Paper-3, Booklet-2, S&T-Environment Mng

PRESENTS THE KEY TO UPSC MAINS 2019 PAPER 3 Copyright © Aspire IAS All rights are reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission of Aspire IAS. 1

INDEX 2

ENVIRONMENT AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT 3

PAST YEAR QUESTIONS Q1.What are the impediments in disposing the huge quantities of discarded solid wastes which are continuously being generated? How do we remove safely the toxic wastes that have been accumulating in our habitable environment? (2018) Q2.What is wetland? Explain the Ramsar concept of ‗wise use‘ in the context of wetland conservation. Cite two examples of Ramsar sites from India. (2018) Q3.How does biodiversity vary in India? How is the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 helpful in conservation of flora and fauna? (2018) Q4.Describe various measures taken in India for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) before and after signing ‗Sendai Framework for DRR (2015-2030)‘. How is this framework different from ‗Hyogo Framework for Action, 2005? (2018) Q5. ‗Climate Change‘ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change? (2017) Q6.On December 2004, tsumani brought havoc on 14 countries including India. Discuss the factors responsible for occurrence of Tsunami and its effects on life and economy. In the light of guidelines of NDMA (2010) describe the mechanisms for preparedness to reduce the risk during such events. (2017) Q7.Rehabilitation of human settlements is one of the important environmental impacts which always attracts controversy while planning major projects. Discuss the measures suggested for mitigation of this impact while proposing major developmental projects. (2016) Q8.Give an account of the current status and the targets to be achieved pertaining to renewable energy sources in the country. Discuss in brief the importance of National Programme on Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs). (2016) Q9.The frequency of urban floods due to high intensity rainfall is increasing over the years. Discussing the reasons for urban floods. highlight the mechanisms for preparedness to reduce the risk during such events. (2016) 4

Q10.With reference to National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) guidelines, discuss the measures to be adopted to mitigate the impact of the recent incidents of cloudbursts in many places of Uttarakhand. (2016) Q11.To what factors can the recent dramatic fall in equipment costs and tariff of solar energy be attributed? What implications does the trend have for the thermal power producers and the related industry? (2015) Q12. The frequency of earthquakes appears to have increased in the Indian subcontinent. However, India‘s preparedness for mitigating their impact has significant gaps. Discuss various aspects. (2015) Q13. Should the pursuit of carbon credit and clean development mechanism set up under UNFCCC be maintained even through there has been a massive slide in the value of carbon credit? Discuss with respect to India‘s energy needs for economic growth. (2014) Q14. Environmental impact assessment studies are increasingly undertaken before project is cleared by the government. Discuss the environmental impacts of coal-fired thermal plants located at Pitheads. (2014) Q15. Drought has been recognised as a disaster in view of its party expense, temporal duration, slow onset and lasting effect on various vulnerable sections. With a focus on the September 2010 guidelines from the National disaster management authority, discuss the mechanism for preparedness to deal with the El Nino and La Nina fallouts in India. (2014) 5

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION Environmental pollution is defined as ―the contamination of the physical and biological components of the earth and atmosphere. Pollutants can be natural or manmade, but they are considered contaminants when they are in excess of natural levels. Any use of natural resources at a rate higher than nature‘s capacity to restore itself can result in pollution of air, water, and land etc. Major environmental issues  Degradation of forest land, agricultural land and environment.  Resource depletion: ground water, mineral, rivers, forest, sand, and rocks etc.  Loss of biodiversity  Loss of resilience in ecosystem  Livelihood security of poor  Climate change Types of Pollution Type What it is? Reasons Impact Suggested Solution 1.Water Contamination of bodies Ground water Ground water Ground water pollution pollution pollution of water pollution including groundwater. Some contaminants are  Industrial waste  Waterborne illness  Creating arsenic, lead, mercury,  Improper and bio impenetrable petroleum fuels, septic agricultural tanks, pesticides etc. practices magnification of layers in building harmful chemicals of land fields  Acid rain among human and  Creating drainage  Municipal waste animal. E.g.: blue system for the water supply Baby Syndrome collection of  Leaking  Leads to Nutrient leachates underground pollution in water  Green agriculture storage tank bodies  Anti-pollution laws  Landfill leachate  Reduced sources of and policies strict drinking water implementation  Decrease in the  Individual effort water based and educative 6

industries in region campaigns affected.  Development of riparian buffers Surface Water Surface Water near streams. Pollution Pollution  Uncontrolled urbanisation  Decrease soil fertility Surface Water  Dumping  disappearance of Pollution untreated waste in biodiversity and  Treatment of rives and water aquatic waste water before bodies ecosystems discharge  Social and  Deteriorate human  Capture and dispose floating religious practices health and causes pollutants in water : dumping dead diseases like  Using soluble products that do bodies and cholera, typhoid, not become pollutants religious waste hepatitis etc.  Organic farming and bathing  Effect on food  Oil leaks chain  Global warming  Eutrofication Policies related to water pollution: 1. Water (Prevention and Control of pollution) Act 1974 and Environment (Protection) Act 1986. 2. Ganga action planlaunched in 1985 andNational River Action plan. 3. Concept of ―designated best use” by CPCB in collaboration with the concerned SPCB. 4. NWMP (National water quality monitoring network):Presently the inland water quality- monitoring network is operated under a three-tier programme i.e. Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS) and the water quality data are reported in Water Quality Status Year Book. 5. Preparation of action plan for sewage management and restoration of water quality in aquatic resources by State Governments. 6. Installation of Online Effluent Monitoring System. 7. Financial assistance for installation of Common Effluent Treatment Plants for cluster of Small Scale Industrial units. 8. Issuance of directions for implementation of Zero Liquid Discharge. 7

9. Implementation of National Lake Conservation Plan (NLCP) and National Wetland Conservation Programme (NWCP) for conservation and management of identified lakes and wetlands in the country which have been merged in February, 2013 into an integrated scheme of National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Eco-systems (NPCA) to undertake various conservation activities including interception, diversion and treatment of waste water, pollution abatement, lake beautification, biodiversity conservation, education and awareness creation, community participation etc. 10. The Water Prevention and Control of Pollution Cess Act, 2003. Type What it is? Reasons Impact Suggested Solution 2. Air Release toxic gases as pollution result of industrial or  Combustion in  Increases the risk  Curb unbridled other economic activities. Some of the power plant and of respiratory industrialisation sources are SO2 ,NO2 , CO, P.M 2.5 and P.M industries infections, heart  Reduce vehicular 10 etc.  Vehicular and lung disease. emission emission  World Bank in  Reduce stubble  Garbage burning 2016 revealed air burning  Construction sites pollution cost India  Use of clean  Agricultural approximately 8% energy activities- crop of its in 2013, as a  Strict residue burning, result of lost implementation of pesticide and productivity due to pollution control fertilizer use. premature norms  Open mining mortality and  Awareness morbidity campaigns  Acid rain  Reduce  Acidification of firecrackers water bodies burning  Changes in soil  3R‘s: Recycle, chemistry Reuse, Reduce  Air pollutants getting deposited on crops, natural vegetation and water resources introduce toxins to the food chain. 8

Policies related to Air pollution:  The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981: It provides for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution and for the establishment of Boards at the Central and State levels with a view to carrying out the aforesaid purposes.  National Clean Air Programme: It aims to meet prescribed annual average ambient standards at all locations in the country in a stipulated timeframe. It calls for:  Augmentation of existing air quality monitoring network by increasing number of existing manual and continuous monitoring stations,  introducing rural monitoring stations,  identifying alternative technology for real-time monitoring network  augmenting capabilities of existing monitoring stations to measure PM2.5 concentration  national-level emission inventory  National Air Quality index (AQI):  initiative under ‘Swachh Bharat’ to act as ‗One Number- One Colour-One Description’ to judge the Air Quality for Common Man  The AQI classifies air quality of a day considering criteria pollutants through colour codes and air quality descriptor. Further, it also links air quality with likely human health impacts.  The index measures eight major pollutants, namely, particulate matter (PM 10 and PM 2.5), nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide, ozone, carbon monoxide, ammonia and lead.  National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS): notified by CPCB in 2009. Pollutants covered under NAAQS are SO2, NO2, PM10, PM2.5, O3, Pb, CO, NH3, C6H6, BaP,As,Ni.  Dust Mitigation Plan under Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.  Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojna to replace unclean cooking fuels with clean and more efficient LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas).  The Indian government has decided to skip BS-V and directly move to BS-VI from 2020.  Hawa Badlo App: introduced by EPCA allows people of Delhi NCR to report incidences of air pollution.  FAME (Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (hybrid &) Electric vehicles scheme. 9

 The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has laid down the maximum permissible limits for different pollutants for many categories of industries that contribute to air pollution. Type What it is? Reasons Impact Suggested Solutions 3. Land The deposition of solid  Deforestation  Soil pollution  Organic farming pollution or liquid waste materials and soil erosion and  Sustainable forest on land or underground  Unsustainable desertificatio management in a manner that can agriculture n  Dumping grounds contaminate  Mining  Change in should be away from the soil and groundwater, activities crop pattern residential areas. threaten public health,  Overcrowded  Effect on  Proper waste disposal and cause unsightly landfills human health  3R‘s: Reduce, conditions.  Industrialization such as skin Recycle and Reduce. Some of the pollutants  Construction cancer and  Community education are activities respiratory and awareness.  Nuclear waste problems etc.  Urbanisation  Overcrowded landfills are home for rodents, mice leading to transmission of disease.  Loss of animal habitat and natural environment. Policies related to land pollution: 1. Hazardous waste (Management, Handling and Transboundary Movement) Rules 2008:provides that the occupier shall be responsible for the safe and environmentally sound handling of such substances generated in his establishment. 2. The Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous chemical rules 1989: provides for the occupier to prove that he has identified the major accidents and to limit consequences to person and environment. 10

3. The Municipal Solid Waste( Management and Handling) Rules 2000: under this it is obligatory on the part of all the municipal authorities to arrange for collection, segregation, transportation and suitable disposal of municipal wastes of the municipal towns/cities 4. Integrated Wasteland Development Programme (IWDP): launched in 2009-2010 by integration of development programme of department of land recourses, Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP), Dessert Development Programme(DDP) and Integrated Wastelands development(IWDP) to address the problems of degraded areas in country. 5.RastriyaKrishiVigyanYojna: initiated in 2007 as an umbrella scheme for ensuring holistic development of agriculture and allied sectors by allowing states to choose their own agriculture and allied sector development activities as per the district/state agriculture plan. 6. The Soil and Land Use Survey of India (SLUSI): under Integrated Nutrient Management division (Dept of Agriculture).SULSI conducts soil survey of different intensities to provide scientific database for developmental programmes encompassing soil and water conservation planning, watershed development, scientific land use planning etc. 7. Soil Health Card: It is printed report given to farmer containing all the details of soil health with respect to 12 parameters, based on this the SHC will also indicate fertilizer recommendations and soil amendment required for the farm. 8. Cherrapunjee Ecological Project- Restoration of Degraded Lands underSohra Plateau. 4. Radioactive pollution Radioactivity is a phenomenon of spontaneous emission of particles such as protons (alpha particles), electrons (beta particles), and gamma rays (short wave electromagnetic radiation) due to the disintegration of atomic nuclei of some elements. With the development of Nuclear Technology for electricity generation, medical uses or Weapon of mass destruction, there is a constant threat of radioactive pollution if any of the safety standards fail to prevent leakage of radiation to the outer environment. 11

Effects of radioactive pollution  Radiation can lead to somatic damage (also called radiation sickness) genetic damage.  Effect on host–pathogen interactions. Both hosts and pathogens may be either negatively or positively affected by radioactive contamination.  It may result in the soil damage as well as the plant and can leave the soil infertile  Radiation in bone marrow may cause leukemia.  Radiation at pelvic regions of pregnant ladies, cause damage to the foetus. Suggested preventive measures  Check manmade radiation pollution at source.  Continuous maintenance of nuclear plants to avoid nuclear accidents.  Proper disposal of radioactive bio-medical wastes and radioactive wastes from the nuclear reactors. 12

 Clear warnings on hazardous/radioactive material.  Alternative sources of energy to nuclear energy will reduce the number of nuclear power plants thus reducing the risks associated.  Nuclear disarmament Govt. Polices to curb Radioactive Pollution  The Atomic Energy Act, 1962 articulates India‘s resolve to pursue the development, control and use of atomic energy for the welfare of the people of India and for other peaceful purposes. This Act confers on the Government of India, the powers and responsibilities for framing of Rules and issuance of notifications for implementing the provisions of the Act.  National Disaster Management Guidelines-Management of Nuclear and Radiological Emergencies, 2009:are guidelines to assist the various ministries, states and stakeholders in preparing their plans to handle different types of disasters to manage any nuclear/radiological emergency in public domain. Guidelines also, maximum emphasis has been laid on the prevention of nuclear and radiological emergencies, along with a detailed consideration of all other elements of the disaster management continuum  Indian programme on radioactive waste management 13

5. Thermal pollution Thermal pollution is the degradation of water quality by any process that changes ambient water temperature. It denotes the impairment of quality and deterioration of aquatic and terrestrial environment by various industrial plants like thermal, atomic, nuclear, coal-fired plants, oil field generators, factories, and mills. The discharged effluents of these sources have a higher temperature than the intake water that reduces the concentration of oxygen from the water which causes the deleterious effects on the marine ecosystem. 14

Effects of Thermal pollution 1. Reduction in dissolved Oxygen: Increased temperature in water body decreases the concentration of oxygen. 2. Change in water properties: The decrease in density, viscosity and solubility of gases in water increases the setting speed of suspended particles which seriously affect the food supplies of aquatic organism. 3. Increase in toxicity: The concentrated pollutant causes the rise in the temperature of water which increases the toxicity in water thus increasing the death rate in marine life. 15

4. Disruption of Biological activities: Increase in temperature causes change in physiology, metabolism and biological process like respiration rate, digestion, excretion and development of an aquatic organism. 5. Damage of biotic organism: Aquatic organisms like plankton, fish, eggs, larva, algae and protozoa are extremely sensitive to abrupt temperature changes. They are habitual of warmer water may suddenly face increase or decrease in temperature of water bodies and thus die. Suggested preventive measures  Treat heated water before discharging directly to the water bodies.  Installation of cooling ponds and cooling towers.  Industrial treated water can be recycled for domestic use or industrial heating.  Through artificial lakes: Industries can discharge their used or heated water at one end and water for cooling purposes may be withdrawn from the other end. The heat is eventually dissipated through evaporation.  Use heated water as a power source.  Sustainable agriculture: when top soil goes away, it reduces the amount of filtering that the ground naturally provides. By changing our farming methods to a more sustainable no till method, we can still achieve similar yields while continuing to maintain the planet‘s natural processes to reduce thermal pollution issues.  Plant more shade trees: Shade trees around waterways and coastal locations help to lower temperatures by blocking the sun‘s rays and absorbing carbon emissions. This prevents the water from heating to abnormal temperatures. Conclusion: Environmental pollution is one of the primary causes of disease, health issues and long term livelihood impact for India. Still, India has a long way to go to reach environmental quality similar to those enjoyed in developed economies. In 2013 World Bank study estimated that environmental degradation is costing India at least $80 billion a year. Radioactive and thermal pollution can be very damaging to living organisms. It can cause illnesses that can be seen for several generations in the future. It can halt agriculture in affected regions by making the soil dangerous and sterile. By adopting a zero-waste lifestyle that consists of ―Rethink, Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, and Compost and Close the Loop (4R2C)‖, we can limit our trash output and save tonnes of solid waste from ending up in landfills and rivers. The adoption of a river can also be done as a part of corporate 16

sustainability Responsibility programmes organised together with the local communities with the support of local government agencies. 17

WATER SCARCIRY Water scarcity in India is due to both natural and human-made causes. Main factors that contribute to water issues include poor management of resources, lack of government attention, and man-made waste.18 percent of the world's population which resides in India only has access to 4 percent of usable water sources. Official data in the past decade depicts how annual per capita availability of water in the country has plummeted significantly with 163 million Indians lacking access to safe drinking water. The National Institution for Transforming India (NITI Ayog), Government of India has released report ‘Composite Water Management Index ‘ in June 2018 and listed Delhi and other 21 cities in India which would run out of groundwater by 2020. Maharashtra is facing a water emergency of unprecedented proportions. Following years of drought, the rivers‘ currents have ebbed, water in dams and reservoirs has depleted and over- exploitation of groundwater has raised concerns over the long-term availability of water. Meanwhile, media reports claim that IT companies in Chennai are asking employees to work from home. The reason being they don‘t have water to sustain operations. It has not rained for almost 200 days in the city and Chennai may not get sufficient rain to tide over the water crisis for the next three months. In North India, residents in the arid Thar Desert of Rajasthan are dishing out Rs 2,500 to buy 2,500 litres of water which they share with their cattle. With the threat of desertification staring Punjab in the face and the state struggling to break away from the ‗wheat-paddy‘ cycle, farmers in the state are quickly adopting a five-decade-old scheme to use ‘Underground Pipeline System’ for irrigation. The Union Government on its part has created a Jal Shakti Ministry under a full-fledged cabinet minister to try and address the water emergency, but a lot more needs to be done. Water Availability in India  India receives an average rainfall of about 1170 mm which corresponds to an annual precipitation of about 4000 BCM (Billion Cubic Metre) including snowfall.  However, there is considerable variation in rainfall both temporally and spatially.  Nearly 75% of this i.e., 3000 BCM occurs during the monsoon season confined to 3 to 4 months (June to September) in a year. 18

 On the one side, there are surplus states like Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and on the other side, there are water scarce states like Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat.  Also, some states that are called as water abundant states like Punjab, Haryana have their own problems.  After accounting for evaporation, the average annual water availability in the country has been assessed as 1869 BCM.  It has been estimated that owing to topographic, hydrological and other constraints, the utilizable water is 1123 BCM which comprises of 690 BCM of surface water and 433 BCM of replenishable ground water resources. Problems Associated With Water Management  Less pre-monsoon rainfall and delay in monsoon combined with unprecedented heat make it difficult to control the supply of water in the country.  The stress on water will increase with rise in population, in that case, managing the demand for water, will become difficult. Is India facing a Water Emergency? 19

 India is now facing a water stressed situation. Globally, the standard for water-stress situation is 1700 cubic metres of availability of water per person. India, at present, is just below that.  India is not yet facing that situation which is globally called as water-scarcity situation.  At the time of independence, theavailability of water in the country was around 5,000 cubic metres per capita per annum, higher than what was required then. Over the time, India has failed to develop that extra availability.  Currently, water resources in India are shrinking.  The groundwater in most of the parts of north-western India is now available at 100 metres below the ground. With the present rate of extraction, in future, the groundwater will be available at 200 or 300 metres below the ground.  Level of water in the reservoirs is going down. At present, the 91 reservoirs that Central Water Commission (CWC) monitors are around 19% of their life storage.  Recently, in some states, area under water intensive crops like rice and sugarcane has increased. This is linked with the procurement and pricing policy of the government. It so happens that owing to the higher production of such crops, the government offers several benefits; this tempts other farmers as well to grow such crops, thus creating a vicious circle.  The participation of individuals, NGOs and different communities in the water management process is quite missing. o The role of the Jal Shakti Ministry is quite limited in handling the water crisis situation in the country until the participation of people is there for using the water prudently, for switching from the crops which are water intensive to the crops that are less water intensive.  Due to climate change, India in the near future will witness an increase in hot spells, change in rain patterns, thus, the problem of frequent floods and frequent droughts.  The Groundwater (Sustainable Management) Bill, 2017 drafted by the Ministry of Water Resources, River Development & Ganga Rejuvenation that provides new bases for regulating groundwater as a public resource and measures at aquifer level, has been forgotten. Steps Taken by the Government  In Rajasthan, there is a scheme called ‗MukhyaMantriJalSwavlambanAbhiyan’. One of its objectives is to ensure effective implementation of water conservation and water harvesting related activities in rural areas.  Maharashtra has launched a project called ‗Jalyukt-Shivar’, which aims to make 5000 villages free of water scarcity every year. 20

 The Telangana government has launched a mission called Mission Kakatiya, with the objective to enhance the development of agriculture based income for small and marginal farmers, by accelerating the development of minor irrigation infrastructure, strengthening community based irrigation management and adopting a comprehensive programme for restoration of tanks.  Concerned about the water crisis in rural areas, the Prime Minister of India has recently written a personal letter to 'gram pradhans' (village chiefs) requesting them to conserve rainwater during the forthcoming monsoon.  The Prime Minister has recently also said that the government will ensure piped drinking water to every household in the next five years. It seems to be one of the most ambitious projects that are taken in the last few decades. Suggestions  Interlinking of rivers: The Interlinking River Project is a long term project. If one considers, the Ken-Betwa Linking project, the MoU was signed 20 years back and the groundwork on the project has not started yet.It is so that the northern states face the situation of flood at the time of monsoon and water is required by the southern states in the dry months. Whether the project will be able to solve this problem or not is a matter of concern  Localised water conservation efforts, instead, is a solution. 20-25% of the water bodies, that can easily supply water to the local population, have damaged in the last 50 years. With the help of local communities, water bodies in a particular region can be easily managed.  Managing the demand side of water management is crucial as India cannot increase the per capita availability of water.  There are countries where there is a law that states that if a number of people are sharing an aquifer, then such people must have a contract on how much each of them can draw.  The country needs to have a specific plan for water-stressed states.  There will be more efficient usage of water especially in the rural areas if the government starts charging for its water service.  In the villages in Marathwada (Maharashtra), Water ATMs have been installed and water is provided at the rate of 25 paise per litre.  People living in huts usually buy water from the owners of tankers as they do not have any sort of water connection.  The government needs to encourage local participation for conserving water in the country. Hiware Bazar is a good example. 21

 Hiware Bazar, a village in Maharashtra's drought-prone Ahmednagar district, was sliding into an abyss after its environmental degradation. But in less than a decade it turned itself around into one of the most prosperous villages of the country. It used funds from government schemes; to regenerate its natural resources--forests, watershed and soil-led by a strong village body. The village very well manages the 300-400 millimetres (mm) of rainfall that it receives every year.  Incentive based water conservation in rural parts in the water stressed areas.  Water-use efficiency in agriculture can be ensured by making farmers aware and by providing them, on the ground, technologies like the one related to water resistant crops.  In-situ water conservation techniques like rain water harvesting, check dams need to be continued. Conclusion For the time being, there is a need to design and develop around water management. Also, water management needs to be the central focus of efforts in the agriculture sector and the environment improvement. Right water management will lead to right land management, health management and education management. The Government needs to holistically handle the supply as well as the demand side of water management and everybody in the society, i.e. the central government, the state governments (water, being the state subject), citizens, NGOs and companies need to come together to tackle water crisis in the country. 22

DISASTERS Introduction India‘s geo-climatic conditions as well as its high degree of socio-economic vulnerability, makes it one of the most disaster prone country in the world. A disaster is an extreme disruption of the functioning of a society that causes widespread human, material, or environmental losses that exceed the ability of the affected society to cope with its own resources. Manmade disasters happens by people living in ways that degrade their environment, developing and over populating urban centres, or creating and perpetuating social and economic systems. Communities and population settled in areas susceptible to the impact of a raging river or the violent tremors of the earth are placed in situations of high vulnerability because of their socio-economic conditions. This is compounded by every aspect of nature being subject to seasonal, annual and sudden fluctuations and also due to the unpredictability of the timing, frequency and magnitude of occurrence of the disasters. India’s disaster profile: Almost 85% of India‘s area is vulnerable to one or multiple hazard. Of the 28 states and 7 union territories, 22 are disaster-prone. It is vulnerable to wind storms spawned in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, earthquakes caused by active crustal movement in the Himalayan mountains, floods brought by monsoons, and droughts in the country‘s arid and semi-arid areas. Almost 57% of the land is vulnerable to earthquake (high seismic zones lll-V), 68% to drought, 8% to cyclones and 12% to floods. India has also become much more vulnerable to tsunamis since the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. Classification of Disasters 23

. LANDSLIDE A landslide is defined as the movement of a mass of rock, debris, or earth down a slope. Landslides are a type of \"mass wasting,\" which denotes any down-slope movement of soil and rock under the direct influence of gravity. Landslides occur in the hilly regions such as the Himalayas, Earthquake- prone areas, North-East India, the Nilgiris, and Eastern and Western Ghats. Reasons Impact Solutions  Deforestation  Kill dozens of people and  Improving surface and  Slash and burn cultivation cause widespread damage to subsurface drainage: technique called JHUM villages such that they have Increases the stability of a cultivation become unfit for habitation. landslide-prone slope.  Mining and Road  Create blockades in the road  Plantation in barren areas, construction network disrupting basic especially on slopes.  Over grazing supplies in many areas.  Controlled grazing  Urbanization  Increase in river sediment  Use the surface vegetative  Increasing population load - resulting into cover to protect the land from unexpected floods. raindrop‘s beating action  Water sources are disrupted  Excavating the head: and chocked by debris Removing the soil and rock at  Affects water channels due to the head of the landslide which the villagers are devoid decreases the driving pressure of water for irrigation and can slow or stop a purposes. This adversely landslide affects agriculture production  Constructing piles and in the region. retaining walls 24

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DROUGHT The primary cause of any drought is deficiency of rainfall and in particular, the timing, distribution and intensity of this deficiency in relation to existing reserves. A prolonged period of relatively dry weather leading to drought is a widely recognized climate anomaly. About 50 million people are affected annually by drought. Of approximately 90 million hectares of rain-fed areas, about 40 million hectares are prone to scanty or no rain. Rainfall is poor in nine meteorological subdivisions out of 36 subdivisions. Reason Impact Solution  Land and water  Water supplies dry up  Desalination – of sea water for irrigation or consumption. temperatures increase  Crops fail to grow  Crop rotation to minimize erosion and plant  Air circulation like El  Animals die less water-dependent crops in drier years. Nino or La Nina  Malnutrition  Transvasement – Building canals or redirecting rivers as massive attempts at  Soil moisture is  Ill health become irrigation in drought-prone areas. depletion widespread  Recycle water  Rainwater harvesting  Mismatch of supply  Stalinisation of soil  Cloud seeding  Drought monitoring – Continuous observation and demand of water  Groundwater decline  Inadequate rainfall  Increased pollution of of rainfall levels and comparisons with current  Climate Change usage levels freshwater ecosystems  Lack of water vapour  Regional extinction of in the atmosphere animal species. About 30 million people are affected annually by floods. Floods in the Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra plains are an annual feature. On an average, a few hundred lives are lost, millions are rendered homeless and several hectares of crops are damaged every year. Nearly 75% of the total rainfall occurs over a short monsoon season (June – September). 40 million hectares, or 12% of Indian land, 27

is considered prone to floods. Floods are a perennial phenomenon in at least 5 states – Assam, Bihar, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. On account of climate change, floods have also occurred in recent years in areas that are normally not flood prone. In 2006, drought prone parts of Rajasthan experienced floods. Reason Impact Solution Negative:  Heavy rainfall  Introduction of invasive species  Mapping of flood prone  Inadequate drainage  Agricultural loss areas  Inadequate capacity of  Ecological damage and loss of  Early warning system rivers to carry the high flood habitat.  Take regular information discharge and siltation.  Loss of value added in commerce  Poor permeability of the soil from the neighbouring flood  Cyclones and tsunamis and business interruption affected countries - China  Broken dams  Damage to cultural or heritage for Brahmaputra and Nepal  Lack of vegetation for Kosi.  Melting snow and ice sites  Reforestation  Loss of lives, vehicles, livestock,  No major development in river catchment area. infrastructure, disruption of  Construction of transport and communication. infrastructure on elevated areas Positive:  Flood diversion measures  Recharge groundwater systems like levees, dams,  Fill wetlands embankments.  Increase the connectivity between  Better understanding of aquatic habitats, and course of rivers and its  Move both sediment and nutrients tributaries during the around the landscape, and into the monsoon. marine environment.  For many species, floods trigger breeding events, migration, and dispersal.  The environmental benefits of flooding are increased fish production, recharge of groundwater resources and maintenance of recreational environments. 28

Flood Hazard Map of India: 29

An earth quake can be defined as a sudden violent shaking of the ground as a result of movements in the earth‘s crust or volcanic action. These movements result in the release of energy along a fault and cause the earth to shake. Massive earthquakes generally occur near the junction of two tectonic plates, e.g., along the Himalayan range, where the Indian plate goes below Eurasian plate. The Indian sub- continent situated on the boundaries of two continental plates is very prone to earthquakes. Some of the most intense earthquakes of the world have occurred in India. India has been divided into four seismic zones according to the maximum intensity of earthquake expected. Of these, zone V is the most active which comprises of whole of Northeast India, the northern portion of Bihar, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, J&K, Gujarat and Andaman & Nicobar Islands. The earthquake which originates in the lithosphere propagates different seismic waves or earthquake waves. Earthquake waves are basically of two types – body waves and surface waves. Reason Effects Solution  Volcanic activity  Can lead to soil  Earthquake resilient  Folding and faulting liquefaction infrastructure  Plate tectonics  Construction and mining  Fires and seismic waves  Building codes to (tsunamis). identify shaking zones 30

activities  Landslides and ground  Urban planning  Dams and reservoirs rapture, tectonic uplift  Mock drills  Landslides and subsidence.  Educating people about  Injecting liquid waste into the  Infrastructure loss what to do and what not ground  Contamination of water to do in case of  Creating high rise buildings earthquake, emergency supplies, gas leaks, and plan and first aid. on inappropriate land power outages. 31

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The major natural disaster that affects the coastal regions of India is cyclone and as India has a coastline of about 7516 kms, it is exposed to nearly 10 percent of the world‘s tropical cyclones. About 71 percent of this area is in ten states (Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal). The islands of Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep are also prone to cyclones. On an average, about five or six tropical cyclones form in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian sea and hit the coast every year. Out of these, two or three are severe. The effect of a storm surge is most pronounced in wide and shallow bays exposed to cyclones such as in the northern part of Bay of Bengal. Most cyclones occur in the Bay of Bengal followed by those in the Arabian Sea and the ratio is approximately 4:1. The yearly distribution of tropical cyclones in the north Indian Ocean indicates large year to-year variations in the frequency of cyclonic disturbances and tropical cyclones, but no distinct periodicity. A severe super cyclonic storm with winds of up to 250 km/hour crossed the coast in Orissa on October 29, 1999. This may have been the worst cyclone of the country in the Orissa region and was 33

responsible for as many as 10,000 deaths, rendering millions homeless and extensive damage to property and environment. The centre of the cyclone is a cloudless calm area this is called the eye. In this area, winds are not very strong and there is no rainfall. But the winds around the eye have very high speed up to 200 km per hour. Cyclones are violent Storms with an intense spiral and accompanied by strong winds and heavy rains. Factors like wind speed, wind direction, temperature, and humidity contribute to the development of a cyclone. In recent times climate change and El Nino can cause re-curvature of cyclone further adding to the damage. Effects of Cyclone  Gales, strong winds, torrential rain, high tidal waves and storm surges.  Loss of infrastructure, lives and livestock,  Prolonged heavy rain may lead to floods.  Failure of transportation and communication.  Disease - The wet environment in the aftermath of a tropical cyclone, combined with the destruction of sanitation facilities and a warm tropical climate, can induce epidemics of disease. 34

Suggestive measures • Advanced technology like satellite and Radar cyclone alert for updated information in advance. • Construction of storm shelters. • Strict implementation of EEZ rules • Afforestation. • Generating public awareness about cyclone emergency services. 35

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Extreme positive departures from the normal maximum temperature result in a heat wave during the summer season. The rising maximum temperature during the pre-monsoon months often continues till June, over the north-western parts of the country. The lancet countdown on health and climate has reported that India was particularly affected by the rising frequency of heat wave events and lost about 75 billion hours of work, a significant part of it in the agricultural sector. What's causing the heat wave in India?  While surface temperatures around the world have escalated by 0.6 degrees Celsius, India's average surface temperature has risen by 0.8 degrees Celsius from 1880 to 2018, according to a report by El Dorado Weather.  Factors responsible for the unusual intensity this year are the dearth of pre-monsoon rains nationwide, as well as the hot, dry winds moving into the mainland from the northwest. Low rainfall also reduces soil moisture, which may increase the likelihood of heat wave conditions in a given place.  Climate scientists have found that climate change increases the risks of extreme weather events, since the temperature spike, greenhouse effect from emissions of carbon and water vapour are directly related. Episodes of heat waves are growing more common as climate change intensifies, according to a study in Science.  Droughts and water shortages have occurred in multiple states across India worsening heat wave conditions. Key strategies  Establish Early Warning System and Inter-Agency Coordination to alert residents on predicted high and extreme temperatures.  Capacity building / training programme for health care professionals at local level to recognize and respond to heat-related illnesses, particularly during extreme heat events.  Community outreach Disseminating public awareness messages on how to protect against the extreme heat-wave through print, electronic and social media and Information, Education and Communication (IEC) materials. 37

 Collaboration with non-government and civil society: to improve bus stands, building temporary shelters, wherever necessary, improved water delivery systems in public areas and other innovative measures to tackle Heat wave conditions. 38

Tsunami meaning \"harbour wave\" also called seismic sea waves, is one of the most powerful and destructive natural forces. It is a series of extremely long waves caused by a large and sudden displacement of the ocean due to earthquake, volcanic eruptions etc. When they reach the coast, they can cause dangerous coastal flooding and powerful currents that can last for several hours or days. Globally, 70% of the confirmed tsunami sources have been in the Pacific Ocean, 9% in the Caribbean Sea, 15% in the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean and 6% Indian Ocean. Most of these Tsunamis were generated by earthquakes. Tsunamis are frequently observed along the Pacific ring of fire, particularly along the coast of Alaska, Philippines, Japan and other islands of South Asia and Southeast Asia including Malaysia, Indonesia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and India etc. Most ocean waves are generated by wind. Tsunamis are not the same as wind waves. First of all, they have different sources. Also while wind waves only affect the ocean surface, tsunamis move through the entire water column, from the ocean surface to the ocean floor. Waves can also be 39

described based on their wavelength (horizontal distance between wave crests), period (time between wave crests), and speed. Causes of Tsunami A tsunami is caused by a large and sudden displacement of the ocean. Large earthquakes below or near the ocean floor are the most common cause. But landslides, volcanic activity, near earth objects (e.g., asteroids, comets), certain meteorological conditions and nuclear tests can also cause tsunamis. 40

Effects of Tsunami  After the tsunamis reach the coast, an enormous energy stored in them is released which causes loss of lives as well as the infrastructures. The port cities are economic hubs and densely populated the damage caused by the tsunami is devastating.  Flooding and contamination of drinking water can cause disease.  Devastating effect on animal and plant life and other natural resources.  Contamination of soil and water is the second key environmental impact of a tsunami  There may be nuclear pollution due to radiation resulting from damaged nuclear plants, as it happened in Fukushima.  Hundreds and thousands of people are killed by tsunamis, most commonly by drowning, electrocution, explosions from gas and collapsing of buildings etc. Recommendations 41

2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami was a brutal reminder of disaster preparedness in India. While the current early warning system in India is state of the art, it is still inadequate in terms of preparedness for Tsunami. Following suggestions can be observed for enhancing India s preparedness for future Tsunami events:-  Adopting integrated multi-hazard approach with emphasis on cyclone and tsunami risk mitigation in coastal areas  Strict implementation of the coastal zone regulations  Plantation of mangroves and coastal forests along the coastline  Identification of vulnerable structures and appropriate retrofitting for tsunami resistance of all such buildings as well as appropriate planning, designing, construction of new facilities  Capacity building programmes and public awareness campaigns should be held at Tsunami prone areas  Streamlining the relief distribution system and evacuation plans in Tsunami prone areas  Component of planning for reconstruction and rehabilitation should be added to disaster management plans at all levels  Emphasis on mental health and to socio-psychological issues during post-disaster period should be accorded in every plan. 42

A nuclear and radiation accident is defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency as \"an event that has led to significant consequences to the people, the environment or the facility.\" Examples include lethal effects to individuals, large radioactivity release in to the environment, or reactor core melt. Technical measures need to be adopted to reduce the risk of accidents or to minimize the amount of radioactivity released to the environment. Causes  Meltdown at a nuclear reactor plant can cause release of massive amount of radiation and radioactive material into the environment and it would take hundred years to decay to anything near ―safe‖ levels.  Human errors or technical problem like system loses control etc can lead to nuclear disaster.  Nuclear weapons and testing. Effects  Nuclear explosions produce both immediate and delayed destructive effects.  Immediate effects - blast, thermal radiation, prompt ionizing radiation  Delayed effects - radioactive fallout and other possible environmental effects  Environmental: radioactive material gets deposited on ground, water bodies and pollutes them.  Increase in psychological disorders such as anxiety, depression, helplessness and other disorders which lead to mental stress.  Radiation Spares Nothing impacts Vegetation – Agriculture, Trees, and Animals, Damage DNA.  Produce climate issues because the high temperatures of the nuclear fireball cause large amounts of nitrogen oxides to form from the oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere and cause ozone layer depletion. Apart from its disastrous potential, nuclear radiation is one of the most effective means of providing electricity to the country and ensuring economic development. If handled carefully, nuclear energy can be a greener alternative to other forms of energy like coal and petrol. Proponents, such as the World Nuclear Association, the IAEA and Environmentalists for Nuclear Energy believe that nuclear power is a safe, sustainable energy source that reduces carbon emissions 43

Solutions Industrial disasters include events that occur due to mishaps or failures in industry or related activities and also the disasters that affect the industrial functions, property and productivity. ‗Chemical Disasters‘ and ‗Industrial Disasters‘ are terms often used interchangeably but are actually a sub-category of the other. A chemical disaster may occur due to both, natural or human-made sources. 44

Industrial disaster: Industrial disasters are disasters caused by chemical, mechanical, civil, electrical or other process failures due to accident, negligence or incompetence, in an industrial plant which may spill over to the areas outside the plant or within causing damage to life, property and environment. Chemical disaster: Chemical disasters are occurrence of emission, fire or explosion involving one or more hazardous chemicals in the course of industrial activity (handling), storage or transportation or due to natural events leading to serious effects inside or outside the installation likely to cause loss of life and property including adverse effects on the environment. ―Chemical accident or emergency can result in extensive damage to the environment with considerable human and economic costs. Causes 45

Impact 46

Prevention  Establishing of a national risk management framework criterion for chemical assessment.  Focus on model safety codes  Standards for prevention of accidents at industry level  Technologies for safety installations compared with the best in the world.  Strengthening of NDRF, fire services, MFRs, paramedics and other emergency responders. 47

Biological disasters are natural scenarios involving disease, disability or death on a large scale among humans, animals and plants due to micro-organisms like bacteria, or virus or toxins. Biological disasters may be in the form of  Epidemic affecting a disproportionately large number of individuals within a population, community, or region at the same time, examples cholera, plague.  Pandemic is an epidemic that spreads across a large region, that is, a continent, or even worldwide of existing, emerging or re-emerging diseases and pestilences, example Influenza H1N1 (Swine Flu). A society or community is vulnerable to biological hazards because of the following:  Poor sanitation practices: indiscriminate dumping, polluting of drainage channels and sewers, consumption of contaminated water or food etc.  Hospitals and medical centres dispose of medical wastes improperly  Limited border control and protection  Lack of understanding of the risks and causes of the hazards  Limited or non-existent hazard response capabilities i.e. trained and well equipped personnel who know how to respond to a biologically hazardous incident.  Hospitals have limited or non-existent quarantine capabilities to control the spread of diseases or treat affected persons.  Limited access to vaccines that prevent the spread  No known cure or vaccine for biological agents  Civil unrest, malicious intent or terrorist activity existing the country Prevention of Biological Disasters  Vulnerability Analysis And Risk Assessment  Environmental Management  Water Supply  Personal Hygiene 48

 Vector Control  Burial/Disposal Of Dead  Prevention Of Post Disaster Epidemics  Integrated Disease Surveillance System  Pharmaceutical Interventions E.g. Chemoprophylaxis immunisation  Non - Pharmaceutical Interventions  Social Distancing  Disease Containment by Isolation and Quarantine Methodologies  Biosafety and Biosecurity Measures  Strict penalties for poor sanitation and that it is promoted extensively in public education campaigns Disaster Management In India Disaster management in India has evolved from an activity-based reactive setup to a proactive institutionalized structure; from single faculty domain to a multi-stakeholder setup; and from a relief- based approach to a ‘multi-dimensional pro-active holistic approach for reducing risk’. The beginnings of an institutional structure for disaster management can be traced to the British period following the series of disasters such as famines of 1900, 1905, 1907 & 1943, and the Bihar- Nepal earthquake of 1937. Over the past century, the disaster management in India has undergone substantive changes in its composition, nature and policy. A permanent and institutionalised setup began in the decade of 1990s with set up of a disaster management cell under the Ministry of Agriculture, following the declaration of the decade of 1990 as the ‗International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction’ (IDNDR) by the UN General Assembly. Following series of disasters such as Latur Earthquake (1993), Malpa Landslide (1994), Orissa Super Cyclone (1999) and Bhuj Earthquake (2001), a high powered Committee under the Chairmanship of Mr. J.C. Pant, Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture was constituted for drawing up a systematic, comprehensive and holistic approach towards disasters. There was a shift in policy from an approach of relief through financial aid to a holistic one for addressing disaster management. Consequently, the disaster management division was shifted under the Ministry of Home Affairs in 2002 and a hierarchical structure for disaster management evolved in India. Present Structure for Disaster Management in India 49

Disaster Management Act, 2005 Act provides for the effective management of disaster and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto. It provides institutional mechanisms for drawing up and monitoring the implementation of the disaster management. The Act also ensures measures by the various wings of the Government for prevention and mitigation of disasters and prompts response to any disaster situation, The Act provides for setting up of a National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)under the Chairmanship of the Prime Minister, State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) under the Chairmanship of the Chief Ministers, District Disaster Management Authorities (DDMAs) under the Chairmanship of Collectors/District Magistrates/Deputy Commissioners. The Act further provides for the constitution of different Executive Committee at national and state levels. Under its aegis, the National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) for capacity building and National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) for response purpose have been set up. It also mandates the concerned Ministries and Departments to draw up their own plans in accordance with the National Plan. The Act further contains the provisions for financial mechanisms such as creation of funds for response, National Disaster Mitigation Fund and similar funds at the state and district levels for the purpose of disaster management. The Act also provides specific roles to local bodies in disaster management. 50