ວິທະຍາສາດ ທຳມະຊາດ_NASCI_ ຄູ່ມື

rkdmu III dtclw22hkdq’ [qfmu !! dkorq;rao]ts;jk’ dtclw22hkF zqo]q[]tfa[w22hk c]t 7;k,8hkow22hkS dqfgdo3v, g;]k # -q;j 3,’ ID 95fxtlq’ grvjn .soh da IPolk,kfG { g;kQ opy k,dtclw22kh d’q D { [vdmfy dtclw22kh d’q D { [vddkorq;rao]ts;kj ’ 7;k,g0A,dtclw22hkF zqo]q[]tfa[w22hk c]t 7;k, 8kh ow22kh wfDh { g]kjq govN .o0v’dfq gdo3v,wfDh II. goNv.o8Qo8= ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ .o;’q 9vow22kh |’jb F 4kh 7;k,8kh ow22kh [+xPj ocx’ 7;k,g0,A dtclw22kh 9txPj ocx’ 8k,zqo]q[]tfa[w22hk8k,dkorq;raovaf8kl;j odq’ c]t 4hkzqo]q[]tfa[w22hk[+xPj ocx’ 7;k,g0A,dtclw22hk9txPj ocx’8k,7;k,8hkow22hk 8k,dkorq;raovaf8kl;j oxUoD 7;k,g0,A dtclw22kh (I) mcju ]oj .o;’q 9vow22kh |’jb F gxoa vfa 8kl;j od’q d[a zoq ][q ]tf[a w22hk(U) c]t gxaovaf8kl;j oxUoda[7;k,8hkow22hk (R). l6f0v’dkorq;rao fa’j oU G I = U sn^ R = U sn^ U = IR RI III. lnjdkoIPo{dkolvo g7nvj ’cmd3;o ! g7nvj ’F g7nvj ’cmdvecx ! g7nvj ’F g7nvj ’8hkow22hk # vaoF xyo !F& 3;o # dhvoF sq;mPo * 3;o ! fvdF lt;yfw22hk ! vaoF lkpw2pk; @W {#W -a’8uc,af !W glAoF IV. dyf9td=kdkoIPo{dkolvo 45

!D mqf]v’lkmyf c]h;lqomtok];,djP;da[myf0v’dtclw22hk ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ !? .shoadIPovklklt\\ad @{# 7qo gIafdkomqf]v’lkmyf 8k,0Ao8voxt8y[afdyf9t de ! 3fpdko-;j pgs^nv0v’761kj ’.dh-yfD le]a[oadIPoz6hmu[j +wfhgIafdkomqf]v’.sh la’gdfdkog|a’8u’0v’g0a,g7nvj ’cmdD @? .shoadIPozh6mluj a’gdf [vddkog|a’8u’0v’g0a, c]h;[vdmyf0v’dtclw22hk8k, co;7yf0v’8qogv’ X7;k,gsaoc8]j 7qo.sh76[aombd.ldj tfkogvqkw;hD #? 76I;j ,da[oadIPory9k]tok7;k,gsao0v’c8]j t7qoD $? 76oerkoadIPolqomtoklts^5[.shwfh;kj dtclw22hk,umyfvvd9kd0Q;[;d g0Qksk 0Q;]q[D @D mqf]v’lkmyf c]h;lqomtokgxaod5j,djP;da[dkorq;rao]ts;jk’ 7;k,g0A,dtclw22hk (I) da[zqo]q[]tfa[w22hk (U) !? .shoadIPovklklt\\ad @{# 7qo gIafmqf]v’D @? 76cotoe;ymuxt8y[afdyf9tde @ .shoadIPog0Qk.9D #? oadIPovklklt\\adgIafdkomqf]v’]efa[]kpdkomqf]v’ c]t ;ymudkomuj0Po cotoe16dj yf9tde @ rkp.8hdko8yf8k,-;j pgs^nv0v’761kj ’.dh-yfD le]a[z6hvnjoM.sh 8yf8k,dkomqf]v’ c]t zqodkomqf]v’D $? .shoadIPo9eo;o|b’j ]kp’kozqodkola’gdf0v’8qo Xxt,ko & 7qo? &? 7o6 erkoda IPovtrxy kpgr,ju 8+d[a zoq dko]kp’ko0v’c8]j t7oq *? 76oerkoadIPolqomtoklts^5[.shwfh;jk ovd9kddkoxjPocx’0v’[+w22hkc]h; 4hklj;oxtdv[vnjo[+xjPocx’ sn^ g;Qk;jk4hk7;k,8hkow22hk[+xjPocx’c,jo 7;k,g0A,dtclw22hkgruj,0Bo8k,dkogruj,0Bo0v’zqo]q[]tfa[w22hkD g;Qkvud c[[|jb’;jk.o;q’9vow22hk|bj’ 4hk7;k,8hkow22hk R [+xjPocx’, 7;k,g0A, dtclw22hk I 9txPj ocx’8k,zqo]q[]tfa[w22hk U, 8k,dkorq;raovaf8kl;j o dq’dao XI ~U?D #D mqf]v’lkmyf c]h; lqomtokgxaod5j,djP;da[dkorq;rao]ts;jk’ 7;k,g0A,dtclw22hk da[ 7;k,8hkow22hkD !? .shoadIPovklklt\\ad @{# 7qo gIafmqf]v’D @? 76cotoe;ymuxt8y[afdyf9tde # .shoadIPog0Qk.9D #? oadIPovklklt\\adgIafdkomqf]v’]efa[]kpdkomqf]v’ c]t ;ymudkomuj0Po 46

cotoe16dj yf9tde # rkp.8hdko8yf8k,-;j pgs^nv0v’761kj ’.dh-yfD le]a[z6hvnjoM.sh ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ 8yf8k,dkomqf]v’ c]t zqodkomqf]v’D $? .shoadIPo9eo;o|b’j ]kp’kozqodkola’gdf0v’8qo Xxt,ko & 7qo?D &? 7o6 erkoda IPovtrxy kpgr,ju 8+d[a zoq dko]kp’ko0v’c8]j t7oq D *? 76oerkoda IPoloq mtoklts^5[.shwfh;kj .o;’q 9vow22hk|b’j F g,vnj zqo]q[]tfa[w22hk [+xPj ocx’S 7;k,g0,A dtclw22kh s^f5 ]’q 8k,dkogr,uj 0Bo0v’7;k,8kh ow22kh s^n g;Qkvudc[[|jb’;jk.o;q’9vow22hk|bj’ 4hkzqo]q[]tfa[w22hk U [+xjPocx’F 7;k,g0A,dtclw22hk I xPj ocx’8k,7;k,8hkow22hk R 8k,dkorq;raovaf8k l;j oxUodao I ≈ R $ D lbdlkgoNv.o[qfIPoc]h;lqomtokgxaod5j,djP;da[dqfgdo3v,XOhm? !? oda IPoldb lkgovN .o[fq IPodPj ;d[a dfq gdo3v,.ox,B c[[IPoD @? .soh da IPoloq mtoklts[^5 govN .omuwj flh db lkooA D #? z86h k’|kh d,j5 ]kp’kozoq dkoloq mtok.od,j5 D $? 76 c]t oda IPoI;j ,doa vtryxkpgr,uj 8+d[a zoq dko]kp’ko0v’c8]j td,5j D &? 76 c]t oadIPoIj;,daovtryxkplts^5[goNv.odjP;da[dqfgdo3v, 3fp76.-h7e 4k,oeg-oja G T dqfgdo3v,,ugoNv.o;kj co;.fL T lf6 7yfw]7j ;k,g0,A dtclw22kh 8k,dfq gdo3v,0Poco;.fL T gryoj .-sh p’a gxoa s;q |;j p7;k,g0,A dtclw22kh L T gryoj .-sh p’a gxoa s;q |;j p7;k,8kh ow22kh L T 3v,gxaosq;|;j p7;k,8hkow22hkwfhco;.fL *? 76vtmy[kplts^5[goNv.odjP;da[dqfgdo3v,8k,goNv.o.oxB,c[[IPo.shoadIPo g0kQ .9D V. dko;af c]t xtg,uozqo 7r6 9y k]tok9kdG { 7;k,loq .98+dkoIPoD { dkoxtdv[l;j ogIfa dkomfq ]v’ c]t dkovvd7;k,gsoa 0v’oda IPoc8]j t7oq D { gsfzoq c]t 7;k,4dn 8vh ’0v’7;k,gsoa mlju oq mtokd[a \\6j c]t 8v[7e4k,0v’7D6 47

[qfmu !@ 8volkp8+]Podao c]t 8+0t|kodao g;]k @ -q;j 3,’ ID 95fxtlq’ grvnj .shoadIPolk,kf G { 8+;q’9vow22hk8+]Podao c]t 8+0t|kodao 3fpoe.-hg7vnj ’8hkow22hklv’vaoD { oe.-hl6fdqfgdo3v, cdh[qfg]d 7yfw]jskzqo]q[]tfa[w22hkF 7;k,g0A,dtclw2 2hk c]t 7;k,8hkow22hkD { 7yfw]jsk7;k,8hkow22hkmP[gmqjkX7;k,8hkow22hkma’\\qf? 0v’g7njv’8hko w22hklv’vao8+]Podao c]t 8+0t|kodaoD II. goNv.o8Qo8= ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ !D 8volkp8+]Podao { 7;k,g0A,dtclw22hkmucj ]oj zkj om5d95f.o;q’9vogmqkj dao X7;k,g0A,dtclw22hk [+xPj o? I= I1= I2 D { zoq ][q ]tf[a w22kh 1l6j v’loQ 0v’g7vjn ’.-wh 22kh m’a \\fq gmkjq d[a zoq [;d0v’ zoq ][q ]tf[a w22hk 16jlv’0Q;0v’g7nvj ’.-hw22hkc8]j tvao U = U1 + U2 . { 7;k,8kh ow22kh m’a \\fq gmkjq d[a zoq [;d0v’7;k,8kh ow22kh c8]j tvoa m8uj +]Podoa R= R +R . 12 @D 8volkp8+0t|kodao { 7;k,g0,A dtclw22kh mcju ]oj .olkp8oQ gmkjq zoq [;d7;k,g0,A dtclw22kh mcju ]oj .o [aofklkpxud I = I1 + I2 . { zoq ][q ]tf[a w22kh 1l6j v’loQ 0v’g7vjn ’.-wh 22kh m’a \\fq gmkjq zoq ][q ]tf[a w22kh 1l6j v’0;Q 0v’g7nvj ’.-hw22hkc8]j tvao U = U1 = U2 . { 7;k,8hkow22hkmP[gmqkj R 7yfw]8j k,l6fG 1 = 1 + 1 R R1 R2 4vowfh G 1 = R1 + R2 s^n R = R1R2 R1 + R2 R R1R2 48

III. lnjdkoIPo{dkolvo ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ xyo !F& 3;o @ dvh oF s;q mPo # 3;o @ fvdF lt;fy w22kh ! voa F lkpw22kh pk; #W -’a 8cy ,fa ( glAoF v5xtdvomudj kj ;,koU le]a[oadIPo ! d5j,D IV. dyf9td=kdkoIPo{dkolvo !D mqf]v’ c]t lqomtokgxaodj5,djP;da[8volkp8+]Podao !? c[’j oda IPovvdgxoa d,j5 8k,7;k,g\\ktl,q D @? 76cotoe;ymuxt8y[afdyf9tde ! .shoadIPog0Qk.9D #? c8j]td5j,gIafdkomqf]v’8k,dyf9tde ! 8k,0Ao8vo c]t ;ymuxt8y[affaj’.o x,B c[[IPoD $? c8]j td,j5 7oQ 7;kh sk0lh= ts[^5 dPj ;d[a 8volkp8+]Podoa D &? z8h6 k’|kh c8]j td,j5 0oB ]kp’koD *? 76 c]t oda IPoI;j ,doa vtryxkpgr,uj 8+d[a dko]kp’ko0v’c8]j td,5j D (? 76oerkoadIPolts^5[.shwfh;kj .o8volkp8+]Podao f’aj oUG { 7;k,g0A,dtclw22hk I mucj ]oj zkj om5d95f.o;q’9vogmqkj dao I = I1 = I2. { zqo]q[]tfa[w22hk16jlv’lQo0v’g7nvj ’.-hw22hkma’\\qf gmqkj da[ zqo[;d0v’zqo]q[ ]tfa[w22hk 16jlv’0Q;0v’g7nvj ’.-hw22hkc8]j tvao U = U1 + U2 . { 7;k,8hkow22hkma’\\qfgmqkj da[ zqo[;d7;k,8hkow22hk0v’g7njv’8hkow22hkc8j ]tvao R = R + R . 12 @D mqf]v’ c]t lqomtokgxaodj5,djP;da[8volkp8+0t|kodao !? c[’j oda IPovvdgxoa d,j5 8k,7;k,g\\ktl,q D @? 76cotoe;ymuxt8y[afdyf9tde @ .shoadIPog0Qk.9D #? c8j]td5j,gIafdkomqf]v’8k,dyf9tde @ 8k,0Ao8vo c]t ;ymuxt8y[affaj’goNv .ox,B c[[IPoD $? c8]j td,j5 7oQ 7;kh sk0l=h ts[^5 dPj ;d[a 8volkp8+0t|kodoa D &? z8h6 k’|kh c8]j td,j5 0oB ]kp’koD *? 76 c]t oda IPoI;j ,doa vtryxkpgr,uj 8+d[a zoq ]kp’ko0v’c8]j td,5j D (? 76oerkoadIPolts^5[.shwfh;kj .o8volkp8+0t|kodao f’aj oUG { 7;k,g0A,dtclw22hk I mucj ]oj zkj o.olkp8Qo gmqkj da[ zqo[;d7;k,g0A,dtcl 49

w22hkc]oj .o[aofk8volkpxud I = I1 + I2 . { zoq ][q ]tf[a w22kh 1l6j v’0;Q 0v’g7vnj ’.-wh 22kh m’a \\fq gmkjq zoq ][q ]tf[a w22kh 1l6j v’ 0Q;0v’g7nvj ’.-hw22hkc8]j tvao U = U = U 12 { 7;k,8hkow22hkma’\\qf R 7yfw]8j k,l6fG 1 = 1 + 1 R R1 R2 4vowfh G 1 = R1 + R2 s^n R = R1R2 R R1R2 R1 + R2 #D cdh[qfg]d8q;1jk’ !? .soh da IPovklklt\\da 0oB cd[h fq g]d8;q 1kj ’1d6j tfkoD @? 76-;j poda IPo;yg7ktsq;[fq .shwfh;kj voa .fgxao0=h,o6 mu.j sIh F6h voa .fgxoa 0=,h o6 mu8j vh ’-vd skc];h 0Pogxoa ]kpdkow;Dh #? oda IPoxt8[y fa dkocd[h fq g]drkp.8dh ko-;j pgsv^n 0v’716 kj ’.d-h fy D $? 7r6 vh ,d[a oda IPovtrxy kp[fq cd0h v’oda IPo1d6j tfkoD &? 7v6 tmy[kp;ymucdh c]t cx’7ezyfmuoj da IPovklklt\\da cd.h sgh xoa [fq cdlh ,q [o6 D $D 7v6 tm[y kpdPj ;d[a dko8+;’q 9vow22kh c[[xtl,q 8k,govN .ox,B c[[IPoD V. dko;af c]t xtg,uozqo ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ 7r6 9y k]tok9kdG { 7;k,loq .98+dkoIPoD { dkoxtdv[l;j ogIfa dkomfq ]v’ c]t dkovvd7;k,gsoa 0v’oda IPoc8]j t7oq D { gsfzqo c]t 7;k,4nd8hv’0v’7;k,gsaomulj qomtokda[\\6j c]t 76D { dkocd[h fq g]d8;q 1kj ’.osvh ’D { zoq dkocd[h fq g/dy sfa m.uj sgh xoa ;Pd[kh oD 50

[qfmu !# 7;k,8hkow22hk0Boda[7;k,pk;F goNvmju|hk8af c]t mkfmujgIaflkpw22hk g;]k $ -qj;3,’ ID 95fxtlq’ grvnj .shoadIPolk,kf G vtmy[kpwfh;kj 7;k,8hkow22hk0v’lkpoew22hkxPj ocx’G gxaovaf8kl;j orq;raodq’ d[a 7;k,pk; c]t ltrk[7;k,8kh ow22kh X ρ ? 0v’mkfmgju Ifa lkpoew22kh F gxoa vfa 8kl;j o r;q roa xUod[a goNvm|uj kh 8fa 0v’];flkpoew22kh ooA D II. goNv.o8Qo8= 7;k,8hkow22hk R gxaovaf8klj;orq;raodq’da[7;k,pk; X R ∼ ?F gxaovaf8klj;o rq;raodq’da[ltrk[7;k,8hkow22hk X R ∼ ρ ? 0v’];flkpo=kw22hk c]t gxaovaf8kl;j o ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ rq;raoxUoda[goNvm|uj hk8af 0v’];flkpo=kw22hk X R ∼ A ? dkorq;rao0v’ R, , A c]t ρ 0Pogxaol6f];, fa’j oU G R = ρ D A III. lnjdkoIPo{dkolvo { lkp];foy3di,0t|kfgmqkj daoc8pj k;[+gmqkj dao # mvj o Xmvj omu|bj’pk; !W -a’8u c,afF mvj omulv’pk; #W -a’8uc,af c]t mvj omulk,pk; &W -a’8yc,af?D { lkp];foy3di,0t|kf.sp[j +gmqkj daoc8pj k; #W -a’8uc,af gmqkj dao # mvj o { lkp];fo3y di,F ];fmv’cf’ c]t ];fgsd^a 0t|kf.spgj mkjq doa c]t ,7u ;k,pk; #W -a’8uc,afgmkqj daoD { xyo !F& 3;o @ dhvoF sq;mPo # 3;o ! fvdF lt;yfw22hk ! vaoD { lkpw22hkpk; @W -a’8yc,af & glAoD Xv5xtdvoma’\\qfmujdkj ;,koU c,oj .-hle]a[oadIPo ! d5j,? 51

IV. dyf9tdedkoIPo{dkolvo ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ !D mqf]v’ c]t lqomtokgxaodj5,djP;da[7;k,8hkow22hk0Boda[ 7;k,pk;0v’lkpw22hk !? c[’j oda IPovvdgxoa d,j5 8k,7;k,g\\ktl,q D @? 76cotoe;ymuxt8y[afdyf9tde ! .shoadIPog0Qk.9D #? c8]j td,5j gIafdkomqf]v’8k,dyf9tde ! mwuj fhcotoe16.j oxN,c[[IPoD $? c8j]td5j,7Qo7;hksk0h=lts^5[djP;da[dkorq;rao]ts;jk’7;k,8hkow22hk da[ 7;k,pk;0v’lkp];foew22hkD &? z8h6 k’|kh c8]j td,j5 0oB ]kp’koD *? 76 c]t oda IPoI;j ,doa vtryxkpgr,uj 8+d[a zoq ]kp’ko0v’c8]j td,5j D (? 76oerkoadIPolts^5[dPj ;da[dkorq;rao]ts;kj ’7;k,8hkow22hk da[ 7;k,pk; 0v’lkp];foew22hk.shwfh;jk 7;k,8hkow22hk R gxaovaf8klj;orq;raodq’da[ 7;k,pk; 0v’lkp];fo=kw22hkoAo X R ∼ ?D @D mqf]v’ c]t lqomtokgxaodj5,djP;da[7;k,8hkow22hk0Boda[ 0t|kf.spj0v’lkpw22hk !? c[’j oda IPovvdgxoa d,j5 8k,7;k,g\\ktl,q D @? 76cotoe;ymuxt8y[afdyf9tde @ .shoadIPog0Qk.9 #? c8]j td,5j gIafdkomqf]v’8k,dyf9tde @ mwuj fhcotoe16.j oxN,c[[IPoD $? c8j]td5j,7Qo7;hksk0h=lts^5[djP;da[dkorq;rao]ts;jk’7;k,8hkow22hkda[0t |kf.sp0j v’lkp];foew22kh D &? z8h6 k’|kh c8]j td,j5 0oB ]kp’ko *? 76 c]t oda IPoI;j ,doa vtryxkpgr,uj 8+d[a zoq ]kp’ko0v’c8]j td,5j (? 76oerkoadIPolts^5[dPj ;da[dkorq;rao]ts;kj ’7;k,8hkow22hkda[0t|kf.spj 0v’];flkpoew22hk .shwfh;kj 7;k,8hkow22hk R gxaovaf8kl;j orq;raoxUoda[ govN m|uj kh 8fa A 0v’lkpok= w22kh X R ∼ ?D A 52

#D mqf]v’ c]t lqomtokgxaodj5,djP;da[7;k,8hkow22hk0Boda[mkf ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ mjugIaflkpoew22hk !? c[’j oda IPovvdgxoa d,j5 8k,7;k,g\\ktl,q D @? 76cotoe;ymuxt8y[afdyf9tde # .shoadIPog0Qk.9D #? c8]j td,5j gIafdkomqf]v’8k,dyf9tde # mwuj fhcotoe16.j oxB,c[[IPoD $? c8]j td5,j 7Qo7;hksk0h=lts^5[dPj ;da[dkorq;rao]ts;kj ’ 7;k,8hkow22hkda[mkf mugj Ifa lkp];foew22kh D &? z8h6 k’|kh c8]j td,j5 0oB ]kp’koD *? 76 c]t oda IPoI;j ,doa vtryxkpgr,uj 8+d[a zoq ]kp’ko0v’c8]j td,5j D (? 76oerkoadIPolts^5[djP;da[dkorq;rao]ts;jk’7;k,8hkow22hkda[mkfmjugIaf lkp];foew22hk .shwfh;kj 7;k,8hkow22hk0v’lkpoew22hkgxaovaf8kl;j orq; raodq’da[ltrk[7;k,8hkow22hk ρ Xvkj o;kj 3i? 0v’mkfmguj Iaflkpoew22kh ooA X R ∼ ρ ?D $D lqomtok];,djP;da[dkolhk’l6f !? 76lqomtokda[oadIPo3fp.-h7e4k,G 9kddkorq;rao R ∼ c]t R ∼ ρ 9tlk ,kflhk’l6fdkorq;rao]ts;kj ’ R, , ρ c]t A wfhco;.f L @? .shoadIPovklklt\\ad # 7qo 0Bowx0Po16dj tfkorhv,daoD #? 7I6 ;j ,d[a oda IPovtryxkplf6 muoj da IPovklklt\\da # 7oq ooA 0Po1d6j tfkoD $? 760Pol6fdkorq;rao]ts;kj ’ R, , ρ c]t A muj4nd8hv’.ldj tfko c]h;vtmy[kp 7;k,\\kp c]t sq;|;j p0v’c8]j txt]y,koD V. dko;af c]t xtg,uozqo 7r6 9y k]tok9kdG { 7;k,loq .98+dkoIPoD { dkoxtdv[l;j ogIfa dkomfq ]v’ c]t dkovvd7;k,gsoa 0v’oda IPoc8]j t7oq D { gsfzoq c]t 7;k,4dn 8vh ’0v’7;k,gsoa mlju oq mtokd[a \\6j c]t 8v[7e4k,0v’7D6 { zoq dkocd[h fq g/dy sfa m.uj swh xcd1h [6j kh oD 53

[qfmu !$ g7njv’8hkow22hkxjPo7jk c]t g7njv’8hkow22hk.og8adoyd g;]k $ -q;j 3,’ ID 95fxtlq’ grvjn .soh da IPolk,kfG { [vd7;k,\\kp0v’g7vnj ’8kh ow22kh xPj o7kj D { [vdsa^ddkogIaf;Pd0v’g7nvj ’8hkow22hkxPj o7kj c]t dkooe.-hg7njv’8hkow22hk xPj o7kj .o8q;9y’mu.j -h.oxt9e;aoD { vkj o7kj 7;k,8kh ow22kh 7’q 7kj 9kdc4[lum0uj ufvvh ,ooA wfDh { oe.-gh 7nvj ’8kh ow22kh xPj o7kj xPj o7;k,g0,A dtclw22kh 1.6j o;’q 9vo’kj pfkpD II. goNv.o8Qo8= { g7jnv’8hkow22hkc,jov5xtdvow22hk-toyf|jb’.-hgrjnv7;[75,dtclw22hkc]jo.o ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ ;’q 9vow22kh .swh f8h k,7kj mu8j vh ’dkoD { g7njv’8hkow22hk,ulv’xtgrf7nG xtgrf7q’7kj XxPj o7kj [+wfh? c]t xPj o7kj XxPj o7kj wf8h k,7;k,8hv’dko?D { g7vnj ’8kh ow22kh 7’q 7kj gIfa f;h p /o5j dkd[vovfa c|oh gxoa I[6 m+d,q F .-ch 4[lu0ufIv[ g7vnj ’8kh ow22kh ooA [vdgxoa 7kj 7;k,8kh ow22kh 0v’,oa F 7;k,8kh o0v’w22kh loa pk]adfh;p s^n D { g7nvj ’8hkow22hkxPj o7kj mu.j -h3fpmq;j wxxtdv[fh;p c4[7;k,8hkomkow22hk g-yj’ vkfgIaffh;pdkd[vo s^n d=h];foy3di,rao8+dao.ljm+ s^n mvj o;af45daow22hkD dko xa[xPj o7;k,8hkow22hk xt8y[afwfh3fpdkog]nvj o|hklezaf wxgmy’|hk0v’c4[ 1, 2, 3 0v’d=h];f7;k,8hkow22hkoAoD laopt]adg7njv’8hkow22hkxjPo7jk c,jo { fu3vf gIaf9kd;af45g7yj’o=kw22hk ,u0Q;w22hk[;d c]t 0Q;w22hk]q[D { f3u vf gIfa .sdh tclw22kh zkj owfrh P’mfy fP;D f’ja ooA F groyj 9’jb .-fh 3u vfxPj odtclw22kh ltsa^[wxgxaodtclw22hkdq’D laopt]ad fu3vf cmofh;p D 54

III. lnjdkoIPo{dkolvo ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ g7nvj ’cmdvecx ! g7nvj ’F \\=hw22hk ! |;j pF fu3vf @ vaoF g7nvj ’8hkow22hk7q’7kj & vaoF g7nvj ’8hkow22hkxPj o7kj Xlt;yfxyf{gxuf;ymtp5F g7nvj ’cmdo=hk,ao.o4a’oE,ao]qfF g7nvj ’7;[75, lP’fa’7vj p{fa’cI’0v’g7vnj ’dt9kplP’DDDD? Xv5xtdvoma’\\qfoUle]a[oadIPo ! d5,j ?D IV. dyf9tdedkoIPo{dkolvo !D la’gdf c]t lqomtokgxaodj5,djP;da[g7njv’8hkow22hk7q’7jk !? c[’j oadIPovvdgxaod5,j 8k,7;k,g\\ktl,q 8k,9eo;ov5xtdvomu,j u s^n sk,kwfhD @? c8]j td,5j xt8y[fa dkol’a gdfg7nvj ’8kh ow22kh 7’q 7kj D #? ldb lkgoNv.o.odkodeofq 7kj 8k,luc8]j tc4[lu .o8k8t]k’D $? ldb lk8;q 1kj ’dko7yfw]7j kj 7;k,8kh ow22kh 0v’g7nvj ’8kh ow22kh 8k,c4[luD &? 7yfw]7j ;k,8kh ow22kh 0v’g7nvj ’8kh ow22kh mu7j .6 sdh ,j5 8oq l’a gdfD *? 8k’|kh c8]j td,5j ]kp’koD (? 76 c]t oadIPoI;j ,daovtryxkpzoq ]kp’ko0v’c8]j td,5j D )? 7v6 tm[y kpdPj ;d[a g7vnj ’8kh ow22kh 7’q 7kj .soh da IPog0kQ .98k,govN .o[fq IPoD @D mqf]v’ c]t lqomtokgxaodj5,djP;da[g7njv’8hkow22hkxjPo7jk !? c[’j oadIPovvdgxaod5,j 8k,7;k,g\\ktlq,8k,9eo;ov5xtdvomu,j u s^n sk,kwfhD @? c8]j td,5j xt8y[fa dkol’a gdfg7nvj ’8kh ow22kh xPj o7kj D #? 8+g7nvj ’8hkow22hkxPj o7kj g0Qk;q’9vow22hk8k,;q’9voI6[ !$D@D 0D $? xt8y[afdkoxPj o7kj 7;k,8hkow22hkfh;pdkog]njvof5,lezafwx8k,|hkg7njv’8hko w22kh ooA D &? 8k’|kh c8]j td,5j ]kp’koD *? 7c6 ]t oda IPoI;j ,doa vtryxkpzoq ]kp’ko0v’c8]j td,5j D (? 7v6 tm[y kpdPj ;d[a g7vnj ’8kh ow22kh xPj o7kj .soh da IPog0kQ .98k,govN .o[fq IPoD #D lqomtok];,g4y’dkooe.-hg7jnv’8hkow22hkxjPo7jk.-h.og8adoyd !? 7o6 erkdkoloq mtok3fp.-7h e4k,G { g0a,dq’g8u-U[vdxt]y,kooE,ao.o4a’oE,ao]qf0v’oadIPo0jum5d,NoU ,aogIaf;Pd wfhco;.fL 55

{ dkozvj o sn^ gr,uj lP’;my tp5 sn^ 3m]tmfa f;h pdkoxojy f,5 ooA govN cmch ,oj gIkq gIfa sp’a Lສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ @? 7v6 tm[y kp.soh da IPog0kQ .9;kj g0,a d’q g8-u xU t],y kooE,oa .o4’a oE,oa c]t dkogr,uj zvj olP’;ymtp5DDD c,oj dkozvj o s^n gruj,7;k,8hkow22hk7;[75,dtclw22hkc]oj .o;’q 9vow22kh 0v’g7vnj ’c8]j tg7vnj ’ooA D $D lbdlkfu3vf c]h;xt8y[afdkomqf]v’lkmyf c]h;lqomtok];, !? 7g6 vkq fu3vf0v’9y’.soh da IPog[y’j rvh ,m’a cotoe loa pt]da 0v’,oa .o;’q 9vow22kh 8kj ’M.soh da IPoI96h da D @? .shoadIPovklklt\\ad @ 7qo gIafdkomq]v’lkmyf.sh\\6jg[yj’ 8k,0Ao8vo c]t ;ymudko f’aj mucj otoe.oxB,c[[IPo rkp.8hdko8yf8k,-;j pgs^nv0v’76D #? .soh da IPo9eo;o|’bj ]kp’kozoq dkomfq ]v’ c]t .s7h ;k,gsoa 8z+ oq dkomfq ]v’D $? 7v6 tmy[kpdPj ;d[a fu3vf8k,goNv.oxB,c[[IPo .soh da IPoI96h da D V. dko;af c]t xtg,uozqo l’a gdf9kdG { 7;k,loq .98+dkoIPoD { dkoxtdv[l;j ogIafdkomqf]v’ c]t dkovvd7;k,gsao0v’oadIPoc8]j t7qoD { gsfzqo c]t 7;k,4nd8hv’0v’7;k,gsaomulj qomtokda[\\6j c]t 76D { zoq dkocd[h fq g/dy sfa m.uj swh xcd1h [6j kh oD 56

[qfmu !& de]a’w22hkF rt]a’’kow22hk c]t cI’’kodtclw22hk g;]k # -q;j 3,’D ID 95fxtlq’ grvjn .soh da IPolk,kfG { [vd7;k,\\kp0v’8;q g]dded[a m8uj yf1d6j [a g7vnj ’.-wh 22kh c8]j t-toyfvoa D { [vd7;k,\\kp0v’dy3];fa 3,’ XkWh?D { 7yfw]rj t]a’’kow22hkF de]a’w22hk0v’g7vnj ’.-hw22hkD { pdq 8;q 1kj ’g7vjn ’.-mh oju e.-dh koxPj ort]’a ’kow22kh gxoa rt]’a ’koI[6 vojn Mm.ju -mh ;jq wxD II. goNv.o8Qo8= g,nvj 8+g7nvj ’.-hw22hk.ldj a[[+w22hkF rt]a’’kow22hk9t4ndlq’j ,kskg7nvj ’.-hw22hkc]h; ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ xPj ogxaort]a’’koI6[vnoj M8k,-toyf0v’g7nvj ’.-hw22hkoAoD 8q;1kj ’G fvdw22hk c,oj xPj o rt]a’’kow22hkgxao rt]a’’kocl’lts;kj ’F raf]q, c,oj xPj ort]a’’kow22hkgxao rt]a’ ’kodqo9ad c]t vnoj MD de]a’w22hk XP = UI ? c,jort]a’’kow22hkmujg7njv’.-hw22hkzt]yfvvd.o|jb’sq; |;j pg;]kF cI’’ko0v’dtclw22hk sn^ rt]a’’kow22hkmugj 7njv’.-hw22hkwfhzt]yfvvdrkp g;]k t c,oj W = P V t s^n W = UIt. s;q |;j p0v’de]’a w22kh gxoa XW?F ovd9kdgxoa ;fa (Watt) c];h p’a .-gh xoa d3y ];fa (kW) c]t g,dk;af (MW) vudfh;p G 1 kW = 1000 W ( 103 W ) c]t 1 MW = 1.000.000 W (106 W) d3y ];fa 3,’ X kWh? c,oj cI’’komguj 7vnj ’.-wh 22kh zt]fy vvd g,vnj ,du tclw22kh ! vecx X! A? c]oj zkj og7njv’.-hw22hk rkp.ow]ptg;]k ! -q;j 3,’ X1 h? s^n ! kWh. rt]a’’kow22hkmugj 7nvj ’.-hw22hkmuj,ude]a’w22hk ! kWh zt]yfvvd.ow]ptg;]k 1 h sn^ gvUo;kj ! 16oyf (Unit)D III. lnjdkoIPo{dkolvo g7nvj ’.-hw22hk8kj ’M g-ajoG fvdw22hkF s^vfw22hkF raf]q,F g7nvj ’gxqkj zq,F g8qk]ufFDDD s^n .[[yo9kj pg’yo7kj w22hk #{$ .[F lk,kfoe,kgxao;af45xt9ad8kwfhD 57

IV. dyf9tdedkoIPo{dkolvo ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ !D la’gdf c]t lqomtokgxaodj5, !? c[’j oda IPovvdgxoa d,5j 8k,7;k,g\\ktl,q D @? c8]j td5,j la’gdf 8q;g]dm0uj Po8yf1d6j a[v5xtdvo s^n g7vnj ’.-hw22hk8q;9y’c8]j tvaoD #? z86h k’|kh c8]j td,5j ]kp’koD $? 7c6 ]toda IPoI;j ,doa loq mtokdPj ;d[a l’jy m8ju k’|kh c8]j td,5j ]kp’koD &? 7v6 tm[y kpdPj ;d[a de]’a D *? 76vtmy[kplts^5[djP;da[de]a’0v’g7jnv’.-hw22hkF 7;k,\\kp0v’de]a’g7jnv’ .-hw22hk c]t sq;|;j pde]a’w22hk 8k,goNv.oxB,c[[IPoD @D lqomtok];,g4y’rt]a’’ko c]t cI’’kodtclw22hk !? .shoadIPo lbdlkgoNv.odPj ;da[ rt]a’’ko c]t cI’’kodtclw22hkD @? .soh da IPo9eo;o|’bj ]kp’kozoq dkoldb lkgovN .o[fq IPodPj ;d[a rt]’a ’ko c]t cI’’kotclw22hkD #? 76 c]t oda IPoI;j ,doa vtryxkpzoq dko]kp’ko0v’c8]j t7oq D $? 76vtmy[kpdPj ;d[a rt]’a ’ko c]t cI’’kodtclw22hk8k,goNv.oxB,c[[IPoD #D cdh[qfg]d8q;1jk’ !? .shoadIPovklklt\\ad @ 7qo 0Bocdh[qfg]d8q;1jk’16jdtfko X4hkdtfko.sp.j sh 0oB cdrh vh ,doa F dtfkoovh p.sch dgh mvnj ]t7oq ?D @? 76-j;poadIPo;yg7ktsq;[qf.shwfh;jk vao.fgxao0h=,6omju.shIh6 Xgrjyo.shIh6?F vao.fgxao 0=h,6omu8j hv’-vdsk X-vdsk? c]h;0Pogxao]kpdkow;hD #? oda IPoxt8[y fa dkocd[h fq g]drkp.8dh ko-;j pgsv^n 0v’716 kj ’.d-h fy D $? 76 c]t oadIPovtryxkp[qfcdh0v’oadIPo16dj tfkoD &? 7v6 tmy[kp;ymucdh c]t cx’7ezyfmuoj da IPovklklt\\da cd.h sgh xoa [fq cdlh ,q [o6 D 58

$D 76ltg|u;ymudkocmdcI’’kow22hk.shoadIPoIh69ad ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ &D lqomtok];,djP;da[dkooe.-hrt]a’’kow22hk !? 76c[’j oadIPovvdgxao @ d5j, c]h; c[’j dtfkogxao @ shv’ Xd5j, ! c]t d5j, @?D @? .shoadIPo @ d5,j c0’j 0aodao0Po-njg7njv’.-hw22hkmujg7up.-h sn^ Ih69ad .lsj hv’mujdeoqf .sh0Po.lj Xrkp.og;]k ! okmu?D #? 76 c]t oadIPoI;j ,daovtryxkp ]kp-njg7nvj ’.-hw22hkc8]j td,5j D V. dko;af c]t xtg,uozqo 7r6 9y k]tok9kdG { 7;k,loq .98+dkoIPoD { dkoxtdv[l;j ogIfa dkomfq ]v’ c]t dkovvd7;k,gsoa 0v’oda IPoc8]j t7oq D { gsfzqo c]t 7;k,4nd8hv’0v’7;k,gsaomulj qomtokda[\\6j c]t 76D { zoq dkocd[h fq g/dy sfa m.uj swh xcd1h [6j kh oD 59

[qfmu !* dqfgdo16o{c]ol g;]k @ -;jq 3,’ ID 95fxtlq’ grvjn .soh da IPolk,kfG { g0kQ .9govN .odfq gdo1o6 {c]olD { cd[h fq g]d’kj pfkpmoju e.-dh fq gdo1o6 {c]olD { [vd8;q 1kj ’g7vnj ’.-wh 22kh m.uj s7h ;k,Ivh oD II. goNv.o8Qo8= g,njv.shdtclw22hkc]jozjko;af45o=kw22hkmuj,u7;k,8hkow22hk R 8q;1jk’wlh0v’g8qk ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ w22hkF wlh0v’g7nvj ’gxqkj zq,F wlhg8qk]ufDDD ,aogIaf.sh;af45oAoIhvo0Bo c]t dt9kp7;k,Ihvo vvd,kD oAoltcf’;kj rt]a’’kow22hk wfhxPj ogxaort]a’’ko7;k,IhvoD rt]a’’kow22hk W gmqkj rt]a’’ko7;k,Ihvo Q XW = Q? g7vnj ’.-hw22hkm.uj sh7;k,Ihvo c,oj g7vnj ’.-hw22hkmxuj Pj ort]a’’kow22hkgxaort]a’’ko 7;k,IhvoD g7njv’.-hw22hkmuj.sh7;k,Ihvo,us^kp-toyf g-ajoG g8qk]ufw22hkF g8qkw22hkF \\=hs5’g0Qkw22hkF dt8yd8Q,oEw22hkF g8qkvq[w22hkF 7hvo9vfw22hkFDDD g7nvj ’.-hw22hk.sh7;k, Ivh o.-rh t]’a ’kow22kh sk^ pd;kj g7vjn ’.-wh 22kh -tofy vojn sk^ pgmkjq D f’ja ooA F dtclw22kh c]oj zkj o g7nvj ’.-hw22hk.sh7;k,Ihvoc8]j tvao 9’bj gxaodtcl.spDj ltoAoF dko.-h9b’j 8hv’]t,af]t;a’D III. lnjdkoIPo{dkolvo v5xtdvog7nvj ’.-hw22hkmu.j sh7;k,Ihvo8kj ’M g-aoj G g8qk]ufw22hkF g8qkw22hkF 7hvo9vf w22hkF dt8yd8Q,oEfh;pw22hkFDDD IV. dyf9td=k dkoIPo{dkolvo !D lbdlkgoNv.odqfgdo16o{c]ol !? c[’j oda IPovvdgxoa d,5j 8k,7;k,g\\ktl,q D @? oda IPoldb lkgoNv.o[fq IPodPj ;d[a dkomfq ]v’0v’mkj o1o6 c]t c]olD #? .shoadIPolqomtoklts^5[sp=hgoNv.odjP;da[dkomqf]v’ c]t dkolts^5[gxaodqf gdo 1o6 {c]olD 60

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[qfmu !_ vk-yf g;]k $ -qj;3,’ I. 95fxtlq’ grvjn .soh da IPolk,kfG !D [vdl;j oxtdv[0v’vk-yfwfhD @D 0Pol6f c]t [vd-0nj v’vk-yf9eo;o|b’j wfhD #D [vd7o5 ]da ltot0v’vk-yfwfDh $D oe.-hvk-yfg0Qk.o-u;yfxt9e;ao1kj ’4nd8hv’D II. goNv.o8Qo8= vk-yf c,jomkfxtlq,|bj’ g-yj’.o3,g]d5o0v’,aoxtdv[fh;p|bj’ s^n s^kpvk38, Iu3fic-o XH? 9[a d[a g7kQ vk-fy 8k,7kj g7,0u v’,oa D ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ III. lnjdkoIPo{dkolvo s^vfmqf]v’0t|kfdk’ $ s^vfF Ik’8A’s^vfmqf]v’ ! vaoF 9vd[ydgdu0t|kf &W mLF czoj la’dtluF czoj gs^ad[k’F czoj ,kgp-uvv,F g,afdko-uvv,F gxnvdsvpF sou xo6 [fq ,oj5 xt,ko @ [;j ’cd’F oExo6 .lxt,ko #W mL c]t mkf]t]kp vk-fy d^I= fu idy D IV. dyf9tdedkoIPo{dkolvo !D lqomtok];, djP;da[lj;oxtdv[0v’vk-yf { 768A’7e4k,oadIPo;kj G T vk-yfc,oj spa’L T vk-yf,ul;j oxtdv[co;.fL X7.6 soh da IPol’a gdf9kdlf6 0v’vk-fy 1.j6 ox,B c[[IPo;kj l;j oxtdv[0v’vk-fy ,su p’a cf?j { .shoadIPoxt,ko @{# 7qo vvd,k0Po.ldj tfkoD vk-yf c,jomkfxtlq,|bj’ g-yj’.o3,g]d5o0v’,aoxtdv[fh;p|bj’ s^n s^kpvk38, Iu3fic-o XH? c]t g7kQ vk-fy XIkdvk-fy ?D g7kQ vk-fy 9[a d[a vk38,I3u fic-o8k,7kj g7,Fu g7kQ vk-fy 9t,7u kj gmkjq .fooA 0oB d[a 9eo;ovk38,I3u fic-omxju tdv[1.j6 ovk-fy ooA D 68

@D lbdlkdjP;da[dko0Pol6f0v’vk-yf { 76.shoadIPola’gdf9kdl6f0v’vk-yf;kj gryoj 0Pol6fg7,u0v’vk-yfwfhco;.fL { .shoadIPoxt,ko @{# 7qo vvd,k0Po.ldj tfkoD { 76I;j ,oadIPolts^5[ rhv,pqd8q;1kj ’ dko0Pol6fg7,u0v’vk-yf c,oj 0Povk38,0v’Iu3fic-oda[Ikdvk-yf g-y’j 7kj g7,u 0v’Ikdvk-yfooA c,oj 0Bod[a 7kj g7,u0v’Iu3fic-oD #D lbdlkdjP;da[dko9afc[j’0v’vk-yf { .shoadIPola’gdf9kdl6f3,g]d5o0v’vk-yfc]h;4k,oadIPo;kj ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ T groyj 9afc[’j vk-yfvvdgxao9adxtgrfF 7nxtgrf.fcfLj 9afc[’j vk-yfvvdgxao @ -toyf7nG T vk-yf[+,uvqd-uc-o7nG HCl, HBr, HF, HI , H2S T vk-yf,uvqd-uc-o HNO3 , H2SO4, H3PO4 { 7c6 otoe.soh da IPodPj ;d[a vk-yfmluj e7oa 1.j6 oxB,c[[IPoD $D lqomtokdjP;dkovjko-nj0v’vk-yf { 7.6 soh da IPo7oQ 7;kh 8k,xB,c[[IPodPj ;d[a dkovkj o-0nj v’vk-yfc8]j t-toyfg-oja G T vk-yfm[uj +,uvdq -uc-o T vk-yfm,uj uvdq -uc-oD T vk-yfm,uj u-]nj ’q mkh pf;h pgxy T vk-yfm,uj u-]nj q’mhkpfh;p xdy T dkovkj o-nvj k-yfmu[j +,uvqd-uc-o c,oj 0Bo8Qofh;pvk-yfc]h;vkj o-n0j v’3]st c]t ]’q mkh pf;h pIfu idy g-oja G HF vk-yf2^6v=Iufiyd HBr vk-yf3[i,Iufiyd H2S vk-yf-6o26Iufiyd HCl vk-yfd^=Iufiyd HI vk-fy vvu fq Ifu idy D T dkovkj o-vnj k-yfm,uj uvqd-uc-o le]a[ vk38,dk’-toyffP;daoD HClO vk-fy I3u xdg^= ]u HClO2 vk-yfd^=g]u HClO3 vk-yfd^=iyd HClO4 vk-fy cxda d^i= dy { 76m;o7nodjP;da[[qfIPovk-yf{[kg-u muwj fhIPozkj o,k 9kdoAo764k,oadIPo;kj 69

vk-yf,u ]qflQ, c]t xjPolug9hp]yf,aflu2hkgxaolucf’D grnjv.shwfh0=hlts^5[ fa’j dkj ;9txt8y[af dyf9tdemqf]v’D &D mqf]v’]adltot0v’vk-yf dyf9tde !G vk-yfxt8ydy]ypkda[3]st { 76vtmy[kp;ymuxt8y[afdyf9tde1kj ’]tvPf 3fpltgrktdkooe.-hmkfg7,u8kj ’M !D gvqk3]st Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn .l.j os^vfmqf]v’c]h;gvqk HCl 1-2 mL 1vf.lj @D la’gdfxkdqfdkomguj duf0Bo c]t [aombdzqo.l8j k8t]k’D 8;q 1kj ’ 8k8t]k’[oa mdb zoq D 3]st vk-fy l,q zoq xt8dy ]y py k vkpmgju dfu 0oB zoq dkol’a gdf Zn 2HCl ZnCl@ + H2 H xt8dy ]y py kgdfu 0oB w; Mg 2HCl 2 xt8dy ]y py kgdfu -kh d;kj Fe 2HCl xt8dy ]y py kgdfu -kh d;kj Ca 2HCl H2 xt8dy ]y py kgdfu -kh d;kj MgCl@ + H H2 ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ 2 H2 FeCl@ + H2 CaCl@ + H2 dyf9tde @G vk-yfxt8ydy]ypkda[suox6o { 76vtmy[kp;ymuxt8y[afdyf9tde1kj ’]tvPf3fpltgrkt dkooe.-hmkfg7,u-toyf 8kj ’MD { 7c6 otoe;my du ko[oa mdb zoq .soh da IPog0kQ .9D !D gvqksuox6o s^n gxnvdsvpmu[j qf,5oj xt,ko @ [;j ’cd’.l.j os^vfmqf]v’mu,j ufvovaf c]t m+[oa 95dkllP[1Dj6 @D gvqkvk-yf HCl 1-2 ml ]q’.ljs^vfmqf]v’gvqklQog[Nv’muj,um+lqj’dkllP[16fhko |’jb 9,j5 ]’q .l9j vdm[uj oa 9o5 Exo6 .l #D oda IPol’a gdfxkdfq dkomgju dfu 0oB { 9kdoAo768A’7e4k, grvnj oewxsk0=hlts^5[ T oadIPo7yf;kj vk-yfovd9kd,u]qflQ,F xPj olug9hp]yf,aflu2hkgxaolucf’c]h; vk-yf pa’,u]adltotco;.fvudL 70

{ 76 c]t oadIPoI;j ,daolts^5[9kddkomqf]v’dyf9tdeoU 9tgsao;kj vk-yfpa’gduf ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ xt8ydy]ypkda[3]sts^kp-toyf X3]stmu1j 6mj k’|hk H .ovaofa[dkog7nvj ows;g7,u 0v’3]st? c,oj wfhIa[dklIu3fic-o f’aj lq,zqoD 3]st T vk-yf wfhgdnv0v’3]st T Iu3fic-o 8q;1kj ’G Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2 { 3]st[k’-toyfg-oja G Ag [+gdufxt8ydy]ypkda[ HCl lj;o Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn gdufxt8ydy]yda[ HCl wfhfuF c84j hkgxao3]st Na, K 9tgdufxt8ydy]ypkw; c]t I5ocI’F l;j osuox6o s^n gxnvdsvp c]t gdnv gdufxt8ydy]ypkw;da[ HCl wfhdkl CO2 gIaf.shoEx6o05oj D V. dko;af c]t xtg,uozqo 7r6 9y k]tok9kdG { 7;k,g0Qk.9 c]t lqo.9.odkoxt8y[afdyf9tde { dkogda[de0=h,6o9kddkomqf]v’ c]t dkolts^5[ 71

[qfmu @W [kg-u I. 95fxtlq’ g;]k $ -qj;3,’ grvjn .soh da IPolk,kfG !D [vdl;j oxtdv[0v’[kg-Du @D [vd-toyf0v’[kg-u c]t pqd8q;1kj ’l6fg7,u0v’[kg-uD #D 0Pol6fg7,u0v’[kg-uF vkj o-nj c]t dko9afc[’j [kg-uD $D [vd]adltotmk’2u-yd c]t g7,u0v’[kg-uD &D [vddkooe.-[h kg-u[k’-toyfD II. goNv.o8Qo8= [kg-uc,oj mkfxtlq,muxj tdv[fh;p ! vk38,0v’3]st da[ ! 95 s^n s^kp95 OH- D [kg- ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ u c[’j gxao @ -toyf7n -toyf]t]kp c]t [+]t]kp.ooED [kg-uxt8ydy]ypkda[mkfxPj oluF vqd-yf vk-yfF vk-yf c]t gdnvF 3fpvu’.l]j adltot2u-yd c]t g7,u0v’[kg-u gryoj wfhoe.-h[kg-u[k’ -toyfmujle7ao7nG ok8iuvv,Iufiqd-yfF dko-uvv,Iufiqd-yf .o-u;yfxt9e;ao c]t .ov5f lkstdewfhs^kp1kj ’g-oaj G dkozt]yflt[6F v5flkstdeoE,aofy[DDD .odkoltcf’muj gxao]adlt ot[kg-u gryoj deoqf7kj pH 0v’mkf]t]kp[kg-uc,oj .spdj ;kj ( XpH >7). III. lnjdkoIPo{dkolvo !D v5xtdvoG s^vfmqf]v’-toyfohvp & s^vfF 46cj dh;F 9;pF g9hp8v’F 9vdcdh; @ 9vd @D mkfg7,uG Ca(OH)2 x6ozq’F NaOH Xg,af?F g9hp]yf,aflucf’F g23oo2t8kg]vyoF mkf]t]kp NaOH F oEx6o.lF g9hp0k;F lt[6 s^n c2a[D IV. dyf9tdedkoIPo{dkolvo !D lqomtok];,djP;da[lj;oxtdv[0v’[kg-u { 768A’7e4k,;kj G T l6fg7,u0v’[kg-u,ul;j oxtdv[spa’cfLj T groyj .-h7kj g7,uF laopt]adg7,u0v’3]st c]h;lhk’gxaol6fg7,u0v’[kg-uco;.fL { 7.6 soh da IPol’a gdf8k8t]k’1xj6 ,B c[[IPo c];h loq mtok 9kdooA .soh da IPoxt,ko 72

@{# 7qo 0Bo]kp’ko c]t z6hvnoj xtdv[7;k,gsaoD { 76 c]t oadIPoI;j ,daolts^5[8k,xB,c[[IPo @D lqomtok];,dko9afc[j’0v’mkf]t]kp[kg-uD { 768A’7e4k,G ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ T groyj 9afc[’j mkf]t]kp[kg-uvvdgxao9ad-toyfF 7n-toyf.fcfLj { 7.6 soh da IPo7oQ 7;kh c]t l’a gdf8k8t]k’1.j6 ox,B c[[IPo 9kdooA .soh da IPoxt,ko @{# 7qo xtdv[7egsao c]h;76I;j ,oadIPolts^5[8k,xB,c[[IPoD #D lqomtok];,djP;da[dkovjko-nj0v’[kg-u { 7.6 soh da IPol’a gdf8;q 1kj ’.oxB,c[[IPo c];h loq mtok;ymudkovkj o-nj 9kdooA { 706 Polf6 g7,u c]t -0jn v’mkf]t]kp[kg-u g-’jy 3]stm,ju 7u kj g7,fu P; c]t 3]stm,ju u s^kp7kj g7,u.ldj tfko c];h .soh da IPol’a gdfD { 9kdooA 7.6 s8h ;q cmooda IPoxt,ko @{# 7oq ]kp’ko;my du kovkj o-0jn v’mkf]t]kp [kg-cu 8]j td]= toDu { 76 c]t oadIPoI;j ,daolts^5[;ymudkovkj o-8nj k,xB,c[[IPoD 7c6 otoe8,nj G dkovkj o-0jn v’mkf]t]kp[kg-u 776 ;ogvkq .9.ldj Pj ;d[a 7kj g7,0u v’3]st s^n 95mP[gmkqj 3]stD .ol6fg7,umu.j -hgxao8q;1kj ’vkf9tgvqk.oxB,c[[IPo s^n ovdd=wfhD $D lqomtokdjP;da[75o]adltot0v’[kg-u dyf9tde!G xt8ydy]ypkda[mkfxjPoluD { 7c6 otoegIfa dyf9tdeX]kp]tvPf1x6j B,c[[IPo? T g,nvj 1vf NaOH ]q’.lgj 9hp]yf,aflucf’F la’gdf,udkoxPj oluco;.fL T g,nvj 1vfg23oo2t8kg]vyomu[j +,ulu]q’.l !j {@ mL ]q’.loj Ex6o.l la’gdfgsaospa’ gdfu 0oB L zqodkomqf]v’ mkfg7,u g9hp]yf,af g23oo2t8kg]vyo NaOH gxoa lu2kjh { Ca(OH) { gxoa l[u ;q 2 { 7c6 otoe.soh da IPo7oQ 7;kh 8k,xB,c[[IPo c];h 8’A 7e4k,G 73

{ [kg-uxt8ydy]ypkda[vqd-yfvk-yf c]t vk-yfwfhspa’L { [kg-um[uj +]t]kp.ooE g,vnj 4nd;yg7ktfh;p7;k,Ihvowfhspa’L { 7.6 soh da IPoloq mtok];, c];h ]kp’koD { .sh76ltg|u8q;1kj ’c8]j td=]touxt,ko @{# lq,zqo c]h; 76I;j ,oadIPolts^5[lq,zqo m4ju dn 8vh ’8k,x,B c[[IPoD dyf9tde @G [kg-uxt8ydy]ypkda[gdnv { 7c6 otoe;my du komfq ]v’.soh da IPoc8]j td,j5 8k,x,B c[[IPo c];h .soh da IPoxt8[y fa 9kdooA 786 ’A 7e4k,G T g,nvj 1vf NaOH !{@ mL ]q’.lj s^vfmqf]v’0v’ CuCl FeCl FeCl AgCl. 2, 2, 3, 8k,]efa[,uspa’gduf0BoL zoq dkomfq ]v’G gdnvxtlq, NaOH zoq dkol’a gdf l,q zoq g7,u ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ s^vfmu ! rdb l2u kh 2NaOH + CuCl2 → 2NaCl + Cu(OH)2 s^vfmu @ rdb l0u P; 2NaOH + FeCl2 → 2NaCl + Fe(OH)2 s^vfmu # rdb lucf’-E 3NaOH + FeCl3 → 3NaCl + Fe(OH)3 s^vfmu $ rdb 0o5j NaOH + AgCl → NaCl + AgOH { 76.shoadIPoxt,ko @{# 7qo 0Bo]kp’kozqo c]h;76I;j ,oadIPolts^5[8k,xB,c[[ IPo &D lqomtok];,djP;da[[kg-umujle7ao !? ok8iuvv,Iufiqd-yf ( NaOH ) { 7c6 otoe.soh da IPoc8]j td,j5 gIfa dfy 9tde c]t 7oQ 7;kh 8k,x,B c[[IPo c];h 786 ’A 7e4k,G T g,vnj gvkq g,fa ok8iuvv,Iufidq -yf;k’.lgj 9ph 0k; l’a gdfgsoa sp’a gduf0BoL T oadIPo.-h,nlerafda[oElt[6 s^n c2a[9kdoAo 46oU;,n.ldj ao I6hlbdco;.fL T ok8ivu v,Ifu idq -fy xt8dy ]y py kd[a g23oo2t8kg]voy m[uj +,lu du kpgxoa lsu p’a L T ok8ivu v,Ifu idq -fy xt8dy ]y py kd[a vdq -fy vk-fy F vk-fy c]t gdvn wfmh kfsp’a gdfu 0oB L 74

T ok8iuvv,Iufiqd-yfoe.-hgrvnj gIafsp’a cfLj ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ T dkox’5 c8’j ok8iIu fu idq -fy f;h p;my .u fF .soh da IPovtm[y kp0t[;odkox’5 c8’j 3fp sp=hL { 7.6 soh da IPoloq mtokI;j ,doa c];h .s8h ;q cmo0v’d,j5 ]kp’kpD { 7I6 ;j ,oda IPolts[^5 8k,x,B c[[IPoD @? dko-uvv,Iufiqd-yf (Ca(OH) 2 ) { 7.6 soh da IPoloq mtok];,rkp.od,5j 8k,xB,c[[IPo c];h 786 ’A 7e4k,G T dko-uvv,Iufiqd-yf,u]adltot2u-ydco;.fF c8]j trk;t0v’,ao,u-rnj No[hkogvUo;kj co;.fL T dko-vu v,Ifu idq -fy g,vjn gdfu xt8dy ]y py kd[a dkldkd3[ody wfmh kfsp’a gdfu 0oB L T groyj oe.-dh ko-uvv,Iufidq -yfgrvnj gIfa sp’a cfLj { 76lkmyfd’j ;da[dkox5’c8’j oEx6o.l.shoadIPog[’yj X8k,xB,c[[IPo? c]h;.shoad IPol’a gdf xkdfq dkomguj duf0No 9kdooA 786 ’A 746 k,G T .og;]koegvqkx6ozq’]q’.l9j vdmu[j ao95oEc]h;7qo.sh]tvPf 9kdoAoxtw;hw]pt|’bj la’gdf ,uspa’gduf0BoL T g,vnj oegvqkoEx6o05oj wx8v’ c]h;mkf]t]kpmuwj fhIa[,u]adltotco;.fL { 7.6 soh da IPoloq mtokI;j ,doa c];h .s8h ;q cmo0v’d,j5 ]kp’koD { 7I6 ;j ,oda IPolts[^5 8k,x,B c[[IPoD *D lqomtok];,djP;da[]tfa[ pH. { 7.6 soh da IPoloq mtok];,rkp.od,5j 8k,xB,c[[IPo c];h 786 ’A 7e4k,G { ovd9kd.-gh 9ph xPj olugrvnj ;fa cmd]tf[a 7;k,gxoa vk-yfF [kg-u c]t 9k;0v’mkf ]t]kpc]h; gryoj pa’.-h;ymu.fgrnvj mqflv[L { 76 c]t oadIPoI;j ,daolts^5[8k,xB,c[[IPoD { 7c6 otoe8,jn G 4kh pH = 7 mkf]t]kp,]u da ltot9k;F pH>7 mkf]t]kp,u ]da ltot [kg-Fu 4kh pH .spdj ;kj ( gmkjq .fp’jy gxoa [kg-cu I’gmkjq ooA c]t 7kj pH<7 mkf]t]kp ,u]adltotvk-fy F4kh pH ovh pd;kj ( gmkjq .fdp= ’jy gxoa vk-fy gmkjq ooA D V. dko;af c]t xtg,uozqo 7r6 9y k]tok9kdG 75

{ dko8v[7e4k,F dkopqd8q;1kj ’0Pol6f c]t vkj o-n0j v’[kg-u[k’-toyf { dkoxtdv[l;j olqomtok c]t dko.shgsfzqo { ]kp’kodkogIafdyf9tde c]t dkocdh[qfg/ydsaf;Pd[hkoD cdh[qfg/ydsaf !D 8+xt3spd c]t l6fg7,u shv’ A .ldj a[shv’ B A dD 0D 7D ’D B 2. 4. 3. 1. @D 8+ A .ldj a[ B A dD 0D 7D ’D B 4. 1. 2. 3. ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ 3. 4z 4z dD Ca(OH)2 ]t]kp8;q .ooEwffh u 4z 0D NaOH gxoa mkfc0’[+,lu u 4z 7D NaOH ]t]kp8;q .ooEwffh u ’D 7kj pH .spdj ;kj ( mkf]t]kp,]u da ltot[kg-u $D 0=hmuzj yfc,oj 0=h dD 76

[qfmu @! gdnv g;]k $ -q;j 3,’ I. 95fxtlq’ ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ grvjn .soh da IPolk,kfG !D [vdl;j oxtdv[0v’gdnvwfh @D 0Pol6f c]t [vd-n0j v’gdnv9eo;o|’bj #D [vd7o5 ]da ltot0v’gdvn $D oe.-gh dnvg0kQ .o-u;yfxt9e;oa 1kj ’4nd8vh ’D II. goNv.o8Qo8= gdnv c,oj mkfxtlq, g-y’j .ooAo vk38,3]st wfh9a[da[g7Qkvk-yfD gIqklk,kf0Pol6f g7,u0v’gdnv 3fp.s0h Povuv’q [;d w;mh k’|kh c]t 0Povuv’q ][q w;mh k’s^’a c]t I7h6 kj g7,u 0v’ vk38,3]st c]t 7kj g7,0u v’g7kQ vk-fy D gdnv c[’j vvdgxaogdnv9k;Fgdnvvk-yfF gdnv[kg-u c]t gdnv-hvoD dkovkj o-n0j v’gdnv ,su k^ p;my u c88j vh ’vkj o-3jn ]st 0oB dvj o X4kh 3]st.f,7u kj g7,xu Pj ocx’.s[h vd7kj g7,ru vh ,? c];h 8k,f;h p-0nj v’g7kQ vk-yfD ]adltot]t0v’gdnvl;j os^kp]t]kp.ooEwfhfuF gxaomkf;yg7ktw22hkcI’F,us^kp ]fq -kf c]t l8u kj ’doa D g,vjn mfq lv[f;h pg9ph ]fy ,fa 9t[+xPj olDu III. lnjdkoIPo{dkolvo v5xtdvo le]a[gIafdyf9tde !D { -uc]a’X s^vflad1k?F 8tdP’gs^Qk _WD { vk-yfd^=Iufiyd ( HCl ) 9k’ !& cm3 D { 4h;pg7nv[mugj Iaffh;p 3]stD { mkf]t]kpok8iyvv,Iufiqd-yf ( NaOH ) !& cm3D 77

IV. dyf9tdedkoIPo{dkolvo ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ !D lqomtok];,djP;da[lj;oxtdv[0v’gdnv { 768A’7e4k,oadIPo;kj G .o-u;yfxt9e;ao oadIPog7up.-hgdbvgxaog7nvj ’x5’vkskoF 9q’j [vd;kj gdnvc,oj spa’L ,ul;j oxtdv[spa’cfLj .shoadIPoxt,ko #{$ 7qo8v[ { 76 c]t oadIPoI;j ,daolts^5[G 7;k,\\kp c]t l;j oxtdv[0v’gdnv gdvn c,oj mkfmxuj tdv[f;h p3]st sn^ mkfmmuj P[gmkjq 3]st c]t vto,5 o6 vk-fy D 3fpxdq dt8ygdnvgduf0Nofh;p3]st s^n \\6jmkfmjumP[gmqjk3]st g0QkwxcmomjuIu3fic-o -tofy mcuj 8d8;q wfDh g-’jy ,xu kdfq dko1.j6 o !3,g]do5 0v’vk-fy D dkocmomouj 9U tgxoa dko cmo mujIu3fic-oma’\\qf muj,u16j s^n vkf4ndcmomujrP’[k’l;j ogmkqj oAoD @D lbdlkdjP;dko0Pol6f0v’gdnv { 7.6 soh da IPol’a gdf c]t ldb lkdko0Polf6 g7,0u v’gdvn .ox,B c[[IPo c];h [vd;kj dko0Polf6 g7,u0v’gdnv 0Powfch o;.fL { .shoadIPoxt,ko &{* 7qo vvd,k0Po.ldj tfkoD { 7I6 ;j ,oda IPolts[5^ rvh ,pdq 8;q 1kj ’dko0Polf6 g7,0u v’gdvn c,oj .s0h Povvu ’q [;d w;hmk’|hk c]t 0Povuvq’]q[w;hmk’s^a’D { 4hkI6h7kj g7,u0v’vk38,3]st c]t 7kj g7,u0v’g7Qkvk-yf c]h; gryoj d=lk,kf0Po l6fg7,u 0v’gdnvwfh 76vtmy[kp]tvPfrhv,ma’pqd8q;1kj ’.oxB,c[[IPoD vuvq’0v’3]st g7Qkvk-yf l6fg7,u0v’gdnv Na + Cl - NaCl K+ Ca 2+ NO3- KNO3 Mg 2+ SO42- CaSO4 CO32- MgCO3 Al 3+ PO34- AlPO4 Na + HSO4 - K+ CH3COO- NaHSO4 CH3COOK 78

#D lqomtok];,djP;da[dko9afc[j’gdnv ສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ { 768A’7e4k,G gdnv,u9ad-toyf7n-toyf.fcfLj { 76.shoadIPo @{# 7qo8v[ { s^a’9kdoAo760Po7e8v[.ldj tfko c]t lts^5[I;j ,da[oadIPo $D 7Qo7;hkd5j, djP;dkovjko-nj0v’gdnv { c[’j oda IPovvdgxoa d,j5 grvnj 7oQ 7;kh dPj ;d[a dkovkj o-0nj v’gdnvc8]j t-toyf g-oja d5,j !G gdnv9k; d5,j @G gdnv[kg-u d5,j #G gdnvvk-yf d5,j $G gdnv-hvo { 76 c]t oadIPoI;j ,daolts^5[dPj ;da[;ymudkovkj o-gnj dnvc8]j t-toyfD &D mqf]v’djP;da[75o]adltot0v’gdnv { c[’j oadIPogxaod,5j gIafdyf9tde !G xt8ydy]ypk]ts;kj ’vk-yfda[[kg-uD !D .-h-uc]a’ f6fgvqk HCl 9k’ !& cm3 luf]q’.l4j h;pg7nv[mujgIaffh;p3]st c]h;]hk’ -cu ]’a D @D .-h-uc]a’f6fgvqkmkf]t]kp NaOH !& cm3 1vf]q’.ljmkf]t]kp.o 0=h X!? 7oq .sgh 0kQ doa D #D oegvqk4h;pmu[j ao95mkfxtlq,]ts;kj ’ HCl c]t NaOH wx8Q,fh;pcx;w28tdP’ gs^Qk 9qooE]tgsupvvd\\qf c]h;la’gdf c]t [aombdzqoD { c8]j td,j5 ]kp’ko { 76 8A’7e4k,grvnj oewxld6j kolts^5[G T g,vnj oE]tgsupvvd\\qf oadIPola’gdfgsaospa’ 1.j6 odQo4h;pL { 76 c]t oadIPoI;j ,daolts^5[8k,]kp]tvPf.oxB,c[[IPoD *D lbdlkdjP;da[dkooe.-hgdnv.o-u;yfxt9e;ao { 786 ’A 7e4k,G T oadIPog7upoe.-hgdnv s^n g7upgsaor+c,j gvqkgdnv,kgIafspa’cf.j o-u;yfxt9e;ao L { 76 c]t oadIPoI;j ,daolts^5[G 79

gdnv ,uxt3spfs^kp1kj ’wfhoe,k.-h .o-u;yfxt9e;ao g-oaj G .ofhkov5flkstdeF x5’c8’jສ.ວ.ສສະຫງວນລິຂະສິດ vkskoF .-hgvnv[vkskoF -;j p.shgdufoEpvj p.odtgrktvkskoD.ov5flkstde.-h2vd|a’F zt]yfx5Jp c]t lt[6D.ov5flkstdezt]yfcdh; c]t .-hcdhw0oEdtfhk’F .-hgxao1k]qf7;k, gxoa vk-yf.odtgrktvkskoF 1k]kh ’mvh ’F 1kIda lk3]d7=|P’F .-gh Ifa \\NxnoF \\kddt3rdDDD V. dko;af c]t xtg,uozqo 7r6 9y k]tok9kdG { 7;k,g0Qk.9 c]t lqo.9.odkoxt8y[afdyf9tde { dkomfq ]v’ { 7oQ 7;kh d,j5 { dko8v[7e4k, 80

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