The Oxford Companion to Fairy Tales

457 S E I D E L , I N A corporated many traditional tales. In 1867 he grandmother writing stories for her grandchil- became editor o f the n e w Riverside Magazine dren. Recent scholarship has shown, however, for Young People and later persuaded Hans that she was a true novelist whose career was Christian Andersen to contribute. Childhood in closely associated with the Hachette publishing Literature and Art (1894) contains a long essay house and the creation of the famous Biblio- about fairy tales and Hans Andersen. GA thèque Rose, a collection of books aimed at the largest possible children's audience. CLMF SÉCUR SOPHIE, COMTESSE DE (1799-1874), Doray, Marie-France, 'Cleanliness and Class in French writer of children's books. The daugh- ter of Count Rostopchine who served as minis- the Countess de Ségur's Novels', Children's ter during the reign of Tsar Paul I and as governor of the City of Moscow in 1812, she Literature, 17 (1989). spent her childhood in Moscow and on the vast family estate in Voronono. In 1817 her father La Comtesse de Ségur: une étrange fell into disgrace, and the family went into exile to France. T w o years later she married Count paroissienne (1990). Eugène de Ségur, who soon preferred the glamour of Paris, while Sophie spent most of Kreyder, Laura, L'Enfance des saints et des her time at Les Nouettes, the country estate in Normandy that would be the setting for most autres. Essai sur la comtesse de Ségur (1987). of the stories she wrote. Neglected by her hus- band, Ségur devoted herself entirely to the Lastinger, Valérie, ' O f Dolls and Girls in education of the couple's eight children. The countess w a s 58 years old w h e n she launched Nineteenth-Century France', Children's her literary career. First, she wrote two fairy tales, 'Histoire de Blondine' and ' L e bon petit Literature, 21 (1993). Henri', which w e r e originally published in La Semaine des Enfants, a w e e k l y magazine for Malarte-Feldman, Claire-Lise, 'La Comtesse de children published by Louis Hachette, who eventually bought the copyrights to a manu- Ségur: A Witness of Her Time', Children's script that included three other tales: 'Histoire de la Princesse Rosette', ' L a Petite Souris grise' Literature Association Quarterly, 20 (fall 1995). ('The Little Gray Mouse') and 'Ourson'. The five fairy tales appeared under the title Nou- SEIDEL, HEINRICH (1842-1906), much loved veaux Contes de fées (New Fairy Tales, 1857) with 20 illustrations b y G u s t a v e * D o r é . A l l the German writer of children's stories and songs. heroes in these tales, which combine an ex- uberant taste for the marvellous with a rigor- He is best known for his novels on the Bieder- ous moral intention, are children who must overcome great difficulties and their human meier idyll o f the e p o n y m o u s Leberecht Hiihn- weaknesses to earn the happiness they will surely find at the end o f their adventures. A f t e r chen (1882—90). Influenced b y R o b e r t *Reinick the publication of Nouveaux Contes de fées, Ségur left behind the realm of fairy tales in fa- and Hans Christian *Andersen, he wrote his vour of a different literary genre: the realistic novel for children, in which she gives an accur- first fairy tale 'Schmetterlingskônigin W i e - ate rendition of French society during the Se- cond Empire. T h e 20 novels she produced glinde' ('Wieglinde, Queen of the Butterflies') between 1857 and 1869 secured her a founding place in the tradition of French children's lit- in 1864. Although didactic-moral tales, the ex- erature. T h e trilogy consisting of Les Malheurs de Sophie (The Misfortunes of Sophie), Les Pe- quisite stories in his two-volume collection tites Filles modèles (Model Little Girls) and Les Vacances (Vacation, 1859) * s o n e ° f S é g u r ' s Wintermdrchen (Winter Tales, 1885) are also most popular w o r k s , which still today find an enthusiastic audience among young readers. entertaining and have been published in vari- Legend once portrayed Ségur as a sweet ous collections since 1945: Zitrinchen und andere Mdrchen (Citronella and Other Fairy Tales, 1958, 1969) and Das Zauberklavier (The Magic Piano, 1959). KS SEIDEL, INA (1885-1974), German writer who wrote numerous poems, novels, essays, and memoirs. Her major contribution to the fairy- tale tradition in G e r m a n y w a s Das wunderbare Geissleinbuch (The Wonderful Book about the Little Kids, 1925), w h i c h has the subtitle ' N e w Stories for Children who Are Well-Acquainted with the Old Ones'. Seidel portrays a child who visits the seven kids and their mother, and he encounters other characters from the *Grimms' tales in adventures that do not in- volve magic, bewitchment, and punishment. In this w a y Seidel sought to modernize the Grimms' tales and make them more cheerful and soothing for young children. During the difficult post-war years in Germany, parents and educators were attracted to the non-violent nature of the book, which was reissued in 1949, and remained very popular until the early 1960s. JZ

SENDAK, MAURICE The Mouse King looks about him. Sendak reworked his famous illustrations for E. T . A. Hoffmann's Nutcracker (translated by Ralph Manheim, 1984) into a set design for Seattle's Pacific Northwest Ballet in December 1983.

459 SERCAMBI, GIOVANNI SÉLIS, NICOLAS (1737-1802), French teacher American popular culture—has become stead­ and royal censor. He annotated La Fontaine's ily more evident in his work, as has his love for fables and wrote one fairy tale, ' L e Prince *Mozart. désiré' ('The Coveted Heir', n.d.), presented to Marie-Antoinette on the birth of the dauphin. In his own picture books, Sendak draws A beloved king and queen rejoice when a long- deeply on fairy-tale motifs and impulses. His awaited heir is born. A good fairy and benevo­ elegiac fantasy Higglety Pigglety Pop! (1967) lent génies, former monarchs who have been traces the journey of a terrier, Jennie, to a granted supernatural power, endow the new­ wider world of artistic experience, including a born with all the virtues of an ideal prince. A climactic performance in the *Mother Goose panegyric to the French and Austrian royal World Theater. The three books in his major families, this brief tale reiterates royalist ideol­ ' t r i l o g y ' — W h e r e the Wild Things Are (1963), ogy on the eve of the French Revolution. A Z In the Night Kitchen (1970), and Outside Over There ( 1 9 8 1 ) — d i f f e r m a r k e d l y in style and SENDAK, JACK (1923—95), American writer and texture, but all feature a child's movement illustrator, who began writing children's stories from anger or fear into a fantastic inner world in the 1950s. His first two b o o k s , The Happy where the child's own actions resolve the con­ Rain (1956) and Circus Girl (1958), w e r e illus­ flicts. trated by his brother Maurice. Among his other w o r k s are The Second Witch (1965), Marthe In the late 1970s Sendak began designing (1968), and The Magic Tears (1971), selected sets and costumes for operas in collaboration b y the New York Times as one o f the best illus­ with the director F r a n k C o r s a r o : first Mozart's trated children's books of the year. His collec­ Magic Flute in 1979, then *Janacek's Cunning tion, The King of Hermits and Other Stories Little Vixen (1981), *Prokofiev's Love of Three (1966), contains several tales with a bizarre and Oranges (1982), Mozart's Idomeneo (1990), and charming Central European atmosphere. J Z *Humperdinck's *Hansel and Gretel (1997). A l l of them show his delight in the theatrical and SENDAK, MAURICE (1928- ), American illustra­ the fantastic—speaking animals, battles of tor, writer, and set designer. Sendak is easily polarized forces, symbolic objects and figures. the most important designer of children's Some of these operas later became picture books in the English-speaking world; winner b o o k s , as his designs for the ballet The Nut­ of the Hans Christian Andersen prize in 1970, cracker in 1984. H e has also collaborated in he has continued to evolve as a writer and illus­ turning his own books into television shows trator. {Really Rosie, Starring the Nutshell Kids in 1975) and into operas (Where the Wild Things Early in his career Sendak illustrated many Are in 1979 and Higglety Pigglety Pop! in 1985, books written by contemporaries (Ruth Krauss both with music by Oliver Knussen). E W H and Elsie Minarik among them). Later, how­ ever, he turned to older books, often fairy Cech, John, Angels and Wild Things: The tales: Seven Tales b y Hans Christian *Andersen Archetypal Poetics of Maurice Sendak (1995). (1959), tales by Wilhelm *Hauff and Clemens Lanes, Selma G., The Art of Maurice Sendak *Brentano (1960—2), The Golden Key and The (1980). Light Princess b y G e o r g e *MacDonald (1967, Tatar, Maria, 'Wilhelm Grimm/Maurice 1969). He also illustrated a collection of stories Sendak: Dear Mili and the Art of Dying Happily based on Jewish folk material by Isaac Bashe- Ever After', in Off with their Heads! (1992). vis *Singer (Zlateh the Goat, 1966). H e seems most drawn to the strange mixture of realism SERCAMBI, GIOVANNI (1348-1424), Italian nov­ and fantasy, piety and violence, in the *Grimms' tales: he has produced The ^Juniper ella writer and historian. M a n y o f his Novelle Tree, 27 tales in two volumes, with translations b y L o r e Segal and Randall *Jarrell (1973); King (Novellas, 1390—1402) b o r r o w from popular Grisly-Beard (1974); and Dear Mili, a tale found in an 1816 letter by Wilhelm Grimm genres such as fabliaux, anecdotes, oral poetry, (1988). The influence of romantic artists like William Blake, Samuel Palmer, Philipp Otto and fairy tales. Fairy-tale motifs are most evi­ Runge, and Caspar David Friedrich—as well as of 19th-century book illustrators like Walter dent in ' D e bono facto' ('On a Happy Event'), *Crane and George *Cruikshank and of the story of a simpleton who ends up marrying the daughter of the king of France; ' D e vera amicitia et caritate' ('On True Friendship and Charity'), which adopts the fairy-tale motif of 'the two brothers'; and 'De bona ventura' ('On Good Luck'), in which fairies and tripartite trials are incorporated into a fabliau. NC Petrini, Mario, La fiaba di magia nella letteratura italiana (1983).

SETON, ERNEST THOMPSON 460 SETON, ERNEST THOMPSON (1860-1946), Cana­ people's lack of imagination. Horton the ele­ dian naturalist, artist, and author of numerous phant, w h o previously appeared in Horton realistic animal stories. Inspired by his own Hatches the Egg (1940), hears a noise coming close observations, Wild Animals I Have Known from a speck of dust, which he discovers to his (1898), Biography of a Grimly (1900), Lives of surprise to be the voice of the mayor of Who- the Hunted (1901), and Animal Heroes (1905) ville asking for Horton's protection. The other are among the most famous of their kind and animals in the jungle, who fail to understand helped to create the beginnings of an environ­ w h y Horton is protecting the speck of dust, mental consciousness in North America. ridicule and torture him until Horton gets the Woodmyth and Fable (1905), a collection o f Whos to make themselves heard to the other short tales based on animal lore, stands apart animals. T h e story ends with a mise-en-abyme, from the main current of his work as Seton's the mayor of Who-ville himself discovering an one experiment with the fairy tale. SR entire world on a speck of dust. Seuss w r o t e The Cat in the Hat (1957), per­ haps his most famous book, as a reading primer, using a total of 237 words. T h e two SEUSS, D R (pseudonym of THEODOR SEUSS GIE- children in the story encounter the Cat, who SEL, 1904—91), popular American author and il­ appears to entertain them, juggling various lustrator of children's books. In his stories Seuss plays on the imaginative powers of chil­ household objects, conjuring up the rambunc­ dren, which adults often dismiss or repress, and uses the stylistic techniques of accumulation tious Things, and generally creating chaos in and mise-en-abyme to create his fantasies. In his verse tale And To Think That I Saw It on Mul­ their home while their mother is gone. Like berry Street (1937), M a r c o prepares for his father a tall tale about what he saw coming Marco, the children of The Cat in the Hat hesi­ home from school that day. A horse-drawn cart becomes in Marco's imagination a circus tate to explain to their 'realistic' mother their wagon with a brass band, and fantastic details progressively accumulate in his mind; but fantastic adventures with the Cat when she when his father indifferently asks him what he has seen that day, Marco replies, 'Nothing . . . asks them, 'Did you have any fun? Tell me. I But a plain horse and wagon on Mulberry Street'. M a r c o later returns in McElligot's Pool What did you do?' (1947) to tell a tall fish tale. The Cat in the Hat Comes Back (1958) came In his first prose tale The Five Hundred Hats of Bartholomew Cubbins (1938), fantasy is not out in the same y e a r as How the Grinch Stole stifled by indifference but is the pretext for questioning the arbitrariness of power. Bartho­ Christmas!, w h i c h recalls *Dickens's A Christ­ lomew has a magical hat which is quite plain and shaped like that of Robin Hood. When mas Carol. Other fantasy stories b y Seuss in­ Bartholomew takes off his hat to pay his re­ spects to the king, another hat appears in its clude The Lorax (1971), a parable about place, which he subsequently removes, and an­ other then appears, until by the end of the story pollution; and The Butter Battle Book (1984), an he h a s accumulated 500 hats. Seuss again e m ­ ploys the technique of accumulation to present allegory about the arms race. AD his tale, which pits a simple but imaginative man against an easily threatened king. Bartho­ Lurie, Alison, 'The Cabinet of Dr. Seuss', l o m e w also makes an appearance in Bartholo­ Popular Culture: An Introductory Text (1992). mew and the Oobleck (1949), an e c o l o g y story in MacDonald, Ruth K., Dr. Seuss ( 1 9 8 8 ) . which Bartholomew saves the kingdom from the threatening 'oobleck' (a sticky ooze) in­ SEXTON, A N N E (1928—74), major American vented by the king's magicians. poet, w h o s e b o o k Transformations (1971) w a s one of the most significant 'subversive' adapta­ In Horton Hears a Who! (1954), an a l l e g o r y tions of the Grimms' tales from a woman's per­ for the situation of Japan after Hiroshima, spective. Sexton was born Anne Grey Harvey Seuss points to the potential dangers of into an upper-middle-class family in Newton, Massachusetts; after attending a Boston finish­ ing school, she eloped with Alfred Muller Sex­ ton and worked for a time as a model. In the early 1950s, during which time she gave birth to her two daughters, she had a series of mental breakdowns, and she was advised by her psy­ chiatrist, D r Martin Orne, to write poetry. Consequently, Sexton began taking courses in John Holme's poetry workshop at the Boston Center for Adult Education, and her talent was immediately recognized. She received a schol­ arship in 1958 to the Antioch Writers' Confer­ ence, and later that year she was accepted into

461 S H A K E S P E A R E , W I L L I A M Robert Lowell's graduate writing seminar at their darling smiles pasted on for eternity. Boston University, where she met and became friends with Sylvia Plath, Maxine Kumin, and Regular Bobbsey Twins. George Starbuck. In i960 she published her first important collection of poetry, To Bedlam That story. and Part Way Back, and she also began teach- ing poetry at Harvard and Radcliffe. T h r o u g h - Indeed, Sexton retold 'that story' or fairy stor- out the 1960s Sexton w o n numerous prizes and published several collections of poetry, but she ies because she wanted to unveil the ugly truths also suffered from severe depressions, attempt- ed suicide, and was hospitalized on occasion. they contained to question the deadliness of She w o n the Pulitzer Prize for Live or Die in 1967, and she taught at Boston University, bourgeois life, the power relations between the worked at the American Place Theatre, and conducted poetry workshops in her home. sexes, and the oppression of women. Her out- However, she continued to feel disturbed and tried to commit suicide again in 1970, the year look on women's liberation was not optimistic, before she published Transformations, w h i c h was performed in an operatic adaptation in but her fairy-tale poems can be considered Minneapolis in 1973. This was also the year in which she divorced her husband and was hos- 'feminist' in the manner in which they seek to pitalized at the McLean's Hospital. T h e follow- ing year she took her life in the garage of her deal with the 'true situation' of women during home by carbon monoxide poisoning. the 1950s and 1960s and undermine the false All Sexton's poems are intensely personal and reflect the pain and suffering she endured promises of the classical fairy tales. JZ during her life. Transformations is unique in that she gains distance on her personal prob- Hall, Caroline King Bernard, Anne Sexton lems b y transposing them on to fairy-tale fig- (1989). ures and situations. The book consists of 17 poems taken from the * G r i m m s ' Children's and Middlebrook, Diane Wood, Anne Sexton: A Household Tales, and a m o n g them are such classics as *'Snow White and the Seven Biography (1992). Dwarfs', 'The *Frog Prince', *'Rumpelstilt- skin', *'Rapunzel', 'Red Riding Hood', ^ C i n - Sexton, Linda Gray, Searching for Mercy Street: derella', and *'Hansel and Gretel' as well as such lesser-known ones as 'The White Snake' My Journey Back to my Mother, Anne Sexton and 'The Little Peasant'. In each of the poems, (1996). written in free verse, Sexton has a prologue in which she addresses social and psychological SHAKESPEARE, WILLIAM (1564-1616), English issues such as sexual abuse, abandonment, in- playwright, poet, director, and actor, who uses cest, commodification, alienation, and sexual forms of the word 'fairy' in at least ten of his identity. Then she retells the Grimms' tale in a plays, as well as in Venus and Adonis. S h a k e s - modern idiom with striking and frequently peare mentions elves in five p l a y s ; n y m p h s in comic metaphors and with references to her eight p l a y s , Venus and Adonis, The Passionate own experiences. Instead of a moral at the end, Pilgrim, and the Sonnets; sprites o r supernat- there is a coda that raises disturbing questions ural spirits in 20 p l a y s , Venus and Adonis, Troi- about the issues with which she has dealt. Thus lus and Cressida, and The Rape of Lucrèce; 'Cinderella' does not end on a happy note. In- goblins and hobgoblins in five p l a y s . T h e s e stead Sexton writes: references, as well as marked presence of fairies in the works of Spenser, Drayton, and Lyly, Cinderella and the prince, among many other contemporaries, indicate lived, they say, happily ever after, that fairy folk and legends were familiar to like two dolls in a museum case Shakespeare's audience. never bothered by diapers or dust, never arguing over the timing of an egg, In The Anatomy of Puck, thus far the longest never telling the same story twice, recent study of Shakespeare's general use of never getting a middle-aged spread, fairy material, K . M. *Briggs maintains that the Elizabethan era was a golden age of fairy lore. She ascribes this to an increasing number of yeoman writers who had learned fairy lore from their ancestors and felt freer to articulate it in an age less intimidated b y fears of heresy. Briggs hints at, but does not elaborate upon, the tenor of humanism and humanists who, like Marlowe's Dr Faustus, were intrigued by op- portunities to tinker with the supernatural. The alchemical and necromantic interests of such scholars are but further evidence of a growing fascination with the human power to affect, even to command, the universe. In such an at- mosphere, fairies, sprites, and elves were more innocent familiars than devils, while nymphs and nature spirits evoked ancient Greek and Roman beliefs harmonious with the taste for the classical past.

SHARP, EVELYN 462 With rare exceptions, however, the origins make his master's wishes come true, creating of Shakespeare's fairy lore remain uncertain. Celtic legend is the most frequently invoked, illusions, charming mortals and monsters alike, though often questionable, source. Perhaps the and controlling the weather. The air surround- Shakespearian fairy with the clearest genealogy ing the island is 'full of spirits', as Caliban, the is O b e r o n o f A Midsummer Night's Dream, whose avatar is Auberon, the fairy king of resident monster and colonial, complains. The Huon de Bordeaux, a 15th-century romance. play's masque includes goddesses like Iris and features a pageant of supernaturals. Generally, Shakespeare's fairies serve as light embellishments with a strong appeal for T h e tiniest of all Shakespeare's fairies is audiences. Pageantry, so entrancing to Eliza- Mab, recognized in Shakespeare's England as bethan ceremony and theatre, was enhanced by queen o f the fairies. In Romeo and Juliet she the addition of glittering creatures with magic drives a nutshell coach drawn by ants and small p o w e r s . A s Shakespeare's A Midsummer enough to light on suitors' noses. She is touted Night's Dream illustrates so w e l l , portrayals o f here for her ability to make men dream of love fairies were highly effective in creating the at- and courtship. mosphere desirable in masques. Perhaps the strongest Shakespearian proof Shakespeare's fairies appeared in several sizes and guises: in a stature equal to that of that fairies were conventional enough in the very young children, as full-sized or even out- sized mortals, as miniature creatures, as hob- lore and literature of the era to be mocked and goblins, as good and as evil spirits. In general, however, fairies in the literature of this period parodied appears in The Merry Wives of Wind- were meant to be charming figures of fun, and the frequent appearance of full-length portraits sor. Here the fairies, though the size of children of wicked fairies was, with rare exceptions (see M O R G A N L E F A Y ) , a later phenomenon. and ruled by an adult-sized queen, are not real Most of Shakespeare's references to fairies fairies. Briggs has pointed out how faithfully are brief. There are three notable exceptions: A Midsummer Night's Dream, The Tempest, and these false fairies reflect popular beliefs. They The Merry Wives of Windsor. Outstandingly fey among Shakespeare's plays is, of course, A carry torches of glow worms and rattles for Midsummer Night's Dream, t w o o f w h o s e chief characters are Oberon and Titania, king and fairy bells. Like good legendary fairies of their queen of the fairies. The same play features Puck, also known as Robin Goodfellow. His era, they dance around in a circle and control appeal to generations of theatregoers may be attributed to his mischief-making charm as a the order of things. But the ultimate Shake- hobgoblin or his philosophical unmasking of 'What fools these mortals be'. In this play, the spearian evidence of the fairy fashion may be actions of fairies both divide and unify three worlds—the dreamworld, the world of the that Macbeth's witches know the traditional fairies, and the w o r l d of ordinary mortal af- fairs. T h e intervention of the fairies in the lives terpsichorean kinship of fairies and witches. of mortals is part of the dreamworld that unites the lovers with their desired partners and Both witches and fairies dance, as the witches solves all the problems in the play, partly by potions and spells, but ultimately by means of sing, like 'elves and fairies in a ring'. JSN the fairy ex machina. Blount, Dale M., 'Modifications in Occult The Tempest is densely populated with Folklore as a Comic Device in Shakespeare's A strange creatures, some of whom are fairy-like, Midsummer Night's Dream , Fifteenth-Century but some of whom, like Caliban, seem to chal- lenge or even defy classification. Prospero, the Studies, 9 (1984). typical humanist scholar, spends too much time on his books. Becoming a wizard king, he con- Briggs, Katherine M., The Anatomy of Puck jures Ariel, the airy spirit whom many call an elemental. 'As swift as thought', Ariel can (ï959)- Levy, Michael-Marc, 'The Transformations of Oberon: The Use of Fairies in Seventeenth Century Literature' (Diss., University of Minnesota, 1982). Milward, Peter, 'Fairies in Shakespeare's Later Plays', English Language and Literature, 22 (1985). Tave, Stuart M., Lovers, Clowns and Fairies: An Essay on Comedies (1993). SHARP, EVELYN (1869-1955), English writer and suffragette, w h o joined the famous Yellow Book staff in 1895 and began publishing stories, articles, novels, and books for children. As a pacifist and feminist, she became deeply com- mitted to doing relief work in Germany after World W a r I, and her concern in the welfare of children led her to writing The London Child (1927) and The Child Grows Up (1929), two studies o f working-class life, and The African Child (1931 ) , which deals with social conditions in Africa. Her fairy-tale books for children,

SHARP, EVELYN An unusually mild dragon who loves to read features in Evelyn Sharp's 'The Last of the Dragons', collected in Round the World to Wympland, illustrated by Alice *Woodward.

SHEPARD, ERNEST HOWARD 464 Wymps and Other Fairy Tales (1897), All the solid work in subsequent years, but the Pooh Way to Fairyland (1898), The Other Side of the books overshadowed all subsequent efforts. Sun (1900), Round the World to Wympland Most memorable w a s Wind in the Willows (1902), were written early in her career and (1931), which Shepard considered his favourite were not as explicitly political as her other drawings. He visited the aged Kenneth *Gra- writings. Y e t there is a sense in many of her hame and sketched the riverbank and meadows tales that rebellion against the accepted notions where the characters lived and cavorted. He of behaviour and propriety will lead to greater brought them alive in a manner that Grahame self-awareness on the part of the young protag­ especially liked. Having lost his wife suddenly onists. Certainly in one of her best tales, 'The in 1927, Shepard threw himself into his work, Spell of the Magician's Daughter', Firefly, the and in the 1930s he illustrated 14 books as well young heroine, realizes her full potential as a as executing his regular w o r k for Punch and unique woman by exercising her imaginative various other projects. powers and overcoming tyranny. JZ In the late 1940s, commissions began to de­ cline and he w a s let g o b y Punch in 1953. T h i s SHEPARD, ERNEST HOWARD (1879-1976), Brit­ invigorated him, however, and he illustrated ish illustrator and author, best remembered for the black-and-white ink drawings accompany­ nine b o o k s in 1954 and 1955 alone (Modern ing A . A . *Milne's Christopher Robin and Winnie-the-Pooh stories. A consummate pro­ Fairy Tales, 1955; Pancake, 1957; Briar Rose, fessional whose output was constant and con­ sistent, Shepard illustrated nearly 100 books 1958). Shepard interpreted some traditional w h i l e contributing regularly to Punch and other periodicals. fairy tales including those by Hans Christian The son of an architect and a mother whose *Andersen in 1962, but his last project was to father was a distinguished watercolourist, She- pard's ability was innate. His mother's untime­ create coloured editions of Winnie-the-Pooh ly death disrupted the family, and Shepard was enrolled at the prestigious St Paul's School in and The House at Pooh Corner. Shepard's gentle London (under the auspices of an uncle who taught there). His talent for drawing surfaced observation of life was combined with a pen­ here, and he enjoyed free range to explore his visual imagination. Despite significant success chant for accuracy. His sensitive draftsmanship at the Royal Academy Schools, Shepard lacked confidence to pursue a career as an oil painter contained a delicacy which generated a whim­ and followed the more pragmatic course of il­ lustration. This calling was marked with the sical sense of magic. HNBC acceptance o f a d r a w i n g b y Punch in 1907. H e also began illustrating books at this time, in­ Knox, Rawle (ed.), The Works of E. H. Shepard cluding David Copperfield and Aesop's Fables, (1980). but World War I interrupted his career, and he joined the artillery. Shepard continued to sub­ Meyer, Susan E., A Treasury of the Great mit d r a w i n g s to Punch, and after the armistice he was invited to a regular position on its staff. Children's Book Illustrators (1983). Here he was connected with A . A . Milne to illustrate verses for When We Were Very Shepard, E. H., Drawn from Memory (1957). Young, submitted to the magazine in 1923. Despite initial misgivings, Milne capitulated, SHERMAN, DELIA (1951- ), American writer of and the complete book appeared in 1924. This forged the alliance that resulted in Winnie-the- historical fantasy novels. In Through a Brazen Pooh (1926); Now We Are Six (1927); and The House at Pooh Corner (1928). A l t h o u g h based Mirror (1989), Sherman uses a traditional E n g ­ on photographs and visits to Milne's farm, She­ pard was acutely aware of a child's 'power to lish ballad ('The Famous Flower of Serving transform reality into something magical'. The success of these books engendered creative Men') as the basis for an elegant exploration of frustrations for both men. Shepard did very gender issues. In The Porcelain Dove (1993), she works motifs from classic French fairy tales into a study of socio-sexual mores during the French Revolution. She also uses fairy-tale themes extensively in short fiction and poetry, including 'The Printer's Daughter' (1995), based on the Russian story 'The Snow Child'; 'Snow White to the Prince' (1995), a poignant look at mother—daughter relationships; and 'The Fairy Cony-Catcher' (1998), a bawdy ac­ count of the Elizabethan fairy court. TW SHWARTZ, SUSAN (1949- ), American writer of science fiction and fantasy novels. Shwartz spe­ cializes in sagas set in thoroughly detailed 'al­ ternative-worlds' in which the history of the Orient has been changed by the addition of m a g i c . Silk Roads and Shadows (1988), set in lands resembling Byzantium and China, weaves 'Tulku' legends into the story of a

465 SINGING RINGING TREE, THE w o m a n i n v o l v e d in the silk trade. The Grail of SINGER, ISAAC BASHEVIS (1904-91), writer of Yiddish stories, novels, memoirs, and chil­ Hearts (1992), inspired b y Arthurian legends, dren's books. Most of his work has been trans­ lated into English, with his own careful tells the story of K u n d r y (from * W a g n e r ' s Par­ direction and participation, and much of it re­ flects motifs of Jewish folklore. Singer was sifal) and the Fisher K i n g . Shwartz is also the born in Poland but emigrated to the United States before W o r l d W a r I I . His fiction is editor of Arabesques (2 vols.; 1988, 1989), c o l ­ populated with demons, dybbuks, imps, witches, ghosts, angels, magicians, and other lections of original stories based on the tales of traditional figures (including the G o l e m ) s u m ­ moned in part from the mystical vision of his The *Arabian Nights. TW father, a Hassidic rabbi, but drawn with the sharp-edged realism that characterized his SIBELIUS, JEAN (1865—1957), highly individual mother. Fuelled by his parents' active storytell­ ing and his own experience of shtetl culture, Finnish composer, whose importance was Singer believed that all good literature has roots in ethnic lore. Zlateh the Goat and Other recognized by a government decision to grant Stories (1966), The Fearsome Inn (1967), and When Shlemiel Went to Warsaw and Other Stor­ him a pension for life when he was 32. His ies (1968) w o n critical acclaim as N e w b e r y H o n o r B o o k s , w h i l e The Fools of Chelm (1973) eight symphonies (written between 1899 and remains an all-time favourite with children. A deceptively simple style, rhythmic pace, and 1924) offered new thinking on the symphonic orally tuned narrative patterns contribute to the folkloric tone of his work. (Singer's distin­ form, while his early interest in the Finnish na­ guished illustrators include Maurice *Sendak, Uri Shulevitz, Margot *Zemach, and Nonny tional epic, *Kalevala, led to compositions, Hogrogian.) In his adult books, too, Singer juggled fantastical dreams and desperate such as the symphonic poems En Saga, Finlan- plights, with the ultimate miracle often de­ pending on the wisdom of innocents, as in dia, and Tapiola, which either deal with F i n ­ 'Gimpel the Fool' (1954). Singer won a U S Na­ tional B o o k A w a r d for A Day of Pleasure: Stor­ nish nationalism, or (as in the case of Tapiola), ies of a Boy Growing up in Warsaw (1969) and received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1978. draw on images o f supernatural figures from BH the forest. Direct influence from the Kalevala Allison, Alida, Isaac Bashevis Singer: Children's Stories and Childhood Memoirs (1996). emerged with the Kullervo Symphony o f 1892 Collar, Mary L., 'In His Father's House: Singer, Folklore and the Meaning of Time', Studies in and the Lemminkdinen Suite of 1896, w h o s e American Jewish Literature, 1 (1981). Lenz, Millicent, 'Archetypal Images of third movement, 'The Swan of Tuonela', de­ Otherworlds in Singer's \"Menaseh's Dream\" and Tolkien's \"Leaf by Niggle\"', Children's scribes Lemminkàinen's quest for the Swan on Literature Association Quarterly, 19.1 (spring 1994). the river of death (Tuonela). TH Schwarz, Martin, 'Two Practitioners of the Grotesque: Sherwood Anderson and Isaac SlNDBAD (musicals). T h e mythological sailor- Bashevis Singer', in Olena H. Saciuk (ed.), The Shape of the Fantastic (1990). hero has been the subject of no fewer than four SINGING RINGING TREE, THE (DOS Singende N e w Y o r k musicals, dating back to an 1868 Klingende Bdumchen), a 1957 East G e r m a n film musical burlesque. A n 1872 version featured in the *Grimm style—though not directly based on any one specific tale—which cap­ the beautiful Louise Montague in the title role, tured the imagination of young B B C television and the 1898 B r o a d w a y production b y H a r r y B. *Smith (subtitled 'The Maid of Balsora') also had Sindbad as a trouser role. The most popular Sindbad w a s the 1918 musical c o m e d y featuring A l Jolson as the black-faced clown Inbad who poses as the famous Sindbad and gets caught up in various misadventures in an­ cient Baghdad. TSH SINCLAIR, CATHERINE (1800-64), Scottish writer whose children's b o o k , Holiday House (1839), includes 'Uncle David's Nonsensical Story about Giants and Fairies'. Though her preface to Holiday House looks back wistfully to the days when children were like 'wild horses on the prairies' instead of being stuffed with knowledge, Uncle David's story is a moral one, about how indolent and gluttonous Master No-Book rejects education and is seized by Giant Snap-'em-up. The gruesome details of how the giant prepares him for dinner may have influenced Edward *Knatchbull-Hugues- sen in his stories about ogres and their eating habits. GA

SLEEPING BEAUTY The entire court is still asleep as the prince approaches the lovely sleeping princess in Charles *Perrault's 'Sleeping Beauty'. This anonymous illustration was published in Les Contes des fées offerts à Bébé ( c i 9 0 0 ) .

467 'SLEEPING BEAUTY' viewers in the 1960s. It was written and direct­ Duncan Pétrie (ed.), Cinema and the Realms of ed by Francesco Stefani. Enchantment (1993). Koenig, Ingelore, et al., Zwischen Marx und Under a title perhaps inspired by the Muck: DEFA-filmefur Kinder (1996). Grimms' 'The Singing Soaring Lark', the film tells the story of haughty self-willed Princess SIR CAWAIN AND THE CREEN KNIGHT, late 14th- Thousandbeauty, who refuses to wed her latest royal suitor unless he brings her the fabled but century alliterative Arthurian romance. Its an­ hitherto unattainable tree. After a long, ardu­ onymous English author—whose work sur­ ous journey the prince finds it in an enchanted vives in a single manuscript (Cotton Nero grotto where its guardian, a malevolent dwarf, A10)—fused two source motifs from Celtic le­ gives it to him on condition that he wins the gend to create a dazzling literary fairy tale. Sir princess's love before sunset. However, when Gawain, challenged to a Beheading Game by he presents her with the tree, it remains silent, the supernatural Green Knight, travels into the and she rejects him. In an episode that evokes northern wilderness to keep his pledge, finding *'Beauty and the Beast', he is then forced to hospitality at the castle of Sir Bertilak and assume the body of a bear and carries off the temptation from Bertilak's wife. The magical princess to the grotto where, under a spell cast elements and threefold repetitions of a folktale by the dwarf, she becomes ugly. Slowly she are combined with vivid description, psycho­ learns to love nature—birds, animals, logical insight, sly humour, and the moral fish—and with each act of goodness regains complexity characteristic of classic fantasy. S R part of her former beauty. At the moment when she realizes her love for the prince, he SIR ORFEO, 14th-century a n o n y m o u s E n g l i s h loses his bear-form, her looks are fully re­ verse romance which audaciously transforms stored, and the tree sings and rings in affirm­ the Greek myth of Orpheus into a charming ation of the lessons they have learned. The fairy tale. Queen Heurodis (Eurydice) is stolen dwarf is disposed o f b y a lightning flash which from her husband Orfeo by the King of Fairy­ causes him, like *Rumpelstiltskin, to disappear land (the god Hades) and taken to his under­ into the ground. ground realm. Like Orpheus, Orfeo is a superlative harper, whose music wins back his In the 1950s the communist East G e r m a n wife. Unlike the myth, however, the romance government was uncertain about the use of ends happily; the two return triumphantly to Grimm as a basis for films for children (see the kingdom which their loyal steward has kept C O M M U N I S T F O L K - T A L E F I L M S ) ; in principle the safe for them. The poem contains much au­ cultural policy-makers preferred stories that thentic fairy lore, including the strong trad­ contained social analysis. Following this line, itional association of fairies with the dead. S R some East G e r m a n critics condemned The Singing Ringing Tree as petty bourgeois and as S L A V I C A N D B A L T I C COUNTRIES, (see p.468) resembling a product of the capitalist entertain­ ment industry. Children, however, liked it. 'SLEEPING BEAUTY* ('Briar Rose') appears in the Consequently the film provoked a dispute Catalan Frayre de Joy e Sor de Placer (14th cen­ about the criteria to be used in selecting stories tury), as 'Troylus and Zellandine' in the for adaptation for children. F r e n c h Perceforest (16th century), as ' S o l e , L u n a e T a l i a ' in The ^Pentamerone (The Penta- In the U K there was no such argument. meron, 1634—6) b y Giambattista *Basile, as ' L a After a showing at the 1957 Edinburgh Film Belle au bois dormant' in *Histoires ou contes du Festival, The Singing Ringing Tree w a s ac­ temps passé (Stories or Tales of Times Past, quired by the B B C for inclusion in a series 1697) by Charles *Perrault, and as 'Dornrôs- called Tales from Europe. Screened several chen' in *Kinder- und Hausmdrchen (Children's times in the 1960s as a three-part serial, its en­ and Household Tales, 1 8 1 2 - 1 5 ) b y J a c o b and closed hand-painted studio setting, and its Wilhelm Grimm. equation of beauty and morality, struck in children a chord which resonated for decades. The story begins with a royal couple's wish As a result, aided b y its susceptibility to a 1990s for a child. When the baby is born, the parents ecological interpretation, it was brought in plan a celebration but invite only 12 of the 13 to distribution in 1990 and remains today as wise women (godmothers, fairies) in the realm. well known in the U K as it is in Germany. Perrault makes the uninvited fairy a disgrun­ tled old woman, long absent from the court, TAS and creates a good fairy who hides so that she Creeser, Rosemary, 'Cocteau For Kids: Rediscovering \"The Singing Ringing Tree\" ', in

Slavic and Baltic countries. A systematic collection of folk tales did not start in Eastern Europe until the middle of the 19th century, which reflects the late development of national literatures in this region as compared to most Western countries. Among the first collections in the Russian Empire were Russian Fairy Tales (i860) by Ivan Khudyakov (1842—76), and the famous eight-volume collection of Russian Fairy Tales (1855—63) by Aleksandr *Afanasyev, the first serious Russian scholar of Slavic folklore. Unlike the *Grimms' collection, these publica­ tions never reached a wide audience; however, many of the subsequent retellings were based on Afanasyev's ver­ sions. On the other hand, already at the beginning of the 19th century, the first literary fairy tales appeared in Russia, clearly influenced by German romantic writers. The Black Hen, or The Underground People (1829) by Antony Pogorelsky (pseudonym of Aleksei Perovsky, 1777—1836), bears a close resemblance in plot and style to The Nutcracker, Pogorelsky was a good friend of E . T . A . *Hoffmann. Like its model, this didactic story starts in the everyday and takes its young protagonist into a magical realm. A similar plot and overt didacticism is to be found in The Town in the Music-Box (1834) by Vladi­ mir Odoyevsky (1803—63). Unlike most fairy tales from the same period, often written by less talented female authors, these two are still popular today. In his versified fairy tales, Alexander *Pushkin, Rus­ sian national poet, used well-known European plots in The Tale of the Dead Princess and the Seven Heroes (1833), The Tale of the Fisherman and the Fish (1833), and The Tale of the Priest and Balda, his Hired Hand (1830, pub. 1840) as well as popular chapbooks in The Tale of Tsar Saltan (1831) and romantic literary sources in The Tale of the Golden Cockerel (1834). Pushkin's fairy tales contained a biting political satire of Tsarist Russia, and some of them were banned by the censorship. They have tangible Russian settings in a historical and social context, and they were the first to introduce colloquial language into the literary fairy tale. Many 19th-century Russian writers wrote fairy tales for children and adults. One of the most popular was The Scarlet Flower (1859) by Sergei Aksakov (1791—1859), a version of *'Beauty and the Beast'. The contribution of Lev T o l s t o y is especially significant. An ardent educa­ tionalist, Tolstoy published several school primers, which contained retellings of folk and fairy tales from all over

469 SLAVIC AND BALTIC COUNTRIES the world. These collections, addressed to peasant chil­ dren, are very simple in structure and style and also use typical Russian settings. Another classic was Frog the Traveller (1887) by Vsevolod Garshin ( 1 8 5 5 - 8 8 ) , the forerunner of animal tales. Fairy tales flourished during the so-called Silver A g e of Russian literature from the turn of the century to 1917, when many symbolist poets wrote fairy tales addressed to an adult audience. Parallel to this highly artistic trend, a vast number of sentimental and didactic tales were writ­ ten for children. During the communist regime in the Soviet Union, fairy tales occupied an ambivalent position. On the one hand, they were treated with suspicion, as a 'bourgeois' form, and pronounced dangerous, escapist, and undesir­ able reading matter. Kornei *Chukovsky and Samuil *Marshak, both translators of foreign classics, education­ alists, and authors of verse fairy tales, worked hard for the preservation of the Russian fairy-tale tradition and the creation of new, modern fairy tales. Chukovsky's pedagogical pamphlet From Two to Five (1928) contains a chapter on the importance of fairy tales for the imagin­ ation and psychological development of young children. On the other hand, fairy tales for children were the only genre where authors, including major adult authors, were relatively free from the prescriptions of 'socialist realism', the approved method in literature and art. The tradition of camouflaged criticism of the authorities, going back to Afanasyev, Pushkin, and Tolstoy, was prominent in the 20th-century Russian fairy tale and yielded some excellent results. As early as 1928, Yuri Olesha (1899—1960) published a fairy-tale novel entitled The Three Fat Men, an allegorical story of struggle against oppression. Especially during the 1930s, the worst years of communist terror, fairy tales became a legitimate genre for many writers. Most of them depict the abstract struggle between good and evil. Veniamin Kaverin (1902—87) was rather transparent in his The Tale of Mitya and Masha, of the Merry Chimney­ sweep and Master Golden Hands (1939), where a girl is kidnapped by evil forces and carried away to a distant country where everything is brown. The connotation of the colour brown was obvious in the late 1930s. The kid­ napper is Kashchey the Immortal, the traditional evil fig­ ure of Russian folk tales. However, both the evil country and the villain could be easily related to contemporary Soviet conditions. Other fairy tales by Kaverin are

SLAVIC AND BALTIC COUNTRIES 470 more firmly anchored in reality, where good and evil magical forces intrude. The tales focus on ethical issues and often portray artists—poets, painters, musicians—as possessing magical powers, which in the Soviet context was quite a subversive idea. In this regard, Kaverin was by far the most original fairy-tale writer of his gener­ ation. Most of his contemporaries exploited the motif of the infinite fulfilled wishes, as in The Rainbow Flower (1940) by Valentin Katayev (1897—1986). The tendency to use the everyday contemporary setting rather than send the protagonist to a magical world, dominant in the Western fairy tale, is typical of Soviet writers, presumably as a compromise to the demands of 'realism'. Thus, in The New Adventures of *Puss-in-Boots (1937), Yevgeni *Schwartz places the famous character in a communist youth summer camp and lets him defeat an evil frog- witch, representing the capitalist past. Another familiar fairy-tale figure appears in Old Man Khottabson (1938) by Lazar Lagin (1903—79), a free adaptation of a minor Brit­ ish classic, The Brass Bottle by F . *Anstey. A genie is released from his bottle-prison by a Russian boy and sets out to fulfil his rescuer's wishes. Naturally his ways and morals come into conflict with the young communist, and his obliging magic causes many funny, but awkward situ­ ations. At the end the old man is 'reformed' and becomes an exemplary Soviet citizen. Using foreign sources and adapting them to the de­ clared needs of the Soviet audience was a common prac­ tice among Russian writers, possibly due to the cultural isolation of the Soviet Union, where most contemporary Western fairy tales were totally unknown at least until the 1960s. Thus, the most popular Russian fairy-tale novel The Wizard of the Emerald City (1939) by Alek­ sandr *Volkov, is a slightly adapted version of The Won­ derful *Wicard of G\\. Such adaptations focus mostly on social improvements and group achievements rather than individual development manifest in their models. In the Russian version of*Pinocchio, entitled The Golden Key, or The Adventures of Burattino (1935) by Aleksei T o l s t o y , the object of the quest is a key to a secret door concealing a puppet theatre, which Burattino and his puppet friends happily take into possession. No psychological change is allowed or even suggested. The puppet remains a puppet, and individual fulfilment is replaced by collective happi­ ness, achieved through socially beneficial labour.

47i SLAVIC AND BALTIC COUNTRIES Thus, the fairy-tale form became in the Soviet Union the main channel for subversive literature. Quite a num­ ber of books followed the traditional folk-tale pattern: the hero comes to a country oppressed by a tyrant or devas­ tated by a dragon and delivers it from evil. In the plays by Yevgeni Schwartz, loosely based on Hans Christian *Andersen's fairy tales and other famous plots, political undertones are promptly amplified. Many of Schwartz's plays were banned when the Soviet censorship detected a possible satire on the regime: The Emperor's New Clothes (1934, pub. i960) and The Shadow (1940) both deal with power and falseness; The Dragon (1943) makes use of the dragon-slayer motif to show how liberators can become tyrants. An implicit critique of the ruling 'revolutionary élite in the Soviet Union', the play was produced during World War II and accepted by official Soviet criticism as a satire on Germany; however, the true target was obvi­ ous. It is sometimes debatable as to whether the writers consciously included political satire in their narratives. It is clearly the case, however, whenever the falsehood of the tyrant is emphasized. One such example is The Land of Crooked Mirrors (1951) by Vitali Gubarev (1912—81), which could exploit the motif of a Looking-Glass country because Carroll's classic was at that time practically un­ known in the Soviet Union. Behind the looking glass, the main character Olga finds not only her own reflection (which magnifies all her worst traits) but a country where crooked mirrors serve the purpose of unscrupulous rulers, distorting reality and making beautiful things ugly and vice versa—a more tangible form of Orwell's New- speak. Naturally, Olga triumphs over evil and witnesses a revolution. As with Schwartz's plays, the depicted country allegedly embodied hateful capitalism, and Olga—wearing a Soviet school uniform with a red tie—supposedly represented the victorious ideas of com­ munism. The practice of reading between lines and assuming that words always meant something else than their dic­ tionary definition became a habit with the Soviet adult audience, resuscitating the old phenomenon called in Russian 'Aesopian language', and partially reminiscent of the notion of palimpsest in contemporary feminist criti­ cism. Unfortunately, like any artistic device which is ab­ used, the satirical arrowhead became more and more blunt as time went by. Likewise, the obtrusive didacti­ cism of Russian fairy-tale writers eventually resulted in

SLAVIC AND BALTIC COUNTRIES 472 a vast number of fairy-tale novels exploiting the same motif of a wish-granting magical object used for the pur­ pose of teaching the protagonist a moral lesson, as in the works by Yuri Tomin (1929— ), Sofia Prokofieva (1928— ), or Valeri Medvedev (1925— ). In all of these texts, the struggle between 'right' and 'wrong' values, always ex­ plicitly or implicitly connected with Soviet versus West­ ern ideology, is the central theme. Individualism is condemned and collectivism praised as a virtue. Another popular strategy for a successful fairy tale was educational. In these works, the protagonist was sent to a country inhabited by numbers, colours, or musical instru­ ments so that the readers acquired some useful know­ ledge alongside the hero. The subversive effect of such fairy tales was considerably less, if any. At best, fairy tales could be entertaining, creating a childhood Utopia comparable with the Utopian promises of the communist doctrine, as in the trilogy by Nikolai Nosov (1908—76), portraying an idyllic society of mini­ ature people, Dunno and his Friends (1954). A much later, but likewise popular author, Eduard Uspensky (1937- ), showed possible influences from Western humorous and nonsensical fairy tales, notably Astrid *Lindgren, espe­ cially in Uncle Theodor, the Dog and the Cat (1974). More often, the limited access to fairy tales from the West stimulated Soviet writers to fill in the gaps with their own products, occasionally resulting in quite origin­ al works. However, the isolation inevitably led to stagna­ tion. In the 1980s Russian fairy tales, lacking inspiration and insight from Western authors, were still primarily didactic and politicized. This pertains even to the best writers such as Irina Tokmakova (1929— ). T w o promin­ ent exceptions are Radi T o g o d i n and Vladislav Krapivin (1938— ), authors of philosophical, existential fairy tales, completely free from any foreign influences, as well as from ideology or didacticism. The popular novels of Kir Bulychov ( 1 9 3 4 - ) combine elements of fairy tale and science fiction. In other Eastern European countries, the collection and publication of fairy tales were closely connected with movements of independence, the emergence of national identity, and the establishment of a written literary lan­ guage. The first collectors of folktales in Poland were Zorian Chodakowski (1784—1825), Kazimierz Wojticki (1807—79), a n Q l Antoni Glinski (1817—66). Glinski's col­ lection The Polish Storyteller (1853) also contained Belo-

473 SLAVIC AND BALTIC COUNTRIES russian and Lithuanian folklore. One of the first authors of literary fairy tales was Maria Konopnicka (1842—1910), the author of The Tale about the Gnomes and Marysia the Orphan (1895), the pioneering work of Polish national children's literature. Based on folklore, this fairy tale used colloquial language, many everyday details, and warm humour. In the period between the wars, the most outstanding work was the children's Utopian novel King Matt the First (1923) by Janusz *Korczak. In communist Poland, as in other Eastern European countries, fairy tales were often a means of avoiding censorship, while presenting the faults of society. Such are the novels by Jan Brzechwa (1900-66), with their eccentric wizards Mr Lens and Mr Blot, also featuring characters from traditional tales, like *'Little Red Riding Hood' and *'Sleeping Beauty'. Little Carole (1959) by Maria Kruger (1911— ) is based on the motif of a capricious wish-granting object. Of all Slavic peoples, Czech folklore was greatly influ­ enced by the German tradition. The characteristic feature of Czech folk tales is a cunning peasant or servant. They were first collected and retold by the poet and folklorist Karel Erben (1811—70). The most famous Czech collect­ or and author of fairy tales was Bozena Nemcova (1820—62), whose retellings were characterized by the striving to overcome the romantic view of folklore and create a more realistic and everyday touch. She also amp­ lified the female heroines of traditional fairy tales. Both Erben and Nemcova published Slovak fairy tales, often similar to Czech ones, but sometimes with a national fla­ vour. Alois Jirâsek (1851—1930) published Old C^ech Le­ gends (1894). Contemporary fairy tales, often with satirical and political overtones, were written between the wars by Jiri Volker (1900—24), Marie Majerovâ (1882—1967), Karel *Capek, Vîtezslav Nezval (1900—58), Vladislav Vancura (1891—1942), and Josef *Lada (1887—1957). Among post-war works, Three Bananas (1964) by Zdenek Slaby (1930- ) should be mentioned. It seems that Slovak authors were less interested in fairy tales than their Czech colleagues. Yugoslavian (Serbian, Croatian, Slovenian, Bosnian, Macedonian) fairy tales were collected by Vuk Karadzic (1787—1864). They show a strong influence of ancient Greek and oriental sources. For instance, the oriental trickster hero Hodja Nasreddin is also popular in Y u g o ­ slavian folk tales. The specific mixture of Christian and Islamic tradition makes them different from other Slavic

SLAVIC AND BALTIC COUNTRIES 474 folklore. Literary fairy tales did not appear until after World War I I . The Gnome from the Lost Country (1956) by Ahmet Hromadzic ( 1 9 2 3 - ) is based on a Bosnian le­ gend. Bulgaria was an agrarian country until the end of the 19th century, and its fairy tales reflect motifs from peasant life. Half a millennium of Turkish occupation made the liberation pathos of Bulgarian fairy tales prominent. The two best-known characters of Bulgarian tales are Krali Marko (featured also in Yugoslavian fairy tales), an au­ thentic historical figure, who became mythologized as a heroic image, and Cunning Peter, a typical trickster. There is also a cycle of humoristic tales about the lazy and greedy inhabitants of the town of Gabrovo, similar to the German Schildbiirger. Among animal tales, cats play a significant role. Systematic collection and publication of folk tales in Bulgaria began in the late 19th century. The Bulgarian writers Elin Pelin (1877—1949) and Angel Karalijcev (1902—72) both retold traditional fairy tales and wrote many original ones. In the three Baltic countries, the development of fairy tales has been closely connected with political history. Estonia and Latvia existed as independent states only for a short period between the two world wars, while Lithua­ nia has a long history as a powerful European realm, first as an independent state, later in union with Poland. T h e Estonian national epic Kalevipoeg (1862, similar to the Finnish ^Kalevala) marks the origin of national litera­ ture. T h e first collection of fairy tales for children, Old Tales of the Estonian People, was published in 1866 in Fin­ land. It was followed by Estonian Fairy Tales in 1884. Around the turn of the century many writers retold or imitated folk tales. During independence, realistic prose dominated the fairy tale. During the Soviet occupation, on the contrary, fairy tales became a powerful vehicle of subversive literature, often based on allegory and animal fable. The 1960s and 1970s saw the heyday of the literary fairy tale. The most important work was the four-volume Three Jolly Fellows (1972—82) by Eno Raud (1928—96), depicting three imaginary beings, trolls or dwarfs, called Muff, Half-Shoe, and Mossbeard, and their funny adven­ tures in an otherwise realistic world. In Latvia folklore, especially the specific Latvian folk song, dainas, was collected by Krisjanis Barons (1835—1923). A n early literary tale was Little Devils (1895) by Rudolfs Blaumanis (1863—1908). Karlis Skalbe (1879—1945) was also a renowned author of fairy tales

475 SLAVIC AND BALTIC COUNTRIES based on Latvian and international folklore. During the period of independence, several allegorical fairy tales ap­ peared (otherwise literature from this period was mostly realistic, focusing on class struggle). During the Soviet occupation, folk and fairy tales were considered the most 'safe' genres, and the most popular ones. In most in­ stances, writers composed fairy tales intended for chil­ dren, as in the case of Imants Ziedonis (1933— ). These fairy tales naturally have many dimensions, addressing both an adult and a young audience. Some fairy tales were written by Latvian writers in exile; these were for the most part quite conventional, showing clear influ­ ence from Western writers such as *Tolkien or Michael *Ende. Lithuania was closely connected to Poland for a long time, and shared much of its folklore. Strange as it may seem, this connection delayed the emergence of national literature. The first literary tale, based on Lithuanian folklore, appeared in 1905, written by Vincas Pietaris (1850-1902). During independence the foremost author of fairy tales was Pranas Masiotas (1863—1940). Under Soviet occupation many writers, such as Kazys Boruta (1905—65), sought inspiration in folklore and published stories and novels based on folklore motifs. Contempor­ ary fairy tales, depicting magical realms or portraying humanized animals and animated toys, often with didac­ tic tones, were written by Vincas Giedra (1929— ), Vitau- tas Petkevicius ( 1 9 3 0 - ), and Kazys Saja (1932— ) . The major author of fairy-tale plays was Violeta Palcinskaite ( 1 9 4 3 - ). An important landmark was the allegorical fairy tale Clay Matthew, the King of Men (1978) by Pet­ kevicius, which described Lithuania's history in disguise. Short, philosophical fairy tales were published by Vytaute Zilinskaite (1930— ), who also wrote an allegor­ ical fairy-tale novel set in the country of broken toys, Travels to Tandadrika (1984). After the fall of communism in the 1990s, the former Soviet republics and satellites have tried to re-establish and emphasize their national identity and language. Fairy tales have proved to be an important part of their national heritage, while the fairy-tale form appears to be the best artistic device to treat the traumatic past and the compli­ cated present. They often have an optimistic tone, reflect­ ing the countries' hope for a better future. On the other hand, a huge wave of translated Western fairy tales and fantasy has inspired national authors to write original works especially noticeable in the new trend of 'sword

SLOANE, A[LFRED] BALDWIN 476 and sorcery' fantasy in Poland. Also in Russia, new at­ tempts are being made to create indigenous fantasy, in­ spired by Tolkien, but based on traditional Russian epics. MN can counteract any harmful gift. Eleven fairies with his neighbour, and his mother seeks to had given the baby such gifts as beauty, virtue, have the cook make meals out of the prince's wealth, and wisdom when the 13 th interrupts children and his wife. The cook uses a subter­ with a prophecy: the girl will die at the age of fuge to save them, and in the end it is the queen 15 w h e n she pricks her finger with a spindle. mother w h o dies in a vat filled with vipers, toads, and snakes. T h e 12th fairy modifies the prophecy to a sleep of 100 years. T h e king tries to evade fate This ending has generally been eliminated by banning all spindles in the realm. The story deals with the futility of trying to escape one's in the fairy-tale tradition of the 19th and 20th fate, a theme familiar in Eastern literature. Despite precautions, the princess violates the centuries, especially when the tale has been re­ interdiction by pricking a finger on a spindle belonging to an old woman in a hidden room written or retold for children. Generally speak­ in the castle. All the residents of the castle, both human and animal, share her sleep. Perrault's ing, most traditional literary versions have good fairy returns to ensure that the princess will return to an unchanged world, unlike the sanitized the tale and place great emphasis on monk w h o followed a bird for 300 years, and returned to a strange world ('Monk Felix'). the unfortunate plight of the helpless princess The storytellers play with the idea of halted and the valour of the rescuing prince. The most time, describing the comic attitudes of the ser­ vants whose daily chores had been interrupted sentimental version is, of course, the *Disney at the onset of the sleep. Although time has stopped within the castle, a briar thicket had film of 1959, but almost all of the classical pic­ g r o w n around it hiding it from sight. D u r i n g the 100 years, bold knights had made attempts ture books for children are no different. The to brave the thicket but had died in the attempt. Finally a prince was able to pass through it to great break in the tradition of the comatose the palace and to find the sleeping princess. In the early versions her discoverer rapes her, and princess and the daring prince comes in the she awakens when her baby is born. But the awakening is more chaste in the Perrault ver­ 1970s when contemporary writers began to ex­ sion. Just the prince's proximity arouses the sleeping princess while the Grimms have their plore the political implications and sexual innu­ prince bestow a kiss upon her lips, and the en­ tire castle bustles with resumed activities that endoes of the tale. Thus, Olga *Broumas and are related with comic joy. This story of an interruption in time has the strange advantage Emma *Donoghue turn the tale into a story of the sleeper's being able to take her whole world with her into the lapse. More common is about lesbianism. Anne *Sexton explores sex­ the situation of a sleeper who awakens to find a world empty of familiar faces. Here there is an ual abuse, and J a n e *Yolen transforms it into a important difference between the Perrault and the Grimms' versions, for Perrault (like Basile) novel about the Holocaust. In his novella Briar extends the story by having the princess give birth to a girl ('Dawn') and a boy ('Day'). The Rose (1996) R o b e r t * C o o v e r repeats and varies prince is afraid to bring his bride home to his parents because his mother is an ogress. When the narrative ad nauseam to question the v e r ­ his father dies, and he becomes k i n g , he finally does bring his wife and children to his court. acity of the traditional tale. Given the social Soon, however, he must go off to do battle changes with regard to gender roles in Western societies, it is inconceivable for the fairy-tale princess of the classical 'Sleeping-Beauty' trad­ ition to serve as a model for female readers in contemporary fairy tales. More appropriate, it would seem, would be a tale in which the prin­ cess has nothing but sleepless nights. HG Franci, Giovanna, and Zago, Ester, La bella addormentata. Genesi e metamorfosi di una jiaba (1984). Romain, Alfred, 'Zur Gestalt des Grimmschen Dornrôschenmàrchens', Zeitschrift fiir Volkskunde, 42 (1933). Vries, Jan de, 'Dornrôschen', Fabula, 2 (1959). Zago, Ester, 'Some Medieval Versions of \"Sleeping Beauty\": Variations on a Theme', Studi Francesci, 69 (1979)- Zipes, Jack, 'Fairy Tale as Myth/Myth as Fairy Tale' in The Brothers Grimm: From Enchanted Forests to the Modern World (1988). SLOANE, A[LFRED] BALDWIN (1872-1925), American theatre composer. The most prolific

477 SNOW, JOHN FREDERICK 'JACK' Broadway composer at the turn of the century, W o m e n in Philadelphia in 1884, and then at the Sloane scored some two dozen New York mu­ Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts under sicals between 1896 and 1912. B o r n in Balti­ Thomas Eakins, she fortuitously studied with more, where his songs were first heard in such H o w a r d * P y l e in his first class at D r e x e l Insti­ semi-professional theatres as his own Paint and tute of Arts in Philadelphia. He encouraged her P o w d e r Club, he arrived in N e w Y o r k in 1894 to think of illustration as an art, to emphasize and soon had his melodies interpolated into the reality of background and surroundings, others' scores, such as the successful Excelsior, and importantly, to regard the commercial end Jr. (1895). His first full score in N e w Y o r k w a s of illustration. for the children's extravaganza *Jack and the In 1909 a Smith painting entitled Goldilocks Beanstalk (1896), which featured such familiar and the Three Bears appeared in Thirty Favorite characters as King Cole, Miss Muffett, Old Paintings. T h e standing bears are stuffed, with Mother Hubbard, Sindbad the Sailor, and bows around their necks; Goldilocks is seated *Puss-in-Boots. Sloane's most famous Broad­ in front o f them. T h i s w o r k first appeared in w a y musical w a s The *Wizard of 0{ (1903), in Collier's Magazine in 1907. Subsequently, full- which he collaborated with the author L . Frank colour pictures for *'Beauty and the Beast', ' A *Baum. Because they were played by popular Modern \"\"Cinderella', *'Little Red Riding stars, Dave Montgomery and Fred Stone, the Hood', *'Sleeping Beauty', *'Jack and the characters of the Scarecrow and the Tin Man Beanstalk', and \"\"Hansel and Gretel' appeared dominated the show. Other Sloane musicals in Collier's Weekly between 1907 and 1914. that contained fairy-tale or fantasy elements in­ Woman's Home Companion also featured clude The Hall of Fame (1902), The Ginger­ Smith's illustrations for 'The Goose Girl', bread Man (1905), and Tillie's Nightmare 'Hansel and Gretel', 'Cinderella', 'Goldilocks', (1910), which featured his most famous song, 'Jack and the Beanstalk', and *'Snow White 'Heaven Will Protect the Working Girl'. and the Seven Dwarfs' from 1910 to 1915. The Sloane was not a distinguished composer and full-page colour illustrations were painted in few of his songs became popular, but he was a oil over the charcoal drawings. competent craftsman with a sound theatrical Through publication in family magazines, sense. TSH readers became familiar with Smith's style of illustration for fairy tales. These illustrations SMITH, HARRY B. (1860-1936), American play­ are still available today in books such as A wright and lyricist. The most prolific of all Child's Book of Stories (1986), published b y American theatre librettist/lyricists, Smith Children's Classics but first issued in 1911 b y wrote 123 Broadway musicals and operettas be­ Duffield and Company with ten full-page illus­ tween 1887 and 1932, often with such distin­ trations. T h a t same y e a r s a w the Now-a-Day's guished composers as Victor Herbert and Fairy Book b y A n n a A l i c e C h a p i n , issued with Jerome Kern. Among his works that drama­ six full-page tipped-in illustrations by Smith, tized fairy tales and used fantasy extensively including the 'Three Bears', 'Beauty and the were a version of*Cinderella called The Crystal Beast', 'Little Red Riding Hood', and 'A Mod­ Slipper (1888), Robin Hood (1891), Jupiter ern Cinderella'. In this book, three children (1892), The Wizard of the Nile (1895), The Ca­ interact with various fairy-tale characters. liph (1896), Sinbad, or The Maid of Balsora These two collections were published in Brit­ (1898), Maid Marian (1902), The White Cat ain by Chatto and Windus (1913) and Harrap (1905), and The Enchantress ( 1 9 1 1 ) . TSH (1917). LS Nudelman, Edward D., Jessie Willcox Smith: A SMITH, JESSIE WILLCOX (1863-1935), American Bibliography (1989). illustrator instantly recognized for her sweet yet realistic portrayals of children; also popular Schnessel, S. Michael, Jessie Willcox Smith in Britain. She was noted for her portraiture, (n.d.). her 180 covers for Good Housekeeping Maga­ zine, her advertisements, and particularly for SNOW, JOHN FREDERICK 'JACK1 (1907-56), her illustrations to G e o r g e *MacDonald's The A m e r i c a n author of 0{ b o o k s . A t L . F r a n k Princess and the Goblin and At the Back of the *Baum's death, 12-year-old Jack wrote to the North Wind, and Charles * K i n g s l e y ' s Water- publishers Reilly & Lee and offered to con­ Babies. Educated as a kindergarten teacher, she tinue the *Wi{ard of 0{ series. Nineteen y e a r s discovered her drawing talent accidentally. later, he got his wish. A s the Fourth Royal His­ Trained first in the School o f D e s i g n for torian of Oz, he imitated Baum's writing style and purified Oz of non-Baum characters in

'SNOW QUEEN, THE' 84 7 Magical Mimics in 0{ (1947) and The Shaggy favourite hymn, K a y bursts into tears, washing the splinter from his eye. N o w 'both adults, yet Man of 0 { (1949). B y this date, h o w e v e r , post­ children still—children at heart', they retrace Gerda's journey, arriving at last at their old war America was losing interest in Oz, and home where 'it was summer, warm, glorious summer'. Snow's novels were not popular. He later com­ Juxtaposing doctrinaire piety with colloqui­ piled Who's Who in (1954), an illustrated alism, sentimentality with irony, 'The Snow Queen' addresses both child and adult audi­ encyclopaedia based on his extensive collection ences. On one level about 'the victory of the heart over cold intellect' (Andersen, in a let­ of Baumiana and Oziana. MLE ter), it is also a perceptive psychological alle­ gory of male adolescence, depicting an Greene, David L. and Martin, Dick, The 0{ evolution from alienation to sensibility through the power of love. In modern times, the story Scraphook (1977). has inspired a science-fiction novel by Joan Vinge (1980), several dramatic and ballet ver­ Snow, Jack, Who's Who in 0 { (1954). sions, an orchestral suite, an interactive video game, and a song by Elton John (1976). J G H 'SNOW QUEEN, T H E ' ('Sneedronningen') was Andersen, Celia Catlett, 'Andersen's Heroes and published in Hans Christian *Andersen's se­ Heroines: Relinquishing the Reward', in cond collection o f tales: Nye Evyntyr, Anden Francelia Butler and Richard Rotert (eds.), Samling (New Tales, Second Collection, 1845). Triumphs of the Spirit in Children's Literature Composed of seven individual stories and thus (1986). one of Andersen's longest tales, it is an im­ aginative blend of the natural and supernatural Bredsdorff, Elias, Hans Christian Andersen: The and of Christian and folk elements. Story of his Life and Work 1805-75 (1975). Conroy, Patricia L., and Rossel, Sven H. (trans, In the devil's mirror, what is good and beau­ and intro.), Tales and Stories by Hans Christian tiful diminishes while what is evil and ugly in­ Andersen (1980). tensifies. When the mirror accidentally Lederer, Wolfgang, The Kiss of the Snow Queen: smashes into 'hundreds of millions, billions and Hans Christian Andersen and Man's Redemption even more pieces', two of the glass splinters by Woman (1986). pierce the eye and heart of a little boy named Rubow, Paul V., 'Et Vinterevyntyr' ('A Kay. Hitherto content to play simply and affec­ Winter's Tale') in Reminiscencer (1940). tionately with little Gerda next door, K a y now disdains everything he previously valued, his ' S N O W WHITE AND THE SEVEN DWARFS' deals heart a lump of ice. Science displaces imagin­ ation, and he prefers the neighbourhood boys with an 'innocent persecuted heroine'. Early to his former playmate. One day, a sleigh ap­ written versions appeared in Giambattista pears in the square, its driver barely visible. *Basile's *Pentamerone (The Pentameron, Recklessly hitching his small sled to the larger 1634—6), J . K . *Musaus's Volksmarchen der one, K a y is drawn through ice and snow to the Deutschen (1782), and W i l h e l m and J a c o b realm of the Snow Queen. Terrified, he tries to * G r i m m ' s *Kinder- und Hausmdrchen (Chil­ escape but when 'he tried to say the \"Our dren's and Household Tales, 1812—15). It has Father\", all he could remember was the multi­ circulated widely in Africa, Asia Minor, plication table'. Enchanted by the Snow Scandinavia, Ireland, Russia, Greece, Queen's beauty, his protests stilled by her Serbo-Croatia, the Caribbean, and North, chilling kiss, he forgets his past and devotes South, and Central America. The tale consists himself to arithmetic and science. of stable elements: origin, jealousy, expulsion, adoption, renewed jealousy, death, exhibition The rest of the story follows Gerda's quest of corpse, resuscitation, and a multiplicity of for her beloved playmate. Fully at home in the incidental variant details. natural world, her faith in Kay's survival never waning, she is assisted on her journey north by Snow White's origin is marked by a magical several fantastic companions, including talking sequence of events. Her mother, longing for a flowers, an assertive princess, two bourgeois child, pricks her finger while sewing; three crows in domestic service, and a wild robber droplets of blood fall on the snow (or she eats a girl. A t the Snow Queen's palace, she finds rose leaf, a pomegranate seed, a tangerine). She Kay, almost black with cold, beside a frozen wishes for a child as red as blood, as white as lake (named the 'Mirror of Reason'), where he snow, and as black as ebony. T h e wish ful­ tries in vain to arrange pieces of ice into the filled, she dies in childbirth. S n o w White's one word—'Eternity'—that can free him from the Snow Queen's domination. Gerda em­ braces him, and her hot tears penetrate his heart, 'melting the lump of ice and burning away the splinter of glass'. When she sings a

479 'SNOW WHITE AND THE SEVEN DWARFS' father remarries, and this generates jealousy ician to kill the girl with poisoned pomegranate between stepmother and stepdaughter, creating soap, and then with a poisoned letter. Her a surrogate mother towards whom Snow death (death-like sleep) occurs despite the pre­ White can direct hostility, while revering her cautions of her companions, who warn her birth mother's image. Her stepmother, aware against strangers. In the Grimms' version the that beauty declines with years, is jealous of the dwarfs rescue her twice, once from the stay- girl's youth and beauty. In the Grimms' ver­ laces and then from the comb. In an English sion she has a magic mirror she consults to ver­ text, the robbers also save her twice. T h e y take ify who is the fairest in the land. When the girl away the pedlar's basket and burn the flowers passes from infancy to girlhood (seven years) that she offers to her victim. Then the pedlar the mirror acknowledges Snow White as the throws poisoned apples in a glade, and Snow fairest. Elsewhere the stepmother consults an White picks one up and eats it. A n ingenious omniscient trout in a well, the sun, or the pedlar puts a poisoned dart in the keyhole, and moon; she overhears passers-by remarking on entices S n o w W h i t e to insert her finger so that the stepdaughter's beauty; a visiting nobleman it might be kissed. In a Mexican version, the prefers her daughter; guests declare the girl storytellers recognize the temporary nature of more beautiful than she. her death. She dons poisoned slippers one at a time. W i t h the first she starts to shake, and Anxious to restore her primacy, the queen with the second she is stunned and looks dead. orders the heroine's execution, a terminal ex­ pulsion from the family. A huntsman is to kill The Grimms have the dwarfs mourn her ap­ her and bring back her lungs and liver. Instead, parent death in the exhibition episode and dis­ as the traditional compassionate executioner, play her corpse in a glass coffin on a mountain he stabs a boar (stag, dog) and substitutes the top in a sort of wildlife shrine to which animals animal's lungs and liver (heart, intestines). He come to weep. In another tale it is cast into the brings a blood-soaked dress (undershirt, sea. In Basile's version she is placed in seven hands, eyes, tongue, intestines, hair, bottle of nested crystal chests. Elsewhere her bejewelled blood stoppered with her little finger) to prove casket is carried on a horse that will stop only if he has completed the task. The queen, deter­ someone gives it a magic command (in a gold­ mined to consume her rival's essence, has the en coffin in an oxcart, suspended between elk's parts cooked and served. A unique motif has antlers). Her casket is variously left on a win- the father lead her into the forest and abandon dowsill or on a doorstep. Her body is placed in her as in *'Hansel and Gretel'. The adoption a four-poster surrounded by candles or on a phase begins w h e n she finds a home with seven stretcher suspended between two trees. A Mex­ dwarfs (thieves, woodsmen, ogres, Jinns, ican storyteller confuses her with the Virgin bears, bandits, giants, monkeys, cannibals, Mary and places her on an altar in church. The brothers, wild men, old women). chance arrival of a prince (a hunter, a noble­ man) brings about her resuscitation. In the In almost all the versions Snow White Grimms' tale he convinces the dwarfs to give sweeps the house, washes the dishes, and pre­ him the coffin. When his men carry it, they pares a meal for the occupants. These domestic stumble. The jolt causes the piece of poisoned tasks represent the y o u n g w o m a n ' s first as­ apple to be released from the sleeping prin­ sumption of responsibility. Renewed jealousy cess's throat. In other versions someone re­ occurs when the mirror or the queen's other moves the lethal instrument, and she revives. informants continue to name Snow White as T h e resolution is marriage with the prince, and the fairest. The stepmother's rage and her de­ punishment of the stepmother (immolation, termination to find S n o w White confirm the immuration, decapitation). idea that the daughter cannot escape, but must learn how to cope with danger. The queen Like all the great classical fairy tales, 'Snow makes various attempts to kill her rival. She White' has undergone numerous literary trans­ disguises herself as a pedlar (sends a beggar formations in the 19th and 20th centuries. T w o woman in her stead) to sell lethal items: poi­ o f the more important adaptations w e r e films: soned staylaces, a poisoned comb, a poisoned W a l t * D i s n e y ' s Snow White and the Seven apple (flowers, corsets, shoes, raisins, grapes, Dwarfs (1937) and H o w a r d H a w k s ' s Ball of needles, rings, belts, neckbands, shirts, wine, Fire (1941), starring G a r y C o o p e r and Barbara gold coins, headbands, hats, cakes, shoes, Stanwyck (see B U R L E S Q U E F A I R Y - T A L E F I L M S ) . white bread, brooches) that Snow White eats In an important literary study, Sandra Gilbert and apparently dies. Musàus has the step­ and Susan Gubar used the fairy tale as a theor­ mother, the Countess of Brabant, order a phys­ etical paradigm about how 19th-century litera-

SOCIALIZATION AND FAIRY TALES 480 ture depicted older women being pitted against the same time often feature adventurous cross- dressing heroines, powerful fairies, and uncon­ younger women within the framework of a ventional marriage arrangements by the stand­ ards of the times. T h e y implicitly question male mirror and were driven mad. During the dominant patriarchal and heterosexual norms. Though both Perrault and his female contem­ 1970s and 1980s numerous writers such as poraries were products of the literary salons, they saw the social potential of the fairy tale Anne *Sexton, Olga *Broumas, Tanith T e e , very differently. and Robert *Coover have focused on the sex­ D u r i n g the 18th century, the fairy tale be­ came even more explicitly a disciplinary genre. ual connotation of this tale in different ways. Sarah *Fielding's The Governess (1749) and Jeanne-Marie Teprince de Beaumont's anthol­ Central to all the reworkings of the classical ogy for children Le Magasin des enfants (1757; translated as the Young Misses' Magazine in tale is the theme of jealousy. HG 1761) both included many tales framed by edifying dialogues between a governess and Baeten, Elizabeth M., The Magic Mirror: Myth's her charges. Though unadulterated fairy tales lived on in the popular imagination, chap­ Abiding Power (1996). books, and new editions (particularly in the 40- v o l u m e Cabinet des fées, 1785—9; see M A Y E R , Girardot, N. J . , 'Initiation and Meaning in the C H A R L E S - J O S E P H ) , they often became occasions for clumsy didactic interventions. Tale of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs', Jacob and Wilhelm *Grimm, writing in the Journal of American Folklore, 90 (1977). first half o f the 19th century, continued this di­ dactic, socializing tradition, though somewhat Gilbert, Sandra M., and Gubar, Susan, The more subtly. In the preface to the second vol­ ume of their *Kinder- und Hausmdrchen (1815), Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and they refer to their collection as an 'Erziehungs- buch' (conduct book, or manual of manners). the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination In the successive versions of tales from 1810 to 1857, as critics like Heinz Rôlleke, Maria Tatar, 0979)- and Jack Zipes have shown, they carefully re­ shaped or 'sanitized' the tales to be more effect­ Holliss, Richard, and Sibley, Brian, Walt ive instruments for the education of middle-class children. They often omitted or Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and softened sexually explicit material. Though they excised many of the most violent episodes, the Making of the Classic Film (1987). they retained much punitive violence, making sure that powerful older women would dance Jones, Steven Swann, The New Comparative in red hot shoes, or that Cinderella's wicked sisters would have their eyes pecked out. Method: Structural and Symbolic Analysis of the Women's transgressive acquisition of know­ ledge and power is often severely punished. Allomotifs of 'Snow White'(1990). T h e Grimms also stressed good behaviour, dif­ fering for boys and girls: Tittle Red Riding Stone, Kay, 'Three Transformations of Snow Hood must not stray from the orderly path prescribed by her mother, while young heroes White', in James M. McGlathery (ed.), The like the *Brave Little Tailor are encouraged to be resourceful, independent, and cunning. Brothers Grimm and Folktale (1988). Though the Grimms often show a lower-class boy rising to a higher social station, their tales, SOCIALIZATION A N D FAIRY TALES. Though fairy Perrault's, and Hans Christian *Andersen's in tales often seem to be products of pure fantasy, fact reinforce the existing structures of power they always have designs on their audiences and of gender relations, affecting generations and readers, defining proper behaviour and en­ of children throughout Europe and North forcing codes of conduct. As Maria Tatar says, A m e r i c a . T h e *Disney films based on their 'Any attempt to pass on stories becomes a dis­ ciplinary tactic aimed at control.' Following Norbert Elias's work on the civilizing process, many recent scholars have focused on the ways fairy tales shape social expectations and indi­ vidual actions in different periods. A s fairy tales became primarily a genre for children, their socializing function becames more and more explicit. Certainly oral tales have always been told in part to instruct, to ensure that the hearers, par­ ticularly children, would act in approved ways. But literary fairy tales, at least since the 1690s in France, have more insistently reinforced (and sometimes questioned) existing social ar­ rangements. The earliest written tales in France in fact always ended with a verse 'moralitez', though these morals often seem de­ liberately flat or out of tune with the tale itself. *Perrault's tales (1697) in general both pre­ scribe and reinscribe sharply differentiated roles for men and women; for example, he takes *Bluebeard's power and violent history as an acceptable given, while stressing his wife's dangerous curiosity. In contrast, the tales writ­ ten by women like d'*Aulnoy and *Lhéritier at

SPIELBERG, STEVEN tales have continued to reinforce these ideo­ ^Sleeping Beauty and the Beast ( N e w Y o r k , logical patterns. 1901), Mr ^Bluebeard ( N e w Y o r k , 1903), In his 1976 b o o k The Uses of Enchantment, Bruno Bettelheim claims that the Grimms' tales ^Mother Goose ( N e w Y o r k , 1903), and Humpty help children accept their necessary place in the social and family order. His readings of the Dumpty ( N e w Y o r k , 1904). TSH tales focus on the dark antisocial impulses that children must learn to resist, from oral greed in S 0 R E N S E N , VlLLY ( 1 9 2 9 - ) , Danish writer. E x ­ *'Hansel and Gretel' to jealousy of the mother tremely well-versed in philosophy, he delights (strangely enough) in *'Snow White'. Feminist in reworking texts of the past, be they about literary critics have exposed Bettelheim's late- Greek or Old Norse mythology or the gospels, Victorian and rigidly Freudian assump­ by giving them a modernist turn. In such col­ tions—often simultaneously condemning the lections as S cere historier (Strange Stories, 1953) patterns in fairy tales that doom women to pas­ or Formynderfortcellinger (Tutelary Tale$, 1964), sivity, narcissism, and inactivity (sleeping for he m a y i n v o k e a Mdrchen, and then turn it 100 years, lying in a glass coffin). T h e y pre­ topsy-turvy. The brief 'Fjenden' ('The scribe new patterns that will socialize women Enemy', 1955) demonstrates that Sorensen's in different w a y s — c a l l i n g for reclaimed, new, knowledge of the conventions of the folk tale is or rewritten tales for children that stress so facile that he can wickedly play with them. women's independence and resourcefulness. Marxist critics have also promoted tales that NI have a 'liberatory' function and contribute to the formation of new social attitudes and social S P A I N (see p.483) structures or a 'utopian' future. SPENSER, EDMUND (1552-99), English poet. Most writers on fairy tales assume, whatever Spenser's magnificent marriage p o e m , Epitha- their ideological position, that tales will have lamion (1594), with its G r e e k n y m p h s , C h r i s ­ effects on their child audiences; reader re­ tian angels, and English hobgoblins, sponse always includes reader acculturation. foreshadows the multiple mythologies of his The current controversies focus on the cultural unfinished allegorical epic The Faerie Queene projects and norms, often seen as conservative (1590—6), where G r e e k goddesses and satyrs or reactionary, that traditional tales promote share the forest with giants, dragons, and en­ and their value in the late 20th century. chanted castles. Inspired by the epics of Ariosto and Tasso, Spenser planned a multi- EWH levelled 12-book structure, its 12 heroes corres­ Bottigheimer, Ruth, Grimms ' Good Girls & Bad ponding to the 12 virtues of the perfect Chris­ Boys (1987). tian gentleman. Linking their interwoven Rowe, Karen, 'Feminism and Fairy Tales', adventures is Arthur, the King to be, and his Women's Studies, 6 (1979). quest for Gloriana, the Fairy Queen, who rep­ Stone, Kay F., 'The Misuses of Enchantment: resents both true Glory and Queen Elizabeth I. Controversies on the Significance of Fairy Tales', in Rosan Jordan and Susan J . Kalcik SR (eds.), Women's Folklore, Women's Culture (1985). SPIELBERG, STEVEN (1946- ), American director Tatar, Maria, Off With Their Heads! (1992). of two films of fantasy which both evoke J . M. Zipes, Jack, Fairy Tales and the Art of Subversion *Barrie's play and novel *Peter Pan. T h e first (1983). w a s E.T.: The Extra-Terrestrial ( U S A , 1982), w h i c h has joined The ^Wizard of 0 { , King S O L O M O N , F R E D (FREDERICK CHARLES; 1853— Kong, and a few other films in achieving a fixed 1924), British-born playwright-composer- place in Western cultural consciousness. One director. Born in London to a musical family, interpretation is that Spielberg and the script­ Solomon had an extensive career as a per­ writer Melissa Mathison conceived the charac­ former first in London and, after emigrating to ter of E . T . as a combination of both Peter Pan America in 1886, on Broadway. Soon he was and his fairy companion Tinkerbell. Before conducting musicals and later writing them, E . T . is domesticated and identified, the chil­ often adapting British pantomimes for the dren in the film speculate that he might be an Broadway stage. Among his works with fan­ elf, or a goblin, o r — m o s t Peter-like—a lepre­ tasy or fairy tale subjects w e r e Captain Kidd chaun. There is, after all, a forest just outside (Liverpool, 1883), The Fairy Circle ( L o n d o n , their house. Like Peter, E . T . comes from afar, 1885), King Kalico ( N e w Y o r k , 1892), The enters his new friend's bedroom, and flies away with him across the face of the moon. Later, the film explicitly a c k n o w l e d g e s Peter Pan as

STEVEN SPIELBERG The fascinating and mysterious creature from outer space makes his appearance in Steven Spielberg's film E.T.: The Extra-Terrestrial (1982)

Spain. Since there were no notable compilers of fairy­ tales in Spain like the Brothers *Grimm, these fanciful narratives must be sought either in isolated texts or in literary allusions to familiar tales. Although the univer­ sally recognized stories of 'Cenicienta' (*'Cinderella'), 'Blanca Nieve' (*'Snow White'), 'La bella durmiente' (•'Sleeping Beauty') 'Caperucita Roja' (*'Little Red Rid­ ing Hood'), and 'Los ninos abandonados' (*'Hansel and Gretel') have been circulating in Spain and in Latin America for some time now, it is not clear when they became part of the native canon of wonder tales. 1. T H E 1 1 T H C E N T U R Y T O T H E 17TH C E N T U R Y Nevertheless, Spain produced its share of wonder tales, some of which reflect the 800-year Arab presence in the Iberian peninsula. An important collection of tales of Arabic origin is Disciplina Clericalis, translated into Latin by Moisés Sefardi (born in Huesca in 1056, converted, christened Petrus Alphonsi in 1106). In 'The Rustic and the Bird' a man captures a bird. T o gain her freedom she gives him some words of advice: 'Do not believe every­ thing that is said' (a precious stone in her body), 'what is yours you will always possess' (she is in the sky; he can­ not possess her), 'do not sorrow over lost possessions' (he must not lament loss of the stone). This tale was dissem­ inated widely with variants and was interpolated in a chivalric text, in a translation of the life of Buddha, and in a compilation of sermonic exempla. Also from Disciplina is the tale of'Dream Bread' (whose literary trajectory led it to the Golden A g e dramatist Lope de Vega's San Isidro labrador de Madrid, 1599), in which a clever rustic tricks his urban travelling companions by pretending to have had a miraculous dream. Fadrique, Alfonso X ' s brother, was the patron in 1253 for a translation of another Arabic text, Seven Sages (modern Spanish title Sendebar). Sendebar includes three tales set in a perilous forest: 'The Hunter and the She- Devil', 'The Three Wishes', and 'Spring that Changes Prince into a Woman'. The common element is a prince or nobleman who leaves home to go hunting and comes to grief in a forest. In another Arabic text, Kalila and Dimna (translated as Calila e Dimna by order of Alfonso X , 1221—84), a gs a e leaves home on a quest. He journeys to India seeking a resuscitative herb. The topic reappears in a 13th-century poem, Ra^on de amor, in which the scent of magical flowers in an enchanted meadow will revive the dead.

SPAIN 484 :yj Calila contains two transformation tales. In 'The Rat Maiden' a monk raises a tiny rat and prays that she be transformed into a young woman. Old enough to wed, she wants the most powerful mate of all. He offers her the sun, but it is covered by clouds; the clouds are controlled by winds; a mountain blocks the winds, but the mountain is gnawed by rodents. Therefore, she must marry a rat. He prays that she will return to her previous shape. In 'The Frog-King's Mount', a serpent's arrogance is pun­ ished by a transformation into serving as a frog-king's mount, condemned to eat only those frogs given him by the king. A chivalric novel, Cavallero Zifar (1300, translated as The Book of the Knight in 1983) strings together a number of fairy tales. The good knight's adventures begin when he is unable to serve any royal master for long because he had been cursed. A n y horse or other beast that served him as a mount dies after ten days ('Equine Curse'). He seeks a new post repeatedly since he represents a consid­ erable expense for his royal masters. One day a son is carried off by a lioness, nurtured by her until he is adopt­ ed by kind strangers ('Child Nurtured by Lioness'). His wife, captured by pirates, defeats her captors, throws their corpses overboard, and sails magically to a safe port. In another episode Zifar's squire becomes a knight, and is lured into the underwater realm of the 'Lady of the Lake', whom he marries. His fairy wife orders him not to speak to anyone in her realm. He disobeys the interdiction. In this land parturition follows conception by seven days. Fruit trees bear fruit every day, and beasts have young every seven days. Having violated her interdiction against speech, he and his adult son are ejected violently from his underworld kingdom soon after his arrival. In a parallel episode, Zifar's son, Roboân, is at the court of the emperor of Tigrida, a monarch who never laughs. Roboân is punished for asking why the emperor does not laugh. He is set adrift in an oarless, rudderless boat to a magic kingdom, the Fortunate Isles. There he is chosen by the empress, Nobility, to be the emperor with the understanding that if he completes a year successfully on the throne, he will never lose the empire. Three days be­ fore his year ends, an enchantress seduces him with a magical mastiff, an enchanted hawk, and finally a horse that can outrun the wind. Mounted on the magical horse faster than the wind, he touches its flanks lightly with his spurs, and the horse carries him away from his empire back to Tigrida. There he learns that he and the doleful

4«5 SPAIN emperor were two in a long succession of unlucky men who had lost the empire of the Fortunate Isles in the same demonic way. In the chivalric novel Amadû de Gaula (1508) lovers are tested for constancy and nobility in another enchant- ed kingdom (Insola Firme). Before the noble Apolidon and his bride Grimanesa leave their enchanted realm, they must select successors who match them in nobility, skill in arms, and in governance as well as in physical beauty and loving constancy. As a test they build an en- chanted arch leading to four chambers. Unworthy pairs passing under the arch are ejected by a horrific mechanic- al trumpeter and terrible flames and smoke. The same trumpeter plays wonderfully sweet music for the deserv- ing couple, Amadis and Oriana. An evil enchanter, Arca- laus, disguised as a mysterious stranger, devises a test to tempt Amadis and Oriana to come out of hiding. T w o magnificent gifts are offered: a magic sword that can be taken from its sheath only by a lover whose devotion to his beloved is greater than any other's in the world, and a headdress adorned with flowers that will bloom only when worn by a woman whose devotion to her beloved equals his. T o counter the efforts of Arcalaus, a good enchantress, Urganda the Unknown, guides and protects Amadis throughout his life. Every time he needs her help she appears. Similarly, the evil enchanter, Arcalaus, ap- pears when the storyteller needs a limit to his hero's al- most unlimited powers; for example, he tricks Amadis into entering an enchanted chamber whose power causes him to faint and appear to die. Arcalaus comes to court to trick King Lisuarte into permitting him to wed Oriana. He lends the king two magical objects: a crown that guar- antees its wearer perpetual honour and power, and an en- chanted cloak for the queen that ensures that there can never be discord between the wearer and her mate. They may retain the gifts until Arcalaus comes to claim them. If for any reason Lisuarte cannot return them, he must promise to grant him whatever he wants. The evil en- chanter sends an emissary to the queen for the crown and cloak, and then comes in person to claim the missing items. Unable to return them, Lisuarte must surrender his only daughter Oriana to the evil magician. A traditional paradisaical land of abundance, La Tierra de Jauja, where the streets are paved with eggs and sweets, rivers run with wine and honey, roast partridges fly by with tortillas in their beaks saying 'Eat Me' is de- scribed by Luis Barahona de Soto (1548—95) in Diâlogo

SPAIN 486 de la monteria (also in Lope de Rueda's La Tierra de Jauja, 1547). Mateo de Alemân alludes to this territory in the picaresque novel Guzman de Alfarache, as does Fray Juan de Pineda in Didlogos familiar es de la agricultura cristiana (1589). Heroes kill two grotesque, horrific monsters, another feature of fairy tales. One in Amadis is the hideous fruit of an incestuous union between the giant Bandaguido and his daughter Bandaguida, and the other is a fearsome dragon said to have consumed a whole town, in the cru­ sade narrative Gran Conquista de Ultramar. In a ballad, a dragon abducts a princess ('El culebro raptor'), and in another a seven-headed serpent gnaws at a penitent sin­ ner ('Penitencia del rey don Rodrigo'). The fantasy of a grotesque mountain woman, who preys on travellers, ap­ pears in many tales. Her horrible nature is best described, in a ballad, as a lamia with the head and breast of a woman and the body of a serpent ('La Gallarda, mata- dora'). Time is manipulated magically in many ballads and tales. In a ballad, a captive's magic sleep makes him think only minutes have passed. In reality seven years have gone by ('El conde Arnaldos'). In prose this motif oc­ curred in the tale o f ' D o n Illân and the Dean of Santiago' in El Conde Lucanor (1335) by Don Juan Manuel (1282—1347). In a 15th-century compilation of sermonic exempla a friar follows a bird to paradise and returns 100 years later (Libro de los enxenplos por a.b.c. by Clémente Sanchez de Vercial, 1 3 7 0 - 1 4 2 6 , translated as The Book of Tales by A.B.C. in 1992). In the most famous Golden A g e drama, La vida es sueno (1631—2), Pedro Calderôn de la Barca (1600—81) has his hero Segismundo fall into a magic time-distorting sleep. Storytellers interpolated fairy tales in larger narratives. T h e Libro de Apolonio (1235—40) begins with a princess who is the prize offered to the solver of a hermetic riddle. In Gran conquista de Ultramar (1295—1312), 'The Swan Knight' is inserted into a crusade story. Princess Isom- berta's family arranges a marriage for her, and she es­ capes in a rudderless boat without sails. She lands on a deserted island where Count Eustacio finds her in a hol­ low tree. He is uneasy about this strange apparition and consults his mother Ginesa about marriage to her. His mother disapproves, but they wed anyway. While Eusta­ cio is away Isomberta has seven babies. Multiple births were thought to be results of adulterous behaviour, but an angel comes to save her and the babies putting a gold

84 7 SPAIN collar on each child. Ginesa orders a servant to kill the children, but he takes them to a wilderness and abandons them. A deer nurses them until a hermit adopts them and raises them. Ginesa spies six of the boys, takes them to her palace, and orders her servants to kill them, but first to remove their collars. Their collars removed, the boys turn into swans and fly away. She takes the gold (silver) to a metalworker who melts it and makes a goblet. He keeps the metal from the five collars since one suffices for the goblet. When their father learns the truth, the five remaining collars are restored. The seventh lad, still wearing his collar and accompanied by his swan brother, spends his life defending those who need him, including his calumniated mother. When he marries, he imposes an interdiction on his bride. She may never ask him for his name, nor his origin. If she does, he must leave forever, carried away by his swan brother. Sometimes fairy tales leave only traces of themselves in the form of allusions. Allusive passages in literary works are signs that the tale had spread widely enough in the community to be familiar to the average reader. For instance, the anonymous author of a 16th-century picar­ esque novel La^arillo de Tormes alluded to an Arabic tale 'The House Where No One Eats Nor Drinks' in a chap­ ter where his hero serves an impoverished squire. Cer­ vantes refers to the 'Frogs who asked Jupiter for a King' and the 'Princess Rescued by a Half-Man, Half-Bear' in Don Quixote. Later Fernân Caballero (pseudonym of Cecilia *Bôhl de Faber) and Alonso de Morales related the same story as 'Las princesas encantadas'. Many stories like 'The *Tale of a Youth who Set Out to Learn What Fear Was' were part of Spain's cultural heritage (Quinquagenas, Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo, 1478-1557). Lope de Vega (1562—1635) alluded to it in two dramas (Losporceles de Murcia, c. 1604—8), Quien ama no haga fiero, c. 1620—2), and later Juan de Ariza wrote a story 'Perico sin Miedo' (1848). While the interest for the modern reader of the anto- nomastic lover, Don Juan, is his indefatigable pursuit of women, in El burlador de Sevilla, the public for Tirso de Molina (pseudonym of Friar Gabriel Tellez, 1571—1648) was more concerned with his lack of repentance as evi­ denced in his invitation to dinner to the dead Comenda- dor's statue, a situation paralleled in the tale o f ' T h e Skull Invited to Dinner'. Antonio de Zamora (1664—1728) wrote a version No hay pla^o que no se cumpla, ni deuda que no se pague, y convidado de piedra (No Agreement Goes

Unfulfilled, nor Any Debt Unpaid). A dead person grants good fortune to his benefactor and returns to demand the reward promised him in Lope de Vega's Don Juan de Cas­ tro (c. 1604—8), a theme also used by Calderôn in Elmejor amigo el muerto (1636). Similarly, proverbs that enjoyed popular currency are evidence that the tales to which they refer existed in the oral tradition. For example, a fanciful story tells of an encounter between a giant who reproached Pedro de Urdimales when he tried to carry off a mountain full of firewood, telling him to be satisfied with one tree. A 17th- century proverb collection lists the tale's echo, 'Pedro de Urdimales, o todo el monte, o nonada' ('Either the Whole Mountain or Nothing'). Another source of information about fairy tales is the oral-traditional ballad. These brief narratives were first written down in the 16th century, but it was not until 1832 that Agustfn Durân published his Romancero general and Ferdinand Wolf and Conrad Hoffman collected them in Primaveray flor de romances (1856). Among these popular narratives, we find the tale of a hunter who comes upon an enchanted princess in a tree. Like the princess in *'Sleeping Beauty' ('Briar Rose') she had been cursed at birth by one of seven fairies who had come to bring her gifts. She was compelled to spend seven years in an en­ chanted tree. Like the count in the 'Swan Knight' story, the frightened hunter must first consult his mother (aunt) before he can agree ('La infantina'). In variant versions, he makes sexual demands on her. She reveals she is the Virgin Mary ('El caballero burlado a lo divino'). In an­ other ballad he comes upon a magical dove and promises that her offspring and his will be brothers and sisters ('El mal cazador'). In still another, a deer is really an enchant­ ed princess who asks him to marry her ('La nina encan- tada'). A serpent appears to a woman at a fountain. He is a king enchanted for six years ('La inocente acusada'). In a Portuguese ballad, a man falls in love with a Moorish woman in a castle. He captures the castle, but she disap­ pears magically ('A moura encantada'). Echoing the ex­ perience of the 'Bold Knight' and Prince Roboân, a fairy takes her lover to her bed in a far-off land and keeps him enchanted. He has a son with her ('Los amores de Flor- iseo y de la reina de Bohemia'). Extraordinary people are said to be other-worldly. A man whose beauty rivals the stars causes the goddess of beauty to fall in love with him ('Romance del infante Troco').

84 9 SPAIN Strange, magical happenings are often associated with the sea. A sailor's song calms the sea and the winds, causes fish to leap out of water, and birds to perch on a ship's mast ('El conde Arnaldos'). The protagonist of several ballads travels in a magic boat. Just as in the chiv- alric novel El caballero Zifar, in which the knight's wife single-handedly steers a boat whose sails fill miraculously and whose rudder takes her to a safe harbour, a galley without sails and oars is invincible in battle ('La toma de Galera'). In a Portuguese ballad, an exiled woman re­ turns home in a boat without sails ('A filha desterrada'). Hero seeks Leander in a boat using her sleeves as sails, and her arms as oars ('Hero y Leandro'). Reminiscent of *Rapunzel, imprisoned in a tower, Leander lets down her long hair so that her lover can climb ('Hero y Leandro'), and still another woman uses her long tresses as a lifeline for a drowning man ('Repuisa y compasiôn'). Other unusual objects have migrated from fairy tales to ballad narratives. A gigantic sapphire adorns a castle tower and illuminates the area, promising marvellous events. Night becomes day ('Romance de Rosaflorida'). A magic sword promises that the hero need only brandish it to cut a swath through the enemy ranks ('El conde Nino'). Just as fairy-tale objects had migrated to ballads, they also made their way into prose narratives. Cervantes alluded to magic wands in two of his Exemplary Novels: El casamiento engahos ( The Deceitful Marriage) and Los banos de Argel {The Bagnios of Algiers). Magic animals figure in many ballads. A marauding deer leads seven lions and a lioness to kill knights and their horses ('Romance de Lanzarote'). A speaking horse will aid the hero if given winesop and not fodder ('Gaife- ros libera a Melisendra'), 'Pérdida de don Beltrân', 'Passo de Roncesval', 'Conde Olinos'). Birds carry messages from captives to their potential rescuers ('El Conde Cla- ros en hâbito de fraile'; ' L a esposa de D . Garcia'). A n ­ other bird warns men not to trust women ('La tortola del peral'). A dove sustains a shepherdess for seven years with a magic flower ('A pastora devota de Maria', ' L a devota del rosario'). Problem pregnancies in ballads are attributed to inhaling the magic fragrance of some flowers or treading upon magic grass ('Romance de don Tristan', 'La mala hierba'). 2 . T H E l8TH C E N T U R Y As far as fairy tales are concerned in Spanish literature,

SPAIN 490 the 18th century constitutes a tremendous gap; the almost total absence of fantasy short narrative in that period comes to an end in the next century. However, before exploring the main tendencies and writers of the Marchen in the 19th century, it is worth recounting the reasons why the Spanish A g e of Reason showed such a negative attitude towards a genre that was otherwise profusely used in neighbouring countries, above all in France. In 18th-century Spanish literature, both the short novel and the short story failed to develop any degree of quality, and therefore they offer little interest to contem­ porary readers and scholars. Writers of the 18th century tended to devote their talents to other genres. While scarcely any attention was paid to short narrative genres, the Spanish literary heritage was enriched by many a writer's devotion to such genres as diaries, travel litera­ ture, speeches, journalistic essays, and Utopias, as the crit­ ic Esther Lacadena Calero has pointed out. According to Juan Antonio Rîos Carratala, one of the reasons why imaginative narrative genres were neglected in 18th-century Spain is that an omnipresent censorship controlled all kinds of publications and was especially vigilant with respect to periodicals and translations, mainly from French into Spanish. Such censorship, of both a civil and a religious nature, made it very difficult for editors to publish unauthorized works; however, there were some exceptions to this. Mariano José Nipho, for example, was an editor who went against the grain, supporting several publications which regularly pub­ lished short narratives and some moralistic tales ad­ dressed to a female reading public. Rîos Carratala also affirms that short narratives were despised by most important literary figures of the period as non-respectable genres, on the basis that they lacked the support of a classical literary tradition. Moreover, the same critic points out that literary theorists and writers of the time showed great mistrust of pure fiction; for them, literature had to play a moral and instructive role that short narratives of a fictitious nature could never per­ form, since they were considered to be simply destined to entertain their readers. Despite the forces working against the development of short narrative in 18th-century Spain, some examples of it can still be traced. Thus, Professor Antonio Fernandez Insuela of the University of Oviedo (Spain) studied the small corpus of short narrative publications in the 18th century, particularly in Tertulia de la aldea {A Village

491 SPAIN Literary Gathering). This journal was structured in sev­ eral sections, one of which included brief texts under the heading of 'tales', 'jokes', 'sayings', 'funny stories', etc., which had a historical or pseudo-historical origin and also sometimes a traditional or folk one. Rios Carratala (1993) mentions yet another 18th-century periodical which gave some attention to the short-story genre: El Correo de Madrid {The Madrid Post). In this periodical, apart from some moralistic stories, jokes, and anecdotes, it was likewise possible to read brief tales with a folk source. 3 . T H E 19TH C E N T U R Y With the advent of the 19th century, the situation of short narratives radically changed. In fact, it was during this century that the short story became an autonomous liter­ ary genre. Excellent examples of short narrative were produced at the time, and most of the great literary fig­ ures of the century tried their hand at writing short stor­ ies. It is Rios Carratala (1993) again who best summarizes the reasons why this change took place. First of all, he mentions the end of censorship during the 1830s. Second­ ly, he points out the enormous development of the press, since it benefited all literary genres, particularly the short story. In fact, the 19th-century short story was almost always initially published in literary sections of period­ icals. Throughout the 19th century the short story gained a degree of acceptance that it had lacked in the past; moreover, it received some critical attention, this being especially true in the case of the literary tale based on folk material. One aspect concerning the short stories produced in 19th-century Spanish literature is that they can be cate­ gorized according to many different types, as Baquero Goyanes has demonstrated in his seminal study El cuento espanol en el siglo XIX { The Spanish Short Story in the 19th Century, 1949). Some of the categories that he has distin­ guished are: literary versions of folk tales, fantastic tales, children's tales (in which the main character is a child), legendary tales, rural tales, historical and patriotic tales, religious tales, and humoristic and satiric tales. It is worth pointing out for our purposes that literary versions of folk tales were not often cultivated by Spanish 19th-cen­ tury writers. In fact, Baquero Goyanes is quite convinced that this category might just be comprised of Cecilia *Bohl de Faber's works as well as those of a couple of her

SPAIN 492 followers, Antonio de Trueba (1819—89) and Luis Coloma (1851—1914). Nevertheless, it would seem that the list of 19th-cen­ tury Spanish writers who appropriated folk material for their literary purposes could be further expanded so as to include the names of those who, in the history of Spanish literature, tend to figure prominently in categories dis­ tinct from that of the literary folk tradition. This would be the case of Emilia *Pardo Bazân and Vicente *Blasco Ibanez, generally regarded among the ranks of the natur­ alist school; Pedro Antonio de *Alarcôn, who is other­ wise grouped with romantic novelists; and writers like José Maria de *Pereda, Armando *Palacio Valdés, and Benito *Pérez Galdos, who were part of the realist trad­ ition; all of these writers cultivated to some degree the genre of the literary fairy tale. Furthermore 19th-century scholars and journalists such as Manuel *Ossorio y Ber­ nard and José *Godoy Alcantara can be added to the list, as can Juan Eugenio *Hartzenbusch, the famous romantic playwright. Mainly known for his poetry, Gustavo Adolfo *Bécquer nevertheless should be accorded a place within the history of the Spanish literary tale on account of his Leyendas {Legends, 1 8 7 1 ) , for which he drew motifs from Spanish legends as well as from the European folk tradition. A special case is that of Leopoldo *Alas 'Cla- rin'; he was not a writer of literary fairy tales himself, but was none the less a major defender of the genre, and was also responsible for some of the best short stories of the 19th century. There were no notable compilers of fairy tales like the Grimm brothers in Spain; yet, it should be pointed out that the romantic impulse to collect folk tales systematic­ ally did produce some outstanding results, if not as note­ worthy as those gathered in Germany. Cecilia Bôhl de Faber, generally referred to by her male pseudonym 'Fer- nân Caballero', is the most important figure to have transformed this impulse into an actual compilation of folk stories entitled Cuentos y poesias populates andalu^as (Popular Andalusian Tales and Poems, 1859). Her project was not as ambitious as that of the Grimms', since she did not aim at gathering folk tales from the whole of Spain, but only from one of its regions, Andalusia. However, like the Grimms she transcribed the stories she collected from different folk sources and subsequently adapted them to her own literary taste.

493 SPAIN 4. T H E 2 0 T H C E N T U R Y In the 20th century it becomes much more difficult to make a comprehensive analysis of literature written in Spanish owing to the influence of other cultures and lit­ eratures. In fact, after gaining their independence, all South American countries began to develop their own sense of identity, out of which new forms of literature grew. At the turn of the century, two writers figure promin­ ently in Spain: Pio *Baroja and the Nobel Prize-winner Jacinto *Benavente. A s was the trend in the 19th century, neither of them was associated explicitly with the fairy­ tale genre, but both had some connection to it. Baroja, one of the greatest contemporary Spanish novelists, wrote some short narratives of a fantastic nature akin to those by Edgar Allan Poe, while Benavente's plays for children were almost always inspired by one classical fairy tale or another. From the 1940s to the 1960s, however, a good number of writers began to devote themselves more specifically to the fairy-tale genre. It should be noted that many of them were women writers who had in mind an adolescent audi­ ence, or who were simply writing for children. Thus ap­ peared collections of fairy stories by writers like Maria Luisa *Gefaell, Concha *Castroviejo, Maria Luisa *Villardefrancos, and Elizabeth *Mulder. During these decades of Franco's dictatorship, the fairy tale was often used to convey a traditional ideology that was being pro­ moted by the followers of the regime. The girls' maga­ zine Ba^ar, for instance, was intended to inculcate in its readers an ideal of femininity characterized by docility, passivity, and piety. It promoted a kind of woman who had no other interests beyond household and marital du­ ties, whose body was to conform to canonical beauty, and who duly fulfilled the precepts of Catholicism. Aurora *Mateos, for years the editor of Ba^ar, made sure that one or several fairy tales imbued with such an ideology filled some of the pages of each issue. For the most part, the approach to folk and fairy-tale materials underwent a dramatic change from the 1970s onwards in Spain, although examples can still be found, such as that of Ana Maria *Matute, of writers who vener­ ate the established fairy-tale canon and do not wish to subvert it. With the beginnings of democracy, the censor­ ship imposed by the Franco regime was brought to an end, with the result that many themes, until then con­ sidered taboo, could be freely dealt with in literature.

SPAIN 494 Fairy-tale material was used in works that tried to decon­ struct traditional discourses concerning the national past, Catholic morals and manners, and a good number of sex­ ual taboos, as in Juan *Goytisolo's work. Feminist ideol­ ogy was also soon easily identifiable in much of post-Franco literature, and feminist writers were often in­ spired by the genre of the fairy tale, as is the case of a good number of Sara *Suârez Solis's short stories, and also of Carmen *Martin Gaite's novels and fairy tales; some famous publishing houses even produced whole collections in which the best-known traditional fairy tales were rewritten with a feminist bias, of which the series 'The Three Twins', published by Planeta, is an excellent example. Feminist revision of fairy tales is a phenomenon that has likewise affected the production of several Latin American writers from the 1970s onwards. The Puerto Rican Rosario Ferré, Luisa *Valenzuela, and Marco Denevi, both Argentinian, figure among those writers who have used fairy-tale material in their short stories in order to socialize their reading public according to values other than the patriarchal ones, or at least, to make their readers conscious of the patriarchal ideology inscribed in many traditional narratives. In Chile, during Salvador Allende's presidency (1970—3) a publishing house called Quimantu working under the auspices of the Unidad Popular (Allende's pol­ itical party) published Cabrochico (Small Child), a chil­ dren's magazine in which several classical fairy tales appeared; they were all refashioned according to the so­ cialist ideology that the leaders of the country wanted to disseminate. Leaving aside the socializing aim which fairy stories have often been intended to fulfil in contemporary South American literature, what is undeniable about the genre is that it has ignited such movements as magical realism in Spanish. Moreover, in the case of the short story, a num­ ber of South American writers are reputed to have pro­ duced the best examples of the literary fairy tale in the Spanish language. The three names most often cited are: Gabriel *Garcîa Marquez, Julio *Cortazar, and above all Jorge Luis *Borges. In their works, folk and fairy-tale material are intertwined with features borrowed from the genres of the fantastic and magic realism, the fundamen­ tal South American contribution to contemporary world literature. Borges, one of the best short-story writers in the Spanish language, adds yet another element to his

495 SPRINGER, NANCY literary production—the inspired touch of The ^Arabian Nights, the masterpiece which influences almost all of his works. HG/CF Baquero Goyanes, Mariano, El cuento espahol en el siglo XIX (1949). El cuento espahol. Del Romanticismo al Realismo (1992). Boggs, Ralph Steele, Index of Spanish Folktales (1930). Bravo-Villasante, Carmen, Historia de la literatura infantil espanola (1972). Antologia de la literatura infantil espanola (1979). Cerda, Hugo, Ideologiay cuentos de hadas (1985). Chevalier, Maxime, Cuentos folkoricos espaholes del Siglo de Oro (1983). Cuentos maravillosos, Biblioteca Românica Hispânica (1995). Espinosa, Aurelio, The Folklore of Spain in the American Southwest: Traditional Spanish Folk Literature in Northern New Mexico and Southern Colorado (1985). Fernandez Insuela, Antonio, 'Notas sobre la narrativa breve en las publicaciones periodicas del siglo X V I I I : Estudio de la Tertulia de la aldea', Estudios de historia social, 52—3 (1990). Garcia Collado, Marian, 'El cuento folklorico y sus adaptaciones: Entre la tradicion oral y la fijacion escrita. Très apropiaciones del cuento \"Juan el oso\" (cuento tipo A T 301b)', Revista de Dialectologlay Tradiciones Populares, 47 (1992). Goldberg, Harriet, Motif-Index of Medieval Spanish Narrative (1998). Lacadena Calero, Esther, La prosa en el siglo XVIII (1985). Rios Carratala, Juan Antonio, 'La narrativa breve en Espafia (siglos X V I I I y X I X ) ' , in J . L. Alonso Hernandez, M. Gosman, and R. Rinaldi (eds.), La Nouvelle Romane (Italia—France—Espaha) (1993). one of its reference points when the mother own, got married to Wendy's niece, became a reads to Gertie the chapter in which Tinker- bell, having drunk poison to save Peter's life, is cellphone-addicted lawyer in America, and herself saved from death by children all over the world clapping in affirmation of their belief erased all memory of his former life. T h e se- in fairies. Soon after, when both E . T . and Elliott are near death, E . T . saves Elliott by cond was that Hook did not perish inside the breaking the empathie bond which links them; as a result Elliott revives while E . T . is pro- crocodile at the end of the original story, but nounced clinically dead. Alone with the body, in a scene which caused cinema audiences survived, and reopens the old battle by abduct- around the world to weep, Elliott tells E . T . that he loves him. Almost immediately, E . T . ' s ing Peter's children. Thanks to Tinkerbell's inner light begins to glow. Within the narra- tive, this resuscitation is ascribed to his having continuing devotion to him, Peter manages to received a telepathic energy injection from his mothership; but to audiences it is quite plain pursue them to Neverland, win over the Lost that their tears, and Elliott's love, are the real cause of E.T.'s resurrection. B o y s and get b a c k into fighting s h a p e — e x c e p t Nine years later, with Hook ( U S A , 1991), that he cannot fly—within the allotted three Spielberg returned to Barrie. He had long wanted to film the play more or less straight, days. Having once again saved his life, though but seems to have decided that modern audi- ences could not take its whimsy or its political less dramatically than before, Tinkerbell lets incorrectness, so approached the play oblique- ly, using a script based on two suppositions. Peter go, accepting with sorrow that he will T h e first o f these w a s that Peter eventually left Neverland so that he could have children of his n e v e r be hers. H e finally b e c o m e s airborne, and able to defeat Hook, as a result of having a happy thought about his children. Reunited with his family, he throws his cellphone away to symbolize that he intends never again to lose contact with the child within. The B o y who Would Not Grow Up has become The Man who at Last Learned to G r o w U p . TAS SPRINGER, NANCY (1948- ), American writer of fantasy novels for children and adults. Although standard folklore and fantasy tropes (wizards, fairies, magical beasts) can be found throughout this author's early fiction, it is

STAHL, KAROLINE 496 Springer's powerful mature work on which her 1985 ( J a c o b G r i m m ' s 200th birthday) the Swiss reputation rests. I n The Hex Witch of Seldom postal service followed a similar approach (1988), she makes highly original use of Penn­ using such tales as 'Cinderella', 'Hansel and sylvania D u t c h folklore. I n Fair Peril (1996), Gretel', 'Snow White', and 'Little Red Riding Springer creates a droll modern fairy tale for Hood'. adult readers. T h e novel concerns a middle- A l s o in 1985 the East G e r m a n postal service aged woman, her daughter, an annoying talking issued a set of six Brothers Grimm commem­ frog, and the magical realm of Fair Peril which orative stamps. Once again there was one lies between two stores at the mall. TW stamp depicting Jacob and Wilhelm, while the other five stamps each illustrated one scene out S T A H L , K A R O L I N E (née DUMPF, 1 7 7 6 - 1 8 3 7 ) , of ' T h e *Brave Little Tailor', 'The Seven Livonian writer of fairy tales and didactic lit­ Ravens', 'Lucky Hans', *'Puss-in-Boots', and erature for children. Much in the tradition of 'The Sweet Porridge'. T h e Hungarian postal the French tales she partially emulated, Stahl's service also remembered the Grimms with fables and reworkings of fairy-tale and saga similar stamps during that year, and stamps motifs included moral instruction for upper- have also been issued in Bulgaria, Czecho­ class children, enjoining them to avoid the slovakia, Denmark, Finland, Luxembourg, seven deadly sins of childhood: envy, tattling, Poland, and Romania. A t least such stamps vanity, prattling, unhealthy snacking, danger­ were affordable and brought joy and memories ous play, and haughtiness. A few of the tales to many. One wonders how many people will from h e r Fabeln, Màrchen und Errdhlungen ever see the 1,000 G e r m a n marks bill that d e ­ (Fables, Fairy Tales and Stories, 1818) found picts the Brothers Grimm and which was put their way in altered form into the second edi­ into circulation in 1990 shortly after tion o f the *Kinder- und Hausmdrchen (Chil­ reunification. WM dren s and Household Taies). SCJ Partington, Paul, Fairy Tales and Folk Tales on Stamps (1970). STAMPS AND FAIRY TALES. Many national postal 'STEADFAST T I N SOLDIER, T H E ' ('Den Standhaf- services have recognized what pleasure it tige Tinsoldat'), published in the third collec­ would bring to children and adults if they were tion o f Eventyr, fortaltefor Born ( Tales, Told for to produce series of stamps depicting certain Children, 1838), remains a m o n g the most popu­ fairy-tale motifs. In addition to the pragmatic lar of Hans Christian *Andersen's tales. It is the aspect of selling stamps needed to post mail, first of several stories to animate inanimate ob­ the postal services also appreciated the com­ jects; others include 'Grantraeet' ('The Fir mercial advantage of these stamps since many Tree') and 'Stoppenaalen' ('The Darning Nee­ customers purchased them as collectors' items. dle'). Fairy-tale stamps are thus part and parcel of the mercantile exploitation of the traditional O n e o f 25 tin soldiers in a b o x , the protago­ tales, no matter how delightful the images on nist lacks one leg 'as he was the last to be made the stamps might be. and there wasn't enough tin to go round'. Des­ pite this handicap (or perhaps because of it), his The German postal services issued a series devotion to military decorum is uncompromis­ of fairy-tale stamps, starting with a single ing, and he never slackens in his erect and sto­ stamp illustrating the Brothers *Grimm, be­ ical demeanour. Falling in love with a paper tween 1959 (Wilhelm G r i m m died 100 years ballerina—both for her beauty and because he earlier) and 1967. Choosing always four major thinks that she, too, has only one leg—he motifs of each individual tale, these sets depict­ spends his days gazing longingly at her but ed such well-known fairy tales as ' T h e Star never betraying his feelings. Whether by acci­ Coins', *'Little Red Riding Hood', *'Hansel dent or through the ill will of a jealous goblin, and Gretel', *'Snow White', 'The Wolf and the the soldier falls from the window. When the Seven Young Kids', *'Sleeping Beauty', ^Cin­ owners look for him, he refrains from calling derella', ' T h e *Frog King', and \"\"Mother out, thinking such action unbecoming his uni­ Holle'. But there was a positive price to be paid form. Several misadventures follow: two ur­ for these stamps. In addition to their value of chins place him in a paper boat; he is swept into 10, 20, and up to 50 pfennigs, purchasers had to a culvert and, Jonah-like, swallowed b y a fish. p a y between 5 and 25 pfennigs extra for the Through all, he remains silent, staunchly purpose of helping needy children: a clever shouldering his weapon and always standing idea by the national postal service, and one that erect. Miraculously returned to the toy room benefited children throughout the country. In

497 STEIN, GERTRUDE (the fish is caught, then purchased b y the based on *'Little Red Riding Hood', examines c o o k ) , he is o v e r j o y e d to find the dancer still in the doorway of her castle and almost weeps the allure of the wolves in our lives. 'In the 'tears of tin' at what he sees as her fidelity, though he restrains himself. One of the chil­ Night Country' (1995) turns 'Brother and Sis­ dren suddenly seizes and throws him into the fire. Still erect, the soldier begins to melt, but ter' into a powerful novella about troubled whether the heat consuming him 'came from the actual fire or from l o v e , he had no idea'. teenagers. ' T h e Cats of San Martino' (1998) A l m o s t simultaneously b l o w n into the fire b y a gust of wind, the paper dancer is similarly con­ sets an Italian fairy tale in modern Tuscany. sumed. Though the two are united at last, all that remains are a lump of tin in the shape of a ' T h e Season of the Rains' (1998) works 'Lilith' heart and the dancer's spangle 'burnt black as coal'. legends into the story of a scientist whose heart is as dry as the desert he studies. TW STEIC, WILLIAM (1907- ), an American artist w h o s e cartoons in the New Yorker led to suc­ cess as a children's book illustrator and author. Steig's stories are often talking-beast tales in which the good-hearted young protagonist dis­ The story is unusual among Andersen's plays the attributes of a fairy-tale hero(ine) in early tales both in its emphasis on sensual de­ undertaking a journey and overcoming adver­ sire and in its ambiguities. Blind fate, not inten­ sity with the aid of magic. He won the Calde- tion, determines all events. Moreover, the cott Medal for Sylvester and the Magic Pebble narrative questions the very decorum it praises. (1969), the story of a donkey turned to stone T h e tin soldier's passive acceptance of what­ because of a misguided wish, and a Caldecott ever happens to him, while exemplifying pietis- H o n o r for The Amazing Bone (1976), about a tic ideals of self-denial, also contributes to his pig rescued from the clutches of a fox by a doom. Were he to speak and act, the soldier bone that speaks in several languages, includ­ might gain both life and love. Restrained, how­ ing at least one effective witch spell. His N e w - ever, b y inhibition and convention, he finds b e r y H o n o r B o o k Dr DeSoto (1982) is a only tragedy and death. T h e tale is often read trickster tale about a mouse dentist who out­ autobiographically, with the soldier viewed as smarts another foxy adversary, this one with a symbolizing Andersen's feelings of inadequacy toothache as well as a taste for raw rodent 'with with women, his passive acceptance of bour­ just a pinch of salt, and a dry white wine'. geois class attitudes, or his sense of alienation, Although Steig has also proved adept at longer as an artist and outsider, from full participation fantasies, including the Newbery Honor Book in everyday life. A ballet version, set to music Abel's Island (1976), his most prolific genre has by Georges Bizet, was choreographed by been the picture book, in which spontaneous George *Balanchine in 1975. T h e tale has in­ pen-and-wash illustrations project his clear spired several short children's films, as w e l l as plots and witty narrative with equally clear col­ a feature-length science-fiction fantasy film, ours and witty linework. Steig's ongoing send- The Tin Soldier (1975), and several orchestral ups of traditional lore are clearly reflected in compositions. JGH Shrek! (1990), w h i c h includes a witch, a Bredsdorff, Elias, Hans Christian Andersen: The dragon, and a princess, who is just as ugly as Story of His Life and Work 1805— j<j (1975). Rossel, Sven Hakon (ed.), Hans Christian the dragon himself, with whom she lives 'hor­ Andersen: Danish Writer and Citizen of the World (1996). ribly e v e r after'; and The Toy Brother (1996), a Rubov, Paul V., 'Idea and Form in Hans Christian Andersen's Fairy Tales', in A Book on cross between Tittle T o m Thumb and the sor­ the Danish Writer Hans Christian Andersen: His Life and Work (1955). cerer's apprentice theme. BH Zipes, Jack, 'Hans Christian Andersen and the Discourse of the Dominated', in Fairy Tales and Bottner, Barbara, 'William Steig: The Two the Art of Subversion (1983). Legacies', The Lion and the Unicorn, 2.1 (1978). Moss, Anita, 'The Spear and the Piccolo: Heroic and Pastoral Dimensions of William Steig's Dominic and Abel's Island', Children's Literature, 10 (1982). STEIBER, ELLEN (1955- ), American writer of Wilner, Arlene, ' \"Unlocked by Love\": William fantasy novellas with fairy-tale themes. Japa­ Steig's Tales of Transformation and Magic', nese folklore permeates Shadow of the Fox Children's Literature, 18 (1990). (1994) and ' T h e F o x Wife' (1995), illuminating the boundaries between husbands and wives, STEIN, GERTRUDE (1874-1946), American poet passion and madness. 'Silver and Gold' (1994), and writer. In the 'Transatlantic Interview' (1946), Gertrude Stein insisted that all her poetry was 'children's poetry'. Clearly, she

STEPHENS, GEORGE 498 often experimented with children's genres, STEWART, S E A N (1965— ) , Canadian writer of such as the alphabet book. Her most famous thoughtful, well-crafted fantasy novels in the w o r k for children, The World is Round (1939), tradition of Ursula * L e G u i n . Nobody's Son experiments with fairy-tale discourse by juxta­ (1993) is a compelling 'post-fairy-tale' story, posing the linear narrative of a fairy tale within following its commoner-hero after the quest is the tale (chapters 29-34) to the 'rounder' nar­ done and the princess w o n . Clouds End (1996) rative of the book as a whole. Stein's satire of takes place in a vivid invented world and in­ narrative and gender stereotypes in children's cludes the folk tales of that land—original to literature is wittily reinforced by Clement the text but clearly modelled on traditional Hurd's pink-and-blue colour scheme. RF European folk tales. The 'changeling' and 'lost DeKoven, Marianne (ed.), 'Gertrude Stein child' motifs can be found threaded throughout Special Issue', MFS: Modern Fiction Studies, 42.3 (fall 1996). Stewart's w o r k , in Resurrection Man (1995) and The Night Watch (1997) as well as the two Rust, Martha Dana, 'Stop the World, I Want to novels listed above. TW Get Off! Identity and Circularity in Gertrude Stein's The World Is Round, Style, 30.1 (spring STOCKTON, FRANK (1834-1902), American 1996). author, particularly noted for his humorous Watts, Linda S., 'Twice upon a Time: Back stories for adults and his fairy tales for chil­ Talk, Spinsters, and Re-Verse-als in Gertrude dren. Although, at his father's insistence, Stein's The World Is Round (1939)', Women and Stockton was trained as a wood-engraver, he Language, 16.1 (spring 1993). soon began writing short stories in his spare time; b y his mid 30s, he was supporting himself STEPHENS, GEORGE (1813-95), Scottish linguist as a freelance writer and journalist. His first b o o k of fairy tales, Ting-a-ling (later Ting-a- and folktale collector, resident of Sweden ling Tales), w a s published in 1870; rather crude and violent in comparison to his later work, the 1834-51, professor at the University of adventures of the diminutive fairy Ting-a-ling also suggest the humour and imagination that Copenhagen beginning in 1855. Stephens edit­ were to become his special strengths. In 1873 he was invited to become the assistant editor to ed and published collections of Swedish folk Mary Mapes Dodge of the new children's magazine St. Nicholas. H e held this position for tales and songs. Together with Gunnar Olof five years, until ill health forced him to take an easier job with Scribner's Monthly, and con­ Hyltén-Cavallius, he founded the Swedish S o ­ tinued to write for St. Nicholas well into the 1890s—so prolifically, in such a variety of ciety for Ancient Writings in 1843, a n ( ^ pub­ genres, that he was obliged to adopt two add­ itional pseudonyms. D u r i n g the 1880s and lished Svenska folksagor och afventyr (Swedish 1890s Stockton was also one of America's most popular authors for adults, best known for such Folktales and Folk Stories, 1844—9). T h i s c o l ­ h u m o r o u s novels as Rudder Grange (1879) ^a n c The Casting Away of Mrs. Leeks and Mrs. Alesh- lection, having a purely scholarly purpose, ine (1886) and for wild and ingenious short stories, sometimes bordering on science fiction. never achieved the same popularity with read­ His single most famous short story was the classic teaser 'The Lady or the Tiger?' ers as those compiled by the *Grimms or In addition to Ting-a-ling, Stockton pro­ *Asbjornsen and Moe. MN duced four volumes of literary fairy tales, most o f which w e r e originally published in the St. STEVENSON, ROBERT LOUIS (1850-94), Scottish Nicholas: The Floating Prince and Other Fairy Tales (1881), The Bee-Man of Orn and Other writer of adventure stories and travel essays, Fanciful Tales (1887), The Queen's Museum (1887), and The Clocks of Rondaine and Other especially k n o w n for Treasure Island (1883) and Stories (1892). His role w a s pivotal in the de­ velopment of the American fairy tale. Before The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde 1880 little fantasy had been written in America, even for children; Stockton became the first (1886), both of which have become Western cultural icons. Over the course of his lifetime, Stevenson published three collections of tales. His first collection, New Arabian Nights (1882) includes 'The Suicide Club' and 'The Rajah's Diamond', in which Prince Florizel of Bohe­ mia and C o l o n e l Géraldine p a r o d y The *Ara~ bian Nights' H a r u n a r - R a s h i d and his grand-vizier. T h e title story of The Merry Men and Other Tales and Fables (1887) d r a w s from Scottish lore, and his third collection, Island Nights' Entertainments (1893), contains a F a u s - tian tale set in Hawaii, 'The Bottle Imp', in which Keawe buys a magic bottled imp and is granted all he desires, but must sell it before he dies or 'burn in hell forever'. AD

STOCKTON, FRANK The majestic griffin carries away the canon in Frank Stockton's 'The Griffin and the Minor Canon', collected in The Queen's Museum ( 1 8 8 7 ) , illustrated by Frederick Richardson.

STORM, THEODOR 500 American author to develop a species of fairy was that of a bee-man. The king who begins tale with a distinctively American character. his travels under the direction of a sphinx in Although he drew liberally from the stock 'The Banished King', intending to learn how to plots and characters of European and Near rule more wisely, never returns to his king­ Eastern folk tales, he had, he says, ideas of his dom, leaving it in the competent hands of his own about the 'fanciful creatures' of tradition, queen. The prince of 'Prince Hassak's March' which he consciously incorporated into his becomes hopelessly lost in his attempt to march stories: 'I did not dispense with monsters and from one kingdom to another in 'a mathemat­ enchanters, or talking beasts and birds, but I ically straight line'. The three conceited obliged these creatures to infuse into their princes in 'The Sisters Three and the Kilmaree' extraordinary actions a certain leaven of com­ are unable to reach the three beautiful sisters mon sense.' The incongruity of common sense on their island until they have learned humility in a monster became not only a source of wry and built a fairy 'kilmaree', a boat shaped like a humour, but also a reflection of American scep­ ram's horn that cannot possibly sail straight. ticism towards the irrational. Stockton's fairy­ Those characters who do succeed in Stockton's land is essentially democratic, too, despite its metaphor for life do not march arrogantly to­ kings and queens; there is little of the jockey­ ward their goal; like Prince Nassime, 'The ing over status or social class characteristic of Floating Prince', they must be willing to Lewis *Carroll's imaginary worlds. And while ' f l o a t ' — t o be flexible and take what comes to the 'fanciful creatures' may play a traditional them in their journey, and to learn from all animal-helper role in assisting the protagonist the strange creatures they meet along the way. on a quest, they are in no w a y subject to him; often, they are pursuing quests of their own. In SR this, as in other respects, Stockton's fairy tales Golemba, Henry L., Frank Stockton (1981). may well have influenced those of L . Frank Griffin, Martin I. J . , Frank Stockton: A Critical *Baum. Biography (1939). Rahn, Suzanne, 'Life at the Squirrel Inn: Frank Most of Stockton's tales are based on famil­ Stockton's Fairy Tales', in Rediscoveries in iar folk-tale patterns. Some, the simplest, are Children's Literature (1995). about children who encounter a 'fanciful crea­ Zipes, Jack, 'Afterword', in The Fairy Tales of ture' and earn some reward from it, like the Frank Stockton (1990). heroines of 'Toads and Diamonds' or 'Snow White and Rose Red'. A larger and more inter­ STORM, THEODOR (1817-88), German novelist esting group of stories is based on such tales of and lyric poet who studied law at Kiel and Ber­ quests and journeys as 'The Water of Life' and lin. During this time he fell in love with the 'The Seven Ravens'. In these, the protagonists 11-year-old Bertha von Buchan, who later re­ are royal; their quests often take them to dis­ jected his proposal. For her, he composed nu­ tant lands, where they may encounter a wide merous poems and his first fairy tale, 'Hans variety of creatures—from the dryads of Bar' (1837), written in the *Grimm tradition. Greek myth, to the giants, fairies, and hobgob­ Storm gained renown for novellas of poetic lins of European folklore, to the sphinxes and realism, but he also kept on writing fairy tales, génies of the East. The third group is farthest resulting from a lifelong interest in mythology from folktale origins and contains some of and folklore. His most popular fairy tale, Der Stockton's most original and philosophical kleine Hdwelmann (The Little Hdwelmann, tales. Their protagonists are of lowly social sta­ 1849), written for his 1-year-old son, is the tus, their problems are universal—old age in story of a child's nocturnal journey in its cra­ 'Old Pipes and the Dryad', destiny in 'The dle. 'Hinzelmeier' (1857), a tale about the Bee-Man of Orn', the failure of goodness to choice between the philosopher's stone and the redeem human nature in 'The Griffin and the rose maiden, deviates from the traditional Minor Canon'—and their outcomes are not fairy-tale pattern in not providing a happy end­ conventional happy endings. ing. In 1866 Storm published the book Drei Mdrchen (Three Fairy Tales, 1873), consisting There is an underlying melancholy in many of three tales previously published individually of Stockton's best fairy tales, and the quest- in magazines: 'Bulemanns Haus' ('Bulemann's journey, his favourite plot device, is generally House'), 'Die Regentrude' ('The Rain Maid­ given an ironic twist. Quests tend to go awry, en'), and 'Der Spiegel des Cyprianus' and many end inconclusively or in failure. The ('Cyprianus' Mirror'). 'Bulemanns Haus' is the Bee-Man's long search for his 'original form' uncanny tale about the literal decline of a results in his discovery that his original form

5oi S T O R Y T E L L I N G A N D F A I R Y T A L E S stingy misanthropist. In 'Die Regentrude', Stephens, John, Language and Ideology in Children's Fiction (1992). Storm combines an old folk tale with the love Storr, Catherine, 'Folk and Fairy Tales', Children's Literature in Education, 17 (1986). story of two young peasants who are sent to STORYTELLING A N D FAIRY T A L E S . Fairy stories oc­ wake up the rain maiden in order to avert the cupy an important place in storytelling. Anne Pellowski's 1977 survey revealed the existence drought caused by her deep sleep. 'Der Spiegel of the activity in every part of the inhabited world. In the past, storytelling required an ap­ des Cyprianus' is based on a theme that recurs prenticeship in some places, and in others it was passed down by families of storytellers in Storm's later works: unbridled passion as de­ from one generation to the next. Storytelling encompasses oral history, religion, mythology, structive power. CS legends, fables, folk tales, and fairy stories. Distinctions between the last three are blurred. Artiss, David S., 'Theodor Storm's Four Elizabeth Cook acknowledged that critics have spent much time trying to identify the differ­ Marchen: Early Examples of his Prose ences between them. She claimed that, in fact, all three were about human behaviour in a Technique', Seminar: A Journal of Germanic world of magic. If this definition is accepted, then it becomes obvious that Anne Pellowski Studies, 14 (1978). found that fairy tales were being told in coun­ tries as diverse as Russia, Ireland, China, Aus­ Freund, Winfried, 'Ruckkehr zum Mythos: tralia, India, and Morocco, as well as many Mythisches und symbolisches Erzahlen in others. Theodor Storms Marchen \"Die Regentrude\" ', Schriften der Theodor-Storm-Gesellsckaft, 35 Storytelling can be defined in a number of (1986). ways. It might be regarded as telling a tale to Hansen, Hans-Sievert, 'Narzissmus in Storms an audience without depending on the written Marchen: Eine psychoanalytische Interpretation', word, or it might be seen as taking the printed Schriften der Theodor-Storm-Gesellschaft, 26 words from a book and giving them life by reading them orally to one or more listeners. (i977)- In pre-literate societies, fairy tales would be S T O R R , C A T H E R I N E ( 1 9 1 3 - ), born in London, told and passed down from one generation to earned degrees in English and medicine, prac­ the next. A s a consequence, the content of the tised as a psychiatrist and psychologist from stories would gradually change. Once books 1948 until 1962, and then devoted herself full- became more common and people more liter­ time to writing. Her treatment of fairy tales oc­ ate, fairy stories were collected in printed form. curs mainly in her four books about Polly and Thereafter, storytelling began to incorporate the Wolf, beginning with Clever Polly and the story reading, and it is likely that most fairy Stupid Wolf (1955) and concluding with Last stories are now told in this way. That is not to Stories of Polly and the Wolf (1990). In these say that this newer approach meets with uni­ stories the wolf attempts to capture Polly by versal approval. Some folklorists claim that a replaying the events and conventions of fairy fairy story loses its power and authority once it tales or other familiar narratives (a hijack, for is recorded in print, and there are still storytell­ example), and the theme which most common­ ers who believe that a story should be the prop­ ly emerges from this pattern is that individuals erty of its creator. Although these are minority achieve agency by comprehending society's opinions and reading aloud must now be ac­ cultural and linguistic codes and handling them knowledged to be the mode, there are still flexibly and adaptively. P o l l y a l w a y s wins b y powerful arguments for fairy stories being told reordering the narrative sequence, by pushing rather than read. it to a logical outcome detrimental to the wolf, or because fairy-tale conventions do not apply One of the most convincing cases for telling in the 'real' world. In 'Thinking in Threes' rather than reading fairy stories comes from (Last Stories), she advises the w o l f to read Bruno Bettelheim in his classic book on fairy fewer fairy tales and 'face real life instead'. tales, The Uses of Enchantment: The Meaning Here the series' pervasive scepticism about and Importance of Fairy Tales (1976). Bettel­ fairy tales as blueprints for life experience heim claimed that fairy tales should be told ra- emerges most overtly, though the idea also surfaced in a separate collection, It Shouldn't Happen to a Frog (1984), in which the main character attempts to replay four well-known fairy tales with the advantage of already know­ ing the tale, and discovers that to have the blueprint is not enough, as changing social cir­ cumstances produce either different outcomes or a different route to the expected outcome. JAS

STORYTELLING AND FAIRY TALES 502 ther than read because their meanings are Lewis's books results in most of the associated interpersonal. This applies particularly to older storytelling being confined mainly to reading fairy tales as opposed to newly created ones. from the books. The ancient fairy tales have been shaped and reshaped through millions of tellings, whereas Many children demonstrate the ability to re­ newer versions, being committed to print, are tell fairy stories from an early age. Arthur more static. Telling, claimed Bettelheim, is Applebee's study in 1973 revealed that even at preferable to reading because it allows for the age of 2 a considerable number could make greater flexibility. use of a formal beginning and the past tense consistently. It is, in all probability, the estab­ It is clear that Bettelheim is mainly con­ lished pattern of fairy stories which helps chil­ cerned with family storytelling in this respect, dren to retell them with some competence. preferably on a one-to-one basis. This allows Standardized beginnings and endings, the rapid both teller and listener to empathize with the identification of principal characters, a crisis or story and make subtle changes to it. That is not challenge followed by a rapid chain of events to say that the story should be used in a didac­ followed by a successful resolution all assist in tic way; the child will be able to derive mean­ this process, as does the frequent repetition of ings which are individually related. There is no words and phrases. need for the teller to explain the story. Although Bettelheim advocates telling rather Applebee also found that at the ages of both than reading fairy stories mainly in a family 6 and 9 fairy tales were the most frequently setting, Eileen Colwell—herself a distin­ chosen stories for retelling. A m o n g the most guished storyteller—also recommends this ap­ popular with 6-year-olds were *'Cinderella' proach with larger audiences. She regards the and 'Goldilocks'. At nine the most popular use of a book as a barrier to the intimate rela­ choices were 'The Three Little Pigs', Bed- tionship with the audience which the storyteller knobs and Broomsticks', 'The Lion, the Witch, should have. and the Wardrobe', *'Sleeping Beauty', 'The *Princess and the Pea', and *'Snow White'. A Audiences who listen to the telling of fairy significant difference between the 6- and stories vary from culture to culture, as do the 9-year-olds was that the former were far less venues for the activity. Anne Pellowski (1977) likely to be able to distinguish between fantasy found that in some societies storytelling oc­ and reality. They were far more likely to think curred in the workplace, at festivals, and in the that Cinderella was real or to be certain that street and market-place. Examples of the last they had personally encountered a real giant. named can still be found in Morocco, notably in the city of Marrakesh. Audiences in these Some of Applebee's findings have been con­ places will at times be mainly adult, at other firmed by Goeff Fenwick. He found young times mixed. In Western society the telling of children to be enthusiastic about the retelling fairy tales is much more likely to take place in of fairy tales, although before the age of 5 they the home or school and, to a much lesser ex­ encountered some trouble with providing a sat­ tent, in parks, around camp fires, and in librar­ isfactory ending. T h e y found fairy tales much ies. T h e main reason for this is probably that more easy to retell than other kinds of stories, once fairy stories were recorded in writing they and improved with practice. Although their re­ lost some of their vigour, became less frighten­ tellings were in the main accurate, they added ing and more genteel, and were consequently their own individual touches in much the same regarded as being mainly for a juvenile audi­ way as adult storytellers do. For example, there ence. might be four rather than three little pigs, the wise pig might trick the wolf by going to pick Fairy stories are often thought to be mainly apples at '40 o'clock' in the morning, one of the for young children, but in 1971 Elizabeth C o o k pigs might be rescued from the same cauldron claimed that pupils aged between 8 and 14 also in which the wolf is being boiled, Cinderella's enjoyed them. She mentions many of the stor­ coach can be motorized, and Goldilocks might ies from the collections by the Brothers steal the little bear's teddy bear. Many children *Grimm, *Andersen, and *Perrault in this re­ retell their stories dramatically, adopting the spect, but also the more recent works of Oscar appropriate mode. Their growing competence Wilde, George *MacDonald, C. S. *Lewis, and often seems to influence their ability to record J. R. R. Tolkien. Certainly Tolkien's books the same material in writing. The Hobbit (1937) and The Lord of the Rings (1954—5) have been v e r y popular in recent J a c k Zipes in Creative Storytelling suggests years. The length of both Tolkien's and that children might recognize the dynamic na­ ture of fairy stories by being asked to provide

STORYTELLING AND FAIRY TALES their own endings. In addition, characters and America, one of the best-known being the plots from different fairy stories might be Canadian-based Storytelling School of mixed up to illustrate the same point. For ex­ Toronto. The interest has been so great that ample, *Little Red Riding Hood and Snow National Festivals of Storytelling have been White might be included in the same story. A l ­ held from time to time in the United ternatively, different versions of the same story States. might be considered. B y these means, children are likely to understand the personal nature of In Great Britain there are a number of influ­ fairy stories and how they can change from one ential societies. One of them, the Company of telling to the next. Teresa Grainger also under­ Storytellers, comprises some 200 professionals lines the creative element in children's story­ who make some part of their living by giving telling. B y retelling fairy tales, they are not public performances of their art. Other associ­ only demonstrating their powers of recall and ations include Common Lore, the Crick-Crack comprehension, they are developing the power Club, the National Association for Storytell­ of their own language. Grainger recommends ing, and the Society for Storytelling. All of the use of fairy tales from different parts of the these groups make use of well-known fairy and world and suggests that children should share folk tales, and extend the range of their expert­ the telling of a fairy story or dramatize it. N o r ise to material from many ethnic groups. should the audience be confined to the class­ Storytellers who have helped to extend the room. Children might tell fairy tales to pupils range of storytelling in Great Britain include younger or older than themselves or to selected Ben Haggerty, Beula Candappa, Grace Hall- groups of adults. worth, and Duncan Williamson. The revival of storytelling might be due to some extent to a The media's contribution to storytelling in reaction against the passive nature of much Great Britain has been considerable. From modern entertainment. Although all of the as­ 1922 until 1966 Children's Hour, aired each d a y sociations mentioned regard work with chil­ in the early evening on British radio, told many dren as being important, their involvement types of stories, including fairy tales. The best- with teenagers and adults has demonstrated known was probably the long-running series that fairy tales are by no means exclusively for ' T o y T o w n ' . Children's Hour w a s particularly the very young. important during World War II when books and other forms of entertainment were in short The public library service has been influen­ supply. Another well-known radio pro­ tial in the development of storytelling in both gramme, also broadcast b y the B B C , w a s Listen the United States and Great Britain. The activ­ with Mother, which w a s on the air w e e k d a y ity can be traced as far back as 1896 in the Free afternoons. Fairy tales were also a part of its Library in Brooklyn, N e w Y o r k , but it was corpus of stories. The programme lasted from probably a visit b y Marie Shedlock in 1900 1950 until 1982. which gave it the impetus which resulted in it becoming established in public libraries across For large audiences to be captured by un­ the nation. seen readers is an indication of the power of story. A medium even more unlikely than Marie Shedlock (1854—1935) spent most of radio for communicating stories is television, her life in England, becoming a professional unless those stories are dramatized. Yet from storyteller in 1885. A versatile practitioner, she 1964 until the early 1980s, a British p r o g r a m m e specialized in telling the stories of Hans Chris­ specializing in storytelling, Jackanory, had a tian Andersen such as 'The Swineherd', ' T h e weekday slot in the late afternoon. Often the *Steadfast Tin Soldier', and 'The Princess and readers were accomplished actors, such as the the Pea'. Her warm, natural style was a depart­ late Kenneth Williams. On one occasion ure from the stilted dramatics of the day. She Prince Charles read his own folk tale, 'The Old demonstrated this cleverly by telling Ander­ Man of L o c h n a g a r ' . Jackanory lasted for 15 sen's story 'The Nightingale', in which the minutes, an ideal time for a storytelling pro­ song of the live bird is contrasted with that of gramme. its clockwork rival. She claimed that, to tell a story effectively, you had to convey the im­ Storytelling associations exist in many coun­ pression that you were part of it. Marie Shed­ tries. Their aims are to preserve, promote, and lock made further visits to the United States, develop this ancient art. There has been a re­ including an extended one between 1915 and surgence of interest in storytelling on both 1920. H e r b o o k The Art of the Story-Teller, first sides of the Atlantic since the early 1980s. published in 1913, is regarded as a classic of its Many groups have been formed in North kind.

STRAPAROLA, GIOVAN FRANCESCO 504 Others noted for their work in promoting books are read aloud when children are learn­ storytelling include Ann Carroll Moore and A n n C o g s w e l l T y l e r . Mainly through their ef­ ing to read. A fairly recent innovation in the forts, storytelling became a popular feature in the public libraries of N e w Y o r k . In 1909, for teaching of reading has been the use of Big example, stories were told to o v e r 28,000 chil­ dren in the city's libraries. Ruth Sawyer Books. These are outsize with attractive pic­ (1886-1970) also collaborated on this work. Her source was mainly Celtic and her version tures and a small amount of very large print. of 'The Voyage of the Wee Red Cap' was a much-loved feature at Christmas in the librar­ Many of them consist of simple fairy tales with ies o f N e w Y o r k . H e r b o o k The Way of the Storyteller (1942) is regarded, like S h e d l o c k ' s , a great deal of repetition, often with only one as a classic. new word on each successive page. Several In Great Britain, Eileen Colwell and Grace H allworth made outstanding contributions to children can read a Big Book at once. They can the development of storytelling in libraries. Eileen Colwell became a librarian in 1920, and learn the content so quickly that they can tell in 1926 assumed responsibility for children's li­ braries in Hendon, North London, making the stories with ease. them well known for their pioneering work. She became a friend of John Masefield, the then Teachers have not developed storytelling to Poet Laureate, who helped to establish an an­ nual festival of the spoken word at Oxford. the same extent as librarians, probably because Eileen Colwell's style of storytelling is quiet and undemonstrative, with no use of visual they face a wider, less voluntary audience. In­ aids. She published several collections of stor­ ies for telling, including A Storyteller's Choice fluenced by a statutory National Curriculum (1961) and A Second Storyteller's Choice (1963). Her range of stories includes modern tales such which includes both storytelling and fairy tales, as Ursula Moray Williams's 'The Clever Little Christmas T r e e ' , and the Celtic Tales o f J o s e p h there are indications that teachers are now de­ *Jacobs. Colwell eventually became a lecturer at the Loughborough School of Librarianship. veloping considerable expertise. They have Grace Hallworth came from Trinidad in 1957 to work in a library in Hertfordshire, where been assisted in this respect by the National she developed storytelling, specializing in W e s t Indian folk tales. H e r b o o k Stories to O r a c y Project, which was established in 1987 Read and to Tell, written in collaboration with J . Marriage, was published in 1970. Another li­ and which placed considerable emphasis on brarian notable for her work was Janet Hill, who encouraged outdoor storytelling in the storytelling, including work with older pupils. London parks in the 1970s. Children as old as 16 were encouraged to tell Storytelling in schools in Great Britain takes place mainly in the early years. Many of the local folk tales. stories which teachers tell are traditional fairy tales. B e y o n d the first t w o years o f schooling, Both audiotape and videotape also play a the incidence of both fairy tales and storytell­ ing decreases markedly. Thereafter, if fairy part in storytelling in schools. Videotapes usu­ tales are employed in the classroom, they are likely to be read rather than told. Fairy tales in ally present dramatized versions of stories, general are thought to be for young children. whereas audiotapes use narration, often by ac­ Fairy tales play an important part in the teaching of reading. Their structure, especially complished actors, and can be used by either the frequent repetition of words and phrases and the use of rhyme, make them ideal subjects groups or single listeners. GF for books within reading schemes. These Applebee, Arthur, The Child's Concept of Story: Ages Two to Seventeen ( 1 9 7 3 ) . Bettelheim, Bruno, The Uses of Enchantment: The Meaning and Importance of Fairy Tales (1976). Colwell, Eileen, A Storyteller's Choice ( 1 9 6 1 ) . A Second Storyteller's Choice ( 1 9 6 3 ) . Storytelling ( 1 9 8 0 ) . Cook, Elizabeth, The Ordinary and the Fabulous: An Introduction to Myths, Legends and Fairy Tales for Teachers and Storytellers ( 1 9 6 9 ) . Fenwick, Geoff, Teaching Children's Literature in the Primary School ( 1 9 9 0 ) . Grainger, Teresa, Traditional Storytelling in the Primary Classroom ( 1 9 9 7 ) . Hallworth, Grace, and Marriage, J . , Stories to Read and to Share ( 1 9 7 0 ) . Howe, Alan, and Johnson, John, Common Bonds. Storytelling in the Classroom: The National Oracy Project ( 1 9 9 2 ) . Pellowski, Anne, The World of Storytelling (i977)- Sawyer, Ruth, The Way of the Storyteller ( 1 9 4 2 ) . Shedlock, Marie, The Art of the Story- Teller (1913)- Zipes, Jack, Creative Storytelling: Building Community, Changing Lives ( 1 9 9 5 ) . STRAPAROLA, GIOVAN FRANCESCO (c.1480- 1558), Italian writer and poet, generally con-

STRAPAROLA, G I O V A N F R A N C E S C O The princess talks to her serpent sister in a garden in Giovan Francesco Straparola's tale 'The Snake and the Maiden' (1550), illustrated by E. R. Hughes in the English edition The Facetious Nights of Gian Franco Straparola (1888).

STRATTON, HELEN 506 sidered the 'father' or progenitor of the literary Squarotto, Giorgio Bàberi, 'Problemi di tecnica fairy tale in Europe. He was born in Caravag- narrativa cinquentesca: lo Straparola', Sigma gio, Italy, but left few documents, so that little (March 1965). is known about his life. Even the name 'Strapa- rola' itself may be a pen-name, for it indicates S T R A T T O N , H E L E N (fi. 1892-1925), British illus- someone who is loquacious. Whoever he was, Straparola was the first truly gifted author to trator, worked primarily with children's stories write numerous fairy tales in the vernacular and cultivate a form and function for this kind and fairy tales. Although she lived in Kensing- of narrative to make it an acceptable genre among the educated classes in Italy and soon ton, London her work was strongly influenced after in France, Germany, and England. Aside from a small volume of poems published in by the Art Nouveau school of Glasgow, par- V e n i c e in 1508, his major w o r k is Le *piacevoli notti (1550—3), translated v a r i o u s l y as The ticularly with regard to children's clothing and Pleasant Nights, The Entertaining Nights, The Facetious Nights, o r The Delectable Nights. T h e backgrounds. Her animals and birds were quite collection has a framework similar to Boccac- cio's Decameron. In this case, the tales are told realistic. She worked both in black and white in 13 consecutive nights by a group of ladies and gentlemen gathered at the Venetian palace and in colour, and illustrated at least five edi- of Ottaviano Maria Sforza, former bishop of L o d i , w h o has fled Milan with his w i d o w e d tions of Hans Christian *Andersen's fairy tales daughter Lucretia to avoid persecution and capture by his political enemies. The frame- for Blackie between 1896 and 1908, an edition work and tales influenced other Italian and European writers, among them Giambattista o f *Grimms' Fairy Tales (1903), and finally *Basile, Charles *Perrault, and the Brothers * G r i m m . O f the 73 stories, there are 14 fairy Stories from Andersen, Grimm and the Arabian tales, w h i c h can be traced to the G r i m m s ' Chil- dren 's and Household Tales and m a n y other c o l - Nights (1929). A l s o notable w e r e her watercol- lections: 'Cassadrino' ('The Master Thief), 'Pre Scarpafico' ('The Little Farmer'), our illustrations for G e o r g e *MacDonald's The 'Tebaldo' ('All Fur'), 'Galeotto' ('Hans my Hedgehog'), 'Pietro' ('The Simpleton Hans'), Princess and the Goblin (n.d.) and The Princess 'Biancabella' ('The Snake and the Maiden'), 'Fortunio' ('The Nixie in the Pond'), 'Ricardo' and Curdle (1912) for Blackie. LS ('Six who Made their W a y into the World'), 'Aciolotto' ('The Three Little Birds'), 'Guer- STRAUSS, GWEN (1963- ), Haitian-born Ameri- rino' (*Tron Hans'), T tre fratelli' ('The Four can writer and poet. In Trails of Stone (1989), a Skilful Brothers'), 'Maestro Lattantio' ('The unique collection of poetry inspired by classical Thief and his Master'), 'Cesarino' ('The T w o fairy tales and illustrated by Anthony Browne, Brothers'), and 'Soriana' (*'Puss-in-Boots'). Strauss gives each poem its own 'voice': 'Their Father' is told from the point of v i e w of \"\"Han- JZ sel and Gretel's father; 'The Waiting W o l f from that of Tittle Red Riding Hood's wolf; Bottigheimer, Ruth B., 'Straparola's Piacevoli and 'Her Shadow' from that of the miller's notti: Rags-to-Riches Fairy Tales as Urban daughter in *'Rumpelstiltskin'. Strauss does Creations', Merveilles et Contes, 7 (December not simply retell the tales from the perspective 1994). of a particular character; rather, she makes of Gillet, Anne Motte, 'Giovan Francesco the tales psychological allegories for the inner Straparola: Les Facétieuses Nuits. Notice', in life, exploring such issues as 'fear of love, Anne Motte Gillet (éd.), Conteurs de la shame, grief, jealousy, loneliness, joy'. A D Renaissance (1993). Mazzacurati, Giancarlo, 'La narrativa di G. F. STRAUSS, RICHARD (1864-1949), Bavarian, the Straparola e l'ideologia del fiabesco', in Form & most important successor of Wagner, com- Ideologia (1974). poser of 15 operas, numerous Lieder, and much Piejus, Marie-Françoise, Individu et société. Le instrumental music. His early symphonic poem Parvenu dans la nouvelle italienne du XVI siècle Till Eulenspiegels lustige Streiche (Till Eulen- (1991). spiegeVs Merry Pranks, 1895) recalls the exploits of the 14th-century north German peasant clown and vagabond hero, immortalized in many chapbooks, the first appearing about 1500. Strauss's collaboration with the Viennese poet Hugo von *Hofmannsthal resulted in sev- eral works based on classical or mythological themes, including Elektra (1909), Ariadne auf Naxos (1912, revised 1916), and especially Die Frau ohne Schatten (The Woman without a Shadow, 1919). In this ambitious opera, which p a y s general h o m a g e to *Mozart's Die Zauber- flote (The Magic Flute, 1791), Hofmannsthal provided Strauss with a fairy tale vaguely in-