Introduction_to_Sanskrit

Introduction to Sanskrit A Study Guide to Accompany Michael Coulson's Sanskrit, An Introduction to the Classical Language (a.k.a. Teach Yourself Sanskrit) Stephen M. Beall, Ph.D. [email protected] This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License.

Foreword This text is intended to accompany Sanskrit, An Introduction to the Classical Language, by Michael Coulson. Coulson's book provides a complete overview of Sanskrit grammar, along with exercises, vocabulary lists, and answer keys. His explanation of certain features of the language is superior, in my opinion, to that found in other texts. Unfortunately, the book can be heavy-going for the true beginner. Thus, I have focused this Study Guide on essential grammatical information, which I have divided into daily units. Coulson's long vocabulary lists are partitioned here into Memorization Vocabulary, which consists of essential, high-frequency words, and Reading Vocabulary, which need not be memorized but is necessary to complete the exercises. I have also rewritten the Sanskrit-to-English sentences in two ways: first in unbroken Roman type, as they would appear in a typical printed book, and again without sandhi, so that the original forms will be easier to recognize. In some of the longer exercises I have made a selection of sentences. Coulson's fuller explanations, Devanagari exercises, and answer keys remain indispensable. A PDF of the book is available here: http://www.scribd.com/doc/34076502/Teach-Yourself- Sanskrit. It is also available for sale: http://www.amazon.com/dp/0844238252 Chapter 1 To read this chapter in RTF, you will need to download two TTF fonts, which can be found here: URW Palladio CSX+ (for Romanized Sanskrit) http://www.sanskritweb.net/fonts/#CSX RK Sanskrit (for Devanagari) http://reinhold.kainhofer.com/rk_fonts/ Subsequent chapters will be entirely in Romanized Sanskrit. Day 1 The Sounds of Sanskrit Sanskrit is usually written and printed in a script called Devanagari, '(the script of) the City of the Gods'. This alphabet is derived from the simpler Brahmi script of ancient India, which in turn appears to be related to the ancient Phoenician alphabet, on which the Hebrew, Arabic, Greek and Roman systems are also based. This would explain why some Devanagari characters look like 'backward' and 'squared off' versions of familiar letters. Unlike our Roman alphabet, which is a random sequence of sounds, the Sanskrit writing system is arranged according to phonetic principles. Vowels are grouped separately. Sanskrit vowels may be long or short. As in Latin in Greek, long vowels were originally held for an instant longer than short vowels, but this feature has disappeared from the language. The long vowels are: Vowel Sound à ã fa (in the musical scale) å mi é oo K-ri-shna

The short vowels are: Vowel Sound a Americ-a i u mi ç put K-ri-shna Note that in practice, the quality of i and ç is the same, whether the quantity is long or short. Sanskrit also has a number of diphthongs, or vowels originally composed of two vowel sounds. These are: Diphthong Sound e o re (in the musical scale) ai au do re (or ai, as in aisle) do (or au, as in hofbrau) E and o are written and pronounced as simple vowels, but they derive from the diphthongs ai and au, in which a is short. Ai and au are derived from ài and àu, respectively. In modern Sanskrit pronunciation, the long and short diphthongs have the same sound, but they have different Devanagari characters, and you may choose to use the alternative pronunciations given above. There is another vowel (ë), commonly pronounced 'li'. This vowel rarely occurs in Classical Sanskrit, except in hypothetical root forms. Now for the consonants. These are sounds produced by the 'sounding together' of various speech organs, such as the tongue, lips, teeth, and palate. Sanskrit grammarians arranged most of the consonants into five groups. Each group contains all the sounds that are articulated in a certain part of the mouth, starting at the opening of the throat and moving forwards toward the lips: Name of Consonant Place of Articulation Example Group velar, guttural back of mouth g palatal soft palate ch, but with tongue placed farther back retroflex hard palate (with a d, with tongue curled curling of the tongue) dental teeth d, but with tongue placed farther foward labial lips b The alphabet is also divided into columns that distinguish between stops and aspirates, and between voiced, unvoiced, and nasalized consonants. For example, the following sounds are all made in the same place in the back of the mouth (the velar position), but they have different qualities: unvoiced stop unvoiced voiced stop voiced nasal aspirate g aspirate ng (written ï) gh k kh

As aspirate is a consonant that includes a puff of air. A voiced consonant is one that is accompanied by a vibration of the vocal cords. A nasal consonant is vibrated through the nose. With this arrangement, the Sanskrit alphabet becomes an accurate phonetic table. Here is the entire table, in Roman characters. As a short a is the most common vowel in Sanskrit, it is added to the consonants on this table, for ease of pronunciation: Group Unvoiced Unvoiced Voiced stop Voiced Nasal stop aspirate aspirate Velar ka kha ïa Palatal ca cha ga gha ¤a Retroflex ña ñha ja jha õa Dental ta tha óa óha na Labial pa pha da dha ma ba bha Note that ca is pronounced like cha (as in cha-cha), but with the tongue against the soft palate. The aspirated consonants are always pronounced as written; for example, tha is pronounced as in 'that hat', not as in 'thin' or 'there'. Sanskrit also has a few semi-vowels. These are vowel sounds that acquire the quality of consonants when they are placed before another vowel. The semi-vowels are: palatal ya retroflex ra dental la labial va (closer to wa) Sanskrit possesses a row of sibilants or 'hissing' consonants, which are listed separately. These are: velar ha palatal ÷a retroflex ùa dental sa Both ÷a and ùa sound like sha, but the palatal consonant is pronounced with the tongue curled further back. Finally, the Sanskrit alphabet contains two 'variable' consonants. The first is called anusvara, and it is written in Roman as a dot under the letter m (ü). This indicates that the sound of m is nasalized before consonants. The other 'variable' consonant is called visarga, and it is written in Roman as a letter h with a dot under it (þ). This letter sounds like an h with a slight repetition of the preceding vowel, so that aþ sounds like a-ha, and uþ. sounds like u-hu. You are now familiar with all the sounds of Sanskrit, and you are ready to pronounce complete words. But you may be wondering where to place the stress. English words often contain two or more syllables, which are clusters of sounds around a vowel or diphthong. One of these syllables bears the weight of the voice, as in SYL-lable and com-PLETE. Occasionally, stress distinguishes homographs, such as PER-fect and per-FECT. When pronouncing Sanskrit, one can follow the rules for stress used in Latin, except that in Sanskrit the stress can fall on the fourth syllable from the end, if the second and third syllables are

both 'short'. When reciting solemn texts, however, there is a tendency to stress ANY syllable that contains a long vowel or diphthong or which ends in a consonant cluster. This gives the language an undulating rhythm, which is pretty cool. Exercise 1: Using the phonetic charts, pronounce the transliterated words and sentences in Exercise 1a in Coulson. Day 2 Reading Devanagari: Part 1 Now that you are familiar with the Sanskrit sound system, you are ready to learn the characters used in Devanagari script. These, as you have seen, were derived from previous alphabets, including perhaps the Phoenician alphabet, which is the foundation of the Roman and Greek writing systems. We will note the similarities between these alphabets as we go along. Note: It will be possible to complete this course without mastering Devanagari. But since it is a cool-looking alphabet and it is really more logical than the Roman system, your efforts will be repaid. Moreover, the gods will be pleased. Coulson reviews the consonants going down the columns; we will review them going across the rows. Let's start with the velar consonants:      ka kha ga gha ïa Note that ka looks like a stylized, backward k. Kha is the same character with an additional stroke to the left. Ga resembles a backwards Greek gamma. Gha is a gamma with a stroke added underneath. ða looks to me (at least) like a tongue choking on something--a rather graphic reminder of the sound it represents. Here are the palatal consonants in Devanagari:      ca cha ja jha ¤a Ca resembles the Cyrillic character for the same sound (ч). The initial stroke in ja resembles the letter 'j'. The initial stroke in ¤a, as we shall see later, resembles the Devanagari character for na with the addition of a tilde. Let's pause for a little practice. See if you can read these mostly fake words (the vertical stroke at the end is equivalent to our comma). Remember that each character includes the vowel 'a', so that  is pronounced jaja.  Now it's time to learn the retroflex consonants, which are articulated by curling the tongue on the hard palate:

     ña ñha óa óha õa òa resembles the letter t; ñha closes the 'hook' at the bottom. ôa is harder to associate with another letter, but óha is the same letter with the 'tail' curled the other way. öa looks like a backwards n. Now try your hand at reading these combinations:  That will do for now--Benares wasn't built in a day. But this would be a good time to talk about vowels. As you know, many ancient alphabets did not HAVE vowel signs. All the letters were consonants, and one had to supply the vowels from conjecture or by using special signs written above and below the line. This is still the case in Hebrew and Arabic, for example. Similarly, Devanagari usually indicates vowel sounds by modifying the consonant signs. Here are different vowels associated with the consonant, ka:       ka kā ke ki kī ko       ku kū kai kau kç ké Remember that the simple form of the character is pronounced ka. On those rare occasions when you want to pronounce the k sound alone, an additional stroke must be added below () . The mark for a long à is an additional stroke to the right of the basic character. The mark for the i sound was originally a loop written over the character, which pointed left for the short vowel and right for the long vowel. But eventually this loop was extended with a downward stroke, producing the graphemes you see above. This means that when you want to write ji, you will have to leave space for the i stroke before j. When typing, hit the i key first. Occasionally, vowels appear alone or at the beginning of words, and so they cannot be attached to a consonant sign. There are special forms for these situations, which we shall learn in the next unit. Exercise 2: Read and transliterate the following combinations:       Read and transliterate the following words. It is not necessary to learn them. We will begin acquiring vocabulary in Chapter 2.  camp

 tone of voice  one-eyed  elephant   strand, string  sing  ox, cow  pot  matted hair  be awake Day 3: Reading Devanagari, Part 2. Today we will continue learning the characters for the consonants, going across the rows. Here are the dental consonants, which are formed on the back of the teeth:      ta tha da dha na These characters are mostly counter-intuitive, but they are so frequently seen that that they will be assimilated quickly. Notice that da resembles óha, except that the loop extends below the tail, and that na resembles ¤a without the tilde. The final complete row in the Sanskrit consonant table gives the labial consonants, pronounced with the lips:      pa pha ba bha ma Note that pa resembles a backward 'p', and pha adds a loop to the right. Ba resembles the letter 'b'. Ma looks like the Greek letter mu. Again, let's pause for a little practice:  The semi-vowels are fairly easy to learn:     ya ra la va Ya looks like a 'y'. Ra resembles a cursive 'r', turned on its side. La looks like a stylized lambda, turned backwards. Va resembles the character for ba without a line through the loop. The sibilants are also quite distinctive:     sa ha ÷a ùa

Sa may remind you of the Hebrew letter samekh or its Greek equivalent, sigma. Ha looks like an h gone wild. Here is a little practice with the semi-vowels and sibilants:  You have probably already noticed that some Devanagari characters resemble others, leading to potential confusion in reading. This is not much of a problem when the similar characters belong to the same consonant group; you can learn them as variants of each other. But occasionally similar characters come from different groups, with quite different sound-values. Here is a table of the most troublesome look-alikes:     gha dha tha bha     ïa óa óha da I mentioned in the last class that there are special characters for vowels when they appear at the beginning of words or by themselves. In general, they appear as stylized versions of the simple vowel signs you have already learned:             a à e i ã o u å ai au ç é A stylized form of the AU character appears in the symbol for the sacred word AUM (pronounced OM): . Sanskrit is a full-bodied language, and consonants are often combined without an intervening vowel, as in the words Sa-nsk-rit and E-ngl-ish. To mark these combinations, writers of Sanskrit devised various special graphs, which for the most part show the two letters attached to each other. One way of combining them is to write only the characteristic element of the first letter, and to join it to the second:  kçùna  tatvamasi ('thou art that') Note that in the first example, the character is ùa is abbreviated before the full character for õa; in the second, ta is abbreviated before va. This is the most convenient method for printing and typing. But for many centuries Sanskrit was written by hand, and it was often easier to write one character above the other, producing combinations such as these:    ùña dva ïga Because they are common and traditional in manuscripts, these junctures often show up in

printed books, as well. Coulson gives you a comprehensive list at the end of the chapter. Most are fairly easy to decipher, although there are a few tricky ones, such as these:       ÷va dya tta kta kùa hva Fortunately, all the exercises in Coulson's book are transliterated, so that you can check or complete your decipherment of Devanagari as needed. There are two other common signs for conjunct consonants. When 'r' follows a vowel and precedes a consonant, it is written as a loop above the following consonant:  sårya (sun)  àcàrya (teacher) When 'r' follows a consonant and precedes a vowel, it is written as a diagonal stroke on the preceding consonant:    pra gra tra Finally, the character for anusvara (ü) is a dot above the line, and for visargha (þ) it is a colon:  vanaü (forest)    àcàryaþ (teacher) Exercise 3: From the answer key in the back of the book, read and transliterate the words in Devanagari script for Coulson, Exercise 1a. Do not try to read the longer sentences. After that, read and transliterate the words in Exercise 1b, again skipping the sentences at the end of the exercise. Check your answers against the key in the back of the book. Chapter 2 Day 1 Verb Classes and the Present Tense The classification of Sanskrit verbs appears at first glance to be a complicated mess, but the principles are quite simple. The ten classes of Sanskrit verbs are distinguished by the way they form the stem of the present tense. Coulson begins by setting out the system of vowel gradation used in Sanskrit verbal formations. This may look like one of his learned digressions, but the chart will come in handy as we learn various forms over time. Here is how it works. Every verb has a root form, which is found in dictionaries but never in actual Sanskrit. The root is a 'grammatical fiction' used to identify the common, underlying element in the forms that actually occur. For example, the root bhç is the point of reference for the participle bhçta (carried), the present tense bharati (he carries), and the perfect tense babhàra (he carried). These forms show

a lengthening of the vowel ç in bhç to ar in bharati and to àr in babhàra. Here we see the three grades of a Sanskrit verbal root: basic (ç), guõa (ar), and vçddhi (àr). The guõa grade is the real anchor of the verbal system. It shows a root vowel that can be shortened or lengthened to produce various forms. Here, for quick reference, is Coulson's chart, with the guõa vowels in the middle: basic grade a, à i, ã u, å ç, é ë guõa a e o ar al vçddhi à ai au àr àl The chart will help us to see the relationship between the root and present tense forms of the three classes studied in this chapter. What distinguishes verbs of Class 1 is that the guõa grade of the root is linked to the personal ending by a stem vowel, a. (This vowel is equivalent to the epsilon and omicron in Greek verbs, such as lu/-e-i, lu/-o-men.) For example, the form ÷ocati (he grieves) is derived from the root form ÷uc as follows: root in guõa grade stem vowel personal ending (he...) ÷oc a ti If the vowel in the basic grade of the root is long, or if it is short but followed by two or more consonants, the root remains unchanged in the present tense. An example is jãvati (he lives), from the root jãv: jãv a ti If the root ends in one of the diphthongs e, ai, or o, a semivowel (y or v) is inserted for a smoother transition: jay (< jai) a ti (he conquers) Just to add to the fun, there are a few irregular formations in this class: gacch (< gam) a ti (he goes) tiùñh (< sthà) a ti (he stands) In class 6, the stem vowel a is added to the basic grade of the root: likh (< likh) a ti (he writes) In class 4, ya (rather than a) is regularly added to the basic grade of the root: nçt (< nçt) ya ti (he dances) Because there are variations even within a single class, most Sanskrit textbooks give the present tense form after the root as a kind of principal part. You can use either the root or the present- tense form to look up words in online Sanskrit dictionaries, such as Huet's Sanskrit Heritage site. For the purposes of this course, it is not necessary to memorize the class of each verb.

So far, we have been looking at verbs in the third person, singular (he, she, it, [noun]...). An entire conjugation table looks like this: 1st Person Singular nayàmi I lead 2nd nayasi you lead 3rd nayati he leads 1st Person Dual nayàvaþ we two lead 2nd nayathaþ you two lead 3rd nayataþ those two lead 1st Person Plural nayàmaþ we lead 2nd nayatha y'all lead 3rd nayanti they lead If you have studied Latin, Greek, or any other Indo-European language, the Sanskrit personal endings will look eerily familiar. Here is a table of cognate endings: Sanskrit Greek (-mi verbs) Latin Early Modern English mi mi m m (am) si v s st (seekest) ti si t th (seeketh) vaþ thaþ men mus taþ te tis maþ asi nt tha [a]nti Note that in Sanskrit, the present tense covers both simple and continuous action (he leads, he is leading), as well as immediate intention (I am going now; let us go). Your translation will depend on the context. Vocabulary One of the charges against Coulson's book is that after the first few chapters he incorporates an exceptionally large vocabulary, thus adding to the burden of memorization. In this course, we will distinguish between high-frequency 'memorization' vocabulary and less common words. You should memorize the former, but only look over the latter. You can use Coulson's vocabulary and answer keys to remind you of less common words. On tests, words outside of the 'memorization' category will be supplied for you. As an aid to the memory, I have listed Indo-European cognates in the third column. Use these ONLY if they help you to remember the Sanskrit words. Memorization Vocabulary anã (I, anayati) bring iù (VI, icchati) wish upavi÷ (I, upavi÷ati) sit down gam (I, gacchati) go nã (I, nayati) lead, take

nçt (IV, nçtyati) dance vas (I, vasati) live, dwell likh (VI, likhati) write atra here api also, too, even evam thus, so katham how? what?! kva where? na not tatra there, to there Reading Vocabulary gai (I, gayati) sing brahm (I, bhramati) wander, be confused ÷uc (I, ÷ocati) grieve adya today adhunà now itaþ from here, this way In addition to the vocabulary lists for this chapter, Coulson mentions a few very common words that serve as conjunctions and as question or quotation markers. The first of these is ca (and), which corresponds to Latin -que and Greek te. Like the Latin conjunction, it occurs at the end of a sequence: ÷ocati madyati ca cf. Lat. moeret gaudetque He grieves and rejoices In a longer sequence, ca may come after the last word. But it can also be attached to all the words in a sequence: ÷ocati ca madyati ca. A common interrogative in Sanskrit is kim. Like the Greek interrogative ti/, it can mean either 'what?' or 'why?'. kim pçcchati. What does he ask? Why does he ask? Yes/No questions in Sanskrit may also be marked by kim, but they are more commonly introduced by api. api gacchati. Is he going? Finally, notice that three of the question words in this lesson begin with k: kim (what, why), kva (where) and katham (how). The letter k in Sanskrit corresponds to qu in Latin, t in Greek, and wh (originally hw) in English. Demonstrative adverbs often begin with t, as in tatra (there); cf. Latin tum (then), Greek tout~ o (this), and English there. Exercise 1 (Selected from Coulson 2b and 2c). Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English or from English to Sanskrit. The appendices in Coulson's book include answer keys and transliterations from Devanagari to Roman. When you write in Sanskrit, do not worry about

joining words together. We will discuss that in Day 2. 1. gacchàmi. 4. adhunà kva vasatha? 5. evam icchasi? 8. atra kim ànayataþ [bring]? 9. pa÷yàmi likhàmi ca. 12. smaranti ca ÷ocanti ca. 1. You are wandering. 2. Now we understand [avagam, avagacchati; mor on this in Day 2). 3. There too she dances. 4. The two of you live here? 6. Let us two sit down. 5. What, are they winning? 9. What shall I write here? 12. They come and go. Day 2 Verbal Prefixes; Negation; Sandhi Rules Like other Indo-European languages, Sanskrit builds vocabulary by adding prefixes to verbal roots. Here are some examples: Prefix Verb Meaning -- gacchati he goes à- àgacchati he comes ava- avagacchati he understands Sometimes, the prefix merely intensifies the verbal idea. At other times, the simple and compound forms have the same meaning: Prefix Verb Meaning -- vi÷ati he enters pra pravi÷ati he enters Negation in Sanskrit is simple: one adds the negative particle na before the positive form of the verb: na gacchati he does not go The rest of Coulson's chapter is devoted to the rather complicated rules of sandhi. This term denotes the sound changes that result from the combination of significant elements of speech. Sandhi happens all the time in English, but we seldom notice it. Here is an example: Prefix Simple Word Compound in finite in possible infinite impossible The normal form of the prefix is in-, but it changes to im- before the letter p, which is a labial consonant. This is easier to pronounce than *inpossible, which requires an awkward jump from the hard palate to the lips. Here we have an example of internal sandhi, a change that takes place inside a word. In English, moreover, we often make subtle changes between words to effect smoother transitions in speech. These changes often escape our notice because they are not reflected in spelling. In one of his novels, J.D. Salinger includes the following conversation: Jeat?

Huh? I said, 'Did you eat?' The humor is based on the fact that in the Northeastern United States, the initial y of you changes the final d in did to j (a phenomenon called palatalization). The palatalized j then swallows up the initial d and the short vowel in did. On top of that, the vowels in ja and eat elide, producing jeat. English spelling does not reflect these changes, for a good reason. In the absence of pragmatic clues, such as the proximity of a delicatessen, readers would not recognize the original words. Sanskrit scribes, on the other hand, placed great emphasis on fidelity to the sounds of actual speech, especially in ritual contexts. Thus, sound changes are faithfully reflected in Sanskrit writing, and this sometimes conceals the words and forms that are being employed. Sanskrit textbooks take various approaches to the complicated rules of sandhi between words. Coulson figures that students will pick up the rules from experience. Thus, he is content to provide tables that you they can use to decipher combinations encountered in reading or to anticipate changes required in writing. We will follow his approach, with this difference: sentences will be given first with sandhi, and then without. For the moment, however, it will help to make a quick overview of the phenomenon. A simple type of sandhi occurs when one word ends in a vowel and another begins with a vowel. This can result in confusion between the vowels or an awkward pause between them (hiatus). To avoid this, one can blend the two vowels or change one or more of them to make the transition smoother. For example, the combination tatra iva becomes tatreva; vane eva becomes vana iva. Many of the combinations will make sense if you recall that e and o correspond to a+i and a+u, respectively; ai and au result from à+i and à+u. When you use the chart, find the coordinate between the final vowel of the first word (left column) and the initial vowel of the second word (top row), and you have the resulting combination. Most sandhi rules pertain to the combination of two consonants (e.g., tat + ÷arãram = taccharãram). These rules will usually make sense if you pronounce the two words together without sandhi and attend to the resulting sound. Sandhi often involves assimilation, by which one of the consonants is made to resemble the other in its place of articulation (cf. impossible: in- becomes im-, because m and p are both pronounced on the lips). Some of the most complicated rules apply to nouns ending in þ. ÿ frequently takes the place of a final -s (a÷vaþ, from a÷vas, horse; cf. equus) or a final -r (màtaþ from màtar, mother; cf. mhth/r, mater). Since þ is a weak sound, it sometimes drops out altogether: a÷vaþ asti (the horse is) becomes a÷vo'sti. Sanskrit writing often presents long strings of characters that comprise several words. For Indian scribes, the important divisions were between syllables and between sentences. It was assumed that a skilled reader could divide the words for himself. Thus, when a word ends in a consonant and there is no following pause, it is written together with the following word, in order to produce a complete syllable: kim + ànayati kimànayati. What is he bringing? kim + evam + vanam + kimevaü Why then do I come into àgacchami vanamàgacchàmi. the forest? tat + tvam + asi tattvamasi. Thou art that. There is a word break, however, after anusvara and visarga:

kim + pçcchàmi kiü pçcchàmi. What am I asking? Sandhi often creates additional junctures between words: vadati + iti vadatãti. He says (thus). In the Exercises in this Study Guide, sentences will be given first with sandhi and with the traditional spacing, then without sandhi and a space between individual words. Vocabulary Another very useful word is iti (thus). It is used to mark the end of a direct quotation. Sanskrit does not use quotation marks. àgacchàma iti vadanti (àgacchàmaþ iti 'We are coming' (thus) they say. vadanti). Two other adverbs in the vocabulary are placed after the words they modify. They are api (when it means 'also, too, even') and punar (when it means 'but'). Memorization Vocabulary avagam (I, avagacchati) understand àgam (I, àgacchati) come ji (I, jayati) win, conquer jãv (I, jãvati) live dç÷ (I, pa÷yati) see, look at prach (VI, pçcchati) ask vad (I, vadati) speak, say sthà (I, tiùñhati) stand smç (I, smarati) remember punar again, however punar api yet again, once more Reading Vocabulary pravi÷ (I, pravi÷ati) enter (=go before) mad (IV, madyati) rejoice Exercise 2a (Coulson 2a): Use the sandhi charts in Coulson's book to complete the following combinations. 1. svairam tamasi i÷varasya a÷vau durjanàþ ÷astraiþ ciràt mu¤canti ra÷mibhyaþ eva. 3. svairam eva i÷varasya mu¤canti a÷vau ÷astraiþ durjanàþ ciràt tamasi ra÷mibhyaþ. Exercise 2b (Coulson 2b and 2c): Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English or from English to Sanskrit. 2. atra na pravi÷àmaþ. 3. punarapi likhati (punar api likhati). 6. kvapunastiùñhanti (kva punar

tiùñhanti?). 7. kathamita àgacchati (katham itaþ àgacchati?). 11. nçtyatho gayatha÷ca (nçtyathaþ gayathaþ ca). 13. atra pravi÷àva iti vadataþ (atra pravi÷àvaþ iti vadataþ). 14. adhunàpi kathaü nàgacchati (adhunà api kathaü na àgacchati?). 15. jayàmãti madyàmi (jayàmã iti madyàmi). 16. na jãvantãti ÷ocàmaþ (na jãvanti iti ÷ocàmaþ). 7. The two of them do not say so. 8. Are you asking yet again? 10. Do you not see? 13. Now she both lives and grieves. 14. He sees and seems to speak. 15. 'What do you [pl.] want?' they ask. 16. We go because they are coming. 17. However, we do not rejoice. 18. So also do the two of us remember. What do you remember? That he is not coming today. Chapter 3 Day 1 Nominative and Accusative Cases; Nouns and Pronouns Sanskrit, like Greek and Latin, uses case-endings to indicate the roles that nouns and pronouns play in sentences. Classical Sanskrit is somewhat less dependent on this system than other languages, because of its extraordinary flexibility in the creation of compound forms. More on that later. In this chapter, Coulson introduces the nominative, vocative, and accusative cases. They are used in pretty much the same way as in Latin and Greek. Case Uses English Examples Nominative Subject Complement (Predicate) Shiva dances. Vocative Direct Address Arjuna is a warrior. Accusative Direct Object Goal, Destination Hey Rama! Arjuna asks Krishna. Krishna goes to the forest. In this lesson, you will learn the nominative, vocative, and accusative forms of some common nouns. You may recall that in Greek and Latin, the so-called Second Declension contains masculine nouns in -oj/us and neuter nouns in --on/-um. What they all have in common is the stem-vowel o. There are corresponding forms in Sanskrit, exemplified by a÷vaþ (horse) and phalam (fruit). For all such nouns, the stem form ends in a. Stem Form a÷va (Masculine) phala (Neuter) Singular Nominative a÷vaþ phalam Vocative a÷va phalam Accusative a÷vam phalam Dual Nominative a÷vau phale Vocative a÷vau phale Accusative a÷vau phale Plural Nominative a÷vàþ phalàni Vocative a÷vàþ phalàni Accusative a÷vàn phalàni Notice that neuter nouns have the same form in all three cases of each number. This happens in

Latin and Greek, as well. The dual ending -e (as in phale) is not subject to sandhi. This is also true of dual forms ending in -i and -u, which we shall meet later. There are also many adjectives built on the -a stem and sharing the endings you see above. Adjectives agree with the nouns they modify in gender, number, and case: ÷ãgrava÷vau (÷ãgrau a÷vau) [two] swift horses Evidently, Coulson thought that learning these paradigms alone would be too easy! And so he throws in some personal pronouns for good measure. As in Latin, Greek, and English, the forms of pronouns are somewhat irregular. But they should also seem vaguely familiar: Type of Pronoun 1st Person (I/We) 2nd Person (You) Singular Nominative aham (I) tvam (you, thou) Accusative màm (me) tvàm (you, thee) Dual Nominative àvàm (we two) yuvàm (you two) Accusative àvàm (us too) yuvàm (you two) Plural Nominative vayam (we) yåyam (y'all, ye) Accusative asmàn (us) yuùmàn (y'all, you) Note the resemblance of these forms to English pronouns such as me (màm), we (vayam), thee (tvàm), us (asmàn), and you (yåyam). There are also third-person pronouns (he, she, it, they, that one, those ones). In this lesson, you will learn the masculine and neuter forms: Gender of Pronoun Masculine Neuter Singular Nominative sa, saþ tat Accusative tam tat Dual Nominative tau te Accusative tau te Plural Nominative te tàni Accusative tàn tàni The masculine forms are related to the definite article in Greek (o,9 to/n). In the neuter column, tat will remind you of English that. The final t is also related to the d in Latin pronouns such as id and illud. Saþ is the regular form in the nominative singular, but it becomes sa before all consonants and before all vowels except (short) a. While we're at it, why not look at the interrogative pronoun (who? what?)? Gender of Pronoun Masculine Neuter Singular Nominative kaþ kim Accusative kam kim Dual Nominative kau ke Accusative kau ke Plural Nominative ke kàni

Accusative kàn kàni These forms closely resemble the personal pronouns saþ, etc., except that the initial letter is k. As we have seen, kw was the sound in Proto-Indo-European that marked questions. It became qu in Latin, t in Greek, and wh (originally hw) in English. We have seen that Sanskrit employs the cases in pretty much the same ways as in Greek and Latin, but there are a few surprises: vanaü gacchàmi. I go to the forest. vanaü tvàü nayàmi. I lead you to the forest. tat tvàü vadàmi. I say this to you. For comparison, recall the Latin phrases Romam contendo (I am going to Rome) and haec te doceo (I teach these things to you; I teach you these things). See Coulson for other notes on usage. One of the most important points is that Indo-European languages tend to treat substantives (nouns and pronouns) and attributives (adjectives) as pretty much the same thing. This is why it is so easy to turn an adjective into a noun (e.g., the Romans). Likewise, demonstratives can function either as pronouns or as adjectives (I am waiting for those; I am waiting for those things). Thus, in Sanskrit, saþ and kaþ can also be used to modify a noun: taü ÷iùyam icchanti. They want that pupil. kaþ ÷iùya evaü vadati. (kaþ ÷iùyaþ evam Which pupil says so? vadati?) Occasionally, saþ is even used as a definite article (the); this is normally not required in Sanskrit. Vocabulary Memorization Vocabulary (Masculine nouns end in þ, neuter nouns in m.) àcàryaþ teacher a÷vaþ horse kùetram field krodhaþ anger gajaþ elephant candraþ moon jalam water paõóitah scholar bàlaþ boy bhojanam food vanam wood, forest ÷iùyaþ pupil sukham happiness suryaþ sun Reading Vocabulary

parvataþ mountain braþmaõaþ brahmin Exercise 1 (From Coulson, 3a and 3b). Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English or from English to Sanskrit. Use the textbook to see the sentences in Devanagari and to check your results. 1. àcàryaü ÷iùyà ànayanti (àcàryaü ÷iùyàþ ànayanti). 2. apia÷vànicchasi (api a÷vàn icchasi?). 4. sukham ko necchati (sukham kaþ na icchati?). 7. kastvamiti màü pçcchataþ (kaþ tvam iti màm pçcchataþ). 1. We want water and food. 3. Scholars, what do you want? 5. Which two teachers do you see? 8. Teacher, what brahmin is coming this way? 15. Why do you [pl.] say that he does not want happiness? 16. They are taking the elephant to the field. Day 2 Nominal Sentences; Word Order; Iva A nominal sentence may also be called a linking sentence, in which two elements are being equated: That man is wise. That man is Arjuna. These sentences consist of a subject (that man) and a complement (also called a predicate: wise, Arjuna). The latter may be a substantive (Arjuna) or a predicate adjective (wise). In Sanskrit, one normally omits the linking verb, and the complement may be placed first: ramanãyo bàlaþ (ramanãyaþ bàlaþ). Pleasant [is] the child. The child is pleasant. svalpaü sukhaü krodhaþ. A small pleasure [is] anger. Anger is a small pleasure. This construction is also common in Greek: sofo/j o9 a/0nqrwpoj. Wise [is] the man. The man is wise. If the subject is a demonstrative pronoun, it reflects the gender and number of the predicate: suryaþ saþ. The sun [is] that. That is the sun. The predicate of a linking sentence may also be adverbial: evaü sarvadà sukhàni. Ever thus [are] joys. Joys are ever thus. These sentences are a good illustration of the principles of word-order in Sanskrit. Like Latin and Greek, Sanskrit allows variable word order:

bàlaþ pa÷yati. The child sees. pa÷yati bàlaþ Nevertheless, word order tends to reflect emphasis. The most emphatic word comes first. Sanskrit nominal sentences often strike us as inverted, because English tends to put the emphatic word at the end: ramanãyo bàlaþ (ramanãyaþ bàlaþ). The child is pleasant. For the same reason, modifiers (adjectives and adverbs) tend to come before the words they modify: ramanãyo bàlo'dya gacchati (ramanãyaþ The pleasant child goes today. bàlaþ adya gacchati). A number of words, however, behave enclitically, which is to say that they attach themselves to the end of the word(s) that they qualify. You have already met iti (thus). Another such word is iva (like, as if): àcàrya iva ÷iùyo màü pçcchati (acàryaþ The pupil is questioning me like a teacher iva ÷iùyaþ màü pçcchati). (teacher-like). àcàryamiva màü ÷iùyaþ The pupil is questioning me as if I were a pçcchati.(àcàryam iva màü ÷iùyaþ teacher (teacher-like). pçcchati.) In these examples the case of teacher indicates an implied comparison, either with the pupil (in the first example) or with me (in the second). In nominal sentences, iva can also be used to make 'equal comparisons': ahamiva ÷unyamaraõyam (aham iva I-like the forest is desolate. ÷unyam araõyam). The forest is as desolate as I. Vocabulary Memorization Vocabulary (adjectives are given in their stem form) janaþ person, people naraþ man duþkham pain, sorrow ramaõãya pleasant vacanam word, speech vismita astonished ÷ãghra swift ÷obhana bright, beautiful svalpa small, scant Exercise 2 (Coulson 3a and 3b): Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English or from English to Sanskrit. Use the textbook to see the sentences in Devanagari and to check your results.

5. svalpaü bhojanam. 10. ÷ãgraü vacanaü nàvagacchàmaþ (...na avagacchàmaþ). 11. àcàrya parvata iva sa gajaþ (àcàrya, parvataþ iva saþ gajaþ). 13. kiü ÷iùyà yåyam (kim ÷iùyàþ yåyam). 15. ramaõãyamadhunà tatphalamiti vismità vadanti (ramaõãyam adhunà tat phalam iti vismitàþ vadanti). 16. kathamatràpi bàlàþ (katham atra api bàlàþ). 2. The two of them see a swift horse. 4. Anger conquers you as if [you were] a child. 6. The moon is as bright as the sun today. 9. What is the advantage in this [here]? 7. Is he pleasant? 10. Children, where is that teacher? 13. Are the teachers astonished? Day 3 Coordinative (Dvandva) Compounds One of the best features of Coulson's textbook is his straightforward explanation of compound formations. These are a distinguishing feature of Sanskrit stylistics, especially in the Classical period. English also uses compound forms a great deal. Most of these are what we shall call determinative compounds, where the first element limits the second: wife-beater a beater of wives magazine stand a stand for magazines English often marks compounds by joining them with a hyphen, but it does not always do so (e.g., magazine stand). Sanskrit, on the other hand, always marks the first element of a compound by using the stem form, which is uninflected: sarva + dç÷ = sarvadç÷ all-seeing, seeing all We shall see more examples of this type of compound, which is extremely common in Sanskrit, in a later chapter. In Chapter 2, Coulson introduces a type of compound which is unknown in English. It combines substantives into a group without the use of a conjunction, such as ca. This is called a coordinative or dvandva ('two-two') compound. Phrase Using Conjunction Coordinate Compound Meaning a horse and an elephant a÷vogaja÷ca a÷vagajau (a÷vaþ gajaþ ca) Note that the compound, which means 'horse + elephant', takes the dual ending au because the new word signifies two critters. If the total number amounts to three or more, the plural ending is used: àcàrya÷iùyàþ the teacher and the students Because the first element is given in its invariable stem form, one cannot always tell its original number: àcàrya÷iùyàþ the teacher and the students OR the teachers and the students

The final element always determines the gender of the compound. Its case is determined by its function in the sentence. àcàrya÷iùyàn pa÷yàmi. I see the teacher and the students. One can also link together as many words as one likes, creating a virtual circus parade: a÷vagajamçgasçgàlàþ horses, elephants, deer, and jackals Exercise 3a. Translate the following phrases and sentences from Sanskrit to English or from English to Sanskrit. In this exercise, don't worry about sandhi. This exercise is not in Coulson, so there is no answer key (!). 1. candrasuryau. 2. àcàryapaõóitàþ. 3. janagajàþ. 4. jalaphalàni. 5. àcàryabrahmaõàn pa÷yàmi. 6. àcàrya÷iùyau tat vadataþ. 1. the elephant and the teacher. 2. the elephant and the teachers. 3. the elephants and the teachers. 4. pleasures and pains. 5. men and boys. 6. I see the man and the horse. 7. The men and the horses see me. Exercise 3b (Coulson, 3a and 3b). Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English, or from English to Sanskrit. Use the textbook to see the sentences in Devanagari and to check your results. 3. ahaü suryacandrau pa÷yàmi. 6. jalama÷vànnaro nayati (jalam a÷vàn naraþ nayati). 8. kiü parvataü paõóito gacchati (kiü parvataü paõóitaþ gacchati). 9. atra krodho na vasatãti vanaü pravi÷ataþ (atra krodhaþ na vasati iti vanaü pravi÷ataþ). 12. kiü punaþ pçcchàmi (kiü punar pçcchàmi). 14. jalaü narabàlàþ pravi÷anti. 18. bàlà atra kiü sukhaü pa÷yatheti ÷iùyànàcàryo vadati (bàlàþ atra kim sukham pa÷yatha iti ÷iùyàn àcàryaþ vadati). 11. Do you not remember even pleasant words? 12. We see scant advantage. 14. The two boys see fields, mountains, and forests. 17. But where the food [is], you do not tell me. (Use iti). 18. That man is speaking to the astonished people like a Brahmin. Chapter 4 Day 1 Past Participles The past participle is one of the most important critters in Sanskrit. It corresponds, both in form and usage, to the English past participle (e.g, remembered, written, sunken). It might be more accurately called the 'perfect participle', since it denotes a completed action, rather than one necessarily performed in the past. For transitive verbs, the past participle is usually understood as passive. The forms of the past participle are fairly easy to recognize. The standard suffixes are -ta, -ita, and -na (corresponding to -ed in remembered and -en in sunken). These are added to the basic grade of the root, which is sometimes reduced to a weaker vowel (e.g., a becomes i). Since the form of the participle is not always predictable, it is usually given in dictionaries after the root and present tense forms (e.g., sthà, tiùñhati, sthita). Here are some examples:

Root Past Participle Meaning gam gata gone gai gãta sung jai jita conquered, beaten jãv jãvita lived dç÷ dç÷ta seen nã nãta led vad udita said, spoken sthà sthita stood smç smçta remembered nçt nçtta danced mad matta rejoiced pravi÷ praviùña entered likh likhita read iù iùña desired A participle is a verbal adjective. As such, it can be used as an attributive (sunken treasure) or as a predicate (his name is remembered). iùtaü phalam na pa÷yàmi. I do not see the desired reward. jito (jitaþ) Ràkùasaþ Ràkùasaþ is beaten. Either way, the past participle agrees in gender, number, and case with the noun it describes. It has the same forms as adjectives such as ÷ãgra and ramaõãya. Sanskrit has a much higher tolerance for passive forms, including the past participle, than does English. It is not unusual to see sentences like this: kiü dçùtaü tatudyànam. Has that garden been seen [by you]? Have you seen that garden? When the agent (do-er) of the action has to be expressed, the instrumental case is used. We will learn it in the next section. Sometimes, the participle appears in nominal sentences without a subject. The subject must be inferred from the form of the participle: hanta, na gataþ. Oh, he has not gone! hanta, na gatàþ. Oh, they have not gone! The past participle of transitive verbs (i.e., verbs that take a direct object, such as beat) is usually understood as passive. The participle of intransitive verbs (such as go) is understood as active: jito (jitaþ) Ràkùasaþ. Ràkùasaþ is beaten. gato (gataþ) Ràkùasaþ Ràkùasaþ has gone. This is the case in English, as well. There are some past participles, however, which admit both an active and a passive sense: Ràmo (Ràmaþ) praviùñaþ. Rama has entered.

nagaram praviùñam. The city has been entered. When api follows a participle, it gives it concessive force (although...; cf. Greek kai/toi): iùñàþ api paõóitàþ na àgacchanti. Though wanted, the pundits do not come. Even though we want the pundits, they do not come. Vocabulary In addition to the words in the vocabulary lists, Coulson mentions some common idioms. One of these is eva, which serves mainly to emphasize (underscore) the word before it: svalpànyevecchàmaþ (svalpàni eva We want the small ones. icchàmaþ). Using italics and adding stress to the voice are probably the best 'default' strategies for translating eva. Coulson mentions some other English equivalents, such as just: bàla eva saþ (bàlaþ eva saþ). He is a child. He is just a child. Another useful word is the pronoun/adjective eùaþ (this). It has the same endings as saþ. Eùaþ has a strong deictic (pointing) force, meaning 'this here' or even 'see':' eùa Ràmo bàlànànayati (eùaþ Ràmaþ This here Rama brings the children. bàlàn ànayati). See, Rama brings the children. It can even be used in the latter sense with first- and second-person verbs: eùa udyànaü pravi÷àmi (eùaþ udyànaü This here I go into the garden. pravi÷àmi). See, I am going into the garden. Vocabulary Memorization Vocabulary gçham house (masc. in plural) devaþ god, his majesty nagaram city, town putraþ son dåra far off pari÷rànta exhausted, tired prathama first eva in fact, actually, quite, only, the very eùaþ this (here) prathamam already he O!

Reading Vocabulary adbhuta extraordinary, marvelous avasaraþ opportunity, occasion udyànam garden, park Exercise 1 (Coulson 4a, 4b): Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English or from English to Sanskrit. Use the textbook to see the sentences in Devanagari and to check your results. 2. etadudyànaü pravi÷àmaþ (etat udyànam pravi÷àmaþ). 5. ka eva gçhamàgacchati (kaþ eva gçham àgacchati?). 7. dçùtamavagataü ca (dçùtam avagatam ca). 9. dårameva nagaraü vayaü ca pari÷ràntà bhramàmaþ (...pari÷ràntàþ bramàmaþ). 12. putràþ sa evaiùovasaraþ (putràþ, sa eva eùaþ avasaraþ). 13. ete vayaü nagaramàgatàþ (ete vayam nagaram àgatàþ). 15. he paõóita tvama÷vaü kva nayasãti pçùtopi vacanaü na vadati (he paõóita, tvam a÷vaü kva nayasi iti pçùtaþ api vacanaü na vadati). 1. Your majesty is tired; let us sit down here. 3. This is quite beautiful. 4. He remembers [his] son although he has gone to the forest. 8. What is extraordinary in this? I have already seen this man. 9. See, his majesty Candragupta has actually arrived. Day 2 Instrumental Case, Saha As we saw in the last section, Sanskrit has a high tolerance for passive constructions with the past participle. Where English prefers the straightforward construction subject + active verb + object (Rama sees the elephant), Sanskrit will often supply subject + passive verb + agent (The elephant is seen by Rama). In Sanskrit, both agency (by whom a thing is done) and means (with what a thing is done) are expressed in the instrumental case. This case existed in Proto-Indo-European, but its functions were absorbed by the ablative case in Latin and by the dative and genitive cases in Greek. You will find traces of it in some of the forms used in those languages. Here is an expanded paradigm of a÷va and phalam, incorporating the instrumental case: Stem Form a÷va (Masculine) phala (Neuter) Singular Nominative a÷vaþ phalam Vocative a÷va phalam Accusative a÷vam phalam Instrumental a÷vena phalena Dual Nominative a÷vau phale Vocative a÷vau phale Accusative a÷vau phale Instrumental a÷vàbhyàm phalàbhyàm Plural Nominative a÷vàþ phalàni

Vocative a÷vàþ phalàni Accusative a÷vàn phalàni Instrumental a÷vaiþ phalaiþ Note that the plural ending (iþ) corresponds to -is in Latin and -ij in Greek. The ending -ena becomes -eõa if it is preceded by r or ç. These endings are also added to adjectives with a stem form ending in -a, such as ÷ãghra. As always, adjectives must agree with the nouns they modify in gender, number, and case: ÷ãghreõà÷vena (÷ãghreõa a÷vena) with a swift horse The instrumental forms of pronouns should also be learned now. Type of Pronoun 1st Person (I/We) 2nd Person (You) Singular Nominative aham tvam Accusative màm tvàm Instrumental mayà tvayà Dual Nominative àvàm yuvàm Accusative àvàm yuvàm Instrumental àvàbhyàm yuvàbhyàm Plural Nominative vayam yåyam Accusative asmàn yuùmàn Instrumental asmàbhiþ yuùmàbhiþ Person/Gender of Pronoun 3rd Masculine (He...) 3rd Neuter (It...) Singular Nominative sa, saþ tat Accusative tam tat Instrumental tena tena Dual Nominative tau te Accusative tau te Instrumental tàbhyàm tàbhyàm Plural Nominative te tàni Accusative tàn tàni Instrumental taiþ taiþ Gender of Pronoun Masculine (Who...?) Neuter (What...?) Singular Nominative kaþ kim Accusative kam kim Instrumental kena kena Dual Nominative kau ke

Accusative kau ke Instrumental kàbhyàm kàbhyàm Plural Nominative ke kàni Accusative kàn kàni Instrumental kaiþ kaiþ Note that the 3rd-person and interrogative pronouns have the same endings as nouns and adjectives with a stem-form ending in -a. The ending à in mayà, etc., and the ending -bhiþ in asmàbhiþ, etc., are also common instrumental forms, which we shall meet again later. The instrumental case is equivalent to English prepositional phrases using with..., by..... As we have seen, it denotes both agency (by whom) and means (with what, by means of what): jalenà÷vànsi¤cati (jalena à÷vàn si¤cati). He sprinkles the horses with water. jito Ràkùasa÷càõakyena (jitaþ Ràkùasaþ Ràkùasa is beaten by Càõaka. Càõakyena). It can also be used to signify accompaniment (with, together with): bàlairàgacchati (bàlaiþ àgacchati). He is coming with the children. When it indicates accompaniment, however, the instrumental noun usually appears with the 'preposition' saha (cf. Slavonic съ and Greek su/n), which typically comes after the noun: bàlaiþ sahàgacchati (bàlaiþ saha He is coming with the children. àgacchati). The instrumental case can also be used to indicate manner (how? in what manner?). viùàdena calati. He moves with dejection (dejectedly). In this sense, the instrumental can often be translated with an English adverb (dejectedly). Sanskrit also has real adverbs. Coulson notes that they are not marked by a special suffix, analogous to Latin -e (pulchre, beautifully) and Greek -wj (kalw~j). Instead, they take the accusative neuter singular form of the corresponding adjective: ÷ãghraü calati. He moves swiftly. This older way of creating adverbs survives in some Greek and Latin forms (e.g. multum, polu/, much). Coulson concludes this chapter with a rather long essay on internal sandhi, meaning the sound changes that occur within a word. He is mainly concerned with explaining how s and n suddenly become ù and õ in certain environments. The short explanation is that when a previous sound, such as r or a retroflex consonant, bends the tongue backward, the tongue tends to remain in that position, and this modifies the following sounds. Thus, the -ena ending of the instrumental singular appears as eõa in Ràmeõa (by Rama), because the initial r has caused the tongue to 'retroflex'.

Vocabulary The enclitic particle và (or; cf. Latin vel) is the evil twin of ca, since it is disjunctive, while ca is conjunctive. Like ca, it follows the word it disjoins; it can also be repeated to mean 'either...or...'. àcàryeõa và ÷i÷yairvà gaja eùa anãtaþ This elephant was brought either by the (àcàryeõa và ÷i÷yaiþ và gajaþ eùaþ teacher or by the pupils. anãtaþ) Kçtam and alam mean 'done with...' and 'enough with...'; they are followed by a noun in the instrumental case: alaü ÷okena. Enough with the sadness! Kim has a similar idiomatic use, corresponding to 'What's with...?' kimudyàyena (kim udyàyena?). What's with the garden? What's the point of a garden? Memorization Vocabulary jãvita alive jãvitam life dar÷anam sight, spectacle priya dear, beloved madãya my vayasyaþ friend kç (Class 8), karoti do, make tyaj (Class 1), tyajati abandon, leave, give up vismç (Class 1), vismarati forget alam enough dåram a long way và or saha with Reading Vocabulary kutåhalam curiosity, interest prayatnaþ effort, attempt viùàdaþ despair, dejection saüdehaþ doubt Exercise 2 (Coulson 4a, 4b): Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English or from English to Sanskrit. Use the textbook to see the sentences in Devanagari and to check your results. 1. putraiþ saha gçhaü tyajati. 3. àcàryeõa ÷iùyai÷càdbhutaþ prayatnaþ kçtaþ (àcàryeõa ÷iùyaiþ ca adbhutaþ prayatnaþ kçtaþ). 4. priyo madãyo vayasya iti jãvitametena tyaktaü (priyaþ madãyaþ

vayasyaþ iti jãvitam etena tyaktam) . 6. ramaõãyeõa darùanena kiü na màdyasi?. 8. atraite naràþ kimicchantãti kutåhalena gçhaü pravi÷ati (atra ete naràþ kim icchanti iti kutåhalena gçham pravi÷ati). 10. icchathaivaitan na và (icchatha eva etat na và?). 11. krtaü vacanairgatovasra iti viùàdena vadataþ (krtaü vacanaiþ, gataþ avasaraþ iti viùàdena vadataþ). 14. vismçto vayasyàbhyàü prathamo viùàdaþ (vismçtaþ vayasyàbhyàm prathamaþ viùàdaþ). 16. kiü prayatnena? naiva tvàü pa÷yati devaþ (na eva...). 2. The people did not forget these words. 5. We came only today. 6. Your majesty, these two children have even now not left the garden. 7. He stands with his friends. 10. We have seen the garden with interest. 11. He has gone either to the forest or to the park. 12. Friends, we have been brought a long way by this horse. 13. An end of doubt: here come the two pupils alive. 14. Even today it is with pleasure that we remember that extraordinary sight. 15. Despair has conqurered them. 16. Although astonished by this sight, they are not giving up the attempt. Chapter 5 Day 1 Dative, Ablative, Genitive, and Locative Cases In this chapter, Coulson introduces the remaining cases in Sanskrit: the dative, ablative, genitive, and locative. Sankrit grammarians were somewhat less creative in naming the cases: they called them the 'fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh' cases. You have already learned the first case (nominative), the second case (accusative), and the third case (instrumental). The vocative was traditionally listed at the end as the eighth case. Here is a very quick overview of the way the cases are used, as presented by Coulson. See his text for examples in Sanskrit. Case Use English Example Dative (to, for) Indirect Object I give...to the brahmins. Ablative (from) Purpose ...for seeing (to see) Genitive (of) Predicate ...is for a fault (is culpable) Separation He goes from the city. Locative (in...; into...) Cause from starvation Possessive the king's treasure Subjective the king's fear Objective fear of the king Point of view to the king, this seems... Station on the table Circumstance on seeing his friends... Destination into the water Object of feelings, etc. fondness for (toward) him If you are familiar with the cases in Latin and Greek, Sanskrit usage will present a few surprises. First, you may already have noticed the confusion in Latin and Greek over which case expresses possession: is it the dative or the genitive? What actually happened is that the genitive, which properly expresses source, took over the possessive function as well. Sanskrit takes this 'genitival imperialism' even further. The genitive is used to express point of view (to the king it seems..., in the view of the king it seems...). Worse yet, it is often used instead of the dative to indicate the indirect object. Thus, in Sanskrit, you can say 'I give the gift of the brahmins' when you mean '...to

the brahmins'. Go figure. The locative case disappeared from the parent dialects of Latin and Greek, but it left behind a few traces in forms such as Romae (at Rome). In Sanskrit, the locative not only survived, but it partially usurped the role of the accusative case in expressing destination or goal. Thus you can say 'I put the book on the table' using the locative case in Sanskrit. When the ancestors of the Greeks lost the instrumental, ablative, and locative cases, they 'outsourced' the functions of these cases to the genitive and dative. In Latin, the ablative case survived, and it took on the additional burden of the instrumental and locative cases. But Sanskrit, like the modern Baltic languages (Latvian and Lithuanian) held on to the entire Indo- European case system. Thanks, guys. Now that we know that there are all those other cases out there, we can look at their forms. The good news is that the charts will NOT get any bigger than this. Coulson refers you to the paradigm at the back of the book for the adjective kànta. Here I will present the complete charts for the nouns a÷vaþ and phalam, which you have previously encountered. Stem Form a÷va (Masculine) phala (Neuter) Singular Nominative a÷vaþ phalam Vocative a÷va phalam Accusative a÷vam phalam Instrumental a÷vena phalena Dative a÷vàya phalàya Ablative a÷vàt phalàt Genitive a÷vasya phalasya Locative a÷ve phale Dual Nominative a÷vau phale Vocative a÷vau phale Accusative a÷vau phale Instrumental a÷vàbhyàm phalàbhyàm Dative a÷vàbhyàm phalàbhyàm Ablative a÷vàbhyàm phalàbhyàm Genitive a÷vayoþ phalayoþ Locative a÷vayoþ phalayoþ Plural Nominative a÷vàþ phalàni Vocative a÷vàþ phalàni Accusative a÷vàn phalàni Instrumental a÷vaiþ phalaiþ Dative a÷vebyaþ phalebyaþ Ablative a÷vebyaþ phalebyaþ Genitive a÷vànàm phalànàm Locative a÷veùu phaleùu The plethora of new case endings may seem daunting, but you have seen some of these forms

before. The ablative singular ending -àt corresponds to archaic Latin -od, which eventually dropped the d. The genitive ending -asya appears in Homeric Greek as -oio, from *-osyo. The dative and ablative plural ending -bhyaþ is familiar to Latin students as -bus. The -àm in the genitive plural corresponds to Greek -wn. Vocabulary Memorization Vocabulary de÷aþ country pàdaþ mitram foot sarva friend all, every (sarve: all men) prabhå (1), prabhavati arise, prevail, have power idànãm now Reading Vocabulary andha blind kaõa one-eyed praticchandakam portrait, picture abilikh (Class 6), abilikhati draw (pictures) Note also the proper names, Kalahaüsaka, Màdhava, and Ràma. Exercise 1 (Coulson 5a, 5b): Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English or from English to Sanskrit. Use the textbook to see the sentences in Devanagari and to check your results. 6. kùetreùu sarve bhramanti. 13. duþkhàyaiva mitràõàmidànãü Ràmasya dar÷anam (duþkhàya eva mitràõàm idànãü Ràmasya dar÷anam). 16. andhànàü de÷e kàõa eva prabhavati (andhànàü de÷e kanaþ eva prabhavati). 17. kalahaüsaka kenaitanmàdhavasya praticchandakamabhilikhitam (Kalahaüsaka, kena etat Màdhavasya praticchandakam abhilikhitam?). 10. He falls at the blind (man)'s feet. Day 2 Pronouns in the New Cases; Ayam; Expressions of Time As we play catch-up with the cases, we may now examine the complete paradigms of the personal, demonstrative, and interrogative pronouns that we have learned so far. Type of Pronoun 1st Person (I/We) 2nd Person (You) Singular Nominative aham tvam Accusative màm tvàm

Instrumental mayà tvayà Dative mahyam (me) tubhyam (te) Ablative mat, mattaþ tvat, tvattaþ Genitive mama (me) tava (te) Locative mayi tvayi Dual Nominative àvàm yuvàm Accusative àvàm (nau) yuvàm (vàm) Instrumental àvàbhyàm yuvàbhyàm Dative àvàbhyàm (nau) yuvàbhyàm (vàm) Ablative àvàbhyàm yuvàbhyàm Genitive àvayoþ (nau) yuvayoþ (vàm) Locative àvayoþ yuvayoþ Plural Nominative vayam yåyam Accusative asmàn (naþ) yuùmàn (vaþ) Instrumental asmàbhiþ yuùmàbhiþ Dative asmabhyam (naþ) yuùmabhyam (vaþ) Ablative asmat, asmattaþ) yuùmat, yuùmattaþ Genitive asmàkam (naþ) yuùmàkam (vaþ) Locative asmàsu yuùmàsu Person/Gender of 3rd Masculine (He...) 3rd Neuter (It...) Pronoun sa, saþ tat Singular Nominative tam tat Accusative tena tena Instrumental tasmai tasmai Dative tasmàt tasmàt Ablative tasya tasya Genitive tasmin tasmin Locative tau te Dual Nominative tau te Accusative tàbhyàm tàbhyàm Instrumental tàbhyàm tàbhyàm Dative tàbhyàm tàbhyàm Ablative tayoþ tayoþ Genitive tayoþ tayoþ Locative te tàni Plural Nominative tàn tàni Accusative taiþ taiþ Instrumental tebhyaþ tebhyaþ Dative tebhyaþ tebhyaþ Ablative teùàm teùàm Genitive teùu teùu Locative

Eùaþ and kaþ follow the forms for saþ, given above. The first- and second-person pronouns have alternate forms, which appear above in parentheses (me, te, nau, vàm, naþ, vaþ). These are only used enclitically, which is to say that, like eva, iti, etc., they tend to 'lean' on an emphatic word: ime naþ gçhàþ. Here are our houses. Compare Latin me, te, nos, and vos, and the unaccented forms in Greek (mou, sou, etc.). The plural forms also show up in the Slavic languages (e.g., Slavonic nas, vas). Most of the pronoun-endings resemble those found on nouns, but there are a few clunkers, such as tasmai and tasmin. These are easily learned with practice. While we are on the subject of pronouns, Coulson introduces a new one, ayam (this). It is synonymous with eùaþ, except that the latter has the stronger pointing force (this here). Ayam has somewhat irregular forms, because it is a composite of two demonstrative elements: a (cf. atra, here) and i (cf. itaþ, this way). Singular Nominative ayam idam Accusative imam idam Instrumental anena anena Dative asmai asmai Ablative asmàt asmàt Genitive asya asya Locative asmin asmin Dual Nominative imau ime Accusative imau ime Instrumental àbhyàm àbhyàm Dative àbhyàm àbhyàm Ablative àbhyàm àbhyàm Genitive anayoþ anayoþ Locative anayoþ anayoþ Plural Nominative ime imàni Accusative imàn imàni Instrumental ebhiþ ebhiþ Dative ebhyaþ ebhyaþ Ablative ebhyaþ ebhyaþ Genitive eùàm eùàm Locative eùu eùu Many of these forms will remind you of Latin is, ea, id. You may remember that Latin has a few adjectives that inexplicably show pronoun endings in certain cases (e.g., alter shows a genitive singular in alterius). Sanskrit also has a few of these anamolous adjectives: anya (other), sarva (all), eka (one), and sva (own, cf. Latin suus). Anya can also mean 'else', as in anyaþ kaþ (who else?).

Like Latin and Greek, Sanskrit uses different cases to talk about time. The following chart summarizes Coulson's rules: Semantic Category Sanskrit Case Example Duration of Time Accusative trãn divasàn Time Within Which Instrumental for three days Time After Which Ablative (or Genitive) tribhiþ divasaiþ within three days Time When Locative tribhyaþ divasebhyaþ after three days trãtye divase on the third day Note that Latin collapsed the last three categories into the ablative case. Vocabulary Memorization Vocabulary ayam this anya other upàyaþ method, means, way eka one kumàraþ prince prativacanam answer, reply muhårta short while, minute ÷ru (5), ÷çõoti hear, listen api and, too Exercise 2 (Coulson 5a, 5b): Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English or from English to Sanskrit. Use the textbook to see the sentences in Devanagari and to check your results. 5. asminnudyàne muhårtamupavi÷àvaþ (asmin udyàne muhårtam upavi÷àvaþ ). 8. kamupàyaü pa÷yasi mama putrànàü dar÷anàya (kam upàyam pa÷yasi mama putrànàm dar÷anàya?). 10. ayaü kumàrastiùñhati (ayam kumàraþ tiùñhati). 14. anyebhyo'pi devenaitacchrutam (anyebhyaþ api devena etat ÷rutam). 2. From this house he was led to the woods. 4. The anger of these two is extraordinary. 5. You have been seen, my sons. 12. This reply of the prince (will make) for anger. Day 3 To Be, To Have, To Feel; The Absolutive We are used to thinking of the verb to be in various languages as 'irregular'. This is often due, however, to the fact that two or three different verbs have been collapsed into one paradigm. Sanksrit has two verbs meaning 'to be': bhu (cf. English be) and as (cf. English is).

Bhu is conjugated in the present tense as a regular Class 1 verb: 1st Person Singular bhavàmi I am 2nd bhavasi you are 3rd bhavati he is 1st Person Dual bhavàvaþ we two are 2nd bhavathaþ you two are 3rd bhavataþ those two are 1st Person Plural bhavàmaþ we are 2nd bhavatha y'all are 3rd bhavanti they are Bhu may be used in linking sentences as an alternative to the nominal sentence structure we studied earlier. It can also mean 'exist' and 'arise'. dar÷anam eva asya ramiõãyaü bhavati. The mere sight of it is delightful. khrodàdbhavati saümohaþ (khrodàt From anger arises delusion. bhavati saümohaþ) The verb as is cognate with Latin esse and Greek ei~nai. It's forms will look vaguely familiar: 1st Person Singular asmi I am 2nd asi you are 3rd asti he is 1st Person Dual svaþ we two are 2nd sthaþ you two are 3rd staþ those two are 1st Person Plural smaþ we are 2nd stha y'all are 3rd santi they are As in Latin, the present stem of this verb is really s, to which the personal endings are added directly. An additional vowel a is added to the singular forms (cf. Latin e-st). As can be used as a linking verb in the first and second persons, but in the third person it typically has an existential force: asti parvateùu nagaram. There is a city in the mountains. This construction is also common in both Greek and Latin: Est musca in iure. There is a fly in my soup. Another thing that our favorite dead languages have in common is the use of the verb to be to express possession: Filiis tuis nulla est pecunia. There is no money to your sons. Your sons have no money. In both Latin and Greek, the dative case is used for the possessor (e.g., filiis). In Sanskrit,

however, the genitive is used: tava putràõàü dhanaü na bhavati. There is no money of your sons. Your sons have no money. The verb bhu or as may be omitted in such sentences. Another idiomatic use of the verb to be occurs in conjunction with iva (as if), where it means 'to feel' a÷arana ivàsmi (a÷aranaþ iva asmi). I am as if helpless. I feel helpless. Now we will move on the absolutive construction. But first: remember the Latin supine? Who could forget! You probably learned that it comes in two flavors: an accusative form (e.g., cubitum, to lie down) and an ablative form (dictu, in the telling). As it happens, the Latin supine is a survival of an Indo-European verbal noun-formation ending in -tu, which was declined in various cases. A relic of this thing also turns up in Sanskrit. The accusative -um form became the Sanskrit infinitive (e.g. netum, to lead). We will come back to this later. The other surviving case is the instrumental, which ends in -tvà. The instrumental form is used in Sanskrit as an adverbial modifier: 'after...-ing', 'by ...ing.' For this reason, it is called the absolutive or gerund form. -Tvà is added to the weak grade of the root (also seen in the past participle), producing forms such as these: Root and Past Participle Absolutive Meaning nã, nãta nãtvà after leading dç÷, dçùta dçùtvà after seeing vad, ukta uktvà after saying The absolutive in -tvà may only be used with uncompounded verbs (i.e., verbs without a prefix). Compound verbs add the ending -ya (or -tya or -mya), which may bring internal sandhi into play: Root Absolutive Meaning saüdç÷ saüdç÷ya after seeing àgam àgamya after coming prativad pratyucya after replying The absolutive forms are usually easy to recognize, but in case of doubt you will find them in Coulson's list of principal parts in Appendix 2. Finally, some odds and ends. You may recall that Latin forms indefinite pronouns by adding indeclinable suffixes such as -que (quisque, anyone) and -cumque (quicumque, whoever). In Sanskrit, the indefinite particles are cit and api. udyàne ka÷ciccarati (udyàne kaþ cit Somebody is walking in the park. carati). kenàpi jalaü pãtam (kena api jalam The water has been drunk by somebody. pitam). Somebody has drunk the water.

These particles also generalize adverbs: kçtaþ kathamapi gañhaþ. Somehow the pot was made. Somehow he made the pot. Add the negative particle na to get across ideas such as no one, nowhere, etc.: udyàne na ka÷ciccarati (udyàne na kaþ Nobody is walking in the park. cit carati). We also have khalu, which functions in the same way as eva, as a particle of emphasis. The difference is that eva conveys new information, while khalu stresses what is already known. For this reason, it is often translated 'indeed': dàruõa eva asi. You are cruel. dàruõaþ kahlvasi (dàruõa kahlu asi). You are cruel indeed (just as I thought). Finally, Coulson calls your attention to a couple of regular, but counter-intuitive examples of external sandhi. First, when the consonant n follows a short vowel and precedes another vowel, it is doubled: tvaü tadàtmannasi (tvam tat àtman asi). You are the Self. When a final t combines with a following ÷, the combination is spelled cch. tacchobhanaü nagaram (tat ÷obhanam that beautiful city. nagaram) Note also the proper names, Kalahaüsaka, Màdhava, and Ràma. Vocabulary Memorization Vocabulary ka÷cit, ko'pi someone, etc. puùpam flower pustakam book màrgaþ road hçdayam heart as (2), asti be grah (9), gçhõati seize, take pat (1), patati fall bhu (1), bhavati become, be Reading Vocabulary àvegaþ alarm kùaõaþ second, moment pàpa evil, bad; villain

iha here, in this world khalu indeed tu but, however hà! ah! oh! Exercise 3 (Coulson 5a, 5b): Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English or from English to Sanskrit. Use the textbook to see the sentences in Devanagari and to check your results. 1. imau svaþ. 2. prativacanaü me ÷rutvà kim anyadicchanti (prativacanaü me ÷rutvà kim anyat icchanti?). 3. nàstyeva te pustakam (na asti eva te pustakam). 4. vayasya hçdayamivàsi mama (vayasya, hçdayam iva asi mama). 7. deva anyasmànnagaràdbràhmanaþ ka÷cidàgataþ (deva, anyasmàt nagaràt brahmanaþ kaþ cit àgataþ). 9. khrodhamasya dçùtvàvega iva no hçdaye (khrodam asya dçùtvà avegaþ iva naþ hçdaye). 11. kathaü kùaõamevopavi÷ya dçùte mayà punarapi mitre (kathaü, kùaõam eva upavi÷ya dçùte mayà punar api mitre). 12. anyaþ ko'pi màrgo na bhavati (anyaþ kaþ api màrgaþ na bhavati). 15. gçhaü pravi÷ya kva kvedànãm sa pàpa iti sarvàn pçcchati (gçhaü pravi÷ya kva kva idànãm saþ pàpaþ iti sarvàn pçcchati). 1. You are blind indeed. 3. And they went to the park and seized the villains. 6. But we have friends in Candanadàsa's house. 7. I ask because I'm tired. 8. We have seen this on all the country's roads. 9. Your majesty, I am that same prince. 11. By some means I saw (them) all. 13. But hearing this they sit on the road. 14. Kalahaüsaka, we have no interest in books. 15. In just one garden there are a few flowers. 16. Even after seeing everything your highness says nothing. 17. What, have you doubt about it (atra)? 18. Oh Makaranda, oh Kalahaüsaka, your friend has gone. 19. But the prince stayed in another place and heard the villain's whole reply. 20. What advantage does this man see in anger? Chapter 6 Day 1 Feminine Gender So far, we have been studying nouns and adjectives in the Sanskrit equivalent of the Second Declension in Latin and Greek. Thus, we have only seen masculine and neuter forms. Now we will look at feminine forms, which correspond to the First Declension in our favorite dead languages. Coulson refers you to the feminine column of the adjective kànta in the back of the book. Here, I will set out the forms of the noun senà (army). Singular Nominative senà Vocative sene Accusative senàm Instrumental senayà Dative senàyai Ablative senàyàþ Genitive senàyàþ Locative senàyàm Dual Nominative sene Vocative sene

Accusative sene Instrumental senàbhyàm Dative senàbhyàm Ablative senàbhyàm Genitive senayoþ Locative senayoþ Plural Nominative senàþ Vocative senàþ Accusative senàþ Instrumental senàbhiþ Dative senàbhyaþ Ablative senàbhyaþ Genitive senànàm Locative senàsu This paradigm has many endings in common with the masculine and neuter forms you have already learned. The chief difference is that the femine forms are built on a stem ending in à (or ayà). This corresponds to the h/a of Attic Greek. Senayàþ, for example, corresponds to the genitive singular form, strati/aj. Other forms overlap with those of pronouns (e.g, senayà, cf. mayà). Pronouns also have feminine forms, but only in the third person. The feminine equivalent of saþ is sà: Singular Nominative sà Accusative tàm Instrumental tayà Dative tasyai Ablative tasyàþ Genitive tasyàþ Locative tasyàm Dual Nominative te Accusative te Instrumental tàbhyàm Dative tàbhyàm Ablative tàbhyàm Genitive tayoþ Locative tayoþ Plural Nominative tàþ Accusative tàþ Instrumental tàbhiþ Dative tàbhyaþ Ablative tàbhyaþ Genitive tàsàm Locative tàsu These forms follow the noun paradigm quite closely, but notice the occasional intrusion of s (e.g.,

tasyai, tàsàm). The same endings will seen on the pronouns eùaþ (feminine eùà) and kaþ (feminine kà). Here are the feminine forms of the demonstrative ayam (this one, this). For the most part, they show predictable feminine endings built on a variable stem (im-, an-, as-, à-). Singular Nominative iyam Accusative imàm Instrumental anayà Dative asyai Ablative asyàþ Genitive asyàþ Locative asyàm Dual Nominative ime Accusative ime Instrumental àbhyàm Dative àbhyàm Ablative àbhyàm Genitive anayoþ Locative anayoþ Plural Nominative imàþ Accusative imàþ Instrumental àbhiþ Dative àbhyaþ Ablative àbhyaþ Genitive àsàm Locative àsu Note especially the nominative singular forms of ayam: ayam (masculine), idam (neuter), and iyam (feminine). These correspond to the Latin forms, is, ea, id. There are also a number of feminine nouns and adjectives in Sanskrit that end in -ã (e.g. nadã, river). These will be learned later. Keep in mind that adjectives must agree with nouns and pronouns in gender, number, and case: ramaõãyà vàrttà pleasant news Vocabulary Memorization Vocabulary ambà (voc. amba) mother àrya noble kaùta grievous, harsh cintà worry mudrà seal vàrttà news

sevà attendance, servitude prati + sidh (I), restrain, forbid pratiùedhati past part. pratiùiddha kim-artham for what purpose, why? kutaþ from where? Reading Vocabulary avasthà state, condition à÷aõkà apprehension Exercise 1 (Coulson 6a and 6b). Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English and from English to Sanskrit. 4. kutaþ punariyaü vàrttà (kutaþ punar iyam vàrttà?). 7. tvam àryàbhiþ putra iva gçhãtaþ (tvam àryàbhiþ putraþ iva gçhãtaþ). 9. amba kà asi. kimarthamahaü tvayà pratiùiddhaþ (amba, kà asi? kim-artham ahaü tvayà pratiùiddhaþ?). 11. saiveyam (sà eva iyam). 13. kaùñà khalu sevà. 15. kiü tavànayà cintayà (kim tava anayà cintayà?). 5. In that case whose is this seal? 9. Do not be apprehensive (away with apprehension).11. How (is it that) you do not see Rama's condition? Day 2 Determinative Compounds One gets the impression that speakers of Sanskrit, having evolved a complicated set of endings for nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, thereupon decided to use these endings as little as possible. Classical Sanskrit is rich in compound formations, which frequently stand in for the seven cases. As it happens, this is a feature of Modern English, as well. Consider the following examples: English Compound Meaning girlfriend door-stop a friend who is a girl sword-fight something that stops a door dining room a fight with a sword book-learning a room for dining status-symbol learning from a book side door a symbol of status a door on the side Notice that each of these examples corresponds to one of the Sanskrit cases. Compound formations allow one to side-step the formal markers of case-grammar (endings in Sanskrit, phrases in English) and to leave these relationships implied. Each of the compounds above is called determinative, because the first element limits the meaning of the second. For example, a sword-fight is not any kind of fight, but a fight with swords. Compounds in which the first element could have been expressed in one of the oblique cases (i.e.,

accusative through locative) are called dependent determinatives. Compounds expressing a relationship in the nominative case (e.g., girlfriend) are called descriptive determinatives. Coulson uses punctuation marks to distinguish these two types (e.g., sword-fight, girl:friend). Compounds may be composed of different parts of speech. The same basic structure can be used to combine a noun with another noun (sword-fight), an adjective with a noun (great:king), a noun with an adjective or participle (man-slaying), or an adverb with a adjective (far-seeing). Notice also that when you hear the word garage-owner, it is not immediately clear whether the guy owns one garage or several. This is because the first element of a compound always appears in its basic form, which is not marked for number (cf. child welfare, which relates to the welfare of children). Sanskrit compounds likewise show the uninflected, basic form of the determining element. This is usually the stem in short a for masculine and neuter nouns, and à for feminine nouns: Sanskrit Compound Meaning priya:bàlaþ (= priyaþ bàlaþ) dear boy nara-pustakam (= narasya pustakam) man-book (a man's book) satya-sthaþ (= satye sthaþ) truth-established (established in truth) vàrttà-÷ravaõam (= vàrttàyàþ ÷ravanam) news-hearing (hearing of the news) See Coulson's essay for additional wrinkles and examples. His main point is that compounds are used very freely in Sanskrit, and this can result in considerable ambiguity. For example, 'ice cold' in English is a descriptive determinative compound, meaning 'cold as ice'. In Sanskrit, however, hima-÷i÷era can mean either 'cold as ice' (descriptive determinative) or 'cold from the ice' (dependent determinative). Usually, the context will make the meaning clear. Vocabulary At this point in the textbook, Coulson begins to pile on the new vocabulary, as his sentences get more complex. This is where my distinction between high-frequency 'memorization' vocabulary and lower-frequency 'reading' vocabulary should pay off. You will only be responsible for the former on your tests and quizzes. You might want to keep alphabetized list of the latter handy for working through the exercises. You can also use the vocabularies in the back of Coulson's book, or the 'Sanskrit Made Easy' lemmatizer in Huet's Sanskrit Heritage site (in French). Memorization Vocabulary à÷ramaþ hermitage katama which nirvànam bliss netram eye prayojanam purpose mçgaþ deer lokaþ world satya true satyam truly labh (I), labhate (a middle take, gain, win form; we will learn it later)

past participle labdham ittham thus, so Reading Vocabulary àgamanam coming, arrival anarthaþ reverse, disaster abhij¤a conversant with (gen.) amàtyaþ minister àrambhaþ beginning udde÷aþ region, part, place kàryam task kàlaþ time Kusumaparm name of a city ku÷ulam welfare dvayam duo, pair parihàsaþ joke paurajanaþ citizenry, townfok prade÷a place pravàtam breeze Màrãcaþ proper name mådha deluded, idiotic vistãrõa extensive vçttàntaþ news, happening vyavahàraþ usage Lakùmanaþ proper name øoõottarà proper name subhaga delightful pari + grah (IX), accept parigçhnàti kaùñam alas! Exercise 2 (Coulson 6a and 6b): Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English and from English to Sanskrit. 1. ÷oõottare kimàgamanproyojanam (øoõottare, kim àgamana-prayojanam?). 2. kaùtam anarthadvayamàpatitam (kaùtam, anartha-dvayam àpatitam). 3. mahàràja api ku÷alaü kumaralakùmaõasya (mahàràja, api ku÷alaü kumàralakùmaõasya kumàra:Lakùmanasya?). 5. satyamitthaübhåta evàsmi (satyam itthaü-bhåtaþ eva asmi). 6. amàtya vistãrõaþ Kusumapuravçtàntaþ (amàtya, vistãrõaþ Kusumapura-vçtàntaþ). 8. katamasminprade÷e Màrãcà÷ramaþ (katamasmin prade÷e Màrãca-à÷ramaþ?). 1. This is a deer-of-the-hermitage. 2. A-beginning-in-the-task has been made. 3. Here stands Minister:Rakùasa. 4. Idiot, this is no time-for-jokes. 6. You are indeed conversant with the usages- of-the-world. 7. Then did the townsfolk not accept our:word? 8. Oh, this part-of-the-wood is delightful-for-its-breeze. 10. (I) have gained a bliss-for-the-eyes.

Day 3 Prepositions; Action Nouns in -a; External Sandhi With six oblique cases and optional compound formations at its disposal, Sanskrit has little use for prepositional phrases. Nevertheless, a few prepositions are common: Preposition Case Meaning Example à ablative up to à samudràt up to the ocean prati accusative towards, against, vanaü prati with regard to towards the forest saha instrumental with saha gajaiþ with elephants vinà instrumental without gajaiþ vinà without elephants Note that in Sanskrit, some 'prepositions' regularly come after the word they modify. This occasionally happens in Latin and Greek, as well (e.g., vobiscum). Note that in Sanskrit, à + ablative means 'up to', not 'away from'. Presumably, the ablative is used because the emphasis is on the boundary-making function of the preposition. Coulson's discussion points to the fact that many prepositions originated as adverbs (e.g., prati); this is why they can also be prefixed to verbs. Others originated as nouns (e.g., vinà, which shows an instrumental ending). These facts explain some common difficulties with Latin and Greek prepositions, as well (e.g., Latin contra, which is both an adverb and a preposition). Next, we turn to word-building. Cicero, when he was writing on philosophy, famously complained about the shortage in Latin of abstract nouns. Greek, he thought, was better suited to philosophical discourse. He should have learned Sanskrit. Sanskrit commonly creates nouns from verbs by adding -a to the verbal root. This produces a masculine noun of the a÷va type: Verbal Root Noun Formation krudh (be angry) krodhaþ (anger) di÷ (point) de÷aþ (point, place, country) Note that turning a verb into a noun often results in an 'upgrade' of the root vowel from its basic form to the guõa grade (krudh > krodh), and in some cases to the vçddhi grade (bhç, to bear > bhàraþ, burden). Another common change is from palatal consonants to velar consonants (÷uc, grieve > ÷okaþ, grief). You will learn these nouns as you go along, but knowing how they were formed will help you make connections with familiar verbs. Finally, Coulson notes a few examples of ambiguity in external sandhi. This often happens in spoken English, too: 'n all my days in all my days what with the riot 'n' all what with the riot and all

Usually, the context clarifies what is going on. Similarly in Sanskrit: a÷va eva (a÷vaþ eva) vanaü gacchati. The horse goes to the forest. a÷va eva (a÷ve eva) bàlastiùñhati. The boy stands on the horse. Have a look at Coulson's examples and be on the lookout for these combinations. Vocabulary Memorization Vocabulary à÷à hope ãdç÷a of this kind, such ubha both (only dual) kanyà daughter, girl kulam family puram city pauraþ citizen à + pat (I), àpatati befall, happen upa + gam (I), upagacchati go to, reach aho oh here iha to, towards, with regard to prati (+ accusative) Reading Vocabulary akùaram syllable, written character anu÷ayaþ repentance, regret abhilàùaþ craving, passion for asphuña unclear, illegible uparàgaþ eclipse Kaumudãmahotsavaþ Full Moon Festival caritam conduct, deeds tàpasaþ ascetic Duþùantaþ proper name niyata unconstrained niyatam necessarily niyojyaþ servant pathaþ (usually at the end of path a compound) Pauravaþ descendant of Paru prajà subject (of a king) pratiùedhaþ prohibition, cancellation prathita widely known prave÷aþ entry priyà beloved (woman) bhadra good; f. madam maõóapa (m. or n.) pavilion, bower

mahàràjaþ great king mahotsavaþ Màdhavyaþ great festival latà proper name Vàsavaþ Vçùalaþ creeper vyasanam (epithet of) Indra vratam proper name øakuntalà ÷ravanam vice, vicious failing ÷rotriyhaþ saüvegaþ vow sthànam proper name sthàne hearing learned (brahmin), scholar agitation place, occasion in place, appropriate pari + bhuj (VII), enjoy paribhunakti; past participle paribhukta make obeisance to (+ pra + nam (I), praõamati dative, genitive, locative, or accusative) vi + pra + labh, mislead, deceive vipralabhate tat (as connecting particle) so, then tarhi nanu in that case surely (as in the movie Airplane) Exercise 3(Coulson 6a and 6b): Translate the following sentences from Sanskrit to English and from English to Sanskrit. 10. nanvanu÷ayasthànametat (nanu anu÷aya-sthànam etat). 12. ubhàbhyàmapi vàü vàsavaniyojyo duþùantaþ praõamati (ubhàbhyàm api vàm Vàsava-niyojyaþ Duþùantaþ praõamati). 14. na khalu vçùalasya ÷ravanapathamupagatoyaü mayà kçtaþ kaumudãmahotsavapratiùedaþ (na khalu Vçùalasya ÷ravana-patham upagataþ ayam mayà kçtaþ Kaumudãmahotsava-pratiùedaþ?). 16. màdhava apyasti te ÷akuntalàdar÷anaü prati kutåhalam (Màdhava, api asti te øakuntalà-dar÷anam prati kutåhalam?). 17. ÷rotriyalikhitànyakùaràõi prayatnalikhitànyapi niyatamasphuñàni bhavanti (÷rotriya-likhitàni akùaràõi prayatna-likhitàni api niyatam asphuñàni bhavanti). 12. Sàrïgarava, such agitation on your part (of you) from-entering-the-city is indeed appropriate. 13. Descendants of Puru have this family:vow. 14. Madam, Duþùanta's-conduct is widely known among his subjects. 15. Then have done now with the vice-of-hope. 16. I do not of course truly have a passion for the ascetic's-daughter. 17. But with regard to the eclipse-of-the-moon someone has misled you. 18. I'll stay for a while just here in the bower-of-creepers enjoyed-by-my-beloved. Chapter 7 Day 1

Feminine Nouns in -ã; Consonant Stem Nouns In the last chapter, we saw feminine nouns and adjectives in -à (e.g., senà). Some other feminine nouns follow the paradigm of nadã (river): Singular Nominative nadã Vocative nadi Accusative nadãm Instrumental nadyà Dative nadyai Ablative nadyàþ Genitive nadyàþ Locative nadyàm Dual Nominative nadyau Vocative nadyau Accusative nadyau Instrumental nadãbhyàm Dative nadãbhyàm Ablative nadãbhyàm Genitive nadyoþ Locative nadyoþ Plural Nominative nadyaþ Vocative nadyaþ Accusative nadãþ Instrumental nadãbhiþ Dative nadãbhyaþ Ablative nadãbhyaþ Genitive nadãnàm Locative nadãùu For the most part, these forms follow the paradigm for senà, except that the endings are built on the vowel -ã, which changes to y before vowels. Note also the forms nadyau and nadyaþ, which are 'borrowed' from other declensions. Some adjectives follow this paradigm in the feminine gender. Others show both the à-stem and the ã-stem forms (e.g., papà and papã, wicked). Adjectives of this type are indicated in vocabularies and dictionaries. Vocabulary Memorization Vocabulary udvigna distressed cira long (of time) ciram devã for a long time sakhã goddess, queen, majesty female friend

Sãtà proper name pratibudh wake (someone) caus. pratibodhayati disjoin, deprive of (+ viyuj (7), viyuïkte instrumental) Reading Vocabulary atyàhitam calamity adar÷anam lack of sight, not seeing aye ah! tãram bank dåre far away pratikàraþ remedy bhayam fear, danger sarasã lake svàgatam welcome to (+ dative) anugraþ (9), anugçhõati favor Exericse 1 (Coulson 7a and 7b). 1. aye, iyaü devã. 2. pratibhodita evàsmi kenàpi (pratibhoditaþ eva asmi kena api). 9. ciramadar÷anenàryasya vayamudvignàþ (ciram adar÷anena àryasya vayam udvignàþ). 14. àrye kimatyàhitaü sãtadevyàþ (àrye, kim atyàhitam Sãta:devyàþ?). 10. svàgataü devyai. 1. I am Atreyi. 3. This is the bank-of-the-lake. 9. Dear [sakhã] Madyantikà, welcome. You [bhavatã] have favored our-house. 12. Why did you two ladies check me? Day 2 Consonant Stem Nouns Most nouns in Sanskrit belong to the -a, -à and -ã types. But a number of common nouns, as well as suffixed forms, add the endings directly to a stem which ends in a consonant. This type, which reflects an older stage of Indo-European noun-formation, corresponds to the Third Declension of Latin and Greek: Singular Nominative cor fu/lac Genitive cord-is fulak-o/j Nouns of this type often seem 'irregular', principally for two reasons. First, the consonant on the end of the stem may change to suit the ending (e.g. rex, regis). Second, a shift in stress may alter the stem (e.g., an0 h/r, an0 e/ra, an0 dro/j [< a0nero/j]). We will iron out these wrinkles over the next few lessons. The endings, however, remain more or less constant. For now, let's have a look at the nouns suhçd (friend; cf. cor, cordis), goduh (cowherd), and manas (mind; cf. mens).

Sing. Nominative suhçt (m.) godhuk (m. or f.) manaþ (n.) Vocative suhçt godhuk manaþ Accusative suhçdam goduham manaþ Instrumental suhçdà goduhà manasà Dative suhçde goduhe manase Ablative suhçdaþ goduhaþ manasaþ Genitive suhçdaþ goduhaþ manasaþ Locative suhçdi goduhi manasi Dual Nominative suhçdau goduhau manasã Vocative suhçdau goduhau manasã Accusative suhçdau goduhau manasã Instrumental suhçdbhyàm godhugbhyàm manobhyàm Dative suhçdbhyàm godhugbhyàm manobhyàm Ablative suhçdbhyàm godhugbhyàm manobhyàm Genitive suhçdoþ goduhoþ manasoþ Locative suhçdoþ goduhoþ manasoþ Dual Nominative suhçdaþ goduhaþ manàüsi Vocative suhçdaþ goduhaþ manàüsi Accusative suhçdaþ goduhaþ manàüsi Instrumental suhçdbhiþ godhugbhiþ manobhiþ Dative suhçdbhyaþ godhugbhyaþ manobhyaþ Ablative suhçdbhyaþ godhugbhyaþ manobhyaþ Genitive suhçdàm goduhàm manasàm Locative suhçtsu godhuksu manaþsu First, let's just look at the endings. Some of these have turned up before, especially on pronouns and feminine nouns (-à [instrumental singular], -au, -bhyàm, -oþ, -bhiþ, -bhyaþ, -su). Others will look more familiar if you remember their Latin and Greek cognates: Accusative suhçd-am reg-em fu/lak-a Singular reg-is (originally a Genitive Singular suhçd-aþ (<-as) reg-es vocalized m) Nominative and suhçd-aþ reg-um fu/lak-oj Accusative Plural Genitive Plural suhçdàm fu/lak-ej fu/lak-aj fula/k-wn What makes these paradigms a little more difficult is the frequency of changes in the stem. First, a noun may show one stem before endings that begin with a vowel (e.g, goduh-aþ) and another before endings that begin with a consonant (e.g., godhug-bhyam). These changes can be learned on a case-by-case basis. Second, the rules of internal sandhi sometimes require a change in the final consonant of the stem (e.g., godhug-bhyàm vs. godhuk-su). These rules are somewhat complex, but it will help to remember the phonetic classes to which the consonants belong (see Chapter 1). For example, godhug- and ghoduk- both end in velar (guttural) consonants; the difference is that g is voiced, and k is unvoiced. Thus, the stem changes to harmonize with the following consonant (bh is voiced; s

is unvoiced). Likewise, the 'permitted finals' to which Coulson alludes are usually the unvoiced stops in each phonetic class (e.g, k, ñ, t, and p; velars and palatals are treated as one class). These are the sounds that you will find on the end of the nominative singular (e.g. suhçt, from the stem suhçd). Vocabulary Memorization Vocabulary kathà story, talk yatnaþ effort ÷arãram body ÷iras (n.) head suhçd (m.) friend sva one's own avaté (1), avatarati descend caus. avatàrayati remove offer upahç (1), upaharati drink grow pà (1), pibati increase vçdh (1), vardhate caus. vardhayati Reading Vocabulary atyanta excessive, extreme àbharanam ornament asthàne not in place, inappropriate auùadam medicine ghàtakaþ executioner chàyà shade bhavatã you (polite form of adress to a woman) vatsala affectionate, loving vadhya condemned to death vedanà ache, pain vaidyaþ doctor sahya bearable saujanyam kindness snehaþ affection apahç (1), apaharati carry off à÷ri (1), a÷rayati, a÷rayate resort to (+ accusative) past part. à÷rita dç÷ caus. dar÷ayati show past part. dar÷ita niyuj (7) niyuïkte engage (someone) upon (+ locative) pratipàl (10), pratipalayati wait for