Haw Trai Foundation of Wat Raja-O- RasaramCongratulatesfor celebrationofVan. Phra RatchapatibharnsobhonWat Raja-O- Rasaram70years birthday15thMay2561With This DhammadhanaSupportedbyMrs. Rudee Senivong N a AyudhyaMr. Thanapon Inthanont (LL.B.,LL.M)(PrawinInternational Law Office)MS. Chama SavetbodiMr. Yuenyong Visestamkul&FamilyMembers of the Plant BangkhaeMr.Supachai, Mrs. Thanaporn BuacharoenMr. ThanathornBuacharoen
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WALPOLASRI RAHULATripitakavagifvaracharyaWhat the Buddha Taught(Revised edition)WithaForewordby,PAUL DEMIEVILLEanda collectionof illustrative texts translatedfromthe original PaliHAW TRAI
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The Buddha in walking posture at BuddhamonthonPark in N akhonPathom, Thailand,constructedto commemoratethe 4500th year of theBuddhist Era, (Hight:15.875mete res)'I\"I'j~'I\"IVI'5'jtJth.:l~J;'lltJ'j:'::~~~l'UtltJW 'l\"lVI'5lJW\"l'lJ;'l1'U~,:rVl'1~'Ufl'jtJ~lJtJ'j~ bVIi'llVIC]\"cu~cuqd.8?l~l.:J~'Ub~tl.:J1'Ulelfl1?lu'I\"IVI'5l\"1'fm'llfl'S'U1.!:J,cf:ooU(fll1lJ?l.:J(9)cf: ~b'l!cf:.bl.ll'l'j),~
~\"u~'Vl~f111~lJ'V'l1 'ULh~b 'Vl1\"11'VltJbtJ'U\"U€Ilf1€1l'Vl'ULJruij5V1€11~1,, ...flB.:JVl'W'Uru-U5'V1el1~'Hr~Ba\"lJ~Vl~1 'W'lh~LVll\"llVltJ~~m'll~,IIClIJISBN974-00-0839-9First publishedin Thailandby HawTrai FoundationBangkok,B.E.2531(1988)This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade orotherwisr, be lent, re-sold, hired out or ortherwise circulated without the publisher'sprior consent in any form of binding or cover other than in which it is publishedand wihtout a similar condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser.~'lJ~Vltm~11 VimtJ'IJ'lJ€l'lf)€l'l'VJ'IJ~qjii5'VI'El1!11'i?I'l1'IJ~'lJ~Vlt~ll.J~€lm~ EJ'IJhJ'\";hr.=h'IJ'VI~'lG'i1'IJ1~'lJ€l'l'VIu'l~€l'IJ€lnsnn 1~-rU€l'IJrul!11,~ISBN 978-616 468-862 9--Wat Raja-O-Rasaram, Section Thaihouse NorthKhet Chomthong, Bangkok10150,ThailandTel.(662)8937979?~J7'1freJJmJ711 F/t:lJ:fm~I'YJmYfl§m F/t:lJ L'l1ueJL'lJ(1)veJlI'YJeJ~m~L'YIW\"1(9)ol9)ri:o !.h L'YIfTI'YJEJ:f:f•rmrTwn( bl!J)bc:tGtm 6\"PGtfTMPrinted in Thailand (B.E.2561 (2018)
Foreword\"What the Buddha Taught\" is one of the best selling books onBuddhism in the west.Ithas been translated into many languages andhas been reprinted several times since its first published in London in1958.The book suits people with varying degrees of knowledge ofBuddhism. It includes chapters dealing with the Four Noble Truths,Buddhist Meditation, Buddhist way of life, and translations of manySuttas (The Discourses of the Buddha).I firmly belive that \"What the Buddha Taught\" is an extremelyvaluable reference book for anyone who has ever been interestedorcurious about Buddhism. No matter how long one has been Buddhist he,is always likely to discover something new, or realize how unsatisfactoryhis understanding of Buddhism really is.Many Westerners visiting Thailand, the land of many beaut fulitemples, who would like to learn somthing about Buddhism will find thisbook ideal for them.I met the author during my stay at Wat Buddhapadipa in London,and received permission from him to publish his book called \"What hetBuddha Taught\" in Thailand. No one else is permitted to reproduce anypart of this publication in any form, by any means, in Thailand dur ngithis time he has authorised me to take care of his copyright.May the truth be seen by many.Phra RatchapatibharnsobhonWat Raja~O-rasaramChomthong (Bangkhuntien)Bangkok10150Thailand Tel.(662) 893~7979viii
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AnumodanaWhat theBuddha Taughtis one of the best books of introductionto Buddhism Throughout the period of my teaching in the BuddhistStudies Faculty at Mahachula Buddhist University(19 4 - 1974),6it was prescribed for the first-year course of English Reading insBuddhism. After that, either some selectedchapters or long passagesin the book have, until today, been serving as central Budd isthreadings for freshmen or second-year students in the university.Besides readability, the present book covers all the impor anttpoints of the Buddha's teachings. Dr.Rahula explains Buddhistprinciples clearly in simple language. His skilled way of presenta iontmakes\"What the Buddha Taught\"communicate itself well to peoplein the modern world.Itis a great pleasure to learn that the Haw Trai Foundation isanon-profit organization aiming at the dissemination of the Dhammafor the welfare and happiness of the people. Central among itsactivities is the publication ot Buddhist works of high moral, lite aryror academic value The selection of \"What the Buddha taught for.\"publication is really worthy of loud applause.Phra Debvedi (Prayudh Payutto)*May14,B.K2531(1988C.E.)*Somdej Phra Buddha Kosajarnx
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Forewordby Paul DernievilleMember oj the Institut de France}Professorat th Collegede FranceeDir ctor of Buddhist Studies at the Schooleoj H gher Studies (Paris)iHere is an exposition of Buddhism conceived in a resolutelymodern spirit by one of the most qualified and enlightenedrepresentatives of that religion. The Rev. Dr. W. Rahula receivedthe traditional training and education of a Buddhist monk inCeylon, and held eminent positions in one of the leading monasticinstitutes (Pirivena) in that island, where the Law of the Buddhaflourishes from the time of Asoka and has preserved all its vitalityup to this day. Thus brought up in an ancient tradition, he decided,at this time when all traditions are called in question, to face thespirit and the methods of international scientific learning. Heentered the Ceylon University, obtained the B.A. Honours degree(London), and then won the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of hetCeylon University on a highly learned thesis on the History ofBuddhism in Ceylon. Having worked with distinguished profes-sors at the University of Calcutta and come in contact with adeptsof Mahayana (the Great Vehicle), that form of Buddhism whichreigns from Tibet to the Far East, he decided to go into theTibetan and Chinese texts in order to widen his cecumenism,and he has honoured us by coming to the University of Paris(Sorbonne) to prepare a study of Asanga, the illustrious philo-sopher of Mahayana, whose principal works in the originalSanskrit are lost, and can only be read in their Tibetan and.Chinesetranslations. It is now eight years since Dr. Rahula is among us,wearing the yellow robe, breathing the air of the Occident,searching perhaps in our old troubled mirror a universalizedreflection of the religion which is his.The book, which he has kindly asked me to present to thepublic of the West, is a luminous account, within reach of eve yrbody, of the fundamental principles of the Buddhist doctrine, asxii
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they are found in the most ancient texts, which are called 'TheTradition'(Agama)in Sanskrit and 'The Canonic Corpus'(Nikqya)in Pali. Dr. Rahula, who possesses an incomparableknowledge of these texts, refers to them constantly and almostexclusively. Their authority is recognized unanimously by all theBuddhist schools, which were and are numerous, but none ofwhich ever deviates from these texts, except with the intention ofbetter interpreting the spirit beyond the letter. The interpretationhas indeed been varied in the course of the expansion of Buddh smithrough many centuries and vast regions, and the Law has ta enkmore than one aspect. But the aspect of Buddhism here presentedby Dr. Rahula-humanist,rational, Socratic in some respects,Evangelic in others, or again almost scientific-has for its supporta great deal of authentic scriptural evidence which he only ha todlet speak for themselves.The explanations which he adds to his quotations, alwaystranslated with scrupulous accuracy, are clear, simple, direct, ndafree from allpedantry. Some among them might lead to discussion,as when he wishes to rediscover in the Pali sources all thedoctrines of Mahayana; but his familiarity with those sourcespermits him to throw new light on them. He addresses himself tothe modern man, but he refrains from insisting on comparisonsjust suggested here and there, which could be made with certaincurrents of thoughtof the contemporary world: socialism,atheism, existentialism, psycho-analysis. It is for the reader toappreciate the modernity, the possibilities of adaptation o afdoctrine which,inthis work of genuine scholarship, is presen edtto himinits primal richness.xiv
e.')eit.e)f)fnnnd5,rt:0rs.d1,le!S:0isInn,:0a:d..,..,'U1~ Vl1.11V1fl~LL~fluTW1'W~l.!iH LVI~lihBCJ51 L?tl.!€luaeLfi€l'U\"il~LBCJ51LL~l\"hlH LVI~111,~Lvh,r'W ~l.!1i'fL VI~TdL'u'W~CJ€ll.!-r'U€lt!l1L€lfl~'WvlVlCJ'WVl5m?t'W1Vlflijfl1CJ hjiJijfl1 CJ1Vl,,LL~flr11?t€l'W€l€lfl1U LflCJ'W€lfl\"il1 fl fl1 'j~ 1\"l11l.!1VlCJr1TUl51 L\"il~'W1l.!1fl fll1 ~1l.! 911e)fl~'jfl1'j~m1l.!~l1n'W€lt!l1l.!lflL~€l'W'j~'WVl5!3l1?t'W1LL~\"lJCJ1CJ€l€lfl1'W~'W~fll111'I\"I!3l1fl~fl€lVlLJ1,~11nmVlmCJ!3l~1'j'j~ 'W1~lUCJ~liJl.!&i~Lb~fl~l1n'WVlmCJ€lt!11bL~ Vl'j.11V1fl~ LtJ'W,~irfll.!l'W~CJijCJl.!'11mVI~c.JflijCJl.!fl~~lCJ 1?tbm~?t1 'W'U11Ld!3l~Vl51ijCJl.!1'W'U11~11'WVI~€l,,Lii€l'U\"il~btJ'W1VlCJ1!3l1?t~{~1 CJ1~'l.h L?t'W€lVl~fl'W1~'WVl5!3l1?t'W11VlCJBI~l.!1i {Jfl L~l.!LtJ'W,VI~fl 6lil~l.!1i{LVI~ld€l5'U1CJVI~fl!3l1?t'W11~€lt!11LL~l.!Lb:ijl~1CJb'l1€lVl11'W~l.!1i1,r'WL€llVI',vl1'WbbUflb11€l1\"l11l.!\"il1fl'W'j~'U1~€lt!11 b CJI~'jl~I r11€l5'U1CJ~l1V1'lV1b?t~l.!LoV1l.!1<UVlL\"il'W~lCJ ~'jlU1~L~'W bLfl~iJ1~€l1VlfliJ-rG'h'W~'W'U11~€l'W€l1\"il\"il~'l111u?ifl11f1m~CJI~ ~~1'W1fl';1\"il11ru ~lb~'W~vl1'WU1~?tlrl\"il~fl'WVl1V1~fl5'j1l.!~lVll.!Vl\"lJ€lll.!Vl1CJ1'W\"il1fl'W'j~'U1~LL~fl1'j~vl1'Wfl'Wn'U'I\"I'j~'U1~nv111Vivl1'W?t1l.!11tl1ViI\"l11l.!m~~11l.!l.! 1VI~1~vl 'WL~CJ'W1Vi1,,~lI\"ll.!ijCJl.! mvnijCJl.!e)~~fl1TUCJl.!~~lLI\"l11~'\"LYlCJlLb~~bL'W~1lU111'W'U11~€l'WLU'WL~€ll\"lJ€ll~B1'W~\"il~LoV11\"ilbLfl~L~'W1\"l11l.!11'W?tiJCJL~'W1\"l11l.!LtJ'W1U1~~\"il~'l1 'W1~5'j'jl.!1~Fl1G'f€l'We)'W~l.!'j1uuaeLfl1 bbri~c.Jflll'Wl\"lJ1fl11~'Wd'l11 bG'f'W€l1uU'j~CJfl~1-U~€l1U,,xvIL
PrefaceAll over the world today thereisgrowing interest in Buddhism.Numerous societies and study-groups have come into being, andscores of books have appeared on the teaching of the Buddha.Itisto be regretted, however, that most of them have been writtenby those who are not really competent, or who bring to their taskmisleading assumptions derived from other religions, which mustmisinterpret and misrepresent their subject. A professor of com-parative religion who recently wrote a book on Buddhism didnot even know that A.nanda,the devoted attendant of the Buddha,was abhikkhu(a monk), but thought he was a layman! Theknowledge of Buddhism propagated by books like these can beleft to the reader's imagination.I have tried in this little book to address myself first of all to theeducated and intelligent general reader, uninstructed inthesubject, who would like to know what the Buddha actuallytaught. For his benefit I have aimed at giving briefly, and asdirectly and simply as possible, a faithful and accurate account ofthe actual words used by the Buddha as they are to be found inthe original Pali texts of theTipitalea,universally accepted byscholars as the earliest extant records of the teachings of theBuddha. The material used and the passages quoted here are takendirectly from these originals. In a few places I have referred tosome later works too.I have borne in mind, too, the reader who has already someknowledge of what the Buddha taught and would like to gofurther with his studies. I have therefore provided not onl theyPali equivalents of most of the key-words, but also references tothe original texts in footnotes, and a select bibliography.The difficulties of my task have been manifold: throughout Ihave tried to steer a course between the unfamiliar and thepopular, to give the English reader of the present da somethingywhich he could understand and appreciate, without sacrificinganything of the matter and the form of the discourses of thex vi
o0fl1U1(Jl~1~ bb~'tllb~tJ~ltJ~11'V1'l1~~€1 bn€l'U~~'VI~~ b~ tJ'U1~tJ~~hl~~Vl5f311?1'Ul€1 ch~~€1~u Vf\"\",'-1~ml1b?l'U€I~1tJ?I~~~~1'U~\"lJ1'U 1,xbil1'.il1 1J'~b\"lJ1b~\"Jl~'VI~'U~l'.ill flf311?1'Ul~'Uv111,xbbU·6'1...I\"nll.Jua~t11rau€I~ ~ f311?11?l\"Jl'.ill \"JtJ~ l'U f311?1'U1 bU~ tJ'Ub tJ'Uv11'U'VI~~1~ b~ tJ'U'VI'l1~~Vi€111~1tJ~Vl5f311?1'Ul 1~tJ~1lJ~bb~m~~~11~\"J~€l1'U'Uvl~Vl5€1Uf1~lmtJ'U~\"J~.ilfl~bb~,'U..'Id.J~III~~';hv11'UbtJ'U6JJ\"Jl1l?1 ~~l'Url~~€I~'UI?l'Ul fl1\"J1~11 ml~b il1'.il~\"J~~Vl5f311?1'Ul~1~'.illfl\",5'UlJ~ b~ tJ'U'VI'l1~~m~\"J'dcll'V1'r'U ~ ~ l'U~1611u~ijfl1\"JPifl~l bb6'1~ij.fl:iH~1lJ~~n,'UI'U'U'U1.1Q.Idv~d~1~~Vl5f311?1'Ul bb6'1~€ItJ1fl'.il~\"J5\"j\"jl.J~~~Vl~\"j~~Vl5b \"illVl\"J~?I€I'UbiJ'Uu\"j~ fl1\"Jusnb~€I,\",th~ltJ\"1lt1i€ld5'U~~lJ~t11b?l'U€l5\"J\"J~~€I~1~~'U611?l1~U\"J~b~'U bb6'1~~ltJ~?I~~'.il~'Vh1~,I•bUtJ5\"J\"J~ ~~ t1fl~ €I~bbli'UcJ11~ tJ~~1?l1~~\"J~~Vl5~'.ilL1~~~U\"Jl flf1€1~1'UW~:;l~~fJf)n'Uqd.J'UdJtil\"]u1fl~?I~b.n€l'VIlbb6'1~i€l5\"J\"J~~'VI~'UtJfl~11-ut 'U'VI11~~€1b~~il~l'.illfl~\"J~'Ul~9l''UmJ'U,,1~tJI?l1~ bl'Ubb~'Ul~u\"'~~'.il~e)l~fi~~l'U 1'U.ff'U'VI~~th~b~l.Jb~l.J~1tJ ~~'!'U~~ 1lJbYltJ~bb~ri'ln'U.fll~1'Ul~11cll'V1-r'Ufl'1cllrlflj1bv11,!'U bb~tJ~1~1~b~~ €I\"J\"Jt1e)l~fi~rluiH9l'w:ru'Uua~ij'U\"J\"Jrul'U m~~rl~?I\"J\"J bb~11,x~1 tJ,xvii
Buddha. Writing the book I have had the ancient texts runningin my mind, so I have deliberately kept the synon ms and repe i-yttions which were a part of the Buddha's speech as it has comedown to us through oral tradition, in order that the reader shou dlhave some notion of the form used by the Teacher I ha e kept s.vaclose as I could to the ori inals, and have tried to make mygtranslations easy and readable.IBut there is a point be ond which it is difficult to take an ideaywithout losing in the in erests of simplicity the particular meaningtIthe Buddha was interested in developing. As the title 'What theBuddha Taught' was selected for this book, I felt that it would bewrong not to set down the words of the Buddha, even the figur seI:he used, in preference to a rendering which might provide theIeasy gratification of comprehensibility at the risk of distortionof meaning.I have discussed in this book almost everythingwhich iscommonly accepted as the essential and fundamental teaching of/11,the Buddha. These are the doctrines of the Four Noble Truth ,s,the Noble Eightfold Path, the Five Aggregates, Karma, Rebirth,I,:Conditioned Genesis(Pajiccasamtlppada),the doctrine of No-Soul(Anatta),Satipa!!hana(the Setting-up of Mindfulness). Naturallythere will be in the discussion expressions which must be unfamili rato the Western reader. I would ask him, if he is interested to take,up on his first reading the opening chapter, and thengo on toChapters V, VII and VIII, returning to Chapters II, III, IV and.VI when the general sense is clearer and more vivid It would.not be possible to write a book on the teaching of the Buddhawithout dealing with the subjects whichTberauddaandlvlahqyanaBuddhism have accepted as fundamental in his system of thought.The termTheravada-Hinqyal1aor 'Small Vehicle' is no longerused in informed circles-could be translated as 'the School of theElders'(theras),andMahqyanaas 'Great Vehicle'. They are used ofthe two main forms of Buddhism known in the world tod ya,Tberaudda,which is regarded as the original orthodox Buddhism,'is followed in Ceylon, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, andChittagong in East Pakistan.Mahqyana,which developed relativelylater, is followed in other Buddhist countries like China, apanJjTibet, Mongolia, etc. There are certain differences, mainly witl/regard to some beliefs, practices and observances betweenthestx iiv i!III
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two schools, but on the most important teachings of the Buddha,such as those discussed here,TberauddaandMahqyal1aare unani-mously agreed.It only remains for me now to express my sense of gratitude to'Professor E. F.C.Ludowyk, who in fact invited me to write thisbook, for all the help given me, the interest taken in it, the sugges-tions he offered, and for reading through the manuscript. ToMiss Marianne Mohn too, who went through the manuscript andmade valuable suggestions, I am deeply grateful. Finally I amgreatly beholden to Professor Paul Demieville, my teacher inParis, for his kindness in writing the Foreword.W.RAHULAParisJuryI9J3xx
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ContentsPageListofIllustrationsForewordPrefaceTheBuddhaxxviiiCHAPTERIThe Buddhist Attitude of MindMan is supreme-One is one's reff.lge-Responsibifity-Doubt-Freedomof Thought-Tolerance-Is BuddhismReligionor Philo-sophy?-Truth has no label-No blindfaith or belief, but seeingand understanding-No attachmentevento Truth-Parableoftheraft-Imaginary speculationsuseless-Practicalattitude-Parableof thewoundedmanTHE FOURNOBLETRUTHSCHAPTERIIThe First Noble Truth:DukkhaBuddhismneitherpessimisticnoroptimistic}but realistic-Meaningof 'Dukkha'-Threeaspects of experience-Three aspects of'Dtlkkha'-Whatis a 'being'?-Five Aggregates-No spiritopposedto matter-Flux-Thinkerand Thought-Has life abeginning?..CHAPTERIIIThe Second Noble Truth:Samudqya:'The Arising ofDukkha'-Definition-Four Nutriments-Root causeof sufferingandconti-nuity-Natureof arising and cessation-Karma and Rebirth-What is death?-What is rebirth?CHAPTERIVThe Third Noble Truth:Nirodha:'The Cessation ofDukkha'-What is NirvaIJa?-LanguageandAbsolute Truth-Definitions ofNirvaIJa-Nirva!1a not negative-NirvaIJaas Absolute Truth-What is Absolute Truth?-Truth is not negative-NirvaIJaandSaf!1sara-NirvaIJanot a result-What is thereafter NirvaIJa?-Incorrectexpressions-What happensto an Arahant after death?-If noSelf, whorealizesNirvaIJa?-NirvaIJain this lifeCHAPTERVThe Fourth Noble Truth:Magga:'The Path'MiddlePath orNobleEightfoldPath-Compassionand Wisdom-Ethical Conduct-Mental Discipline-Wisdom-Twosorts ofUnderstanding-FourFunctionsregardingthe Four Noble Truths45xxiixiix viI49I35
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To ManiSabbadanarp, dhammadanarp, jinati'The gift ot Truth excels all other gifts'xxvir
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The BuddhaThe Buddha, whose personal name was Siddhattha (Siddhartha inSanskrit), and family name Gotama (Skt. Gautama), lived inNorth India in the 6th century B.C. His father, Suddhodana, wasthe ruler of the kingdom of the Sakyas(inmodern Nepal). Hismother was queen Maya. According to the custom of the time,he was married quite young, at the age of sixteen, to a beautifuland devoted young princess named Yasodhara, The young princelived in his palace with every luxury at his command. But all of asudden, confronted with the reality of life and the sufferingofmankind, he decided to find the solution-theway out of thisuniversal suffering. At the age of 29, soon after the birth of hisonly child, Rahula, he left his kingdom and became an asceticin search of this solution.For six years the ascetic Gotama wandered about the valle ofythe Ganges, meeting famous religious teachers, studying andfollowing their systems and methods, and submitting himself torigorousascetic practices.They did not satisfy him.So heabandoned all traditional religions and their methods and wenthis own way.Itwas thus that one evening, seated under a tree(since then known as the Bodhi- or Bo-tree, 'the Tree of Wisdom'),on the bank of the river Neranjara at Buddha-Ga a (near Gayayin modern Bihar), at the age of35,Gotama attained Enlightenment,after which he was known as the Buddha, 'The Enlightened One'.After his Enlightenment,Gotama the Buddha delivered hisfirst sermon to a group of five ascetics, his old colleagues,intheDeer Park at Isipatana (modern Sarnath) near Benares. From thatday, for45years, he taught all classes of men and women-k ngsiand peasants, Brahmins and outcasts, bankers and beggars, holymen and rob bers-withoutmakingthe slightestdistin ionctbetween them. He recognized no differences of caste or socialgroupings,and the Way he preached was open to all men andwomen who were ready to understand and to follow it.xxvi ii
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At the age of80,the Buddha passed away at Kusinara(inmodern Uttar Pradesh in India).Today Buddhism is foundinCeylon, Burma, Thailand,Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Tibet, China, Japan, Mongolia,Korea, Formosa,insome parts of India, Pakistan and Nepal, andalsointhe Soviet Union. The Buddhist population of the worldis over500million.xxx
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CHAPTERITHEBUDDHISTATTITUDEOF MINDAmong the founders of religions the Buddha (if we are permittedto call him the founder of a religion in the popular sense of theterm) was the only teacher who did not claim to be other than ahuman being, pure and simple. Other teachers were either God,or his incarnations in different forms, or inspired by him. TheBuddha was not only a human being; he claimed no inspirationfrom any god or external power either. He attributed all hisrealization, attainments and achievements to human endeavourand human intelligence. A man and only a man can become aBuddha. Every man has within himself the potentiality of becom-ing a Buddha,ifhe so wills it and endeavours. We can calltheBuddha a manpar excellence.He was so perfect in his 'human-ness'that he came to be regarded later in popular religion almost as'super-human' .Man's position, according to Buddhism, is supreme. Man is hisown master, and there is no higher being or power that sitsinjudgment over his destiny.'One is one's own refuge, who else could be the refuge?'lsaidthe Buddha. He admonished his disciples to 'be a refuge to them-selves', and never to seek refuge in or help from anybodyelse.sHe taught, encouraged and stimulated each person to develophimself and to work out his own emancipation, for man has thepower to liberate himself from all bondage through his ownpersonal effort and intelligence. The Buddha says: 'You shou d dolyour work, for the Tathagatass only teach the way.'4 If the Buddhais to be called a 'saviour' at all, it is only in the sense that helDhp. XII4.2DII (Colombo,1929),p.62(Mahoparinibbona-sutta).3Ta/hogatalit. means 'One who has come to Truth', i.e., 'One who has discoveredTruth'. This is the term usually used by the Buddha referring to himself and to theBuddhas in general.4Dhp XX.4.I
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discovered and showed the Path to Liberation, Nirvana. Butwemust tread the Path ourselves.It is on this principle of individual respon ib lity that thes iBuddha allows freedom to his disciples. In theMahaparinibbana-suttathe Buddha says th t he never thought of controlling theaSan hag(Order of Monks)1,nor did he want theSan aghto dependon him. He said that there was no esoteric doctrine in his teaching,nothing hidden in the 'closed-fist of the teacher'(acarrya-mu!!hi),orto put it in other words there never was anything 'up his sleeve'.»,The freedom of thought allowed by the Buddha is unheard of.elsewhere in the history of religions. This freedom is nece sarysbecause, according to the Buddha, man's emancipation dep ndseon his own realization of Truth, and not on the benevolent graceofa god or any external power as a reward for his obedient goodbehaviour.The Buddha once visited a small town called Kesaputta in the.kingdom of Kosala. The inhabitants of this town were known bythe common name Kalama. When they heard that the Buddhawasin their town, the Kalamas paid him a visit, and told him:'Sir, there are some recluses and brahmanas who visit K esaputta..They explain and illumine only their own doctrines, and despise,condemn and spurn others' doctrines. Then come other reclusesand brahmanas, and they,too,in their turn, explain and illumineonly their own doctrines, and despise, condemn and spurn ot ers'hdoctrines. But, for us, Sir, we have always doubt and perplexityas to who among these venerable recluses and brahmanas spokethe truth, and who spoke falsehood.'Then the Buddha gave them this advice, unique in the historyof religions:'Yes, Kalamas, itisproper that you have doubt, that you haveperplexity, for a doubt has arisen in a matter which is doubtful.Now, look you Kalamas, do not be led by reports, or tradition,or hearsay. Be not led by the authority of religious texts, nor bymere logic or inference, nor by considering appearances, nor bythe delight in speculative opinions, nor by seeming possibilities,lSangbalit. means 'Community'. But in Buddhism this term denotes 'The Com-munity of Buddhist monks' which is the Order of Monks. Buddha,Dbamma(Teaching) andSangba(Order) are known asTisarana'Three Refuges' orTi atanar(SanskritTriralna)'Triple Gem'-.2DII (Colombo,1929),p .62.z
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nor by the idea: 'this is our teacher'. But, 0 Kalamas, whenyou know for yourselves that certain things are unwholesome(akusala),and wrong, and bad,then give them up ... And whenyou know for yourselves that certain things are wholesome(kusala)and good, then accept them and follow them.'!The Buddha went even further. He told the bhikkhus that adisciple should examine even the Tathagata (Buddha) himself, sothat he (the disciple) might be fully convinced of the true value ofthe teacher whom he followed.2According to the Buddha's teaching, doubt(vicikiccha)is oneof the five Hindrances(nivara1Ja)3to the clear understandingof Truth and to spiritual progress (or for that matter to anyprogress). Doubt, however, is not a 'sin', because there are noarticles of faith in Buddhism. In fact there is no 'sin' in Buddhism,as sin is understood in some religions. The root of all evil isignorance(avijja)and false views(micchiidit!hi).Itis an undeniablefact that as long asthere is doubt, perplexity, wavering, no progressis possible. It is also equally undeniable that there must be doubtas long as one does not understand or see clearly. But in order toprogress further it is absolutely necessary to get rid of doubt. Toget rid of doubt one has to see clearly.There is no point in saying that one should not doubt o onershould believe. Just to say'1believe' does not mean that you under-stand and see. When a student works on a mathematical problem,he comes to a stage beyond which he does not know how toproceed, and where he is in doubt and perplexity. As long as hehas this doubt, he cannot proceed. If he wants to proceed, hemust resolve this doubt. And there are ways of resolving thatdoubt. Just to say '1 believe', or '1 do not doubt' will certain y notl'solve the problem. To force oneself to believe and to accept athing without understanding is political, and not spiritual orintellectual.The Buddha was always eager to dispel doubt. Even just a fewminutes before his death, he requested his disciples several times'to ask himifthey had any doubts about his teaching, and not tolA (Colombo, 1929), p. II5.2'Vtmamsaea-stata,no. 47 of M.3The Five Hindrances are:(1)Sensuous Lust,(2)Ill-will,(3)Physical and mentaltorpor and languor, (4) Restlessness and Worry, (5) Doubt.3
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feel sorry later that they could not clear those doubts. Butthedisciples there silent. What he said then was touching:'If it isthrough respect for the Teacher that you do not ask anything, leteven one of you inform his friend' (i.e., let one tell his friend sothat the latter may ask the question on the other's behalfj.!Not only the freedom of thought, but also the tolerance allowedby the Buddha is astonishing to the student of the history ofreligions. Once in Nalanda a prominent and wealthy householdernamed Upali, a well-known lay disciple of Nigantha Nataputta(Jaina Mahavira), was expressly sent by Mahavira himself to meetthe Buddha and defeat him in argument on certain points in thetheory of Karma, because the Buddha's views on the subject weredifferent from those of Mahavira, Quite contrary to expectations,2Upali, at the end of the discussion, was convinced that the viewsof the Buddha were right and those of his master were wrong. Sohe begged the Buddha to accept him as one of his lay disciples(Uposaka).But the Buddha asked him to reconsider it, and not tobe in a hurry, for 'considering carefully is good for well-knownmen like you'. When Upali expressed his desire again, the Buddharequested him to continue to respect and support his old religiousteachers as he used to.3In the third century B.C., the great Buddhist Emperor Asokaof India, following this noble example of tolerance and under-standing, honoured and supported all other religions in his vastempire. In one of his Edicts carved on rock, the original of whichone may read even today, the Emperor declared:'One should not honour only one's own religion and condemnthe religions of others, but one should honour others' religions forthis or that reason. So doing, one helps one's own religion togrow and renders service to the religions of others too. In actingotherwise one digs the grave of one's own religion and also doesharm to other religions. Whosoever honours his own religion andcondemns other religions, does so indeed through devotion to hisown religion, thinking \"I will glorify my own religion\". But onthe contrary, in so doing he injures his own religion more gravely.IDII (Colombo,1929),p.95;A (Colombo,1929),p.239.2Mahiivira, founder of Jainism, was a contemporary of the Buddha, and wasprobably a few years older than the Buddha.3Upali-sulta,no.56of M.4//
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5So concord is good: Let all listen, and be willing to listen tothedoctrines professed byothers\"!We should add here that this spirit of sympathetic understandingshould be applied today not only in the matter of religious doc-trine, but elsewhere as well.This spirit of tolerance and understanding has been fromthebeginning one of the most cherished ideals of Buddhist culture andcivilization. That is why there is not a single example of persecu-tion or the shedding of a drop of blood in converting people to. .Buddhism, or in its propagation during its long history of2500years. It spread peacefully all over the continent of Asia, havingmore than500million adherents today. Violence in any form,under any pretext whatsoever, is absolutely against the teaching of.the Buddha.The question has often been asked: Is Buddhism a religion or aphilosophy?Itdoes not matter what you call it. Buddhism re-mains what it is whatever label you may put on it. The label is'immaterial. Even the label 'Buddhism' which we give totheteaching of the Buddha is of little importance. The name one givesit is inessential.What's in a name? That which we call a rose,By any other name would smell as sweet.In the same way Truth needs no label: it is neither Buddhist,Christian, Hindu nor Moslem. It is not the monopoly of anybody.Sectarian labels are a hindrance to the independent understandingof Truth, and they produce harmful prejudices in men's minds.This is true not only in intellectual and spiritual matters, butalso in human relations. When, for instance, we meet a man, wedo not look on him as a human being, but we put a label on him,such as English, French, German, American, or Jew, and regardhim with all the prejudices associated with that label in our \"mind.Yet he may be completely free from those attributes which wehave put on him.People are so fond of discriminative labels that they even goto the length of putting them on human qualities and emotionscommon to all. So they talk of different 'brands' of charity, as forexample, of Buddhist charity or Christian charity, and look downlRock Edict, XII.
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upon other 'brands' of charity. But charity cannot be sectarian;,it is neither Christian, Buddhist, Hindu nor Moslem. The love of'a mother for her child is neither Buddhist nor Christian: it ismother love. Human qualities and emotions like love, ch rity,acompassion, tolerance, patience, friendship, desire, hatred, ill-will,ignorance, conceit, etc., need no sectarian labels; they belong tono particular religions.To the seeker after Truth it is immaterial from where an ideacomes. The source and development of an idea is a matter for theacademic. In fact, in order to understand Truth, it is not nece saryseven to know whether the teaching comes from the Buddha, orfrom anyone else. What is essential is seeing the thing, under-Istanding it. There is an important story in theMqiJhima-n kqyai'I(suttano.140)which illustrates this.'IThe Buddha once spent a ni ht in a potter's shed. In the samegshed there was a young recluse who had arrived there earlier.\"They did not know each other. The Buddha observed therecluse, and thought to himself: 'Pleasant are the ways of thisyoung man.Itwould be good if I should ask about him'. So theBuddha asked him: '0bhikkhu.sin whose name have you lefthome? Or who is your master? Or whose doctrine do you like?''0 friend,' answered the young man, 'there is the recluseGotama, a Sakyan scion, who left the Sakya-familyto become arecluse. There is high repute abroad of him that he is an Arahant,a Fully-Enlightened One. In the name of that Blessed One I have: l ibecome a recluse. He is my Master, and I like his doctrine'.'I'Where does that Blessed One, the Arahant, the Fully-Enlight-ened One live at the present time?', I'In the countries to the north, friend, there is a city calledlIn India potters' sheds a e spac ous, and qu et. References are made in the Paliriitexts to ascetics and recluses, as well as to the Buddha himself spending a night in a,Ipotter's shed during their wanderings.' I2It is interesting to note here that the Buddha addresses this recluse asB ikkhu,hwhich term is used for Buddhist monks. In the sequel it will be seen that he was not a,Ibhikkhu, not a member of the Order of the Sangha, for he asked the Buddha toadmit him into the Order Perhaps n the da s of the Buddha the term 'bhikkhu' was.iyused at times even for other ascet cs ind scriminately, or the Buddha was not veriiystrict in the use of the term. Bhikkhu means 'mendicant' 'one who begs food', and,perhaps it was used here in its literal and original sense. But today the term 'bhikkhu'is used only of Buddhist monks, especially in Theravada countries like Ceylon,Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, and in Ch ttagong.i6:!
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7Savatthi.Itis there that that Blessed One, the Arahant, the Fully-Enlightened One, is now living.''Have you ever seen him, that Blessed One? Would you recog-nize him if you saw him ?''I have never seen that Blessed One. Nor should I recozn ......'\",, ·him if I saw him.'The Buddha realized that it was in his name that thisyoung man had left home and become a recluse. But withoutdivulging his own identity, he said: '0 bhikkhu, I will teach youthe doctrine. Listen and pay attention. I will speak.''Very well, friend, s id the young man in assent.'a0Then the Buddha delivered to this young man a most remark-able discourse explaining Truth (the gist of which is given later).1Itwas only at the end of the discourse that this young recluse,whose name was Pukkusati, realized that the person whospoketo him was the Buddha himself. So he got up, went before theBuddha, bowed down at the feet of the Master, and apolo izedgto him for calling him 'friend'2 unknowingly. He then begged theBuddha to ordain him and admit him into theOrderof theSangha.The Buddha asked him whether he had the alms-bowl and therobes ready. (A bhikkhu must have three robes and the alms-bowlfor begging food.) When Pukkusati replied in the negative, theBuddha said that the Tathagatas would not ordain a person unlessthe alms-bowl and the robes were ready. So Pukkusati went out insearch of an alms-bowl and robes but was unfortunately sa aged,vby a cow and died.sLater, when this sad news reached the Buddha, he announcedthat Pukkusati was a wise man, who had already seen Truth, andlIn the chapter on the third Noble Truth, see p. 8.32The term used isAVlIsowhich m ans f end. It is a respectful term of. ddresseriaamong equals. But disciples never used this term addressing th Buddha. Instead theyeuse the termBhantewhich app o imately means 'Sir' or 'Lordr x'.At the timeof theBuddha, the members of his Order of Monks Sangha) addressed one(a on ther asAvtlso'Friend'. But before his death the Buddha instructed younger monks to ddressatheir elders asBbante'Sir' orA) asmd''Venerable'. But elders should add ess theryounger members by name, or as.Avuso'Friend'.(D II Colombo,19 9,2p. 95)·This practice is continued up to the present day in the Sangha.3It is well-known that cows in Ind a roam about the streets. From th siiit seems that the tradition is very old. But generally these cows are docile andsavage or dangerous.
·attained the penultimate stage in the realization of Nirvana,that he was born in a realm where he would become anand finally pass away, never to return to this world again2•From this story it is quite clear that when Pukkusati listenedthe Buddha and understood his teaching, he did not knowwas speaking to him; or whose teaching it was. He saw TIf the medicine is good, the disease will be cured.Itis not11,,'''''';:'~a1sary to know who prepared it, or where it came from.Almost all religions are built on faith-rather'blind' faithwould seem. But in Buddhismemphasis is laid on 'seeing';knowing, understanding,and not on faith, or belief. In Btexts there is a wordsaddhii(Skt.fraddhii)which is ustranslated as 'faith' or 'belief'. Butsaddbdis not 'faith' as such,rather 'confidence' born out of conviction. In popular BUQQIlLSIIll<land also in ordinary usage in the texts the wordsaddhii,it must beadmitted, has an element of 'faith' in the sense that it ..devotion to the Buddha, theDbamma(Teaching) and the(The Order).According to Asanga, the great Buddhist philosopherof the4th century A.C.,fraddhiihas three aspects: (1) full and firmconviction that a thing is, (2) serene joy at good qualities, and (3)aspiration or wish to achieve an object in view.sHowever you put it, faith or belief as understoodby mostreligions has little to do with Buddhism.4The question of belief arises when there is no seeing-seeingin every sense of the word. The moment you see, the question of.belief disappears. If I tell you that I have a gem hidden in the.folded palm of my hand, the question of belief arises becauseyou81 An.Arabantis a person who has liberated himself from all defilements and impuri-ties such as desire, hatred, ill-will, ignorance, pride, conceit, etc. He has attained thefourth or the highest and ultimate stage in the realization of N rvana, and is full ofiwisdom, compassion and such pure and noble qualities. Pukkusati had attained at themoment only the third stage which is technically calledAmigiimi'Never-Re urner'.tThe second stage is calledSakadiigiimi'Once-Returner'and the first stage i calledsSotiipanna'Stream-Entrant'.2Karl Gjellerup'sThe Pilgrim Kamanitaseems to have been inspired by th s storyiof Pukkusati,3Abhisamuc, p.6.4The Role of the Miracle in Early PaN Literatureby EdithLudowyk-Gyornroitakesup this subject. UnfortunatelythisPh.D.thesis is not yet published. On the sameIsubject see an article by the same author in the University of Ceylon Review, Vol.I,NO.1 (April, 1943), p. 74ff.
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