 URL: http://www.apa.org/ London SE1 1SD, England Toll-Free: 800-333-7636 Phone:44 171 4037458 E-Mail: [email protected] American Psychological Society Fax: 44 171 4037081 URL: http://www.aacap.org (APS) E-Mail: [email protected] 1010 Vermont Ave. NW, Ste. 1100 American Academy of Washington, DC 20005-4907 USA Psychoanalysis (AAP) Phone:(202) 783-2077 Association for Humanistic 47 E. 19th St. Fax: (202) 783-2083 Psychology (AHP) New York, NY 10003-1323 USA E-Mail: [email protected] 45 Franklin St., No. 315 Phone:(212) 475-7980 URL: http://www.psychological San Francisco, CA 94102 USA Fax: (212) 475-8101 science.org Phone:(415) 864-8850 E-Mail: [email protected] Fax: (415) 864-8853 URL: http://www.aapsa.org American Psychopathological E-Mail: [email protected] Association (APPA) URL: http://www.ahpweb.org American Anorexia Bulimia Dept-Psyc University of Maryland Association (AA/BA) College Park, MD 20742 USA Association for the Advancement of 165 W. 46th St., 1108 Phone:(803) 852-4190 Applied Sport Psychology New York, NY 10036 USA Fax: (803) 852-4195 c/o Jim Whelan, Ph.D. Phone:(212) 575-6200 Univ. of Memphis Fax: (212) 278-0698 Anorexia Nervosa and Related Dept. of Psychology E-Mail: [email protected] Eating Disorders (ANRED) Memphis, TN 38152-1389 USA URL: http://www.aabainc.org PO Box 5102 Phone:(901) 678-2147 Eugene, OR 97405 USA URL: http://www.aaasponline.org American Board of Professional Phone:(541) 344-1144 Psychology (ABPP) E-Mail: [email protected] 514 E. Capitol Ave. URL: http://www.anred.com Association for the Teaching of Jefferson City, MO 65101-3008 USA Psychology Phone:(573) 875-1267 Association for Advancement of c/o British Psychological Society Fax: (573) 443-1199 Behavior Therapy (AABT) 48 Princess Rd., E Toll-Free: 800-255-7792 305 7th Ave., Ste. 16A Leicester LE1 7DR, England GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 687

Association for Women in Psychology International Association for Child Phone:(217) 333-2461 Association for Women in Psychology (AWP) (AWP) and Adolescent Psychiatry and Fax: (217) 244-7322 PO Box 11474 Allied Professions (IACAPAP) Portland, OR 97211 USA PO Box 207900 Jean Piaget Society: Society for the URL: http://www.theworks.baka.com/ New Haven, CT 06520-7900 USA Study of Knowledge and awp/ Phone:(203) 785-5759 Development (JPSSSKD) Fax: (203) 785-7402 Human Development Association of Black Psychologists E-Mail: [email protected] Larsen Hall (ABPsi) Harvard GS Education PO Box 55999 International Council of Cambridge, MA 02138 USA Washington, DC 20040-5999 USA Psychologists (ICP) Phone:(617) 495-3614 Phone:(202) 722-0808 Psych Department Fax: (617) 495-3626 Fax: (202) 722-5941 Southwest Texas State Univ. URL: http://www.piaget.org E-Mail: [email protected] San Marcos, TX 78666-4601 USA URL: http://www.abpsi.org Phone:(512) 245-7605 Mental Research Institute (MRI) Fax: (512) 245-3153 555 Middlefield Rd. E-Mail: [email protected] Association of Psychology Palo Alto, CA 94301 USA Postdoctoral and Internship International Dyslexia Association Phone:(650) 321-3055 Centers (APPIC) 8600 LaSalle Rd. Fax: (650) 321-3785 733 15th St. NW, Ste. 719 Baltimore, MD 21286-2044 USA E-Mail: [email protected] Washington, DC 20005-2112 USA Phone:(410) 296-0232 URL: http://www.mri.org Phone:(202) 347-0022 Fax: (410) 321-5069 Fax: (202) 347-8480 Toll-Free: 800-ABCD-123 National Association for Sport and E-Mail: [email protected] E-Mail: [email protected] Physical Education (NASPE) URL: http://www.appic.org URL: http://www.interdys.org 1900 Association Dr. Reston, VA 20191 USA C. G. Jung Foundation for Analytical International Society for Phone:(703) 476-3410 Psychology Comparative Psychology (ISCP) Fax: (703) 476-8316 28 E. 39th St. PO Box 1897 Toll-Free: 800-213-7193 New York, NY 10016 USA Lawrence, KS 66044-8897 USA E-Mail: [email protected] Phone:(212) 697-6430 Phone:(913) 843-1235 Fax: (212) 953-3989 Fax: (913) 843-1274 National Association of School E-Mail: [email protected] E-Mail: [email protected] Psychologists (NASP) URL: http://www.psy.tcu.edu/psy/iscp/ 4340 East West Hwy., Ste. 402 iscp.html Bethesda, MD 20814-4411 USA Canadian Psychological Association Phone:(301) 657-0270 (CPA) International Society for Fax: (301) 657-0275 Developmental Psychobiology Societe Canadienne de Psychologie E-Mail: [email protected] (SCP) (ISDP) URL: http://www.naspweb.org 151 Slater St., Ste. 205 c/o Dr. Robert Lickliter Ottawa, ON, Canada K1P 5H3 Virginia Tech National Eating Disorder Phone:(613) 237-2144 Blacksburg, VA 24061-0436 USA Information Centre (NEDIC) Fax: (613) 237-1674 Phone:(540) 231-5346 College Wing, 1-211 E-Mail: [email protected] Fax: (540) 231-3652 200 Elizabeth St. E-Mail: [email protected] Toronto, ON, Canada M5G 2C4 Phone:(416) 340-4156 Canadian Society for Psychomotor International Society of Political Fax: (416) 340-3430 Learning and Sport Psychology Psychology (ISPP) E-Mail: [email protected] c/o Dana Ward, Exec. Dir. Societe Canadienne d’Apprentissage ISPP Central Office URL: http://www.nedic.on.ca Psychomoteur et de Psychologie du Pitzer College Sport 1050 N. Mills Ave. National Eating Disorders Faculty of Kinesiology Claremont, CA 91711 USA Organization (NEDO) University of Calgary Phone:(909) 621-8442 6655 S. Yale Ave. Calgary, AB, Canada T2N 1N4 Fax: (909) 621-8481 Tulsa, OK 74136 USA Phone:(403) 492-2187 E-Mail: [email protected] Phone:(918) 481-4044 Fax: (403) 492-2364 Fax: (918) 481-4076 URL: http://www.scapps.org International Society of Sports URL: http://www.laureate.com Psychology (ISSP) Center for the Study of Psychiatry c/o Prof. Glyn C. Roberts National Guild of Hypnotists (NGH) and Psychology University of Illinois at Urbana - PO Box 308 4628 Chestnut St. Champaign Merrimack, NH 03054-0308 USA Bethesda, MD 20814 USA Department of Kinesiology Phone:(603) 429-9438 Phone:(301) 652-5580 906 S. Goodwin Ave. Fax: (603) 424-8066 Fax: (301) 652-5924 Urbana, IL 61801 USA E-Mail: [email protected] 688 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

Play Therapy International (PTI) 1010 Vermont Ave., Ste. 1100 Society for the Advancement of 11E-900 Greenbank Rd., Ste. 527 Washington, DC 20005 USA Social Psychology (SASP) Nepean, ON, Canada K2J 4P6 Phone (202) 393-4810 c/o Francis C. Dane Phone:(613) 634-3125 Fax: (202) 783-2083 Department of Psychology E-Mail: [email protected] E-Mail: [email protected] Mercer University URL: http://www.playtherapy.org/ URL: http://www.sprweb.org/ 1400 Coleman Ave. Macon, GA 31207-0001 USA Psychology Society (PS) Society for Research in the Phone:(912) 752-2972 100 Beekman St. Psychology of Music and Music Fax: (912) 752-2956 New York, NY 10038-1810 USA Education E-Mail: [email protected] Phone:(212) 285-1872 c/o Music Dept. University of Sheffield Society for Pediatric Psychology Sheffield S10 2TN, England Society for the Psychological Study of (SPP) Phone:44 114 2667234 Lesbian, Gay and Bisexual Issues c/o Conway Saylor, Ph.D. Fax: 44 114 2668053 (SPSLGBI) Department of Psychiatry c/o American Psychological Associa- The Citadel Society for Sex Therapy and tion Charleston, SC 29409 USA Research (SSTAR) 750 1st St. NE Phone:(843) 953-5320 c/o Dr. P. Schreiner-Engel Washington, DC 20002-4242 USA Society for the Psychological Study of Lesbian, Gay and Bisexual Issues (SPSLGBI) Fax: (843) 953-6797 Mt. Sinai Medical Ctr. Phone:(202) 336-6037 1176 Fifth Ave., Box 1170 Fax: (202) 336-6040 Society for Psychophysiological New York, NY 10029 USA Toll-Free: 800-374-2721 Research (SPR) Phone:(212) 241-6758 URL: http://www.apa.org/divisions/ c/o Connie Duncan Fax: (212) 360-6917 div44 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 689

INDEX Aggression 20–22, 312, 656 Antisocial behavior 39–41 A bullies 102 juvenile delinquency 349 See also Television and aggression. television 640 Ability 1 Aging 22–23 Antisocial behavior disorders standardized tests 4 dementia 172 conduct disorder 146 Abnormal psychology 1–2 middle years 427 oppositional-defiant disorder 466 Abortion 2–3 AIDS 6–7 Antisocial personality disorder 41–42, Absolute threshold 3, 521 Ainsworth, Mary D. 23–24 494 Accommodation 49 Strange Situation test 51, 632 Anxiety/Anxiety disorders 1, 42–43, 518 Acculturation 3–4 Alcohol dependence and abuse 8, 24–26 test anxiety 643 Achievement 1 children of alcoholics 24 obsessive-compulsive disorder 462 Achievement motivation 4 fetal alcohol syndrome 248 post-traumatic stress disorder Achievement tests 4–5 Alienation 26–28, 263 (PTSD) 505 Scholastic Assessment Test 560 Allport, Gordon 28–29, 29 (ill.) Apgar score 43, 82 Ackerman, Nathan Ward 5–6 assimilation 50 Apgar, Virginia 43 Acquired Immune Deficiency Syn- trait theory 649 Aphasia 43–45, 376 drome. See AIDS. Altered consciousness 151 Wernicke’s aphasia 666 Action potential 7 Alzheimer’s disease 30, 44, 172 Appearance ADA 31 American Academy of Child and Ado- body image 85 Adaptation 7–8, 49 lescent Psychiatry 30 Applied psychology 45–46, 520 conformity 149 American Association of Humanistic Aptitude/Aptitude tests 1, 46, 659–660 culture and 3 Psychology 314 Archetypes 46–47, 348 Addiction/Addictive personality 8–10 American Family Therapy Association Ardrey, Robert 21 compulsive overeating 9 91 Arousal theory 440 ADHD. See Attention Deficit/Hyper- American Foundation for Mental Hy- Art therapy 48–49, 451 activity Disorder (ADHD). giene 70 Artificial intelligence 47–48 Adjustment disorders 10 American Psychiatric Association 32 Asch, Solomon 149 Adler, Alfred 10–11, 11 (ill.), 231, 328 American Psychological Association Asperger’s disorder 497 Adolescence/Adolescents 11–15 32–33, 104, 207, 290 Assembly for Scientific and Applied alcohol dependence and abuse 25 Psychological Abstracts 517 Psychology 33 battered child syndrome 66 American Psychological Society (APS) Assessment, psychological 49 cliques 127 33 Draw-a-person test 195 cognitive transition 12 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) Holtzman inkblot technique 305 conduct disorder 147 31 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality egocentrism 211 Ames Room 31 Inventory 431, 495 emotional development 216 Amnesia 31–32 Rorschach technique 512, 550–551 gangs 270 See also Memory. Rosenzweig picture frustration juvenile delinquency 349 Anal stage 522 study 552 obesity 462 Anastasi, Anne 33–35 Thematic Apperception Test 19, 49, parent-child relationship 476 Anger 21, 35, 312 439, 512, 644 peer acceptance 481 Anima and animus 46, 47 Assimilation 4, 49–50 personal fable 211 Animal behavior, study of 229 Associationism 50 sexual orientation 306 Animal experimentation 35–37 Attachment 50–52, 296, 474 Adoption 15–19 The Animal Mind 661 bonding 86 Adorno, Theodor 60 Animal research 141 stages of 51 Adrenal glands 310 Anna O. 98 Attachment and Loss 51 Advertising 152 Anomic aphasia 44 Attention 52, 488 Affect 19–20, 41 Anorexia 37–38, 85, 203 Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disor- Affiliation 19–20 Antidepressants 38–39 der (ADHD) 52–55 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 691