Paper-1, Booklet-2, Society And Culture

WAY FORWARD The forums like World Tribals Day have to be used as platform for intellectual debates, discussions, policy advises, vision and resolutions. There is a need to take up massive awareness creation activities among the tribal to make them realise their development potential. Area based approach should be adopted to create infrastructure and road connectivity. Effective monitoring of the funds meant for various tribal development activities is necessary. Comprehensive skill development programs customised to the local tribal markets and local consumers have assured future for the tribal youth. Informal education through village institutions and Self Help Groups need to be intensified in the tribal areas by focused approach. The entrepreneurship programmes have to be designed in such a way to adapt for the primitive skills of the tribals. Recent events like eviction of tribals from forest land without appeal provisions take back the government‟s promise of promoting tribal development and inclusion in the mainstream. To achieve the Conatitutional objectives, we must take steps to protect the unique tribal culture and at the same time, promote their development. 51

SCHEDULED CASTES Scheduled castes are those castes/races in the country that suffer from extreme social, educational and economic backwardness arising out of age-old practice of untouchability and certain others on account of lack of infrastructure facilities and geographical isolation, and who need special consideration for safeguarding their interests and for their accelerated socio-economic development. These communities were notified as Scheduled Castes as per provisions contained in Clause 1 of Article 341 of the Constitution. CONSTITUTIONAL MECHANISM FOR UPLIFTMENT OF SC The deep concern of the framers of the Constitution for the uplift of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes is reflected in the elaborate constitutional mechanism set-up for their uplift.  Article 17 abolishes Untouchability.  Article 46 requires the State „to promote with special care the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people, and, in particular, of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, and to protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation.  Article 335 provides that the claims of the members of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes shall be taken into consideration, consistently with the maintenance of efficiency of administration, in the making of appointments to services and posts in connection with the affairs of the Union or of a State.  Article 15(4) refers to the special provisions for their advancement.  Article 16(4A) speaks of “reservation in matters of promotion to any class or classes of posts in the services under the State in favour of SCs/STs, which are not adequately represented in the services under the State‟.  Article 338 provides for a National Commission for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes with duties to investigate and monitor all matters relating to safeguards provided for them, to inquire into specific complaints and to participate and advise on the planning process of their socio-economic development etc. 52

 Article 330 and Article 332 of the Constitution respectively provide for reservation of seats in favour of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes in the House of the People and in the legislative assemblies of the States. Under Part IX relating to the Panchayats and Part IXA of the Constitution relating to the Municipalities, reservation for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in local bodies has been envisaged and provided. The Constitution of India has prescribed, protection and safeguards for the Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs) and other weaker sections; either specially or the way of insisting on their general rights as citizens; with the object of promoting their educational and economic interests and removing social disabilities. These social groups have also been provided institutionalized commitments through the statutory body, the National Commission of SCs. The Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment is the nodal Ministry to oversee the interests of the Scheduled Castes. GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES EDUCATIONAL Various scholarships are provided to the students belonging to the Scheduled Castes (SCs) to ensure that education is not denied due to the poor financial condition of their families. These Scholarships are provided at both pre-matric and post-matric levels. Scholarships are also provided to SC students for obtaining higher education in India and abroad, including premier educational institutions. ECONOMIC  National Scheduled Castes Finance and Development Corporation (NSFDC): Set up under the Ministry, to finance income generating activities of Scheduled Caste beneficiaries living below double the poverty line by way of refinancing loans, skill training, Entrepreneurship Development Programmes and providing marketing support through State Channelizing Agencies, RRBs, Public Sector Bank and Other Institutions.  National Safai Karamcharis Finance and Development Corporation (NSKFDC): It is another corporation under the Ministry which provides credit facilities to beneficiaries amongst Safai Karamcharis, manual scavengers and their dependants for income generating activities for socio-economic development through State Channelizing Agencies  Special Central Assistance (SCA) to Scheduled Castes Sub-Plan 53

SOCIAL (SCSP): It is a policy initiative for development of Scheduled Castes in which 100 % assistance is given as an additive to SCSP of the States/ UTs on the basis of certain criteria such as SC population of the States/UTs, relative backwardness of States/UTs, percentage of SC families in the States/ UTs covered by composite economic development programmes in the State Plan to enable them to cross the poverty line, etc.  Venture Capital Fund for Scheduled Castes: The objective of the fund is to promote entrepreneurship amongst the Scheduled Castes who are oriented towards innovation and growth technologies and to provide concessional finance to the scheduled caste entrepreneurs.  Credit Enhancement Guarantee Scheme for Scheduled Castes: The objective of this Scheme is to provide credit guarantee facility to Young and start-up entrepreneurs, belonging to Scheduled Castes, who aspire to be part of neo middle class category, with an objective to encourage entrepreneurship in the lower strata of the Society resulting in job creation besides creating confidence in Scheduled Castes.  Stand-up India for promotion of startup funding for aspiring SC people.  The Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955: In pursuance of Article 17 of the Constitution of India, the Untouchability (Offences) Act, 1955 was enacted and notified on 08.05.1955. Subsequently, it was amended and renamed in the year 1976 as the \"Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955. The Act extends to the whole of India and provides punishment for the practice of untouchability. It is implemented by the respective State Governments and Union Territory Administrations.  Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989: Assistance is provided to States/ UTs for implementation of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989. Financial assistance is provided to the States/ UTs for implementation of these Acts, by way of relief to atrocity victims, incentive for inter-caste marriages, awareness generation, setting up of exclusive Special courts, etc.  The „Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013‟ (MS Act, 2013): Eradication of dry latrines 54

OTHERS and manual scavenging and rehabilitation of manual scavengers in alternative occupation has been an area of high priority for the Government. Towards this end, a multi-pronged strategy was followed, consisting of the following legislative as well as programmatic interventions: 1. Enactment of “Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act, 1993(1993 Act);” 2. Integrated Low Cost Sanitation (ILCS) Scheme for conversion of dry latrines into sanitary latrines in urban areas; and 3. Launching of National Scheme for Liberation and Rehabilitation of Scavengers (NSLRS). 4. Self Employment Scheme for Rehabilitation of Manual Scavengers. In spite of the above measures taken by the Government, manual scavenging continued to exist which became evident with the release of 2011 Census data indicating existence of more than 26 lakhs insanitary latrines in the country. Therefore, Government decided to enact another law to cover all types of insanitary latrines and situations which give occasion for manual scavenging. The „Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013‟ (MS Act, 2013) was passed by the Parliament in September, 2013 and has come into force from 6th December, 2013. This Act intends to, inter alia, achieve its objectives to: 1. Identify and eliminate the insanitary latrines. 2. Prohibit:- i) Employment as Manual Scavengers and ii) Hazardous manual cleaning of sewer and septic tanks 3. Identify and rehabilitate the manual scavengers.  Babu Jagjivan Ram Chhatrawas Yojna: The primary objective of the Scheme is to attract implementing agencies for undertaking hostel construction programme with a view to provide hostel facilities to SC boys and girls studying in middle schools, higher secondary schools, 55

colleges and universities.  Dr. Ambedkar Foundation: Dr. Ambedkar Foundation was set up on 24th March 1992, as a registered body, under the Registration of Societies Act, 1860, under the aegis of the Ministry of Welfare, Government of India. The primary object of setting up of the Foundation is to promote Dr. Ambedkar‟s ideology and philosophy and also to administer some of the schemes which emanated from the Centenary Celebration Committee‟s recommendations.  Babu Jagjivan Ram National Foundation: The Babu Jagjivan Ram National Foundation was established by the Government of India as an autonomous organization under the Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment and registered under The Societies Registration Act, 1860 on 14th March 2008. The main aim of the Foundation is to propagate the ideals of the late Babu Jagjivan Ram, on social reform as well as his ideology, philosophy of life, mission and vision to create a casteless and classless society. CONCLUSION Several years of neglect and discrimination have led to the backwardness of scheduled castes in India. Even the reservation benefit, which was meant to be temporary in nature, has become a permanent part of the Constitution and infact, caused further divisions among the SCs, calling for sub-categorisation among them. If we really want to uplift all sections of the society and build an inclusive homogenous development for all, we must work on attitude change alongwith economic and legal factors. Even today, not only in rural areas, manual scavenging and discrimination is prevalent, several cases are registered under SC/ST Atrocities Act, and the like. For real empowerment, we must work on providing skills and self-employment opportunities, and at the same time ensure no misuse of beneficial provisions by them. 56

DIFFERENTLY ABLED One of the largest minority groups in India, who have suffered long years of neglect, deprivation, segregation and exclusion are persons with disability (PwD). In India, disabled persons are still oppressed, marginalized and denied the opportunity for full citizenship and participation, and from living a reasonable quality of life because of society‟s persistent stereotypical and prejudiced perception of them as inferior, incapable, inadequate, and a burden on the family resources and society. As per Census 2011, the number of persons with Disabilities in India is 268.14 lakhs constituting 2.21 per cent of the total population. The changing focus among professionals in the field of disability rehabilitation today is on the rights of disabled persons, equalization of opportunities and their integration in mainstream society. It has now been officially recognised that people with disabilities are human beings with all the economic, emotional, physical, intellectual, spiritual, social and political needs that other people have. Though we have come a long way, we still have much to do to ensure an inclusive barrier-free and rights based society for persons with disabilities through empowering them. CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS FOR DIFFERENTLY ABLED Article 41 of the Indian Constitution speaks of State‟s responsibility to provide social security to citizens of this country. It states that the State shall, within the limits of its economic capacity and development, make effective provisions for securing the right to work, to education, and to public assistance in cases of unemployment, old age, sickness and disablement. ACT/ LEGAL PROVISIONS Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 has provision of preventive social security measures such as pre-natal and post-natal care for the mother and child, mentions unemployment allowance and insurance, and supports the rights of disabled people and so on. Key features of the Act are- • Reservation in vacancies in government establishments has been increased from 3% to 4% for certain persons or class of persons with benchmark disability. • Every child with benchmark disability between the age group of 6 and 18 years shall have the right to free education. • District level committees will be constituted by the State Governments to address local concerns 57

of PwDs (persons with disabilities). • Special Courts will be designated in each district to handle cases concerning violation of rights of PwDs. • Broad-based Central & State Advisory Boards on Disability are to be set up to serve as apex policy-making bodies at the Central and State level. • The Act says that any person who “intentionally insults or intimidates with intent to humiliate a person with a disability in any place within public view” is punishable with imprisonment. OTHER SCHEMES TAX Persons with disabilities and their legal guardians are eligible for income tax EDUCATION deduction.  Provided 5% reservation in government and government aided educational institutions.  Financial assistance is provided for procuring computer for students with visual impairment/ hearing impairment for pursuing graduation and post-graduation.  National Scholarship for students with disabilities. Criteria: 40% disability and family monthly income should not exceed 15000 rupees.  Comprehensive Education Scheme for Disabled Children: The scheme provides for accessible and barrier free built-in-infrastructure and transport facilities, supply of books, special learning aids and scholarships for students with disabilities.  Extra time in examinations for disabled students, exemption from third language and modification of curriculum for inclusive education.  Rajiv Gandhi Fellowship Scheme: Provides scholarships to persons with disabilities to pursue higher education such as M Phil/ Ph D for five years. Cover all universities and institutions under UGC (University Grant 58

Commission). EMPLOYMENT  Government has reserved 4% posts in Group A, B, C and D positions in government PSUs, PSBs and services for persons with disabilities. Persons with disabilities are given age relaxation for recruitment in government positions.  Government has established special employment exchanges and special employment cells for recruitments to government posts reserved for persons with disabilities.  In private sector, the government provides incentives to employers for employment of persons with disabilities. For instance, the government pays the employer‟s contribution of the disabled employee‟s provident fund.  Under the „Scheme for Public Sector Banks for Orphanages, Women‟s Homes and Physically Handicapped Persons‟, the benefits of the differential rate of interest are available to physically disabled persons as well as institutions working for the welfare of the disabled people. AIDS AND  ADIP Scheme – The main objective of the scheme is to assist needy APPLIANCES persons with disabilities in procuring durable sophisticated and scientifically manufactured aid and appliances that can promote their physical, social and psychological rehabilitation. OTHERS  Indira AwaasYojana - It is a centrally sponsored housing scheme for providing dwelling units free of cost to rural poor living below the poverty line at a unit coat of Rs.20,000 in plains and Rs.22,000 in the hill/difficult areas. Three percent of its funds are reserved for the benefit of disabled persons living below of the poverty line in rural areas. 59

 Scheme of National Awards for the Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities – In order to recognise their effort and encourage others to strive to achieve excellence in this field, separate awards are being presented to the most outstanding employees with disabilities, etc.  Trust Fund for the empowerment of persons with disabilities – An excess of Rs.723.79 crores annually from the borrowers through rounding off in collection of interest tax, should be transfer to Trust Fund which would be use for the welfare of the disabled people.  Inclusive India Initiative – A conference for the persons with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDDs). • It aims to include these people in the mainstream and in all-important aspects of social life. • Namely three core focus areas: Inclusive Education, Inclusive Employment and Inclusive Community Life. • It is an initiative of National Trust. • National Trust is a statutory body of the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment. It was envisaged with core mission of providing opportunities for capacity development of Persons with Disabilities and their families, fulfilling their rights and promoting an inclusive society. 60

CONCLUSION In India, the numbers of disabled are so large, their problems are complex, available resources also scarce, social stigma still attached and people attitudes so damaging. Attitudinal barriers engrained as part of India‟s historical response to disability must be changed through education programs for both teachers and the general populace. These programs require financial and collaborative commitment from key national and state education stakeholders, and partnership with universities to support research-based initiatives. It is only legislation which can eventually bring about a substantial change in a uniform manner. Although legislation cannot alone radically change the fabric of a society in a short span of time, it can nevertheless, increase accessibility of the disabled to education and employment, to public buildings and shopping centres, to means of transport and communication. Therefore, in country like India mainstreaming of these people is challenging issue. For achieving this task it‟s necessary to change public attitudes, remove social stigma, provide barrier free environment, needs reformation in the area of policy and institutional level. 61

CULTURE 62

ARCHITECTURE The history of India has been rich and diverse spanning across thousands of years. In these years the social and cultural life of India has undergone various changes. The Indian architecture and sculptures are the living expression of these changes in the Indian society throughout history. These architecture and sculptures bear the imprint of the various eras in the history of India such as the Indus Valley Civilization, the rise of Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism, Delhi Sultanate, Mughal Empire and the colonial history of India. Each of these eras in Indian history brought with it the diversity in Indian architecture and sculptures that we see today. ROCK-CUT ARCHITECTURE The exercise of creating a structure by carving it out of the natural rock is known as Rock-cut architecture. In this, the rock that is not part of the structure is removed until the desired structure is obtained. Compared to any other form of rock architecture in the world, Indian rock-cut architecture is more diverse and found in greater abundance (more than 1,500 rock cut structures in India). Moreover, the religious character of Indian Rock-cut architecture is another feature to be noted. The Mauryans excelled in cave architecture and they are considered as the pioneers of rock-cut cave architecture. Early examples of rock-cut architecture in India include the Buddhist and Jain cave temples (Chaityas), monasteries (Viharas). In the early years, Jain temples were built adjoining the Buddhist sites following the Buddhist rock-cut style. Early cave sites, found in western India were used by Jain monks as places of worship and residence. Ellora, dating from the fifth century CE onwards to the eleventh century CE, is one such cave site located in Aurangabad District of Maharashtra. It is a unique historical site as it has monastries associated with the three religions (Buddhism, Brahmanism and Jainism). The remnants of the rock-cut cave architecture are also found in Odisha. The earliest examples are the Udaigiri-Khandagiri caves in the vicinity of Bhubaneswar. These caves have inscriptions of Kharavela kings. According to the inscriptions, the caves were meant for Jain monks. 63

3 PHASES OF ROCK-CUT CAVE ARCHITECTURE IN INDIA 1st phase (2nd B.C. to 2nd Century A.D.) In this phase the construction was exclusively related to Buddhism and Buddha was represented symbolically e.g. Lotus, Wheel etc. The examples of this phase include Ajanta, Karla, Bhaja, Kanheri, Nasik, Bedsa caves. Here, timber was mostly used. 2nd phase (5th to 7th century A.D.) Buddha was personified and the plan of excavations-specially for chaitya remained the same as before but viharas underwent some changes like an image of Buddha was housed. By the 5th century, rock-cut cave temples continued to be built in parallel along with free-standing structural temples. Here, timber was replaced by stone. 3rd phase (7th to 10th century A.D.) The Buddhist architectural traditions were also extended by Hindus and Jains along with some modifications which were suitable for their rituals. It also included Jataka stories and mural paintings. NORTHERN ROCK-CUT SOUTHERN ROCK-CUT ARCHITECTURE ARCHITECTURE It started earlier i.e. in the first phase. It started later i.e. in the second phase. It mainly belongs to Buddhism. It is related to Buddhism, Jainism, Christianity and Hinduism. Northern areas have alluvial plains and thus it as It is called as natural rock cut architecture. artificial rock cut architecture. It is made of wood, leaves, trees and stones. It is made up of black igneous rocks. Two important parts of this architecture are Two important parts of this architecture are Chaitya and Vihara. Rathas and Mandapas. There are no sculptures present in this kind of There are sculptures present in this architecture. architecture because Buddha was worshiped as a symbol (lotus). Jewellery especially made of silver is used in this There is no use of jewellery in this architecture. architecture. There are Hindu motifs present instead of Buddha Jataka stories are painted as mural paintings. stories. 64

BUDDHIST INFLUENCE ON ROCK-CUT ARCHITECTURE Buddhism became the dominant religion in the 3rd to 2nd century B.C. Ashoka, the Mauryan King was the greatest patron of Buddist architecture. During his reign, several stupas and mounds of bricks commemorative of the Buddha were constructed. There were three characteristic forms of Buddhist architecture which developed around this period – the monumental funerary mound or Stupa, hall of worship or the Chaitya and the monastery or Vihara. Stupas The Stupas holds the most important place among all the earliest Buddhist architecture. They offer the earliest sculptural representations of important episodes in the Buddha‟s life and of the Jataka stories. A Stupa is a dome-shaped sacred burial mound of brick which was used to house Buddha‟s relics or to commemorate significant facts and events related to Buddhism. The earliest archaeological evidence for the presence of Buddhist stupas dates back to the late 4th century BCE. In India, Sanchi, Sarnath, Amaravati and Bharhut are among the oldest known stupas. 65

Chaitya Chaityas were places of worship for Buddhist and Jain Monks. It had a rectangular prayer hall with stupa placed at the centre of the hall. Entire Chaitya had three divisions – Central Chaitya and two aisles. Central Chaitya was separated from the two aisles by a row of pillars. Internal walls of Chaityas were polished and the ending of Chaitya was apsidal in shape. Structures like Chaitya were common in Jainism and Hinduism as well. However, many early examples of chaitya that survive in India belong to Buddhist rock-cut architecture. Some of the most beautiful Chaitya caves are those at Ajanta, Ellora, Bhaja, Karle, Bagh, Nasik and Kanheri etc. Vihara The Viharas or monasteries were excavated near Chaityas for the residence of monks in rainy seasons. The sculptors here depict various scenes from the life of the Buddha. An important point to note here is that Viharas, unlike Chaityas, did not have stupa. Viharas were constructed with brick or excavated from rocks. Usually built to a set plan, they have a hall meant for congregational prayer with an open courtyard surrounded by a row of cells and a pillared verandah in front. The hall has one or more entrances. The cells served as dwelling places for the monks. Each cell had a door and one or two stone platforms to serve as beds. Stambhas The tradition of constructing pillars is very old in India. A large number of stone pillars were erected during the Mauryan Empire with inscriptions engraved on them. The Mauryan pillars are rock- cut pillars thus displaying the carver‟s skills. The top portion of the pillar was carved with capital figures like the bull, the lion, the elephant, etc. Some of the existing pillars with capital figures were found at Basarah Bakhira, Lauriya-Nandangarh, Rampurva, Sankisa and Sarnath. 66

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JAINISM INFLUENCE ON ROCK-CUT ARCHITECTURE The art and architecture of the Jains have the main objective to maintain, preserve and glorify the culture extensively. Jain architecture especially their temple architecture is one of a kind in India. The great Jain temples and sculptured monuments of Karnataka, Maharashtra and Rajasthan are world-renowned. Jain temples at Ranakpur and Mount Abu in Rajasthan are among the most spectacular Jain temples. Excellent rock cut architecture can also be found in the caves of Mathura, Bundelkhand, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa. A number of rock-cut caves have been discovered in Udaigiri and Khandagiri, twin hills in Puri District of Orissa and in Ellora in Maharashtra. The majority of Jain temples in India consist of these core building elements: 1. Image chamber – Garbhagriha 2. Hall – Mandapa 3. Porch 4. A fourth element, referred to as Antarala, can also be seen lying between the image chamber and its hall. Antarala, a small vestibule is a space where worshippers can stand and gaze at the icon or follow rituals conducted within the shrine. Characteristic features of Jain architecture and places of worship, mostly rock-cut are:  Jain temples are noted for the use of rich materials like marble and ornamentation.  Domes or shikharas on the top are usually smaller than the ones found in Hindu temples. These multiple dome points, reaching toward the sky give a very distinct appearance to Jain temple cities.  Jain temples have numerous pillars having a well designed structure, forming a square. The squares thus formed create chambers or chapels which contains the image of a deity. These pillars and roofs of the temple are richly carved and well decorated.  Unlike Buddhist Viharas, the Jain viharas do not have the assembly or prayer hall surrounded by cells. The cells of Jain viharas are small and plain, designed to observe rigorous asceticism by Jain monks. The doorways are also small and one has to bend or crawl to enter a cell.  Jain temples were mostly built on platforms or terraces, commonly referred to as “Jagati” or “Vedi”. Even rock-cut cave temples have platforms. This was done to elevate the temple above the surrounding surface and create a distinct sacred area.  Jain temples are enclosed by free-standing high compound walls, called as Prakara. 68

 Structurally speaking, a Jain temple is constructed on a square plan with openings in four cardinal directions, each of which could lead to the image of a Tirthanakara. The Chamukh temple of Lord Adinath is a characteristic example of the four-door temple. 69

TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE Hindu temple architecture has many varieties of style, though the basic nature of the Hindu temple remains the same. Hindu temple architecture reflects a synthesis of arts, the ideals of dharma, beliefs, values and the way of life cherished under Hinduism. Influenced by early Buddhist structures such as the stupa, the first Hindu temples were built from rock-cut caves. Then, with the arrival of Gupta architecture in the 4th to 5th century CE, the first free-standing Hindu temples were constructed with features such as towers and projecting niches. The architectural principles of Hindu temples in India are described in Shilpa Shastra. Shilpa Shastra mentions three main type of temple architecture –  Nagara (in North India) is associated with the land between the Himalayas and Vindhyas.  Dravida (in South India) is associated with the land between the Krishna and Kaveri rivers.  Vesara style as an independent style was created as a hybrid of Nagara and Dravida styles. It is associated with the land between the Vindhyas and the river Krishna. 70

GENERAL FEATURES OF HINDU TEMPLES COMPARISON OF THE THREE STYLES NAGARA DRAVIDA VESARA Developed regionally – each Developed dynastically. Admixture of two styles – region manifesting its own Hybrid style. It was developed particular qualities. both regionally and dynastically. Curvilinear tower (Shikhara Pyramidical Tower (Vimana) The shape of tower was built over garbhagriha) with several stories in receding Pyramidical but height was gradually curving inward. dimension reduced (Miniature Vimanas) Multiple Shikharas. Subsidiary shrines are either Multiple shrines are present incorporated within the main side by side. temple tower, or located as distinct, separate small shrines beside the main temple. 71

Garbhagriha is generally At some of the most sacred ----- situated below the tallest tower temples in South India, the (Shikhara). main temple in which the garbhagriha is situated has, in fact, one of the smallest towers. Terracotta panels & figurine Sculptures of fierce dvarapalas ----- on exterior walls. were built at the front of the temple Squared hall Squared hall Squared hall Sanctum – Garbhagriha Sanctum – Garbhagriha Sanctum – Garbhagriha Gopurams are absent. Gopurams are present. Gopurams may or may not be present. A water tank may or may not A water tank is present at the A water tank may or may not be present. front of temple from where be present. water is drawn for sacred purposes. Compound walls are absent. Dravida temple is enclosed Compound walls may or may within a compound wall. not be present. Examples - Dashavatara temple Examples - Shore temple Examples - Badami temple, (Deogarh), Vishwanatha (Mahabalipuram), Brihadiswara Durga Temple (Aihole), temple(Khajuraho), Lakshman temple (Thanjavur), Meenakshi Virupaksh Temple (Pattadkal), Temple (Khajuraho), Jagannath Temple (Madurai) Keshava Temple (Somnathpur) temple (Puri) 72

INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE With Sultanate and Mughal rule a new stream of architecture was evolved in India which combined Saracenic, Persian and Turkish influences with prevailing sensibilities of Indian architectural and decorative forms. Thus, in the field of architecture, a mix of many structural techniques, stylised shapes, and surface decorations came about through constant interventions of acceptance, rejection or modification of architectural elements. These architectural entities or categories showcasing multiple styles are known as Indo-Saracenic or Indo-Islamic architecture. CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES  The Muslims were responsible for making extensive use of concrete and lime mortar as an important factor of construction and incidentally used lime as plaster and a base for decoration.  The walls in all buildings were extremely thick and were largely constructed of rubble masonry, which was easily available.  An amazing range of stones was utilised for construction such as quartzite, sandstone, buff, marble, etc.  The most important factor in respect of Indo-Islamic structures was ornamental decoration. As among the Muslims, the representation of living beings was taboo by way of decoration or ornamentation, they introduced geometrical and arabesque patterns, ornamental writing and formal representation of plant and floral life.  These forms included designing on plaster through incision or stucco. The designs were either left plain or covered with colours.  Motifs were also painted on or carved in stone. These motifs included varieties of flowers, both from India and places outside, particularly Iran. The lotus bud fringe was used to great extent in the inner curves of the arches.  Sixteenth-century onwards the techniques of mosaic designs and pietra dura were made use of for decoration of the surface of the walls. At times lapis lazuli was used in the interior walls or on canopies - A rich blue semi-precious stone sometimes flecked with gold. The main source in the ancient world was the mountains of Badakshan, northern Afghanistan, from where it was traded widely. Lapis lazuli was used as inlay in ornaments, jewellery, seals, etc. 73

 Other decorations included arabesque, calligraphy and high and low relief carving and a profuse use of jalis. The high relief carving has a three-dimensional look.  The roof was a mix of the central dome and other smaller domes, chhatris and tiny minarets. The central dome was topped with an inverted lotus flower motif and a metal or stone pinnacle. 74

THE ARCHITECTURE OF DELHI SULTANATE The Delhi Sultanate was predominantly spread in and around Delhi in North India. The rule of the sultanate comprised of five successive dynasties Mamluk/Slave Dynasty, Khilji Dynasty, Tughlaq Dynasty, Sayyid Dynasty and Lodi Dynasty. During the rule of various Sultans, several politically significant Hindu temples located in enemy states were vandalised, damaged and desecrated and the development of Indo-Islamic architecture initiated. The Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque, built by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, founder of the Slave dynasty, was the first structure under Delhi Sultanate. Other remarkable structures of Sultanate include Qutub Minar, Alai Darwaza, Adhai din ka Jhonpra etc. Some of the unique features of architectural styles preferred by the Delhi Sultanate  The material used to build the structures was derived from the damaged temples.  They built magnificent palaces with decorated arches and domes.  Teachings from the Holy Quran and various floral patterns are also visible in the arches and walls.  Swastika, lotus, bells and other Hindu motifs were also widely used in the structures of the Sultanate thus giving them a grand and exquisite appearance. MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE With the advent of the Mughals, Indo-Muslim architecture got a blood transfusion. Mughal architecture is symbolic of synthesis of Persian architecture and Indian traditions. The first distinct example of proper Mughal architecture inspired by Persian architecture is the tomb of Humayun, in Delhi, built by his widow, Begha Begum. Some of the unique features of Mughal architectural styles:-  Mughal architecture is a happy blend of the Hindu and Islamic modes of construction and ornamentation.  A major aspect of Mughal architecture is the symmetrical nature of buildings and courtyards.  Another important aspect is building large domes, high walls and arches.  Pietra dura work was also popularised in India, by Mughals.  The conception of a garden tomb i.e. construction of garden around tombs was a unique feature of tomb construction in India, started by Mughals. 75

MODERN ARCHITECTURE The colonial architecture spanning about 150 to 200 years under the British Empire attained its golden age in the second half of the 19th century, representing an important phase in the modernization of the country, modification of a stark medieval lifestyle got to ultimately become a democratic one at the dawn of Independence in 1947. Colonial architecture in India manifests the penetration of colonial ideas/policies and their impact on local institutions, ways of life and building processes which created situations of confrontation between the foreign and indigenous values. CHARACTERISTICS OF COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE  The British viewed themselves as the successors to Mughals and used architectural style as a symbol of power.  The buildings they constructed in India were the direct reflection of their achievements in architecture back home.  The aim of colonial architecture under British rule was to build structures to house their people and their organisations to control Indian empire.  Under colonial architecture, new residential areas like Civil Lines and Cantonments came up in towns.  Colonial architectural style in British India witnessed another feature of rare usage of stone especially marble.  Later stone was replaced by brick as the prime material of British architectures in India, slate, machine-made tiles and steel girders came in vogue, galvanised iron revolutionised the Anglo-Indian roof. CHARACTERISTICS OF POST-INDEPENDENCE ARCHITECTURE  Today we see a traditional character in Indian architecture, but with modern form and style.  Buildings are less ornate and more utilitarian and expressive in form. 76

 Building materials used in construction are a basic and locally available but cutting edge. The use of steel and glass to erect innovative building forms is very popular and striking in the landscape.  Urban centres in India are booming, bringing along with it a rise in population and property demand.  High rise buildings have also become very common in these dense urban areas where space must be maximized.  Another modern characteristic in India is building of structures which are more responsive to its ecology and climate.  Also, many architects in India including Laurie Baker and Charles Correa have concerned themselves with building low-cost housing for poor households. 77

SCULPTURES During the start of Christian era (1st and 2nd centuries), the Buddhism expanded substantially and had stimulated a renewed artistic passion to illustrate the message of Buddha and this lead to the development of three main “schools” of sculpture in India which had evolved their own styles and distinctions. These were named as the Gandhara, Mathura, and Amaravati Schools of art, after the places of their prominence. CHARACTERISTICS OF GANDHARA SCHOOL OF ART  The Kushana kings, especially Kanishka, motivated the Gandhara artists to carve the themes from Buddha‟s life and the jatakas thus a large number of the images of the Buddha and the Bodhisattvas were produced.  Due to the application of Greek Techniques of art to the Buddhist subjects (beautiful images of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas) the Gandhara School of Art is also known as the Graeco- Buddhist School of Art.  The reliefs of the Gandhara Sculpture depict Buddha‟s birth, his renunciation and his preaching and the best of the sculptures were produced during the first and second centuries A.D.  The drapery was thick with large and bold fold lines also the human body was cast in a realistic manner with minute attention being given to physical features like a moustache, muscles, and curly hair. 78

CHARACTERISTICS OF MATHURA SCHOOL OF ART  Initially, in Gandhara style, a complex form of symbolism was present and Mathura style deviated from it by establishing the tradition of transforming Buddhist symbols into human form accordingly Buddha‟s first image can be traced to Kanishka‟s reign.  In Mathura, an indigenous style of sculpture developed, and it mostly used red sandstone.  Mathura School of art is famous for its assimilative character since the images of Vaishnava and Shaiva faiths along with Buddhist images are in prevalence in Mathura style. The records of Jain Tirthankars are also found in Mathura Style.  In Mathura style more, the focus was laid on the internal beauty and facial sentiments rather than bodily gesture.  Initially, in early stages the images of Buddha and Bodhisattva are fleshy, with little spirituality and more happiness (faces are round and smiling), garments clearly visible, close-fitting robes almost entirely devoid of folds. Additionally, the halo around the head of Buddha was excessively decorated. 79

MATHURA SCHOOL OF ART GANDHARA SCHOOL OF ART It was indigenously developed. It had strong Greek influence and was based on Greco-Roman Norms (thus, known as Graeco- Buddhist School of Art). In Mathura School material used was Spotted In Gandhara School, Blue-grey Mica schist / Red Sandstone. Grey Sandstone was used. During Early period light volume having fleshy Images were carved with finer details (Curly body was carved. In later Periods flashiness got hair, anatomical accuracy, spatial depth, and reduced and Buddha was carved out in various foreshortening) and Buddha carved out in Mudras. various Mudras. The Halo around the head of Buddha was heavily The Halo is not decorated, in general, and the decorated and the images are less expressive. images are much expressive. In due course of time, it appears that the Mathura, Gandhara arts cross-fertilized, and the result of this synthesis refined and purified the Buddha image that appeared in the Gupta period. 80

CHARACTERISTICS OF AMRAVATI SCHOOL OF ART  Amravati Style of Art, evolved in Amaravati, (Andhra Pradesh), was patronized first by the Satavahanas and later by the Ikshvakus and also by other groups, flourished for nearly six centuries starting from 200-100 BC.  Buddhist art and a large religious complex of Buddhism grew around Amravati which represents the revival of uniquely different regional art style.  The material used in Amravati stupas is a distinctive white marble and Amaravati sculptures have a sense of movement and energy with profound and quiet naturalism in human, animal and floral forms.  Prominent places where this style developed are Amravati, Nagarjunikonda, Goli, Ghantasala and Vengi.  Symbolic representation of Buddha‟s life, the Buddha almost always being represented by a symbol, though in two or three places he is personified.  Like the Sanchi Stupa, the Amaravati Stupa also has pradakshina patha enclosed within a vedika on which many narrative stories from the life of Buddha and bodhisattva dominating such episodes relating to the Birth, the miracles, Enlightenment and the victory over Mara, Sundari, Nanda, Tushita heaven and Angulimala are depicted.  Sculptural form in Amravati Art is characterised by intense emotions as the figures are slim, have a lot of movement, bodies are shown with three bents (i.e. tribhanga), and the sculptural anatomy is more complex than at Stupa of Sanchi.  Both religious and secular images were present in this style.  Later, this style got transformed into Pallava and Chola architecture. 81

BRONZE SCULPTURE Bronze is an alloy which is obtained from the mixing of Copper and Tin and the Indians has mastered the bronze sculpture and casting process as much they have mastered carving in stone and terracotta sculpture. Most of the Bronze Sculptures used for ritual worship are distinguished by elegant beauty and aesthetic appeal and simultaneously the metal-casting process kept on being utilised for making articles of daily use, such as utensils for cooking, eating, drinking, etc. The lost- wax process of Bronze Casting is also being utilised by present-day tribal communities for their artistic expressions. PERIOD BRONZE SCULPTURE Indus Valley  The earliest bronze sculpture in India perhaps dates back to 2500 Civilization BCE in the form of Dancing Girl in tribhanga posture (Mohenjodaro). The limbs and torso of this female figurine are simplified in tubular form.  At Daimabad (archaeological site in Maharashtra on the left bank of the Pravara River, a tributary of the Godavari River) a similar group of bronze statuettes have been discovered which dates back to 1500 BCE, in which „Chariot‟, the wheels of which are represented in circular shapes; driver or human rider has been elongated, and the bulls in the forefront are modelled in muscular forms. Kushan Period  Interesting images of Jain Tirthankaras have been discovered from Chausa, Bihar, during second century CE and these bronze sculptures show how the Indian sculptors had mastered the modelling of masculine human physique and simplified muscles.  Although the Tirthankaras are noted by their short curly hair the depiction of Vrishabhnath or Adinath (Adinatha a title of Rishabhanatha, the first Tirthankara of Jainism) is remarkable, who is identified with long hairlocks dropping to his shoulders. Gupta and Post Gupta  Many standing Buddha images with right hand in abhaya mudra (gesture of fearlessness, the gesture of reassurance and safety) were cast in North India, during the Gupta and Post-Gupta periods (5th, 6th 82

Vakataka ,7th Century AD). Pala Dynasty  The sanghati (Monastic Robe) is wrapped to cover the shoulders which turns over the right arm, while the other end of the drapery is wrapped over the left arm and the whole figure is treated with refinement; there is a certain delicacy in the treatment of the torso (the head and limbs). In comparison with the Kushana style, the figure appears youthful and proportionate.  The outstanding example of Sarnath-style bronzes which have foldless drapery is that of the Buddha image at Sultanganj, Bihar, a monumental bronze figure and the typical refined style of these bronzes is the hallmark of the classical quality.  Vakataka bronze images of the Buddha from Phophnar, Maharashtra, show the influence of the Amaravati style of Andhra Pradesh in the third century CE and are contemporary with the Gupta period bronzes simultaneously; there is a significant change in the draping style of the monk‟s robe.  Buddha‟s right hand in abhaya mudra is free so that the drapery clings to the right side of the body contour and at the level of the ankles of the Buddha figure the drapery makes a conspicuous curvilinear turn, as it is held by the left hand.  As the Gupta and Vakataka bronzes were portable and thus monks carried them from place to place to be installed in Buddhist viharas or for the purpose of individual worship and due to portability also the technique of creation of Bronze Sculpture, spread to different parts of India and to Asian countries overseas.  Female images were also cast representing yakshinis or Shasanadevis (also known as Ambai, Amba, Kushmandini and Amra Kushmandini i.e. dedicated attendant deity) of some prominent Tirthankaras.  During the rule of the Pala Dynasty in Bihar and Bengal regions at the Buddhist centres like Nalanda, a school of bronze-casting emerged around the ninth century.  A remarkable bronze is of a four-armed Avalokitesvara (a bodhisattva who embodies the compassion of all Buddhas), which is a 83

good example of a male figure in graceful tribhanga.  Worship of female goddesses was adopted which is part of the growth of the Vajrayana phase in Buddhism and images of Tara (female Bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism who appears as a female Buddha in Vajrayana Buddhism) became very popular who was shown as seated on a throne, she is accompanied by a growing curvilinear lotus stalk and her right hand is in the abhaya mudra. Pallava Period  The bronze casting technique and the making of bronze images of traditional icons reached a high stage of development in South India during the medieval time.  Among the Pallava Period bronzes of the eighth century is the icon of Shiva seated in ardhaparyanka asana (one leg kept dangling) (Paryanka ” denotes ” cross-legged) in which the right hand is in the achamana mudra gesture, suggesting that he is about to drink poison. Cholas  The image of Nataraja (the Lord of Dance) is a superb masterpiece of the Chola bronze sculpture and is considered one of the most significant contributions of the Cholas to Indian art. There are many images of Nataraja in different dance poses and the magnificence of its, symbolism, composition, charm and artistic excellence have influenced connoisseurs throughout the world.  During Chola period, in Thanjavur (Tanjore) region of Tamil Nadu, a wide range of Shiva iconography had evolved which included the ninth century kalyanasundara murti which is highly remarkable for the manner in which Panigrahana (ceremony of marriage i.e. accepting the hand) is represented by two separate statuettes.  Beautiful independent figurines of Parvati have also been modelled, standing in graceful tribhanga posture (consists of three bends in the body; at the neck, waist and knee & body is oppositely curved at waist and neck which gives it a gentle “S” shape). Vijayanagar Kingdom  During Vijayanagar Period (sixteenth century), in Andhra Pradesh, the sculptors experimented with portrait sculpture (artistic representation of a person, in which the face and its expression is predominant) in order to preserve knowledge of the royal patron for 84

posterity and at Tirupati, life-size standing portrait statues were cast in bronze, depicting Krishnadevaraya with his two queens, Chinnadevi and Tirumalamba.  The image of Shiva and a Parvati, Vijayanagar, brilliantly represent South Indian bronze casting. Although their stylistic precursors, the renowned bronze sculptures created under the Chola king (9th to 13th century), are often considered to exemplify the peak moment of such art, post-Chola sculptures such as of Vijaynagar can also be considered as a peak of Bronze Sculpture. 85

NATARAJ 86

 During the Chola Period, the famous dancing figure of Shiva as Nataraja (Shiva performs the Tandava i.e. Dance in which the universe is created, maintained, and dissolved) was evolved and fully developed, since then many alterations of this complex bronze image has been cast.  Shiva is associated with the end of the cosmic world with which this dancing position is associated, and Shiva has been shown balancing himself on his right leg and suppressing the apasmara (the demon who represented ignorance or forgetfulness).  The image of “the Lord as the Cosmic Dancer” is shown at the Chidambaram temple in Tamil Nadu. He dances within an arch of flames. The surrounding flames represent the manifest Universe. There is a snake around his waist.  At the same time, he raises his left leg in bhujangatrasita stance (one of the 108 kara as (minor dance movement) mentioned in the Natya Shastra), which represents tirobhava, that is kicking away the veil of Maya or illusion from the devotee s mind and at the same time his four arms are outstretched, and the main right hand is posed in abhaya hasta (protection-affording hand-pose) or the gesture suggesting.  The upper right holds the damaru his favourite musical instrument to keep on the beat tala and the upper left-hand carries a flame while the main left hand is held in dola hasta (All fingers extended straight and joined together is Patak Hasta Mudra and When the pataka hasta is placed to the sides of the thigh we get the Dola hasta Mudra) and connects with the abhaya hasta of the right hand.  His hair locks fly on both the sides touching the circular jvala mala (the garland of flames or cyclically closed arch of flames known as prabha mandala) and the entire dancing figuration is surrounded by the Jvala Mala. 87

PAINTINGS The tradition of painting has remained an integral part of social and cultural practices in India since ancient times. The cave paintings at Ajanta, Ellora and Buddhist periods are a testimony of the fact, that painting was an important form of cultural expression in the Indian subcontinent. Characteristics of Indian Painting  The Indian Paintings have been heavily influenced by religious texts such as Mahabharata, Ramayana and the life of Buddha etc.  The Indian Paintings have remained an integral part of social practices during the festivities and these have evolved as various folk paintings. Over the centuries these practices have evolved and have been passed over generation after generation. Folk paintings such as Madhubani, Phad, Gond etc. have become mainstreamed and are well recognized in national as well as the International stage.  The lives of rulers remained an important part of court paintings and have also influenced Indian Paintings during the medieval period.  The advent of European rule brought with it a new style and again influenced Indian Painting and gave birth to a new form of painting called Modern painting. Indian Painting can be divided into three categories: 1. Mural Painting Mural comes from the Latin word „murus‟ which means wall. Murals are significant as they bring art into a large public sphere as they are put up on a large wall and hence an effective tool for social emancipation. Also, murals can add to the scenic beauty of a place where they are painted. It started from around the 2nd century BC to 10th century AD. Examples of mural paintings include Jogimara caves, Ajanta caves etc. In India, they are of sheer size, found in Ajanta, Ellora, caves and temple walls etc. 2. Miniature Painting Miniatures are the small sized, handmade, very colourful paintings and the main feature of these Miniature paintings include complex and gentle brushwork which provides a unique identity. In the 88

eastern and western India miniature Paintings developed in the 9th to the 11thcentury as a reaction to large scale wall painting. The colours used in Miniature were handmade from vegetables, minerals, stones, indigo etc. 3. Modern Painting With the advent of Europeans, modern paintings were established. These paintings are also called Company school as it emerged under the patronage of British East India Company. They are also called a Patna school of Paintings. Main centres of these paintings were– Patna, Murshidabad and other centres were Varanasi, Delhi, and Lucknow etc. The paintings depicted themes of social and general lives of the people- for example, festivals, processions, bazaars, bangle sellers, fish sellers, carpenter etc. There was no royal splendour in the paintings. The paintings were simple in nature without much décor or show off. It had finishing touches. Lifelike representation was made in the paintings. The sketches were light. No background was present in these paintings. For example, the painting of flying bird- the feathers are painted so clearly which shows how deftly the paintings were sketched. Sevak ram, Ishwari Prasad Verma, Raja Ravi Verma, Jamini Roy, Amrita Shergill etc were some of the painters. 89

DANCE ndia is a land of diversity and this diversity is manifested in its art and culture. India has a rich tradition of Dance and Theater since ancient times. The art forms have been patronized by various rulers from time to time and this helped in the development of dance and theatre. Indian dance can be categorized into Classical, Folk and Tribal, each having its own unique characteristics. But the underline theme of all the dance form has remained religion. CLASSICAL DANCE Classical dance established its roots from as early as the Vedic time. It is mainly associated deeply with the religious rites, the performance of gods and goddesses and maintaining the divine and spiritual concept of race. All these dances are mainly governed by the guidelines laid down in the Natyashastra written by Bharatamuni. The principal rule is that the knowledge is transferred through gurus. Gurus pass the knowledge of different traditions called sampradayas to the disciples. This guru-shishya parampara is the core of classical art form in India. CLASSICAL DANCE CHARACTERISTICS Bharatnatyam  It is the oldest classical dance form of all dance forms. Bharatnatyam derives its name from Bharatamuni and Natyam which means dance in Tamil.  The origin of this dance is traced to the solo dance performance of Devadasis(Temple dancers) in Tamil Nadu.  The art became nearly extinct after the decline of devadasi system. The efforts of prominent freedom fighter E.Krishna Iyer revived this dance form.  Movements of Bharatnatyam resemble that of the dancing flame.  Rukmini Devi Arundale, a famous proponent Bharatnatyam bought global recognition for this dance form. She bought radical changes in the costumes of dancers. 90

Kuchipudi  Kuchipudi was originally performed by the group of actors going Kathakali from village to village known as „Kusselavas‟. Kuchipudi derives its name from the Andhra village called Kusselavapuri.  The advent of Bhagavatism made the dance a monopoly of male brahmins and began to be performed at the temple. The recital is based on Bhagavata Purana but has a secular theme and dancers came to be known as Bhagathalus.  Kuchipudi became prominent under the patronage of Vijayanagara and Golconda rulers.  The dance style is a manifestation of earthly elements in the human body.  The dancer may undertake the role of the singer as well becoming a dance-drama performance. The music of dance is Carnatic.  Lakshmi Narayana Shastri bought renown to Kuchipudi dance form. In the present century, Kuchipudi is changing its character greatly to solo items.  Kathakali is a classical dance form of Kerala. It derives its name from „Katha‟ means story and „kali‟ means drama. The fold traditions, Ramanattam and Krishnanattam performed in temples under the patronage of feudal lords became the source of Kathakali.  Kathakali is a dance-drama where the actor does not speak their lines.  It is performed in open air theatre or in temple premises. Brass lamp is used for lighting.  Kathakali depicts the eternal conflict between God and Evil in most of its presentations.  Representation of Rasa through movement of Eye and Eyebrows is the most remarkable feature of Kathakali. This needs strenuous training to perform.  Malayalam with many Sanskrit words is the language used in Kathakali songs.  The Mask like elaborate facial makeup is governed by the complex symbolism of colour, line, and design. 91

Mohiniattam  Reddening white portion of the eye is a peculiar feature of Odissi Kathakali.  Combination of colour determines the type and mood of character in the play. Green is associated with Good, red with valour and ferocity, black with evil and primitiveness, and white with purity.  Guru Kunchu Kurup, Gopi Nath, Rita Ganguly etc are the famous proponents of Kathakali.  Mohiniyattam is a classical dance tradition of Kerala which gained prominence under the rulers of Travancore.  „Mohini‟ means beautiful and „Attam‟ means dance. It is essentially a solo dance performance that incorporates Lasya and Tandava style.  It generally narrates the story of the feminine dance of Vishnu.  White and off-white is the principal colour used in costumes of Mohiniyattam.  Mohiniyattam performance symbolizes the element of air.  It includes a peculiar manner of dancing with feet and legs apart. Knees are greatly bent and rhythmic syllable words are used in recitation. The dancer‟s feet are perfectly synchronized with the play of drum.  Sunanda Nair, Madhuri Amma, Jayaprabha Menon etc are the main proponents of Mohiniyattam.  Odissi derives its name from „Odra Nirtya„ mentioned in Natya Shastra. Khandariya-Udayagiri caves provide some of the early examples of Odissi dance.  Mudras and postures for expressing emotions are similar to that of Bharatanatyam.  The three bent form of dance called Tribangha posture is an important feature of Odissi.  Odissi dance performs Natya combined with an element of dancing and acting.  Geometrical shapes and patterns are created with dancers body. Hence it is called „Mobile Sculpture‟.  Odissi dance music is Hindustani. 92

Manipuri  Water is symbolized in this dance form. Kathak  Guru Pankaj Charan Das, Guru Kelu Charan Mohapatra etc are the main proponents of this dance form.  The mythological origin of Manipuri dance is traced to the celestial dance of Siva and Parvati along with Gandharva in the valley of Manipur.  The dance gained prominence after the advent of Vaishnavism.  Rabindra Nath Tagore introduced it in Shantiniketan thereby brought back the prominence of this dance form in modern times.  Manipuri emphasizes on devotion. It incorporates both Tandava and Lasya in which more emphasis is given to Lasya.  The body connected through curves in the shape of „8‟ called Nagabhanda Mudra is an important feature of this dance form.  Ras Leela is a recurring theme of Manipuri dance recital.  Drums, flute, horns, esraj, tamboura, cymbals, and mridang are some of the important instruments used in Manipuri dance.  Jhaveri sisters, Guru Bipin Singh etc are the famous proponents of Manipuri dance form.  Kathak is the traditional dance form of Uttar Pradesh. Kathak derives its name from the „Kathika‟ or storyteller who recites verses from the epics with music and gestures.  It is commonly identified with the court tradition in North India.  In the technique, Kathak follows vertical lines with no breaks and deflection. Footwork is very important in training of dancers.  Kathak is based on Hindustani music.  It consists of different kharanas like Lucknow, Jaipur, Raigarh, and Banaras.  Jugalbandi is one of the main features of Kathak recital. It shows a competitive play between dancer and tabla player.  Gatbhaar is the dance without music or chanting. Mythological episodes are outlined by this.  Kathak is accompanied by dhrupad music. During the Mughal period, Taranas, Thumris, and Gazals were introduced. 93

Sattriya  Lachha Maharaj, Shambu Maharaj and Birju Maharaj etc are the main proponents of Kathak.  In the 15th century AD, Vaishnava saint of Assam, Shankaradeva introduced the Sattriya form of dance.  Sattriya derives its name from the Vaishnava Monastries known as Sattras.  It focuses more on the devotional aspect of dance. It narrates the mythological stories of Vishnu.  The dance form is performed in a group by male monks known as Bhokots as part of their daily rituals.  Khol and Flute are the main instruments played in Sattriya dance.  Rhythmic syllables and dance postures along with footwork has given greater emphasis in Sattriya dance.  There is a strict guideline laid down for the hand gestures and footwork in Sattriya dance.  Gayan-Bhayanar Nach and Kharmanar Nach are two streams evolved in the modern times. 94

FOLK DANCE Folk dances help in exploring the rich cultural landscape of India. Each state or region has a unique folk dance forms according to the myths and legends of that state or region. It is a rich mix of composite art. Unlike Classical dance, Folk dances are spontaneous, performed by the local people without any formal training. Folk dances are confined to a certain section of the people or a particular locality. The knowledge is passed down to each generation. Chhau  Chhau is a tribal martial art popular in the states of West Bengal, Jharkhand, and Odisha. Chhau originates from „Chhaya„ meaning shadow.  It narrates mythological stories. It is a form of mask dance in which martial movements are used to narrate the stories.  Sarpa Nirtya, Mayur Nirtya etc. are some of the natural themes used to Chhau dance.  Saraikela Chhau in Jharkhand, Mayurbhanj (the mask is not used in this) in Odisha and Purulia Chhau in West Bengal are the three main styles of Chhau dance.  Chhau was inscribed on the Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO in 2011. Matki Dance  Matki dance is a folk dance popular in the state of Madhya Pradesh, especially in the Malwa region.  It is a variation of Rasa dance. The love episode of God Krishna during his younger age is depicted in the dance.  Women perform it during marriages and festivals. Fingers or ring on the finger is used to strike the empty pot while maintaining the time beat.  Dhol is the musical instrument used in this folk dance. Sari and lehenga are the costumes.  Aada and Khada Nach are the popular variants of Matki dance. Rouff  Rouff is a folk dance of Jammu and Kashmir primarily performed by women during the harvest season.  The women dance in two rows. A form of a chain is placed on their arms across one another‟s back.  Bright skirts and draperies with silver ornaments are the costumes.  Dancers face is laden with smile and animation. 95

Kalbelia  Kalbelia is a folk dance performed by the women of the Kalbelia community of Rajasthan.  The dance movements and costumes are similar to Serpents.  The most popular musical instrument of this dance form is „Been‟ - Wind instrument played by snake chain.  In 2011, UNESCO inscribed Kalbelia folk songs and dances in the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. Ghoomar  Ghoomar is the most popular folk dance form of Rajasthan.  It is mainly performed by veiled women wearing a flowing dress called Ghaghara.  It is accompanied by all songs of love, glory, or defeat.  It is performed in all seasons.  Men also perform Ghoomar. Men and women dance in a circle where one half is made of men and the other by women.  The dance accompanies instrumental and vocal music. Pata Kunitha  Pata Kunitha is a popular folk dance of Karnataka, especially in the Mysore region.  It is a religious dance performed by men.  The dancers use long bamboo poles decorated with colourful ribbons known as Pata.  It is extremely popular in all religions.  Another variant of Pata Kunitha is Puja Kunitha which is popular in Bengaluru and Mandya region. Raslila  Raslila is a popular dance form originating in the Mathura and Vrindavan in Uttar Pradesh.  The dance is based on the love stories of Radha and Krishna.  Some of the movements of the dance are common to that of Kathak.  ☺The expression of dance is full of charm and freshness. 96

Kolattam  Kolattam is a folk dance originated in Tamil Nadu. This dance form is popular throughout India.  Kolattam is derived from „Kol‟ means stick and „Aatam‟ means dance.  It is a dance performance by young girls with little stick held in hand to celebrate the birthday of God Rama.  Pinnal Kolattam is a variety of Kolattam dance where the dance is accompanied with songs or chorus that speak of trapping of sticks in rhythm. Some of other imporatnat folks dances are Dandya Raas, Tarangamel in Goa, Charba in Himachal Pradesh, Dadra in Uttar Pradesh, Jawara in Madhya Pradesh, Guar Maria in Chattisgarh, Alkap in West Bengal, Birha in Bihar, Paika in Bihar, Jat-jatin in Bihar, Danda-jatra in Odisha, Tang Ta in Manipur, Singhi chham in Sikkim, Mayilattam in Tamil Nadu, Butta Bommalu in Andhra Pradesh, and Bhootha Aradhane in Karnataka. 97

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CLASSICAL AND FOLK DANCE CLASSICAL DANCE FOLK DANCE A guru-shishya parampara is followed. No kind of parampara is followed. This dance form is always performed on stage. No stage is needed for this form to be performed. There are classical musical instruments used in Folk/local musical instruments are used in this this dance form. dance form. It can be accompanied with classical music- It is accompanied by folk music. Hindustani or Carnatic. There are rules regarding movement of hands, There are no rules regarding the movements. feet etc. It is related to Vaishnavism, some religion or It is not related to any religion or doesn‟t depict depiction of some story through dance. any sort of story. It came from Nattyashastra. It didn‟t come from Nattyashastra. It has 4 components: It doesn‟t have any components. (a) Lasya and Tandava (b) Nirta and Nritya 98

MUSIC Music has been a way of life in India. It is closely interlinked to the social and cultural life of Indians. Natyasastra of Bharata which is supposed to have been written sometime between 2nd century B.C and 2nd century A.D is a landmark in the history of Indian music. It has several chapters that have formed the basis for the development of Indian music. It is believed that Indian music was more or less uniform till the 13th century but later bifurcated into two musical systems: 1. The Hindustani music The Hindustani music originated in North India in the 13th and 14th century. The Hindustani music has elements of ancient Hindu tradition, Vedic philosophy and Persian tradition as well. It is based on Raga system. The Raga is a melodic scale comprising of basic seven notes. Hindustani Music is vocal-centric. The major vocal forms associated with Hindustani classical music are the khayal, Ghazal, dhrupad, dhammar, tarana and thumri. 2. The Carnatic music Carnatic Music is a form of classical Indian music from south India. It is one of the important cultural heritages of India. It has a rich history and developed over centuries. The present form of Carnatic music evolved during the 18th century. The period saw the emergence most popular musicians in Carnatic music, Thyagaraja, Shamashastri and Muthuswami Dikshitar who compiled various compositions in the period. The structure of Carnatic music is very complex. It is based on the Ragam and Thalam. Raga is basically the scale and the seven notes whereas Thalam is the rhythmic foundation of Carnatic music. 99

Hindustani Music Carnatic Music Practiced in Northern India and parts of Confined to Southern India. Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. It is influenced by Persian, Arab and Afghan Mostly indigenous. elements. There are several sub-styles which are again Only one style of singing. No substyles. divided into different Gharanas. There is a lot of scope of improvisation for the Little scope for improvisation. singers. Hence there are many variations. 6 major ragas 72 ragas. Adherence to time. Does not adhere to time. The instruments are equally important as the More emphasis on vocal music than on the vocals. instruments. Important instruments used are Tabla, Sarangi, Important instruments used are Veena, Sitar, Santoor, Flute and violin. mrudangam, mandolin, flute and violin. 100