The Oxford Companion to Fairy Tales

STRAVINSKY, IGOR FYODOROVICH spired b y Wilhelm *Hauff s Dos Kalte Heri STRAVINSKY, IGOR FYODOROVICH (1882-1971), (The Stone Heart, 1887), expanded b y various Russian-born composer. He left Russia in 1913, ideas from *Goethe's Hafii poems, from living in Switzerland and France until finally Bachofen's Myths of the Occident and the Orient, moving to the United States in 1939. Stravin­ The ^Arabian Nights, and other sources, but sky had already begun working on what was to above all from his fertile imagination. become the opera Le Rossignol (The Nightin­ Hofmannsthal's verse libretto for Strauss's gale, 1914), based on the Hans Christian opera, which he also expanded into a prose *Andersen fairy tale, when Sergei Diaghilev, narrative (Errahlung), is a story o f enchant­ founder of the hugely influential Ballets ment set vaguely in a region called the South Russes, requested a score for a ballet based on Eastern Islands where a certain emperor reigns. the Russian legend of 'The Firebird'. With He will lose his wife, the daughter of the mys­ scenario by Michel *Fokine, choreographer for terious Keikobad of the spirit world, unless she the Ballets R u s s e s , L'Oiseau de feu (The Fire­ conceives a child within 12 months—that is, bird, 1910) tells o f the defeat o f the o g r e K a s h - casts a s h a d o w — a n d at the same time he will chei by the young Prince Ivan, with help from turn to stone. The opera describes how the the Firebird. Written for large orchestra, Stra­ empress finds her shadow, or becomes fully vinsky's colourful score simultaneously looks human. Meanwhile, in the mundane and ma­ back to the music of his teacher *Rimsky-Kor- terialistic world live Barak the dyer and his sakov, and forward to the violent rhythmic in­ wife. She has a shadow but wants to renounce novations o f Le Sacre du printemps ( The Rite of it. The point is that neither the empress nor Spring, 1913). The Firebird p r o v e d to be the Barak's wife understands her potential for life, first in a series of fairy-tale-based ballet scores which is not merely the desire or the ability to written by Stravinsky for Diaghilev's com­ bear children, but rather to have compassion pany. Before The Rite came Petruschka ( 1 9 1 1 ) , and sympathy for humankind—this is to have with scenario by Stravinsky and Alexandre a shadow. Strauss composes music of astonish­ Benois, set during a vividly realized Shrovetide ing brilliance that well illustrates these different Fair in St Petersburg in the 1830s, and featur­ spheres of action. T h e empress in her first ing the traditional figure of the fairground pup­ scene, for example, has music of shimmering pet (danced in the original production by coldness and translucence, emphasizing her Vaslav Nijinsky). connection with the spirit world; but Barak's Following two idiosyncratic stage works music is more thickly and deeply orchestrated. based on Russian tales from the collections Both couples—the emperor and empress, and of A. N. *Afanasyev—Renard (composed Barak and his wife—must undergo tests of 1 9 1 5 - 1 6 ; first performed 1922), an animal fable confession and repentance to become worthy i n v o l v i n g R e y n a r d the F o x , and Histoire du sol­ of possessing a shadow. At the triumphal end dat (The Soldier's Tale, 1 9 1 8 ) — S t r a v i n s k y of the opera, with trials completed, the two composed music for the one-act ballet Pulci- couples are shown to be worthy of love by pos­ nella (1920). W i t h costumes and sets designed sessing virtuous desire and purity of motive. b y P a b l o P i c a s s o , Pulcinella tells a simple story The Dyer's wife now may properly embrace i n v o l v i n g the hero o f the Neapolitan commedia her shadow, while the empress gains her very delVarte. T h e score is one o f the first examples own shadow. Strauss's glorious music inter­ of Stravinsky's neo-classicism, based as it is on prets and elevates Hofmannsthal's marvellous music from the Italian baroque; he later re­ tale at every stage in what may be the greatest ferred to it as ' m y discovery of the past'. Such achievement of his career and one of the most creative interaction with the music of previous centuries also formed the basis o f Le Baiser de successful of all operatic fairy tales. PGS la fée (The Fairy's Kiss, 1928), w h i c h d r a w s on Del Mar, Norman, Richard Strauss: A Critical some of the less familiar music of T c h a i k o v ­ Commentary on his Life and Works ( 3 vols., sky, to accompany a condensed version of 1962—72). Hans Christian Andersen's 'The Ice Maiden'. Mann, William, Richard Strauss: A Critical Study of the Operas ( 1 9 6 4 ) . Dedicating it to the memory of Tchaikovsky, Pantle, Sherrill Hahn, 'Die Frau ohne Schatten ' by Hugo von Hofmannsthal and Richard Strauss: Stravinsky conceived of the story as an alle­ An Analysis of Text, Music, and their Relation gory of his predecessor's work. SB (1978). Stravinsky, Igor, An Autobiography ( 1 9 3 6 ) . Stanwood, Paul G., 'Fantasy and Fairy Tale in Stravinsky, Igor, Selected Correspondence, ed. Twentieth-Century Opera', Mosaic, 1 0 . 2 ( 1 9 7 7 ) . Robert Craft, iii ( 1 9 8 4 ) . Taruskin, Richard, Stravinsky and the Russian

STRINDBERG, AUGUST 508 Traditions: A Biography of the Works through prince. More clearly feminist are Suârez Solis's Mavra' (1 vols., 1996). White, Eric Walter, Stravinsky: The Composer two other revisions of 'Cinderella'. The and his Works (1966). author's intention in both texts is to unveil the patriarchal stereotypes that permeate classical STRINDBERG, AUGUST (1849-1912), Swedish versions of the story, and to supply humorous p l a y w r i g h t . His early drama Lycko-Pers Resa commentaries, often spoken by a fairy god­ (Lucky Per's Journey, 1881) suggested that mother, about the refusal of contemporary Strindberg was familiar with narrative folklore; young women—contemporary Cinder­ and various folk beliefs make their way into ellas—to follow the traditional patterns that such late s y m b o l i c plays as Spoksonaten (The contributed to their mothers' subjection. C F Ghost Sonata, 1907). A d m i r a t i o n for Hans SUTERMEISTER, O T T O ( 1 8 3 2 - 1 9 0 1 ) , Swiss folk­ Christian *Andersen reveals itself in Sagor lorist and professor, who collected and revised (Tales, 1903), in w h i c h Strindberg imitates the Dane's whimsical and experimental use of the numerous folk tales, legends, fables, and prov­ folk tale and Marchen. NI erbs. His major w o r k s are Frisch und Fromm: Mays, Milton A . , 'Strindberg's Ghost Sonata: Er^dhlungen, Mdrchen, Fabeln, Schwdnke fiir Parodied Fairy Tale on Original Sin', Modern Drama, 10 (1967). die Jugend (Fresh and Pious: Stories, Fairy Syndergaard, Larry, 'The Skogsra of Folklore and Strindberg's The Crown Bride', Comparative Tales, Fables, and Anecdotes for the Young, Drama, 6 (1972). 1863), Kinder- und Hausmdrchen (Children's and Household Tales, 1869), and Kornblumen: Fabeln und Mdrchen (Cornflowers: Fables and Fairy Tales, 1870). Strongly influenced b y STUCKENBERG, VlGGO (1863-1905), Danish the Brothers *Grimm, Sutermeister emphasized novelist who dealt mainly with intricate marital the didactic aspect of Swiss folklore and re­ relationships. In his Vejbred (The Plantain, wrote many of the tales to suit young 1899), he demonstrates, however, a critical readers. JZ turn of mind that uses the tale form to censure bourgeois society. In 'Klods Hans' ('Clod S V E V O , ITALO ( p s e u d o n y m of ElTORE SCHMITZ, Hans', 1855)—a continuation of Hans Chris­ 1861—1928), Italian writer of novels, short stor­ ies, plays, and essays, born in Trieste. He tian *Andersen's tale—Stuckenberg reveals introduced the psychological novel in Italy with his first novel Una vita (A Life, 1892), fol­ that the farmboy who, by his forthright manner l o w e d b y Senilità (As a Man Grows Older, 1898). Both novels were greatly admired by had won the hand of the princess, has now be­ James J o y c e , whom S v e v o met in 1905, and whose influence was visible in the stream of come bored with life at court. This anti-tale consciousness of La coscien^a di Zeno (Zeno's Conscience, 1923). S v e v o had read and trans­ concludes with the protagonist eloping with a lated F r e u d ' s Interpretation of Dreams, which had a direct impact on his novels of introspec­ lusty country girl and, thereby, regaining his tion and interior monologues, and which fuelled his fascination and cultivation of fairy freedom. Stuckenberg offers a savage inter- tales and short stories. During his lifetime S v e v o published only seven stories and left textual criticism of Andersen. NI many unpublished. His fairy tales have been collected in Racconti, Saggi, pagine sparse SuÂREZ SOLJS, SARA ( 1 9 2 5 - ) , Spanish writer (Stories, Essays, Sparse Pages, 1968). His earli­ who is best known as a novelist. Influenced by est story, 'Una lotta' ('A Contest', 1888), is a fairy tales, she has publicly advocated that parody of chivalric romances peopled with Mdrchen should be revised from a feminist names such as Arturo, Ariodante, and Rosina, point of view and has published some unusual a character keep out o f Don Quixote. T h i s was fairy tales herself. All three of them revise the followed by 'L'assassinio di via Belpoggio' story of *'Cinderella': 'Cenicienta 39' ('Cinder­ ('Murder on Belpoggio Street', 1890), a psy­ ella '39', 1989), 'Las Cenicientas ya no son lo chological thriller, and ' L a tribu' ( ' T h e T r i b e ' , que eran' ('Cinderellas Are No Longer What 1897), a political allegory about the life of a They Used T o B e ' , 1990), and 'Bibicenicienta' nomadic tribe and its leader Hussein. ('Bibicinderella', 1991). 'Cenicienta 39' brings the story of Cinderella to Spain and sets it dur­ Svevo had a predilection for fairy tales and ing the years of the Spanish Civil War (1936-9). It is an ironic tale in which the hap­ piness of those who won the war is contrasted with the calamities that befell the losers. Pili, the Cinderella in this story, is a young girl who has been mutilated by a cannon ball and will therefore never be rescued by a charming

5o9 SWINCIN' THE DREAM wrote La madre (1910, rev. 1927), a tale about were always endowed with unique meanings. chicks who are very upset because they were GD hatched in an incubator and do not have a mother. O n e o f them is named C u r r a (Roller o r SWINCIN'THE DREAM, a 1939 B r o a d w a y musical Runner), for he w a s the first to run for food. This fairy tale symbolically depicted Svevo's version o f W i l l i a m *Shakespeare's A *Midsum- relationship with 'mother' Italy who had ig­ nored him for a very long time before his liter­ mer Night's Dream that reset the fantasy in ary recognition. 'Una burla riuscita' ('A Successful Hoax', 1926) is the story of a 70- 1890s Louisiana and used jazz and swing music year-old author w h o s e novel Giovinena has had no recognition, thus forcing him secretly by J i m m y McHugh to tell its tale. T h e predom­ to write tales about sparrows. Another very short tale is ' U n eroe salvo una fata' ( ' A Hero inantly black cast featured Louis Armstrong as Saved a Fairy'). In general, fairy-tale motifs can be found in most of his works and Bottom, Butterfly McQueen as Puck, and Jackie 'Moms' Mabley as Quince. Despite a vivacious score played by Benny Goodman and his Sextet, the show only ran 13 perform­ ances. The musical retained much of the story's characters and plot but little of its fantasy elements. TSH

TABART, BENJAMIN (c.1767/8-1833), London TALE OF A YOUTH WHO SET OUT TO LEARN WHAT bookseller and proprietor of the Juvenile L i ­ FEAR WAS, THE (Von einem, der aus^og, das Gruseln çu lernen), a prize-winning puppet film brary, who published many notable children's based on the *Grimms, and used for teaching Nazi values. In its written form the story is books including fairy tales, at a time when about a young man who has a tender heart but is such a simpleton that he cannot even under­ moral tales and books of instruction prevailed. stand what people mean when they talk about something 'giving them the shivers'. R e ­ In 1804 he began issuing a sixpenny series of proached for his stupidity by his father, he pro­ tests that he is very willing to learn, and would fairy and popular stories, including tales by like to start b y finding out h o w to get the shivers. A sexton guarantees to frighten him *Perrault, d ' * A u l n o y , and from The ^Arabian inside a church tower at midnight, but that has no effect. Nor does sleeping under a gibbet Nights, and also versions o f chapbook tales from which seven bodies are hanging. The youth even passes three nights in a haunted such as Valentine and Orson, Fortunatus and castle, thereby winning the king's daughter in marriage, without anything giving him the R o b i n H o o d . His 1807 publication, The History shivers. Finally his new wife solves the prob­ lem b y emptying a bucket of small fish o v e r his of *Jack and the Beanstalk w a s perhaps the first naked body. T o l d like this, it embodies folk- w i s d o m — ' H e who does not know fear is a time this story had appeared in print. Popular f o o l ' — a n d at the same time it is a comic tale about the superiority of female tactics over Tales (1804), published in four v o l u m e s , in­ male. cluded many of these. GA H o w e v e r , Paul Diehl's 1935 adaptation of this story gives it a different inflection. His was T A C L I O N I , FlLlPPO ( 1 7 7 8 - 1 8 7 1 ) , Italian chore­ one of a range of silent short films made for the Reichstelle fur den Unterrichtsfilm (State Of­ ographer, w h o s e La Sylphide (The Sylph, 1832) fice for Educational F i l m s ) and w i d e l y shown in German schools. T h e scene of the night in is considered the first romantic ballet. T h e the castle, though it follows Grimm closely in parts, shows clearly this altered ideological story of a Scottish farmer whose possessive orientation. The youth, now given the name Hans, is swift and violent in his dispatch of a l o v e for a sylph causes her death, La Sylphide variety of grotesque creatures. He skewers one on a fork and holds it over a flame. He fastens a became the prototype for innumerable ballets cat in a vice, cuts its head off, and tosses it into the moat. Unlike the written text, in which the based on the motif of the fairy bride. Taglioni youth feels sorry for a dead body and tries to warm it up, Diehl presents him as pitiless. created the role of the sylph for his daughter Since the film has no sound-track, teachers could talk over it and impose an interpretation: Marie, whose ethereal grace and elevation children w e r e taught that the action in the film symbolized the necessity for German fearless­ made her unusually convincing in supernatural ness in stamping out enemies of the state (Jews, g a y s , G y p s i e s , n o n - A r y a n s ) . In 1937 the film roles. H e also featured her in his fairy ballet La was given a gold medal by the government de­ partment for which it was made. Nine years Fille du Danube (The Daughter of the Danube, later, however, a Unesco commission, charged with the task of de-Nazifying the teachers and 1836) and in L'Ombre (The Shadow, 1839), materials that were to be employed in post-war German schools, came to a different verdict: whose heroine becomes a ghost. SR 'Though there is nothing that is specifically subversive in this film, there is much that is TAGLIONI, P A U L (1808-84), dancer and chore­ typically Nazi in outlook, with its approbation ographer, born in Vienna, the son of Filippo Taglioni. The younger Taglioni created over three dozen romantic ballets, several of which w e r e variations on the fairy-bride motif first utilized in dance b y his father. His Coralia, or The Inconstant Knight (1847), based on de la Motte *Fouqué's * Undine, w a s far m o r e faithful to the original than the earlier ballet Ondine (1843). Other fairy ballets included Thea, ou la fée aux fleurs (Thea, or the Flower Fairy, 1847) and Fiorita et la reine des elfrides (Fiorita and the Queen of the Elves, 1848). SR

5 \" TCHAIKOVSKY, PIOTR ILYICH of killing and force, coupled with callousness.' Tarrant was considered an accessible and popular illustrator. Her illustrations were nat­ The film was therefore suppressed, and is uralistic, sometimes humorous, and warm. Be­ sides illustrating tales by Webb, Andersen, today little known, despite the technical profi­ Perrault, as well as her own retellings, she also illustrated fairy-tale books by Harry Golding ciency of its animation. TAS (Fairy Tales (1930) a m o n g others) and M a r y G a n n ' s Dreamland Fairies (1936), w h i c h con­ Lang, Andrew, Blue Fairy Book, ed. Brian tained 35 original short stories such as ' H o u s e Goblins' and 'Garden of Dreams'. The frontis­ Alderson (1975). piece of the latter shows a child in a bathrobe and slippers sliding hand-in-hand with a fairy Warner, Marina, Cinema and the Realms of down a moonbeam. Like other original work she illustrated, this book was sentimental and Enchantment (1993). often too sweet, but her illustrations never demonstrated that aspect of the text. Instead TARRANT, MARGARET (1888—1959), British illus­ they conveyed warmth and humour. trator noted for her innovative work for the Medici Society in the 1920s. Her colour illus­ In 1978 W a r d L o c k printed Fairy Tales by trations accompanied Marion Webb's poems Margaret Tarrant w h i c h contained six fairy about unusual fairies such as insects and wild tales accompanied b y 18 colour plates. T h e s e fruits. Altogether 13 little books, about 10 b y 13 illustrations showcased Tarrant's innovative cm. (4 b y 5 inches), w e r e produced from 1917 talent. F o r example, the first of her two illustra­ to 1929. T h e y featured glued-in watercolour il­ tions for 'The Three Bears' depicts mama and lustrations with decorative and varied borders papa bear facing baby bear holding his empty surrounding the illustration. Tarrant dressed porridge bowl, while steam spirals up from her fairies in varied garb. For instance, the cat­ theirs. Over this picture is a frieze-type border erpillar in The Insect Fairies sported a sunshade, showing the three bears approaching a table set veil, bag, purse, and sailor's hat, and carried a with three appropriately sized porridge bowls. seaside spade and pail. T h e second illustration is a circle outlined in golden bear brown representing little bear Born in Battersea, London, Tarrant studied hanging on the end of his bed while Goldilocks at the Clapham School of Art and later at Hea- sleeps in it. Circular shaped pictures appear in therley's School of A r t . In 1935 she took an­ 'The *Sleeping Beauty', 'Tom Thumb', and other course at the Guildford School of Art. 'Babes in the Wood'. Borders with additional She began her career by designing cards and characters complement the illustrations. The calendars, gaining her first commission in 1908 most unusual is keyhole-shaped in which for Charles * K i n g s l e y ' s The Water-Babies. In Beauty bends over the collapsed Beast. L S 1910 she illustrated both Fairy Stories from Hans Christian ^Andersen and Charles ^Perrault's TAYLOR, EDGAR (1793-1839), first English Contes. She exhibited at the R o y a l A c a d e m y and the Walker Royal Society of Artists. In translator of the *Grimms' fairy tales. Taylor's 1936 she went to Palestine to collect material for her work. t w o - v o l u m e collection German Popular Stories Tarrant produced three editions of Hans (1823—6), illustrated by George *Cruikshank, Christian Andersen stories, the first in 1917 and the last in 1949 for W a r d L o c k as part o f the was composed, as he explained in a letter to the Sunshine Series. Altogether in this latter book there are 24 colour plates, some in circle form. Grimms, with 'the amusement of some young In 'The Swineherd', she depicts the princess wearing stilts when asking the price of the pip­ friends principally in view'. Taylor translated a kin, which saves the princess's feet from be­ coming embedded in the mud. third v o l u m e o f the G r i m m s ' tales, Gammer As an author and editor, Tarrant produced Grethel, or German Fairy Tales and Popular six books beginning with Autumn Gleanings from the Poets in 1910 and concluding with The Stories (1839), illustrated b y C r u i k s h a n k and Margaret Tarrant Story Book, first published in 1947. In the latter, all the stories are either trad­ L u d w i g E m i l * G r i m m . T h e popularity o f Ger­ itional or by women. Her black-and-white il­ lustrations are all shaded around the edges, man Popular Stories helped to m a k e fairy tales making them softer and filled-in, while the col­ our illustrations are watercolours with washes an acceptable form of children's literature in softening the images and making the back­ ground slightly blurry, as though the reader England. JS were looking into a magical mirror. Michaelis-Jena, Ruth, The Brothers Grimm (1970). TCHAIKOVSKY, PIOTR ILYICH (1840-93), Russian composer. Although Tchaikovsky's works in-

TCHAIKOVSKY, PIOTR ILYICH 512 elude six symphonies, two piano concertos, a marry, though he resigns himself to his violin concerto, and several operas, none are mother's command that he choose a bride at more highly regarded than his fairy-tale bal­ her next ball. His love for Odette, the enchant­ lets; his music for Swan Lake (Le Lac des ed swan, is in the romantic fairy-bride trad­ cygnes, 1877), The ^Sleeping Beauty (La Belle ition, in which such a relationship represents au hois dormant, 1890), and The Nutcracker no earthly sexual passion but the yearning for (Casse noisette, 1892) is considered incompar­ an ideal that exists only in the imagination. able of its kind. His father, a government offi­ W h e n he succumbs to Odile at the ball, it is cial in the Department of Mines, allowed him only because she resembles Odette, and this piano lessons as a child, but planned a career in unfaithfulness to his ideal brings about his de­ the civil service for him. Tchaikovsky spent struction as well as hers. Odette loses her seven years at the School of Jurisprudence and magical protection and they are drowned to­ obtained a clerkship at the Ministry of Justice gether in the lake. in 1859. Before long, however, he was attend­ ing classes at St Petersburg's new music con­ T h e first production w a s not a success. T h e servatory, and in 1863 he resigned his choreography was poor, and Tchaikovsky's unrewarding position to study music full-time. bold attempt to realize the dramatic possibil­ Although he became friends with Balakirev's ities of the story through his music was puz­ 'Mighty Handful', particularly with \"'Rimsky- zling both to the dancers and to the audience, Korsakov, he never shared their commitment who expected ballet to be primarily a decora­ to Russian folk sources, but remained primarily tive spectacle with an incidental plot. Swan oriented towards the European musical main­ Lake w a s not produced again until 1895, when stream. In 1866 he became a professor of har­ it was completely re-choreographed by Marius mony at the new music conservatory in Petipa and L e v Ivanov and its scenario re­ Moscow; within a few years he was a well- vised—including the substitution of a happy known, though not always successful, com­ ending for Tchaikovsky's tragic and powerful poser. Tchaikovsky suffered all his life from conclusion. mental instability and depression, exacerbated by the need to conceal his homosexuality. In The collaboration of Tchaikovsky with 1877 he made a desperate attempt at marriage, Petipa in The Sleeping Beauty, h o w e v e r , w a s a which ended a few weeks later when he waded true partnership, to a degree unheard of at that into an icy river, vainly hoping to catch pneu­ time. Petipa gave Tchaikovsky a complete pro­ monia, and then fled to St Petersburg in a state gramme to work from, specifying the charac­ of mental collapse; he never saw his wife again. ter, tempo, and exact duration of each dance, A far more congenial and productive relation­ and Tchaikovsky invented brilliantly within ship was his long epistolary friendship with the this framework. For dancers, Petipa's master­ wealthy widow Nadezhda von Meek. Although piece requires, above all other ballets, the they never met—save for a few accidental greatest command of classical technique. It is glimpses—she supported him both artistically also the ballet which most strongly emphasizes and financially for y e a r s . W h e n she abruptly its relationship with the fairy tale. Petipa uses broke off their correspondence, he was devas­ only the first half of *Perrault's 'Sleeping tated. Three years later, he was dead of chol­ Beauty'—omitting the long episode of the era, after drinking a glass of unboiled Prince's ogrish mother. He greatly elaborates water—possibly, a suicide. what remains, in effect constructing a literary fairy tale of his own based on Perrault's—as­ N o one knows who had the initial idea or signing new names to the characters, creating w r o t e the scenario for Swan Lake, but it m a y additional characters and episodes, and enhan­ have been Tchaikovsky himself. Although the cing the magical aspect of the story. (For ex­ story is nominally set in Germany, swan maid­ ample, Prince F l o r i m u n d first sees Princess ens recur in many Russian folk tales, and Aurora in a vision, dancing amid a band of fair­ Tchaikovsky had apparently devised a chil­ ies, then voyages to her castle in the Lilac dren's ballet on this theme for his nieces six Fairy's magic boat.) Petipa's homage to the years earlier, from which he drew the swan fairy tale reaches a climax in the final scene theme introduced b y the oboe in the finale of (sometimes performed independently as Auro­ Act I. The situation of the hero, Prince Sieg­ ra's Wedding), in which characters from several fried, is even reminiscent of the com­ other tales join the wedding celebration: the poser's—only months before his disastrous White Cat dances with *Puss-in-Boots, the marriage. T h e Prince, too, is reluctant to *Bluebird with the Enchanted Princess, even \"Tittle Red Riding Hood with her Wolf.

5i3 TELEVISION A N D FAIRY TALES Tchaikovsky was less satisfied with the ary knowledge of fairy tales comes mainly from television. Petipa—Ivanov collaboration which produced Before television, the reception of the clas- The Nutcracker. T h e scenario, based on a sim- sical fairy tale depended to a large degree on literacy. T h e televised fairy tale, however, plified version b y Alexandre Dumas père of does not essentially require that its viewers be able to read. Involving principally sight and E . T . A . *Hoffmann's fairy tale The Nutcracker sound, television is a visual and oral-aural me- dium. It has the potential to address a wider and the Mouse King (Nussknàcker und Mause- and more diverse audience than the printed tale, especially since television sets have be- kbnig), seemed incoherent and pointless. A c t come accessible to a broad range of socio-eco- nomic groups. Relying on performances that II, for example, consisted of a series of unre- are visually and aurally experienced, the tele- vised fairy tale bears some affinity to the me- lated dances performed for the entertainment dium of storytelling. Consequently, when broadcast to an audience, the televised fairy of the heroine and her Prince. Tchaikovsky felt tale might seem to be a social event reminiscent of the oral tradition. Some broadcasts inten- enthusiasm only for his new instrument, the tionally invoke this affinity b y framing stories with a narrator's voice or images of a storytell- celeste, which he had ordered from its Parisian ing event. F o r instance, episodes of the Ameri- can series Amazing Stories ( N B C , 1985-7) inventor to play the tinkling music of the Sugar opened with images of prehistoric people gathered around a fire and listening to a story- Plum Fairy. Since its unimpressive première, teller, a tableau which was gradually revealed to be a scene on a television screen, around h o w e v e r , The Nutcracker has b e c o m e the most which a modern family of viewers was assem- bled. widely performed of all ballets and, for innu- The literary affinities of the televised fairy merable children, an unforgettable introduc- tale, however, are equally evident. Not only does the televised fairy tale frequently draw on tion to ballet's magic world. Each ballet stories from the print tradition, it is also a scripted presentation that has none of the spon- company has tackled the problematic scenario taneity or variability associated with traditional notions of oral storytelling. Similarly, viewers in its own w a y — t w o famous solutions being are clearly not engaged in a face-to-face, two- way social relationship with the narrator, per- George *Balanchine's and the Kent Sto- formers, or creators. In this sense, although the reception of the televised fairy tale may simu- well-Maurice *Sendak production, which at- late a communal event, it is in many ways a private act. Fairy-tale broadcasts sometimes re- tempts to reinstate Hoffmann's version of the call the authority of the print tradition by be- ginning with the image of a book, which opens story. What remains constant and timeless is up as an authoritative voice-over intones a traditional introductory formula such as 'once Tchaikovsky's music. SR upon a time'. Anderson, Jack, The Nutcracker Ballet (1979). Like the literary fairy tale, the televised fairy tale is essentially a middle-class phenomenon. Brown, David, Tchaikovsky (1982). Television emerged as a viable technology after World W a r I I , and in the United States Sendak, Maurice, Introduction to E. T . A. the number of households with television sets grew dramatically in 1948, when nation-wide Hoffmann, Nutcracker (1984). network broadcasts became possible. From the beginning, television's target audience was the Wiley, Roland John, Tchaikovsky's Ballets middle-class family, those consumers with the (1985). means to purchase the products advertised on TEGNER, HANS KRISTIAN (1853-1932), Danish artist and illustrator, professor, member of the Danish Academy of Arts, mainly known for his illustrations of Hans Christian *Andersen's fairy tales. His first watercolours o f A n d e r s e n ' s 'The Tinderbox' were shown at an art exhib- ition in 1882. A selection of Andersen's fairy tales with Tegner's exquisite illustrations was produced in a so-called international publica- tion (in various languages) up to 1901. M N TELEVISION AND FAIRY TALES. Television has sig- nificantly influenced the production and recep- tion of the fairy tale during the latter half of the 20th century. L i k e other t e c h n o l o g i e s — f r o m the printing press and graphic illustration to film and r a d i o — t e l e v i s i o n provided a n e w m e - dium for the adaptation, presentation, and con- sumption of the genre. Just as the technology of print publication produced the classical fairy tale and promoted the oral tale from folklore to the literary canon, so television's wide distribu- tion of fairy tales has made the genre an endur- ing part of late 20th-century popular culture. A 1976 German survey confirms that contempor-

TELEVISION A poised Alice, played by Anne-Marie Mallick, plays the central role in the BBC television film *Alice in Wonderland ( 1 9 6 6 ) , directed by Jonathan Miller.

5*5 TELEVISION A N D FAIRY T A L E S the broadcasts. With the post-war baby-boom, ed. So commercial television adapts the basic conducive socio-economic developments, and structure of the classical fairy tale in both ad­ the rapidly developing role of children as con­ vertising and the situation comedy to promote sumers, the appeal of fairy tales as children's a specific notion of personal, familial, and and family fare grew. At the same time, the social happiness. cultural values and commercial interests it em­ bodied were broadcast to all segments of soci­ T h e popular A m e r i c a n p r o g r a m m e Be­ ety. witched ( A B C , 1964-72) actually took the intersection of family situation comedy, adver­ While the fairy tale is certainly a commodity tising, and fairy tale as its basic theme. T h e sit­ in both the oral and print traditions, the com­ com's premiss involved the marriage of an mercial nature of network television has made advertising executive to a witch, who promises the televised fairy tale not only a valuable com­ to give up her magical powers in order to live modity but also a vehicle for other commercial as a mortal. While the wife's magic frequently interests. In fact, the television advertisement profits her husband in his business dealings, her itself is a form that makes frequent and signifi­ power also regularly disrupts the order of the cant use of the fairy tale. Fairy tales are well family and their suburban neighbourhood. suited to television commercials because they Adapting the fairy-tale witch and the supernat­ are popular and easily recognized. Their famil­ ural maiden who is supposed to deny her true iar motifs can be truncated and adapted for identity in order to b e c o m e mortal, Bewitched brief commercials while still remaining mean­ mirrored American attitudes towards business, ingful. In G e r m a n y even the animated Main- family, and gender during a time of shifting so­ {elmannchen, w h o s e antics p r o v i d e transitions cial values in the late 1960s and early 1970s. among commercials during advertising seg­ ments, are reminiscent of fairy-tale characters. A s this example suggests, the fairy tale and Moreover, basic fairy-tale elements like magic, its motifs have played a significant role in tele­ transformation, and happy endings lend them­ vision programming. T h e fairy tale appears in selves perfectly to the advertiser's pitch that the many different formats for both children and featured product will miraculously change the adult audiences—from animated cartoons and viewer's life for the better. Products act as dramatic series to feature films and other spe­ magic helpers who assist the heroes and hero­ cial broadcasts. Despite the tendency to pro­ ines of the mini-fairy tale overcome whatever duce adaptations that are familiar, predictable, dilemma they face. and consistent with viewers' expectations, tele­ vision has also produced remarkable adapta­ Much like commercials, television situation tions that experiment with the fairy tale in comedies have also imitated the basic plotline innovative ways. of the fairy tale—especially in those tradition­ ally based on family situations. Required by Relying on the fairy tale's popularity, televi­ generic necessity to complete its story within a sion specials have long featured the fairy tale as limited period of time, the typical situation mass entertainment. Since the 1950s, American comedy replicates the economy of the fairy tale networks have produced numerous musicals by using recognizable character types who ex­ based on popular tales and starring well-known perience and resolve a dilemma against a back­ actors. These musical specials have included ground of explicit contrasts and values. A s in ^Pinocchio with M i c k e y R o o n e y and F r a n A l l i ­ the fairy tale, the protagonist's happiness is son ( N B C , 1957); The Pied Piper with V a n achieved less through personal action than J o h n s o n and C l a u d e R a i n s ( N B C , 1957); *Han- through the requirements of the genre itself. sel and Gretel with R e d Buttons and R u d y V a l ­ The structuralist formula 'lack-lack liquidated', lée ( N B C , 1958); *Once Upon a Mattress with which has been used to characterize the fairy C a r o l Burnett ( C B S , 1964 and 1972); The Dan­ tale, applies as well not only to the 'plot' of the gerous Christmas of Red Riding Hood with L i z a television commercial, but also in general to Minnelli, Vic Damone, and the musical group the situation comedy. the A n i m a l s ( A B C , 1965); and *Alice in Won­ derland with S a m m y D a v i s J r . , T e l l y S a v a l a s , The fairy tale and television situation com­ Sid Caesar, Shelley Winters, and Carol Chan- edy, however, sometimes differ in their Utopian ning ( C B S , 1985). T h e story of *'Cinderella' thrust. Whereas the classical fairy tale fre­ has been a particular favourite on American quently depicts a triumph over an unjust famil­ television. Richard Rodgers and Oscar Ham- ial or social order, the plot of the situation merstein's musical adaptation o f ^Cinderella comedy usually restores the conventional order was broadcast b y C B S in 1957 with Julie of family and society after it has been disrupt­ Andrews in the starring role and again in 1965,

TELEVISION AND FAIRY TALES 5l6 this time featuring Lesley A n n Warren. In 1997 presentation o(*Jack and the Beanstalk ( N B C ) , Walt *Disney Corporation and Whitney which was the first American television special Houston produced a live action version of to mix animation with live action. Animation R o d g e r s and Hammerstein's Cinderella with has also produced some of the most interesting pop singers Brandy and Houston cast in the generic and thematic revisions of the fairy tale title role and as the fairy godmother, respect­ on American television. In some cases, these ively. Other historically important fairy-tale innovations actually have their roots in films specials include the musical version o f *Peter from the years before television. Just as seg­ Pan with M a r y Martin, w h i c h w a s originally ments of Disney's animated feature films found broadcast by N B C in i960 and rerun in 1989, their w a y to television and more recently to and the frequent televised showings of the 1939 home video, so have the cartoons of important film adaptation of L . F r a n k * B a u m ' s The *Wi{- animators such as Walter Lantz and the War­ ard of 0{, starring J u d y G a r l a n d . P o p u l a r tele­ ner Brothers studio been serialized for televi­ casts such as these have played an enormous sion and re-packaged for the home video role in defining the post-war generations' ex­ market. T h e s e 1940s fairy-tale cartoons were perience of the fairy tale. televised on series such as The Bugs Bunny Show ( A B C , 1960—7) and The Woody Wood­ Echoing a European tradition that presents pecker Show ( A B C , 1957-8). With titles like fairy-tale theatre during the winter holiday sea­ 'Little Red Riding Rabbit' (1944) from Warner son, many American fairy-tale specials are Brothers Merrie Melodies, these zany cartoons broadcast between Thanksgiving and Christ­ resist the Disney model and offer no romantic mas, which also makes them a significant ve­ love stories or conventional morals. Instead hicle for holiday advertising. Telecasts of they demystify the classic tales by mixing allu­ fairy-tale musicals, ballets, and operas are espe­ sions to social trends with self-conscious irony cially common during the winter holidays on and generic humour. These irreverent cartoons both commercial and public television. For ex­ w e r e the forerunners o f J a y W a r d ' s *Fractured ample, The Enchanted Nutcracker, adapted from Fairy Tales, one of television's most significant Tchaikovsky's ballet and featuring musical contributions to the modern revision of the stars Carol Lawrence and Robert Goulet, aired fairy tale. A regular feature on the popular on A B C in December 1961 as a special produc­ children's p r o g r a m m e s Rocky and his Friends tion of Westinghouse Presents; and the N e w ( A B C , 1959—61) and The Bullwinkle Show Y o r k C i t y Ballet production o f The Nutcracker ( N B C , 1961—4), 'Fractured Fairy Tales' con­ was shown on C B S in December 1965. T h e sisted of 91 episodes that revel in wordplay, Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) regularly poke fun at traditional storytelling conven­ broadcasts fairy-tale ballets during the Christ­ tions, and destroy fairy-tale illusions with mas season, such as its December 1972 presen­ irony and references to contemporary reality. tation of Rudolf Nureyev and the National Ballet o f C a n a d a in *Sleeping Beauty. A l o n g Anthology series featuring classic fairy tales with Tchaikovsky's fairy-tale ballets, especial­ are staples of commercial, public, and cable l y The Nutcracker, and ice ballet adaptations o f television, but they have rarely produced in­ Hans Christian *Andersen's *'Snow Queen', novative forms of storytelling. Fairy-tale an­ performances of Engelbert *Humperdinck's thologies have included syndicated series like opera Hansel und Gretel are trotted out on the The Amazing Tales of Hans Christian Andersen television screen as part of this holiday trad­ (1954) and Story Theatre (1971), Once Upon a ition. H o w far television networks will go to Classic ( P B S , 1976—9), Shelley *Duvall's Faerie adapt fairy tales to the successful holiday for­ Tale Theatre ( S h o w t i m e , 1982—5), and Happily mat is evident in The Trial of Red Riding Hood Ever After: Fairy Tales for Every Child ( H B O , (1993), a special December broadcast by the 1995). None of these generated adaptations is Canadian Broadcasting Corporation that as remarkable as those of Jim *Henson in his adapted the classic story about *Little Red Rid­ series The Storyteller ( N B C , 1987). In re-envis­ ing H o o d and set it in the Klondike in order to ioning nine fairy tales for television, Henson, create a holiday musical on ice. working with puppets and actors, shed new light on traditional tales by experimenting cre­ Despite the conservative tendency of com­ atively with visual and musical aspects; and he mercial interests to stick with proven formulas, engaged viewers to a new degree by question­ televised fairy tales have occasionally produced ing the authority of the storyteller. Henson technological or generic innovations, especial­ also creatively interpreted fairy tales and fairy­ ly in the medium of animation. In 1967, for tale motifs in other television programmes, in- example, Hanna-Barbera produced a special

5i7 TELEVISION AND FAIRY TALES eluding Sesame Street ( N E T / P B S , 1 9 6 9 - ), plore gender stereotypes, and to frame the baby boomers' adult rites of passage ironically The Frog Prince ( C B S , 1971), The Muppet Show in terms of childhood stories. In addition, a 1980s situation c o m e d y entitled The Charmings (syndicated, 1976—81), and Muppet Babies ( A B C , 1987—8) transplanted S n o w W h i t e and (CBS, 1984-92). Prince Charming to a suburban American neighbourhood, where they lived with other The challenges to traditional representations fairy-tale characters such as Snow White's evil stepmother, a dwarf, and the magic mirror. of the fairy tale that are characteristic of Hen- Unlike the much earlier situation comedies Be- witched and / Dream of Jeannie ( N B C , son's work reflect the reassessment of the genre 1965—70), which had also m o v e d magical fairy-tale characters into suburbia, The Charm- that began in the 1970s in European and ings did not enchant the v i e w i n g public. U n - able to evolve beyond its basic premiss, it Anglo-American society. Many cultural critics, developed no significant reinterpretation of the fairy-tale genre for its postmodern era. writers, and film-makers questioned the trad- Since the 1980s the growth of new national itional authority and values of classic tales, and networks, cable television, and home videos has also provided new opportunities for fairy- looked for ways to encourage readers and tale production and reception. Cable television has not only enabled the showing of theatrical viewers to regain control over the genre. For films, it has also facilitated the production o f made-for-cable series, such as D u v a l l ' s Faerie example, an innovative special on German tele- Tale Theatre, and made-for-cable films, such as *Snow White: A Tale of Terror (1996). E v e n i m - vision in 1987 encouraged public participation portant commercial television series such as Fractured Fairy Tales are b e i n g reprised on in re-visualizing the Grimms' fairy tales for cable for n e w audiences. In addition, films and made-for-cable fairy tales can now be pur- television. In the wake of the bicentennial cele- chased and owned by viewers. No longer limit- ed entirely by television programmers, bration of the births of the Brothers Grimm in consumers use their television sets to view v i d e o s o f fairy-tale films that w e r e once a v a i l - 1984 and 1986, the G e r m a n television network able to them only rarely or not at all. Viewers have access not only to the classic fairy-tale Z D F (Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen) collabor- films of D i s n e y , but also to films that m o v e b e - yond the Disney model, including animated ated with Japanese state television and the fairy-tale adaptations of the 1930s and 1940s, and important fairy-tale films such as J e a n Goethe Institute, a German cultural organiza- *Cocteau's La Belle et la Bête (Beauty and the Beast, 1947), Neil *Jordan's The Company of tion, on a contest that invited y o u n g film- Wolves (1984), W o l f g a n g Petersen's The *Neverending Story (1984), and R o b R e i n e r ' s makers up to the age of 30 to submit their o w n The *Princess Bride (1987). Similarly, fairy-tale films o f independent film-makers like T o m video adaptations of Grimms' classic tales. Se- *Davenport, w h o s e innovative series From the Brothers Grimm: American Versions of Folktale lected videos were shown in Germany in D e - Classics (1975-96) w a s broadcast on Instruc- tional Television by P B S , can be viewed on cember 1987 on a special broadcast entitled video. A s a commodity that can be purchased, owned, and privately viewed, the fairy-tale Von Frôschen, Freaks und Video-Hexen (Frogs, video gives the viewer a degree of freedom over the process of reception that has not been Freaks, and Video Witches), w h e r e they w e r e typical or possible with commercial television. discussed by the psychoanalyst Bruno Bettel- Television and the new technologies associ- ated with it have multiplied the opportunities heim. The critical and creative reassessment of the fairy tale resulted in renewed possibilities for the genre in the 1980s. In addition to anthology series like Amazing Stories and Henson's The Storyteller, several dramatic and adventure ser- ies based on fantasy and fairy-tale motifs emerged on America's commercial networks, including Wizards and Warriors ( C B S , 1983), The Wiiard ( C B S , 1986-7), Werewolf ( F o x , 1987—8), and Beauty and the Beast ( C B S , 1987—90). T h e most successful o f these w a s *Beauty and the Beast, w h i c h depicted the rela- tionship between Catherine, a socially con- scious New York attorney, and Vincent, a half-man-half-lion from a society of outcasts living in tunnels below the city. Although the series used the fairy tale to explore problems of American society and urban life, the romantic relationship dominated the series. Other dra- matic series such as L.A. Law ( N B C , 1986—94) and thirty something ( A B C , 1987—91) based some episodes explicitly on fairy-tale motifs from stories such as 'Little Red Riding Hood', Alice in Wonderland, and ' T h e T i t t l e M e r - maid'. These fairy-tale allusions were used in different ways to exploit sexual themes, to ex-

TEMPLE, SHIRLEY 518 available for experiencing both classical and al­ T V series, 'Shirley Temple Storybook' (1958) ternative fairy tales. Moreover, despite its his­ torical reliance on predictable formulas and the and 'Shirley Temple Theatre' (1961), which influence of commercial interests, television has participated in the cultural reassessment of both included numerous fairy-tale adaptations the fairy tale and contributed to its renewal by producing fairy tales that are technically, aes­ of the classics, also made into books. In politics thetically, and thematically innovative. The best of these demonstrate the potential that the she held different elected positions, and in 1987 medium has to help us understand the fairy tale's visual and postmodern possibilities. D H she was made Honorary Foreign Service Dégh, Linda, and Vâzsonyi, Andrew, 'Magic for Officer. IWA Sale: Màrchen and Legend in T V Advertising', Fabula, 20 (1979). Black, Shirley Temple, Child Star (1988). Greene, Graham, 'Wee Willie Winkie. Review', Jerrendorf, Marion, Grimms Mdrchen in Medien: in John Russell Taylor (ed.), Graham Greene on Aspekte verschiedener Erscheinungsformen in Film: Collected Film Criticism, 1935—1940 (1972). Horfunk, Fernsehen und Theater (1985). Odber de Baubeta, Patricia Anne, 'Fairy Tale T E N G G R E N , GUSTAF (1896-1970), Swedish art­ Motifs in Advertising', Estudos de Literaturo Oral, 3 (1997). ist, who emigrated to America in 1922 and had Schmitt, Christoph, Adaptionen klassischer Mdrchen im Kinder- und Familienfernsehen: Eine a distinguished career as illustrator and anima­ volkskundlich-filmwissenschaftliche Dokumentation und genrespe^ifische Analyse der in den acht^iger tor. Before he left Sweden, however, he had Jahren von den westdeutschen Fernsehanstalten gesendeten Mdrchenadaptionen mit einer Statistik already established a name for himself with his aller Ausstrahlungen seit 1954 (1993). Zipes, Jack, 'Once Upon a Time beyond w o r k for Bland Tomtar och Troll (Among Elves Disney: Contemporary Fairy-Tale Films for Children', in Happily Ever After: Fairy Tales, and Trolls), a Christmas annual for children, Children, and the Culture Industry (1997). and he did drawings for a collection of fairy TEMPLE, SHIRLEY (1928- ), child star from the 1930s and 1940s whose 50-odd films contain tales by Hans Christian *Andersen. In America numerous fairy-tale elements. Watched over by her mother (fairy godmother) Gertrude his work found quick recognition, and he pro­ A m e l i a T e m p l e (née K r i e g e r ) , Shirley began her film career with The Runt Page (1931). S u b ­ vided the illustrations for a number of fairy­ sequently, New Deal Rhythm (1933), Stand Up and Cheer (1934), Bright Eyes (1934), Wee Wil­ tale projects such as D'Aulnoy's Fairy Tales lie Winkie (1937), and other films cast their spells over Depression audiences who watched (1923), '1925 Fairy Tale Calendar' (Beck En­ enchanted as Shirley, usually playing an aban­ doned child, magically overcame whatever g r a v i n g C o . ) , and Sven the Wise and Svea the personal and political problems confronted her and her friends. Shirley's films invari­ Kind (1932), as well as some elegant drawings ably ended with good triumphing over evil, wealth over poverty, marriage over divorce, for Grimms Mdrchenschati (1923) in G e r m a n y . a booming economy over a depressed economy—classic fairy-tale endings. Unsur­ Tenggren's illustrations, influenced by Arthur prisingly, Shirley Temple describes herself as a 'tiny commodity', a 'potential gold mine for *Rackham and Kay *Nielsen were colourful, Fox' in the fairy tale that is American capital­ ism. Lone, outspoken critics like Graham florid, and dramatic and always added a new Greene, critical of Temple's flirtatious acting, were silenced in the courts. dimension to the tales. In 1936 he went to work A successful film career capped by an Oscar for Walt *Disney and designed many of the in 1935 was followed b y a successful T V and political career. She served as narrator for two scenes in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and Pinocchio. After W o r l d W a r I I , T e n g g r e n abandoned animation and published numerous fairy-tale b o o k s such as Tenggren's Story Book (1946), Tenggren's The Giant with the Three Golden Hairs (1955), Snow White and Rose Red (1955), and Tenggren's Jack and the Beanstalk (1956), and he also provided drawings for many Little Golden Books, a popular and inex­ pensive series for children in the United States. But the work of this later period lacked the ex­ perimental flair of his early stunning work, for which he is still known today. JZ Canemaker, John, Before the Animation Begins: The Art and Lives of Disney Inspirational Sketch Artists (1996). Swanson, Mary T., 'From Swedish Fairy Tales to American Fantasy' (Diss., University of Minnesota, 1986). TENNIEL, JOHN (1820-1914), English illustrator and cartoonist for Punch. Tenniel is best known for his striking black-and-white illus­ trations o f L e w i s *Carroll's *Alice in Wonder­ land (1865) and Through the Looking-Glass (1872). Alice in Wonderland became the most

TETZNER, LISA popular children's literary fairy tale of the Vic­ and author of children's books. After complet­ ing her studies in speech communication at the torian period. The working relationship Soziale Frauenschule in Berlin, Tetzner began criss-crossing southern and central Germany in between author and illustrator was strained 1918 as a storyteller. Inspired by the ideals of the socialist branch of the German youth since Carroll had originally illustrated Alice's movement and with little support, Tetzner tried to reach, help, and enlighten children who Adventures Under Ground (1863), the prototype had little access to knowledge and information with the one genre that belonged to the people, of Alice in Wonderland, while Tenniel frequent­ the fairy tale. After six years of travelling and telling fairy tales, Tetzner reconsidered the im­ ly reused characters and settings from his pre­ pact of what she was doing as well as her mo­ tives and opted for less traditional storytelling vious Punch drawings. C a r r o l l ' s respect for in a new medium. She returned to Berlin and organized a children's radio programme in Tenniel's artwork is revealed in his recalling of 1927. the first edition of Alice in Wonderland after T w o years later, Tetzner collaborated with one of the leading socialist theatre directors, Tenniel expressed dissatisfaction with the Béla *Balâsz, in the production of a fairy-tale play, Hans Urian geht nach Brot (Hans Goes in printing of the illustrations. JS Search of Bread, 1927), w h i c h became one o f the most important proletarian-revolutionary Hancher, Michael, The Tenniel Illustrations to the children's plays of the Weimar period. This 'proletarian Nils Holgersson' depicts Hans 'Alice ' Books (1985). Urian's fantastic journey around the world on a flying rabbit during which Hans learns about Simpson, Roger, Sir John Tenniel: Aspects of His economic conditions and class distinctions. T h e play is far more revolutionary than its in­ Work (1994). spirational sources, which include a French n o v e l for children, Jean sans Pain (Jean without TENNYSON, ALFRED LORD (1809-92), English Bread) b y Paul Vaillant-Couturier. T h e desire to enlighten by making untenable social and poet, central figure in the Arthurian r e v i v a l , political conditions transparent became the driving force behind all of Tetzner's writing. who drew from classical myth and Celtic le­ Although Tetzner returned to fairy tales at gend to write allegorical stories about the various times later in life, both writing her own and editing collections, the years following the ideals and failings of his society. He was par­ adaptation o f Hans Urian into a n o v e l Hans Urian, oder, Die Geschichte einer Weltreise ticularly influenced b y Sir T h o m a s M a l o r y ' s Le (Hans Urian Sees the World, 1929), mark a turning-point in her career. From then on, Morte d'Arthur (1485), an important source for Tetzner moved away from symbolic narration towards a realistic style o f writing. Der Fussball his Arthurian idylls. In his first fully Arthurian (The Soccer Ball, 1932) is her first social realist story about city kids. It grew out of her contact poem 'The Lady of Shalott' (1833), the lady, with working-class children in Berlin who par­ ticipated in her radio programmes. Both this whose fairy nature is only referred to in pass­ story and her magnum opus, Die Kinder aus Nr. 67. Kinder-Odyssée (A Childhood Odyssey, ing, is drawn out of her island-world by the 1933—49) are, as the reference to H o m e r ' s epic suggests, the work of a storyteller, not a novel­ sight of Lancelot on his way to Camelot, and ist. This nine-volume work uncompromisingly chronicles the fate of a group of working-class dies. In 1842, Tennyson published three children living in a tenement building in Berlin through 12 years of fascism and war. Most of Arthurian poems, 'Morte d'Arthur', 'Sir Gala­ Tetzner's books were written and published in had', and 'Sir Launcelot and Queen Guinev­ ere', which would later be incorporated into Idylls of the King (1859). W h i l e T e n n y s o n ' s poems can be read as socio-political or reli­ gious allegories, they are also reflections on art and the artist: in 'Merlin and the Gleam' (1889), Merlin the magician is the figure of the poet ('/am Merlin'). AD TEPPER, SHERI S . (1929- ), prolific American writer of speculative and (under pseudonyms) detective fiction. T e p p e r ' s characteristic blend of folklore with contemporary environmental and population issues is best seen in her time- travel novel Beauty (1991), which uses classic fairy tales like \"\"Sleeping Beauty', \"\"Cinder­ ella', \"\"Snow White', 'Tarn Lin', and 'The *Frog King' to structure a parable about the rape of nature in the service of anthropocentric greed. Tepper's emphatic political stance—she advocates abortion in the interest of population control and has been criticized as being anti- sex—earn her both strong supporters and detractors. NJW TETZNER, LISA (1894-1963), German-born storyteller, collector, and editor of folk tales,

THACKERAY, WILLIAM MAKEPEACE 520 Swiss exile, where she remained until her and goes off to win back his throne. The story death. EMM finishes with the marriages of Giglio and Karrenbrock, Helga, Rosalba (their respective misfortunes now Marchenkinder—Zeitgenossen. Untersuchungen ^ur ended) and of Bulbo and Angelica, Gruffa- Kinderliteratur der Weimarer Republik (1995). nuff s husband having ceased to be a door Kaulen, Heinrich, and Steinke, Heidi, 'Neue knocker just in time to prevent the marriage of Materialien zu Leben und Werk von Lisa the Countess to Giglio, who had once un­ Tetzner (1894—1963). Zum 100. Geburtstag der guardedly proposed to her. GA Jugendbuchautorin', Der Deutschunterricht, 3 Sorensen, Gail D . , 'Thackeray's \"The Rose and (1994). the Ring\": A Novelist's Fairy Tale', Mythlore, Zipes, Jack (ed.), Fairy Tales and Fables from 15.3 (spring 1989). Weimar Days (1989). Tremper, Ellen, 'Commitment and Escape: The THACKERAY, WILLIAM MAKEPEACE (1811-63), Fairy Tales of Thackeray, Dickens, and Wilde', E n g l i s h novelist and author o f The Rose and the The Lion and the Unicorn, 2.1 (1978). Ring (1855). T h i s satirical fairy story, subtitled 'a fireside pantomime for great and small chil­ THIEF OF BAGHDAD, THE, a title which has been dren', was written to amuse his two daughters used by a cluster of oriental fantasies exploit­ who were in Rome with him in 1853. The pref­ ing the iconography of The ^Arabian ace describes how they wanted to give a Nights—winged horses, omnipotent sorcerers, Twelfth Night party, but that no shop in Rome magic lamps, jinn in bottles, veiled princesses, could provide 'the characters—those funny precious flowers and, above all, flying carpets. painted pictures of the King, the Queen, the Within this context, each production was in­ Lover, the Lady, the Dandy, the Captain, and flected to catch the mood of the moment. so on, with which our young ones are wont to recreate themselves at this festive time'. T h e first Thief w a s that of D o u g l a s F a i r ­ Thackeray thereupon drew the characters and banks who, in 1924, as producer and star, used wove a story round them. W e see King Valo- Baghdad as a setting for spectacle, morality, roso and his queen on facing pages—'Here be­ and his personal athleticism. The arrogant, hold the monarch sit | With her majesty flamboyant thief flouts religion and all forms of opposite'; this running commentary in couplets authority until he sets forbidden eyes on the continues through the book. Valoroso has Princess. Then, pretending to be a prince, he usurped the throne of his nephew, Prince wins her love but is driven to confess the truth Giglio, who has been encouraged to lapse into to a Holy Man, who sends him on a long, haz­ a state of unambitious indolence. At Giglio's ardous journey for a magic chest. Only christening the gift of Fairy Blackstick—bored through struggle and penitence will he earn with necromancy after two or three thousand happiness. Finally overcoming all obstacles, he years—merely had been that he should have 'a returns on a flying carpet just in time to rescue little misfortune'. She had made a similar wish Baghdad and the Princess from a Mongol inva­ at the christening of Princess Rosalba of Crim sion. Tartary, whose identity is lost when she is a small child, and who becomes maid to Princess In 1939, 15 years later, w o r k began on an­ Angelica, Valoroso's daughter. The rose and other Thief T h i s w a s intended b y the producer the ring are gifts that Blackstick had once be­ Alexander Korda to show the world that the stowed on godchildren, and have been passed U K could make films just as colourful and en­ on; they have the power of making wearers chanting as those from Hollywood. One of the seem attractive—even the lumpish Prince rivals in K o r d a ' s mind w a s *Snow White; he Bulbo who comes to woo Angelica. boasted that he could do with living actors what Disney had done with drawings. Korda's There are many subsidiary comic charac­ thief is Abu, a boy of the Baghdad streets who ters, among them the hideous Countess Gruf- helps a young king, Ahmad, escape the wicked fanuff and her husband, porter at Valoroso's schemes of Jaffar, the Grand Vizier. In Basra, palace, who is turned into a door knocker by Ahmad sets forbidden eyes on the Sultan's Blackstick as a punishment for his insolence. daughter, and they fall in love, but she has been T h e story is labyrinthine in its complexity, and promised to Jaffar. Through Jaffar's magic the only moral is a flippant one; Giglio grasps Ahmad is blinded, and Abu turned into a dog, that to be attractive he must have education. until the Princess releases them from the spell He departs for 'Bosforo' (Oxford) where he by agreeing to marry Jaffar. With the help of a studies assiduously, then discards his books giant jinni, A b u steals the All-Seeing Eye and returns to Baghdad on a flying carpet just as Ahmad is about to be beheaded. Ironically, this

THIEF OF BAGHDAD The powerful genie gives a helping hand to A

Abu in Alexander Korda's film The Thief of Baghdad ( 1 9 4 0 ) .

THOMPSON, ALFRED 522 film that sought to outdo H o l l y w o o d had to style of the musical entertainment of that era. move there when the outbreak of war made continued shooting in England impossible. Many of his scripts and designs celebrated fan­ Despite this rupture, the finished film w o n an Oscar for its achievement in creating Techni­ tasy and famous fairy tales, including The color opulence, magical feats, and the djinni's enormous size. Lion's Mouth ( L o n d o n , 1867), Aladdin II, or An T h e start of the 1960s saw a third foray into Old Lamp in a New Light ( L o n d o n , 1870), Cin­ Thief territory, 77 Ladro di Bagdad, an Italian- French co-production shot in CinemaScope derella the Younger ( L o n d o n , 1871), Bella­ using Tunisian locations, had an American dir­ ector, Arthur Lubin (who had made the war­ donna, or The Little Beauty and the Great Beast time version o f *Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves). T h e reason for the film's existence ( L o n d o n , 1878), Pépita, or The Girl with the was, however, not Lubin but its muscleman star, Steve Reeves. In the early 1950s R e e v e s Glass Eyes ( N e w Y o r k , 1886), The Arabian got into films through w i n n i n g the titles ' M r World' and 'Mr Universe'. Before taking on Nights, or Aladdin's Wonderful Lamp ( N e w the role of Karim the thief, he had appeared variously as Hercules, Goliath, and other giant Y o r k , 1887), and The Crystal Slipper, or Prince characters. The storyline harks back to Fair­ banks in that it gives Karim a series of redemp­ Prettywiti and Little Cinderella ( N e w Y o r k , tive tests of character and skill to undergo—hostile trees, burning swamps, sud­ 1888). TSH den floods, a beautiful n y m p h o m a n i a c — a s he searches for the Seven Gates where the blue THOMPSON, RUTH PLUMLY (1891-1976), Ameri­ rose grows which alone will restore the prin­ can author of juvenile literature and 0 { books. cess to health. Unlike Hercules and Goliath, L . F r a n k *Baum's death in 1919 posed a finan­ Karim does not triumph through muscle power cial problem: who would continue his lucrative alone: thanks to his friendship with a magician, * Wizard of 0 { series, so recently recuperated he sometimes uses a vanishing cloak to escape from a World War I sales slump? Thompson danger, and at the climax is able, by rubbing a w a s children's editor of the Philadelphia Public magic ring, to summon to his aid an army of Ledger w h e n she became the Second R o y a l acrobats. Historian of Oz. She carried on the tradition of a n e w 0{ b o o k for Christmas for 19 consecu­ T h i s periodic appearance o f Thief films cul­ tive y e a r s , writing five more novels than Baum minated at the end of the 1970s with a himself. H e r first title (The Royal Book of 0 { , UK—France co-production in 1978, and a U K - 1921) was supposedly edited from his notes. o n l y variant called Arabian Adventure a y e a r This false statement plus the continuation of later. Inspired by the recent world-wide suc­ John R . *Neill as illustrator eased the transition cess o f special effects m o v i e s such as Superman, between authors. which was sold on the promise that cinema- g o e r s w o u l d believe a man could fly, these t w o But while the artwork remained the same, films used the same techniques to convince Thompson's sequels differed. Her brisk-yet- audiences that a carpet could fly. T A S poetic style full of wordplay was more polished and featured regularized spellings ('Gnome' in­ THOMPSON, ALFRED (pseudonym of THOMPSON stead of ' N o m e ' ) . She also preferred boys as protagonists. But while she rivalled Baum in E. JONES, 1831-95), British musical theatre li­ creating fanciful places (Bafflesburg, Pumper- brettist and artist. Thompson studied art at dink) and colourful characters (Jinnicky the Munich and Paris and was soon one of the most Red Jinn, Kabumpo the Elegant Elephant), her innovative costume and scenic designers of the imagination was not as unleashed. Baum's tales musical stage, in particular for fantasy bur­ were largely original; her enchanted objects lesques and pantomines. He began writing and royal w e d d i n g s recalled The ^Arabian stage pieces in the 1860s and provided some of Nights and E u r o p e a n fairy tales, while charac­ the most literate early British music-theatre ters like Captain Salt, Realbad, and the Yellow pieces. Continuing to design, Thompson spent Knight clearly imitated Long John Silver, the next 30 years in the L o n d o n and N e w Y o r k Robin Hood, and Don Quixote. Finally, theatre and helped to establish the look and Thompson's references to contemporary cul­ ture, while popularizing her titles, rendered them less timeless than Baum's fantasy. In addition to writing novels, Thompson ac­ tively marketed them. She revived characters to increase backlist title sales and wrote promo­ tional playlets. Although the Baum heirs pro­ hibited her from recording Oz stories, her radio contest promoting 'The Enchanted Tree of Oz' (1926—7), for which children submitted their own endings to her unfinished tale, was

TIECK, LUDWIG especially popular. But her shrewdest market­ woman's trials and tribulations until she is ing came in 1939. Foreseeing the impact of the upcoming M G M musical, she negotiated with united with a prince of her own size. The Walt *Disney Studios about animating Oz, but Baum's widow had already sold the rights. She Andersen tale is a coming-of-age story that not then capitalized on the film by reprising origin­ al characters and scenes for O^oplaning with the only chides society for narrow-mindedness, Wizard of 0 { (1939). Literally offering a bird's eye view of a miniaturized Oz, it seems to pres­ but also suggests that one may be better off age the books' diminished role in defining Oz in the public imagination. with one's own kind. NI Thompson passed on the mantle of Royal THURBER, JAMES (1894-1961), American writer Historian to the illustrator Neill in 1939. Her and illustrator, moved to N e w York from Ohio plots were repeating; she was straining their ju­ in 1933 and became one of the great writers of venile perspective; and she tired of contract h u m o u r for the New Yorker. K n o w n for his disputes about her other fairy tales and (ghost­ irony and wit, Thurber produced the satirical written) Disney books. She retired to freelance 'The Girl and the W o l f , one of the most re­ for Jack and Jill children's magazine and write markable versions of *'Little Red Riding fairy-tale scripts for radio and television. T w o H o o d ' , in his unique collection Fables for our later Oz novels and a collection of poetry Time (1940). H e r e the girl shoots the w o l f with {Yankee in 0{, 1972; The Enchanted Island of a revolver, and the story ends with a moral: 0 { , 1976; The Curious Citizens of 0 { ) w e r e pub­ 'Little girls are not so easy to fool nowadays as lished by the International Wizard of Oz Club. they used to be.' Although most of Thurber's ironic fables and sketches were intended for MLE adults, he also wrote four charming fairy-tale Greene, David L. and Martin, Dick, The Oi b o o k s for y o u n g readers: Many Moons (1943), Scrapbook (1977). The Great Quillow (1944), The White Deer Hearne, Michael Patrick, 'Ruth Plumly (1945), and The Thirteen Clocks (1950). O f Thompson', American Writers for Children these b o o k s , Many Moons, in w h i c h a fragile (1983). princess uses great inner resources to over­ Snow, Jack, Who's Who in 0 { (1954). come the forces of a castle that threatens to en­ velop her, is regarded as his best work. THORPE, BENJAMIN (1782-1870), British phil­ Thurber's gloomy view of humankind, how­ ever, is more dominant in his other fairy-tale ologist, Anglo-Saxon scholar, and translator. work, where his satire tends to subvert the traditional happy ending of his narratives. J Z In 1851 his three-volume Northern Mythology, Holmes, Charles, 'James Thurber and the Art of which included a selection of Scandinavian lit­ Fantasy', Yale Review, 55 (1965). Long, Robert, James Thurber (1988). erary and folk legends, acquainted the British Maharg, Ruth, 'The Modern Fable: James Thurber's Social Criticisms', Children's Literature public with trolls, water sprites, and other Association Quarterly, 9 (1984). Morsberger, Robert, James Thurber (1964). Norse supernaturals. In 1853 a companion v o l ­ ume, Yule-Tide Stories, helped popularize Scandinavian fairy tales in England. Thorpe retold Northern versions of such popular tales TIECK, LUDWIG (1773—1853), one of the earliest German romantic writers to develop the liter­ as *'Jack and the Beanstalk' and *'Rumpelstilt- ary potential of fairy tales. Tieck was born in Berlin, a city with a dynamic literary culture skin', noting their analogues. His translations and enhanced opportunities for the middle class. His father, a master ropemaker, who was of less-known stories like 'The Beautiful Pal­ himself widely read, encouraged his son's liter­ ary inclinations and saw to it that he was well ace East of the Sun and West of the Moon', a educated and poised to rise above his family's social station. From 1782 to 1792 Tieck attend­ Swan Maiden tale, influenced Victorian authors ed the respected Friedrich-Werder-Gymna­ sium, where he developed a close friendship including William *Morris. CGS with Wilhelm Heinrich *Wackenroder, an­ other important figure in early German roman­ THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS, THE, see ARABIAN ticism. During this time Tieck completed NIGHTS. diverse literary efforts of his own, including fairy tales, and assisted with the literary pro­ 'THUMBELINA' (OR 'INCHELINA'). The diminutive jects of his teachers, who recognized his talent. person, only the size of a thumb or of an inch, is a character who commonly appears in fairy tales, for example *'Little T o m Thumb' (1621) or ' L e petit Poucet' (1697), but its best-known representation is Hans Christian *Andersen's 'Tommelise' (1836), which relates a tiny young

TIECK, LUDWIG 524 After studying philology and literature at ically underlining the unmistakable literary the universities in Halle, Gôttingen, and Erlan- character of his innovative fairy tales. gen from 1792 to 1794, Tieck embarked on a career as a professional writer. He returned to Tieck's fairy-tale plays, which sometimes Berlin, where he remained until 1799, writing portray their own audiences, exhibit a high de­ moralistic-satiric tales as a hack writer for the gree of literary self-consciousness and playful­ Enlightenment publisher Friedrich Nicolai, but ness. P l a y s like Der gestiefelte Kater also publishing his own innovative fairy tales (*Puss-in-Boots, 1797), Die verkehrte Welt (The and fantasy. Throughout the rest of his life, Topsy-Turvy World, 1799), and Prinç Zerbino Tieck was able to gain a livelihood as a writer (1799) not only satirize and parody literary and theatre director in Ziebingen, Dresden, conventions of the Enlightenment, but repeat­ and Berlin. edly break the dramatic illusion in order to question the distinctions artists and spectators Tieck worked in many literary genres, in­ make between fantasy and reality. Literary and cluding lyrical poetry, novels, novellas, plays, socio-political satire also characterize Tieck's libretti, and adaptations of folk tales, legends, other fairy-tale plays, which include Der Blau- and chapbooks. He also penned critical essays, bart (*'Bluebeard, 1797), Rotkdppchen (\"1 Little produced important translations of writers such Red Riding Hood, 1800), Ddumling (Thum- as Miguel de Cervantes and William \"'Shake­ bling, 1812), and Fortunat (1816). speare, and edited medieval German texts and the writings of contemporaries such as \"'Nova­ Tieck's fairy-tale novellas challenge percep­ lis and Heinrich von Kleist. Fairy-tale elements tions and question conventional truths by dis­ pervade much of Tieck's work, whatever the rupting the reader's expectations of the fairy genre, and are found in his earliest, unpub­ tale itself. In tales like 'Der blonde Eckbert' lished literary attempts, as well as in later writ­ ('Blond Eckbert', 1797), 'Der Runenberg' ings. A s early as 1790, at the age of 17, he had ('Rune Mountain', 1804), and 'Die Elfen' ('The written at least two fairy-tale plays in the man­ Elves', 1812), reality and fantasy do not blend ner o f the Italian writer C a r l o *Gozzi: Das Reh seamlessly, as in conventional fairy tales. In­ (The Deer) and Konig Braddeck (King Brad- stead, reality and fantasy are juxtaposed, and deck). N e a r l y half a century later T i e c k con­ when they do merge, the results are disorient­ tinued to experiment with the fairy tale in ing and disastrous. Whereas the stereotypical stories like 'Die Vogelscheuche' ('The Scare­ fairy tale leads its hero towards social and psy­ crow', 1835), which not only combined novella chological integration, Tieck's tales generally and fairy tale, but also mixed this romantic hy­ depict alienated characters who experience brid with drama. psychological disintegration. In 'Blond Eck­ bert', for instance, the title character seeks to Tieck is best known for the fairy-tale nov­ overcome his solitary life by confiding his in­ ellas and satirical fairy-tale plays that he pub­ nermost secrets to others; but introspection and lished in three collections: Volksmarchen confession only reveal a more horrible truth, (Folktales, 1797), Romantische Dichtungen (Ro­ which plunges Eckbert into utter insanity. In mantic Works, 1799—1800), and Phantasus 'Rune Mountain' the main character Christian (1812—16). T h e last o f these, Phantasus, c o m ­ escapes from the ordered life that oppresses bines selections from the two earlier collections him by seeking higher truths in nature and the with new works and weaves them into a frame supernatural; however, in the end the reader is story in which upper middle-class and aristo­ uncertain whether Christian has been liberated cratic characters read these poetic works to one by a higher consciousness or suffers from in­ another in the course of their literary and cul­ sane delusions. Tales of this kind, which ex­ tural conversations. The traditional device of plore unresolved ambiguities and the dark side the frame story enabled Tieck to emphasize the of the romantic imagination, distinguish literary and social contexts in which his stories Tieck's stories not only from the didactic and plays were produced and consumed. As a moral tales of the Enlightenment, but also from professional writer, Tieck was acutely aware the Utopian tales of romantic writers like Nova­ that his literary works were commodities, and lis. this self-awareness expresses itself ironically in his writings, which play with readers and their Neither moralist nor prophet, Tieck was a expectations. When he represented his 1797 professional writer who sought to burst his collection as Folktales, 'edited b y Peter L e b e - readers' illusions even as he sought to sell them recht' (a pseudonym), Tieck was toying with new ones. B y incorporating this paradox into his readers' expectations of the genre and iron­ his work, he created a literary fairy tale that embodied the aesthetic, social, and existential

525 T O L K I E N , J . R . R . contradictions of his age. With irony, playful­ Lord of the Rings. T h e c o m i n g of W o r l d W a r I I ness, and profound ambiguity he created the nearly halted his slow progress, and only the romantic prototype of the modern fairy tale. encouragement of his friend C . S. *Lewis and his son Christopher enabled him to complete DH the three-volume w o r k , published in 1954—5. Birrell, Gordon, The Boundless Present: Space T h e 1965 paperback publication of ' T h e T r i l ­ and Time in the Literary Fairy Tales of Novalis ogy' (as early enthusiasts named it) trans­ and Tieck ( 1 9 7 9 ) . formed it into a best-seller, particularly on Haase, Donald P., 'Ludwig Tieck', in E. F. college campuses. Tolkien was still at work on Bleiler (ed.), Supernatural Fiction Writers: The Silmartllion w h e n he died; it w a s published Fantasy and Horror, i ( 1 9 8 5 ) . and edited by Christopher Tolkien in 1977. Jager, Hans-Wolf, 'Tràgt Rotkappuchen eine Jakobinermiitze? Ubermutmassliche Konnotate As a child, Tolkien loved George *MacDo- bei Tieck und Grimm', in Joachim Bard (ed.), nald's 'Curdie' books and the fairy-tale collec­ Beitrdge {ur Praxis (Literatur-soziologie, ii, tions of *Andrew Lang. Although Bilbo B a g g i n s o f The Hobbit is not the usual fairy-tale 1974)- protagonist—not a handsome youngest son, but a plump, middle-aged hobbit of Middle- Lillyman, William J . , Reality's Dark Dream: The E a r t h — h e finds himself on a classic quest j o u r ­ Narrative Fiction of Ludwig Tieck ( 1 9 7 9 ) . ney with a group of dwarfs who hope to re­ Thalmann, Marianne, 'The Tieck Fairy Tale', in cover their ancestral treasure from the dragon The Romantic Fairy Tale: Seeds of Surrealism o f the L o n e l y Mountain. His first adventure, an encounter with three hungry trolls, is closely (1964). modelled on those Scandinavian folk tales in which a troll's attention is distracted till the ris­ TOLKIEN, J . R. R. (JOHN RONALD REUEL, ing sun turns him into stone. His second—in the underground realm of the goblins—recalls 1892-1973), British author and scholar, best C u r d i e ' s exploits u n d e r g r o u n d in The Princess k n o w n for his w o r k s of fantasy, The Hobbit and and the Goblin (1871). T h e ring o f Invisibility The Lord of the Rings. T h o u g h his first three that Bilbo finds there seems at first no m o r e years were spent in South Africa, Tolkien and than the usual handy magical device. A s the his younger brother Hilary grew up in an Eng­ story progresses, however, it becomes more lish country village and, after 1900, in Birming­ original, more serious in tone, and more akin ham, where he attended King Edward's to saga and heroic legend than to folk tale. The School. There he discovered a love of lan­ expected fairy-tale outcome, in which Bilbo guages—Old English, Gothic, Welsh, Fin­ would somehow slay the dragon and win the nish—and began to invent his own. His treasure, is deliberately subverted. A minor widowed mother was disowned by her family character kills the dragon; the unguarded treas­ after her conversion to Catholicism, and when ure brings dwarfs, elves, and men to the brink she died in 1904 she named as her two sons' of war; and Bilbo's greatest heroic feat is not guardian a friendly priest who lodged them in a one of violence but of renunciation, in which boarding house. A t 16 Tolkien met and fell in he risks his life to make peace. He wins no love with Edith Bratt, whom he married eight princess and only a modest share of treasure; years later. After obtaining a degree in English his greatest reward is the new self he has real­ language and literature from Oxford, he served ized and his rich store of memories. in World W a r I as a signals officer. While he was in the trenches of Flanders, he created a The Lord of the Rings amplifies and darkens mythology and world based on Elvish lan­ the pattern of The Hobbit. A g a i n , a hobbit sets guages that he had invented to help keep him forth on a quest with his companions, surviv­ sane. After the war, he went on to teach at the ing many perilous adventures to reach a lonely University of Leeds and then at Oxford, where mountain. In this fairy-tale novel for adults, he remained until his retirement, achieving an however, an act of renunciation becomes the admirable reputation as a scholar in Anglo- goal. Bilbo's ring has been revealed as a deadly Saxon and medieval literature. Among his im­ Ring of Power, which its master Sauron is portant w o r k s w e r e a definitive edition o f *Sir seeking. He intends to enslave all of Middle- Gawain and the Green Knight (1925) and his Earth with it, and Bilbo's nephew Frodo must essay 'Beowulf. T h e Monsters and the Critics' reach the mountain where it was forged in (1936). In private, he w o r k e d on The Silmaril- order to destroy it forever. Tolkien's w o r k is lion, a mythological epic o f his imagined M i d ­ equally remarkable for the depth of its moral dle-Earth, and told stories to his four children. O n e of the tales became The Hobbit (1937). Urged by his publisher to produce a sequel, Tolkien began what soon developed into something darker and far more complex, The

TOLSTOY, ALEKSEI 526 vision and the quality of its imaginary world, group of puppets, revolting against the tyran­ whose complexity, detail, and consistency cre­ nical puppeteer and becoming their own mas­ ate for the willing reader the illusion of a real ters. The adventure and struggle are yet enchanted universe. highlighted, while the philosophical and exist­ Both the cultural and the literary influence ential aspects of *Collodi's novel are deleted. o f Lord of the Rings h a v e been considerable. Burattino has become one of the most popular Adult fantasy, all but extinct before its startling characters of Russian children's literature, al­ success, is today a flourishing mainstay of the most a national hero. MN publishing industry. And although much post- Tolkien fantasy has been weakly imitative, TOLSTOY, LEV (1828-1910), Russian writer, most famous for his novels War and Peace and some of today's most original writers—includ­ Anna Karenina, but also the author of many ing Diana Wynne *Jones and Ursula K . *Le G u i n — h a v e acknowledged Tolkien as a fairy tales for children. Tolstoy was an ardent educationalist and used the fairy-tale form for source o f inspiration. In Strategies of Fantasy, Brian A t t e b e r y identifies The Lord of the Rings didactic and educational purposes. In the 1860s and 1870s he opened several rural schools and as our 'mental template' for fantasy, suggesting published a number of school primers, which that works we now generally recognize as fan­ tasy share its salient characteristics: violation of mostly contain retellings of folk and fairy tales from all over the world: fables, animal tales, natural law, comic structure (that of the trad­ magical tales, and some local aetiological tales. itional fairy tale), and sense of wonder. In the late 1960s, the alternative reality of Middle- These collections were addressed to peasant children and are very simple in structure and Earth endeared Tolkien to the counter-culture, while the ease with which that reality lends it­ style. When using well-known plots, such as *'Little T o m Thumb', Tolstoy often followed self to role-playing led to the creation of games Russian chapbooks rather than *Perrault, and like 'Dungeons and Dragons' and its succes­ sors, as well as the pioneering text-based com­ he always described Russian peasant settings in detail. However, he also included in his collec­ puter game 'Adventure'. tions several oriental and Arabian fairy tales, Tolkien is important not only as a practi­ tioner but as a theorist of fantasy. T w o of his retaining and accentuating their exotic settings. T h e source of many of his fairy tales are to be short tales, ' L e a f b y N i g g l e ' (in Tree and Leaf found in the collections of the famous Russian folklorists *Afanasyev and Khudyakov. Some 1964) and Smith of Wootton Major (1967) deal of the more complicated and original fairy symbolically with the nature of fantasy and the artist w h o creates it. His influential 1939 essay 'On Fairy-Stories' expresses analytically what tales, involving criticism of social injustice, such as ' T h e Tale of Ivan the Fool' (1885), 'Leaf by Niggle' says in story. Tolkien argues were banned because of their disrespectful por­ that the fairy tale is not inherently 'for chil­ dren' but for adults as well. He defends the trayal of Tsars, the state, and the clergy. making of imaginary worlds as divinely sanc­ Tolstoy's most popular fairy tale, 'The Three Bears' (1872), is a version of 'Goldi­ tioned 'sub-creation', and suggests that the special significance of the fairy tale lies in its locks', which also appears as a subtext in the distinctive qualities of Fantasy, Escape, Recov­ n o v e l Anna Karenina. MN ery, and Consolation. For Tolkien, the 'euca- tastrophe', in which the story turns suddenly from sorrow to joy, is the defining moment of ' T O M T H U M B ' , see ' L I T T L E T O M T H U M B ' . the fairy tale. SR TOPELIUS, ZACHARIAS (1818-98), Finno-Swed- ish writer, the creator of Swedish and Finno- Attebery, Brian, Strategies of Fantasy (1992). Swedish children's literature and especially fairy tale. He was professor of history and later Carpenter, Humphrey, Tolkien: A Biography Chancellor of Helsinki University. He also wrote poetry, drama, and historical novels. His (i977)- Ldsning for barn (Reading Matter for Children, 8 v o l s . , 1865—96) contains a variety of magical Lobdell, Jared (éd.), A Tolkien Compass (1975). tales, moral tales, animal tales, and retellings of Shippey, T . A., The Road to Middle-Earth traditional tales. Everyday settings and events (1983). are intertwined in them with romantic and fan­ tastic motifs to suit the educational purposes of TOLSTOY, ALEKSEI (1882/3-1945), Russian nov­ the time. His best-known fairy tales, such as elist. H e w r o t e The Golden Key, or The Adven­ tures of Burattino (1935), the Russian version o f *Pinocchio, far more famous in R u s s i a than the original. Instead of the individual dilemma of Pinocchio, striving to become a real boy, Tol­ stoy focuses on the collective achievements of a

527 T O U R N I E R , M I C H E L 'Sampo Lappelill' ('Sampo the Little Lapp b i o g r a p h y entitled Le Vent Paraclet (The Wind Spirit, 1977), and fictionalized accounts in- Boy'), 'Knut spelevink' ('Knut the Musician'), spired b y history such as Gilles et Jeanne (1983), about Gilles de Rais and Joan of Arc; or 'Kyrktuppen' ('The Church Weathercock'), Gaspard, Melchior et Balthazar ( The Four Wise Men, 1980), w h i c h d r a w s from Bible stories; are clearly influenced by Hans Christian and Eléa^er ou La Source et le buisson (Eléa^er or The Spring and the Bush, 1996), a metaphysical *Andersen. MN interpretation of Moses. He has published travel books about Canada, Madagascar, and TOURNIER, MICHEL (1924- ), French author of Weimar, and written numerous essays on pho- mythical, multi-layered narratives for adults t o g r a p h y (Des Clefs et des serrures (About Keys and children. He was the son of Germanicists, and Locks, also translated as Waterline, 1979)), and his family was deeply affected by World reading (Le Vol du vampire (Flight of the Vam- W a r I I . He experienced at first hand the rise of pire, 1981)), and art criticism (Le Tabor et le Nazism in Germany, the adulation by some Sinai, 1988). T o u r n i e r also has several short- Frenchmen of their conquerers, the appropri- story collections for adults and for children in- ation of his home as Nazi headquarters, and the cluding Le Coq de bruyère (The Fetishist, 1978), round-up of fellow villagers for concentration Le Médianoche amoureux (The Midnight Love camps. He would later record these reactions Feast, 1985), and Sept Contes (Seven Tales, and interview prisoners o f w a r in Le Roi des 1991). Aulnes (translated as both The Erl King and The Ogre, 1970). H e studied philosophy, ini- A multifaceted and prolific author, Tournier tially in Paris. After defending his Sorbonne borrows his ideas from folklore, fairy tales, lit- thesis on Plato in 1946, he studied German erary masterpieces, and the Bible in a process philosophy at the University of Tubingen and he terms bricolage. H e then rewrites these cul- returned in 1950 to take the agrégation (the tural mythologies to reinterpret chapters from highly competitive examination leading to sec- Genesis or voyages of initiation. These sources ondary- and university teaching positions). are especially important when addressing ju- Ironically, it is because he failed this exam that venile readers, for he uses mythology and fa- he eventually turned to literature. He drifted miliar texts as a bridge to bring metaphysics to about post-war Paris for a few years, attended children's literature. Tournier's reworking of ethnology lectures by Lévi-Strauss, translated his first n o v e l is a case in point. F e e l i n g that the novels of Erich Maria Remarque, and edit- one should write concisely and clearly enough ed texts at a Paris publishing house. H e then for a 10- or a 12-year-old to understand, he dis- became a radio announcer for Europe Numéro tilled his metaphysical Friday as Vendredi ou la Un (which he would later write about in ' T r i - vie sauvage (Friday and Robinson: Life on Espe- stan V o x ' , 1978), and from 1960—5 hosted a ran{a Island, 1971). N o t o n l y has it b e c o m e the television series called ' L a Chambre noire' second most popular children's b o o k after Le ('The Black Box'). Photography remains Tournier's passion: he co-founded an inter- Petit Prince (The Little Prince) (see S A I N T - E X U - national photographic society and has written numerous texts to accompany other photog- P É R Y , A N T O I N E D E ) , but Tournier prefers it to raphers' work. The photographic image is also his original text, itself a reworking of Defoe's a recurrent theme in his short stories and mythical hero. novels like 'Les Suaires de Véronique' ('Veronica's Shrouds', 1978) and La Goutte d'or In addition to retooling his own novel (a (The Golden Droplet, 1985). kind of self-plagiarism), Tournier recycles his short stories for a wider, dual readership of It was not until the age of 43, however, that children and adults. His favourite tale, 'Pierrot Tournier began his career as a writer. His first ou les secrets de la nuit' ('Pierrot or the Secrets novel won the French Academy's Grand Prix of the Night', 1978), has appeared in several of du R o m a n for Vendredi ou Les Limbes du Pac- his anthologies and presents the commedia del- ifique (Friday or The Other Island, 1967), a Varte characters Harlequin and Pierrot as e m - metaphysical r e w o r k i n g o f Robinson Crusoe b y bodiments of diametrically opposed aesthetics, way of Freud, Sartre, and Lévi-Strauss. Three Platonism and postmodernism, through their years later, b y the first-ever unanimous v o t e , courtship of Columbine. Tournier also ex- he w o n the P r i x G o n c o u r t for The Erl King, his cerpts intercalated stories from novels and mythic treatment of Nazism. He is a member of issues them separately and/or in collections. the Académie Goncourt and winner of the Prix This is the case of 'Barbedor' ('Goldenbeard, Goethe, w h o s e other major w o r k s include Les or T h e P r o b l e m o f S u c c e s s i o n ' ) , an * Arabian Météores (Gemini, 1975), an intellectual auto-

TRAVERS, PAMELA LYNDON 528 Nights-inspired story of an heirless, a g e i n g ten many essays on folklore and myth which king who magically becomes his own succes- h a v e appeared regularly in the review Parabola sor, which originally appeared as a tale-within- and have been republished, along with some of a-tale in The Four Wise Men and w a s subse- her o w n tales and retellings, in What the Bee quently reissued for children in a separate, Knows: Reflections on Myth, Symbol and Story illustrated edition as well as in the collection (1989). AD Seven Tales. Other 'oriental' fairy tales include 'Barbe- TRNKA, J l R l (1912—69), Czech painter and illus- rousse' ('Redbeard') and 'La Reine blonde' trator, also active in animated film and puppet ( ' T h e B l o n d e Q u e e n ' ) from The Golden Drop- theatre. He illustrated fairy-tale collections by let, w h i l e t w o republished stories o f E u r o p e a n Wilhelm *Hauff (1941), the Brothers *Grimm influence are particularly important. Swedish (1942), Hans Christian *Andersen (1955), The folklore colours 'Le Nain rouge' ('The Red *Arabian Nights (1957), and several volumes of D w a r f ) , a disturbing tale about an oversexed, Czech folk tales, such as the Legends of Old malevolent dwarf. While this story is clearly Bohemia (i960). A m o n g his internationally for adults, ' L a Fugue du petit Poucet' ('Tom w e l l - k n o w n w o r k s are illustrations for Peter Thumb Runs A w a y ' ) appeals to both children and the Wolf (1965). His original fairy tales, and their parents. It is a subversive update of self-illustrated, include Through the Magic Gate *Perrault's ' L e Petit Poucet' (\"\"Little T o m (1962). Trnka won the Andersen Medal for il- Thumb' ) in which the persecuted ogre, a vege- lustrations in 1968. MN tarian h i p p y / C h r i s t figure trying to s a v e the TUCKER, CHARLOTTE MARIA (1821-93), English forests from urbanization, gives a young boy writer, whose books were published under the his magical Seven League Boots to escape spir- acronym A.L.O.E. (A Lady of England). An itual suffocation by his father. Like his best evangelical missionary, Tucker published nu- stories, it is written in a brief, clear, and naive merous popular didactic books that had great style that has been compared to that of L a Fon- success in Britain and the United States. Many taine, *Kipling, and Saint-Exupéry. Metatext- of her tales were allegorical in nature, such as ual and multi-layered, this rewritten fairy tale The Giant Killer; or, The Battle which All Must of social criticism is a prime example of w h y Fight (1855), in which impatient, greedy, and Tournier is one of the most popular and widely proud children must abandon their bad traits to read contemporary novelists today. MLE overcome the giant. Another interesting alle- Beckett, Sandra, Des grands romanciers écrivent g o r y is The Crown of Success; or, Four Heads to pour les enfants (1997). Furnish (1863), in which M r Learning, w h o Bouloumié, Ariette, Michel Tournier. Le roman drinks ink and eats paper for breakfast, pro- mythologique (1988). vides some children the means to furnish the Petit, Susan, Michel Tournier's Metaphysical Fictions (1991). Villa of the Head and also magic purses of time Redfern, Walter, Michel Tournier. Le Coq de to spend in the T o w n of Education. In such bruyère (1996). other b o o k s as Wings and Stings: A Tale for the Roberts, Martin, Michel Tournier. Bricolage and Young, Fairy Know-a-Bit (1865) and Fairy Fris- Cultural Mythology (1994). ket; or, Peeps at Insect Life (1874) she included themes dealing with natural history. JZ TRAVERS, PAMELA LYNDON (1906-96), Austra- Giberne, Agnes, A Lady of England: The Life lian writer and essayist of Irish and Scottish and Letters of Charlotte Maria Tucker (1895). descent, best k n o w n for her Mary Poppins (1934), which *Disney made into a movie in T W A I N , M A R K (pseudonym of SAMUEL LANG- 1964, starring Julie Andrews as Mary Poppins and Dick Van D y k e as her friend Bert. Her HORNE CLEMENS, 1835-1910), American writer 1934 book about an eccentric nanny with and humorist. He incorporated a variety of magical powers was followed by a series of motifs from folklore and fairy tales in his others, including Mary Poppins Comes Back works from the very outset of his career. In (1935), Mary Poppins Opens the Door (1943), such stories as 'The Celebrated Jumping Frog and Mary Poppins in the Park (1952). In 1975 of Calaveras County' (1865) he developed the T r a v e r s published About the Sleeping Beauty, a traditional tall tale into a unique art form. Such collection o f five versions o f the tale (by the stories as ' L ' A r b r e Fée de Bourlemont' (1895), *Grimms, Charles *Perrault, Giambattista ' T w o Little Tales' (1901), and 'The Five Boons *Basile, Jeremiah *Curtin, and F. Bradley-Birt) of Life' (1902) were based on narratives from along with her own retelling. Travers has writ- the European fairy-tale tradition. Many of his stories and novels reflect his strong interest in

TWAIN, MARK the *Grimms' fairy tales, and the posthumous West, Victor Royce, Folklore in the Works of Mark Twain (1930). '1002nd Arabian Night' (1967) was part of a Wohnham, Henry B., Mark Twain and the Art of the Tall Tale (1993). larger project of rewriting The ^Arabian Nights that he never completed. JZ

T h e Undine plot involves a water sprite who surfaces to marry a human being to gain a soul, which elemental spirits do not have. Her marriage with the knight Huldbrand ends badly on account of Huldbrand's indiscretion in marrying his ex-girlfriend after Undine has returned to the water, on the one hand, and the intercession of Undine's cranky water sprite uncle Kuhleborn, w h o tells her she must kill her husband as a consequence, on the other. The Kuhleborn character remains enigmatic because of the motive behind his mean rules. In UBBELOHDE, OTTO (1867-1922) illustrated a Fouqué's version, he seems concerned that his three-volume edition of *Grimms' fairy tales niece will be betrayed in love; in Hoffmann's (1907—9) with simply and strongly executed version, an implication of vengeance exists be- designs. His illustrations, which recalled early cause Undine had been an important figure in German woodcuts and expressed his abiding the water sprite world and had been stolen, love for the landscape of central Hesse where although her parents sent her earthward. he spent his adult life, were reprinted in vast Undine tales are based on traditional mer- numbers in schoolbook editions in the late maid stories, but especially Paracelsus' treatise 1930s and early 1940s. on nymphs. T h e tales emphasize the taboo of Ubbelohde studied graphics and painting in boundary violation between the elemental Munich and subsequently spent 1894—5 at the realms o f earth, air, fire, and water, with water north German artists' settlement Worpswede. being a privileged element. In Undine's 20th- His fairy-tale œuvre also includes 56 d r a w i n g s century transformations, the privilege of water for Deutsches Mdrchenland (German S tory land), comes to represent art, an interpretation al- a 'Kalender' for 1921-2; a special edition of ready implicit in Hoffmann's gorgeous de- *'Iron H a n s ' ; and an oil painting, The Fairytale scriptions of the watery world. WC of the Goose Girl. RBB Fassbind-Eigenheer, Ruth, Undine oder die nasse Grenue iwischen mir und mir (1994). 'UGLY DUCKLING, THE'. With 'Den grimme f i l - UNGERER, T O M I (pseudonym of JEAN THOMAS, ing' ('The Ugly Duckling', 1837), Hans Chris- tian *Andersen wistfully provided an 1931— ) , Alsatian French illustrator, author- autobiography in narrative form. The duckling illustrator, political cartoonist, and commercial is persecuted b y all in the hierarchical duck artist. Born in Strasbourg, Ungerer emigrated yard, escapes, perseveres, and eventually real- to the United States in 1957, moved to Canada izes that he is not ugly, but a beautiful swan. 20 years later, and eventually settled in Ireland The tale concludes with the marvellous know- with his wife and three children. His children's ledge that it hardly matters where y o u are born books—over 80—have been written and pub- if you have the right talents. T h e tale and its lished in several languages. Since the 1970s, message have gained proverbial authority, they have been labelled 'controversial' and although Andersen slyly suggests that the swan 'subversive' for the biting satire, earthy sexual- has become a captive of bourgeois society. N I ity, or streak of sadism that lurks beneath the seemingly innocuous surface of a colourful il- Zipes, Jack, Fairy Tales and the Art of Subversion lustration or a simple story. In his picture book (1983). Moon Man (1967), for example, the Moon Man lands on earth, innocently hoping to socialize; UNDINE. The earliest literary representations of instead, he is mobbed by scientists, television the Undine fairy tale are Friedrich de la Motte crews, thrill-seekers, and policemen, and *Fouqué's Undine. Eine Er^dhlung ( 1 8 1 1 ) and dragged off to gaol as a dangerous 'invader'. E . T . A . *Hoffmann's opera Undine. Zauber- Fortunately, as he wanes, he grows thin opera in drei Akten (1812—14). T c h a i k o v s k y enough to slip between the bars and escape. wrote and destroyed an opera on the theme While this fable satirizes contemporary society, (1869). In the 20th century r e w o r k i n g s include in other stories Ungerer uses the fairy-tale J e a n * G i r a u d o u x ' s Ondine (1938), Hans W e r - form to undermine traditional values. A Story- ner Henze's ballet Undine (1956), and I n g e b o r g book from Tomi Ungerer (1974) includes U n g e r - Bachmann's 'Undine geht' (1961). er's own version of *'Little Red Riding Hood',

UBBELOHDE, OTTO The wild man in the Grimms' tale '*Iron Hans' takes the young prince with him into the woods in Kinder- und Hausmdrchen gesammelt durch die Briider Grimm ( 1 9 2 7 ) , illustrated by Otto Ubbelohde.

UNGERER, TOMI 'They fell in love, married, led an elegant life, and had a lot of children. And, so it would seem, they lived happily ever after.' But in this final illustration of Zeralda's Ogre, written and illustrated by Tomi Ungerer, one of the ogre's children holds a knife and fork discreetly behind his back as he views his new sibling.

533 UTTLEY, A L I S O N no longer a warning to young girls, but a hint into the psyche of the character, to investigate her inmost thoughts, and to register the min­ that outworn sexual taboos are meaningless in imal reactions of her senses. It also shows how the encounter with the supernatural changes today's world. An elegantly dressed wolf over­ the protagonist's life and affects her identity in a negative manner, making her unable to ac­ comes Red Riding Hood's suspicions, takes her cept herself in 'real' life. to his castle, and marries her, and they live The novel involves a traditional magical ob­ ject as a means of transportation into another happily ever after. The grandmother (an au­ time. However, the reader's attention is not immediately drawn to it: it takes a keen eye to thority figure from an older generation) is a recognize that the little manikin Penelope has for a mascot is possibly the 'key' to the magic nasty-tempered old woman, shrivelling away door. Besides, Penelope's entrance into the past is anticipated, since from early childhood as the story ends. In Zeralda's Ogre (1967), she has been credited with second sight. Witchcraft is a power permeating the story. possibly Ungerer's best-known original fairy With her knowledge of the future, especially the tragic fate of Mary Queen of Scots, Pene­ tale, a little girl tames an ogre by cooking him lope is accused of being an evil witch. A jealous rival and a real witch, daughter of an astrol­ such delicious gourmet meals that he loses his oger, almost kills her. All this stands in sharp contrast to Penelope's ordinary life in her own appetite for children; in the end, he marries time. her, and they raise a family together. While the Unlike many characters in time-shift novels, Penelope does not realize right away that she text seems to suggest demurely that a nurturing has arrived in a different time. She comes and goes, in a dreamlike fashion, and she can never w o m a n with fine domestic skills can civilize a be sure when it will happen next. N o r is she quite sure that she will be able to come back to man into domesticity, the illustrations tell a her own time. The story acquires a deeper psy­ chological meaning and might be explained in somewhat different story. The staring eyes of terms of visions as much as pure magic. Although the novel strays from traditional the helpless animals and birds hung up in Zer- fairy-tale patterns, it has some characters rem­ iniscent of the fairy tale such as Jude, the dumb alda's kitchen remind us that she, too, is a prac­ kitchen b o y , a typical chthonic figure with supernatural powers and senses, and Dame tised butcher, who feels no qualms about Cecily, the fairy godmother. slaughtering what she serves for dinner. And in The end of the novel is deeply tragic. T h e usual supposition in fairy tales is that the prot­ the final illustration, one o f Zeralda's children agonists will become morally better, wiser, and stronger through their trials. In this novel, a admires the new b a b y — w i t h a sharp knife and complete disintegration of character is depict­ ed. Thus the foremost characteristic of a fairy fork concealed behind his back. A story that tale, the happy ending, is definitely rejected. seems to celebrate the triumph of civilization MN Aers, Lesley, 'The Treatment of Time in Four over barbarism also intimates that the murder­ Children's Books', Children s Literature in Education (1970). ous ogre survives in all of us. SR Nikolajeva, Maria, 'Fantasy: The Evolution of a Pattern', in Rhonda Bunbury (ed.), Fantasy and UTTLEY, ALISON (1884-1976), British author of Feminism (1993). fairy tales for children, notably animal tales, Nodelman, Perry, 'Interpretation and the continuing the tradition of Beatrix Potter. Her Apparent Sameness of Children's Literature', best-known characters include Little Grey Studies in the Literary Imagination, 18 (1985). Rabbit, Tim Rabbit, Little Brown Mouse, Lit­ tle Red F o x , and Sam Pig. A selection of her best animal tales w a s published in Magic in My Pocket (1957). She also w r o t e a variety of o r i ­ ginal fairy tales and retold traditional ones, al­ ways focusing on the unexpected appearance of magic in everyday countryside surroundings. Uttley also wrote a play, The Washerwoman's Child (1946), based on the life of Hans C h r i s ­ tian *Andersen and involving seven of his fairy tales. In these as well, the focus is on the everyday rather than typical fairy-tale features. Alison Uttley's major contribution to the genre is A Traveller in Time (1939), a novel e x ­ ploiting the motif of time shift, and well ahead of the tradition in its narrative structure. F o r one thing, it involves a first-person narrator, which is unusual in fairy tales since it demands a stronger identification with the character. Unlike traditional fairy tales, the novel is centred on the protagonist's feelings and sensa­ tions, allowing the author to go much deeper

uration of the Angel, 1957) and La domenica col poeta (The Sunday with the Poet, 1973). It also pervades his tales, particularly those published in Campanellino (1928), such as 'Il Fraticello R e ' ('The Friar King') in which the beauty of nature and of human feelings does not allow the tragic to prevail, and love and innocence naturally triumph over mischief and betrayal. MNP VALENZUELA, LUISA (1938- ), of Argentinian VANDE VELDE, VIVIAN (1951- ), American writer of fantasy for young adults. Beginning with origin, one of the most important writers in Once Upon a Test (1984), a collection of three innovative fairy tales that break with standard contemporary South American literature. She depictions of princesses and princes, Vande Velde has written a series of humorous books has produced a good number of novels, a few geared to upset audience expectations. In A Hidden Magic (1985) a plain princess named plays, and several short stories. Throughout Jennifer frees a conceited, handsome prince from a witch's spell. A Well-Timed Enchant­ her literary career, she has been preoccupied by ment (1991) concerns a y o u n g girl and her cat who retrieve an old watch from the past. the w a y dominant groups use discourse to op­ Dragon's Bait (1992) depicts a courageous girl who denies allegations of witchcraft and be­ press other people; likewise, her works often comes the friend of a dragon that is supposed to d e v o u r her. In Tales from the Brothers Grimm deal with sexual politics, making explicit the and the Sisters Weird (1996), she parodies 13 popular fairy tales and gives them unusual dual opposition of domination/submission that twists. For instance, after growing into a beau­ tiful swan, the ugly duckling pecks all his tor­ presides over many male—female relationships. mentors to death. The elves lock the shoemaker and his wife in the basement of their All of this is especially obvious in her revisions home, take all their money, and run off to Cen­ tral America, where they operate a pirate radio of classical fairy tales which she included in a station. T h o u g h shocking, the tales are told in a light comic vein aimed at exposing social collection o f stories called Simetrias (Symme­ contradictions in such a manner that young adults can easily grasp the targets of criticism. tries, 1993) in a section entitled ' C u e n t o s de JZ Hades' ('Tales of Hades') which contains six V I C T O R I A N FAIRY P A I N T I N G . In his final speech of feminist fairy tales, all of which revise one or The Tempest, Prospero recognizes the necessity several famous stories, such as *'Little Red for a friendly collusion between the audience and the performer in order that the illusion of Riding Hood', 'The *Princess and the Pea', fantasy prevails. Victorian fairy painters and il­ lustrators depended upon a similar supportive \"\"Sleeping Beauty', 'The *Frog King', *'Cin­ relationship as they conjured up 'realms of fae­ rie' for appreciative spectators. Their enthusi­ derella', *'Snow White', and *'Bluebeard'. The astic admirers included such diverse luminaries as Queen Victoria, Charles Dodgson (Lewis tale of'Sleeping Beauty' is particularly import­ *Carroll), William Makepeace *Thackeray, Charles *Dickens, John *Ruskin, and Samuel ant to Valenzuela's creative imagination, con­ Carter Hall. Fairy paintings appeared regularly in Royal Academy exhibitions throughout the sidering the fact that it is revised twice, both in 19th century and well into the 20th. Most of the artists from the early Victorian period took ' N o se detiene el progreso' ('Progress Cannot their subjects from the plays of *Shakespeare, be Stopped', 1993) and in 'Principe I I ' ('Prince I I ' ) , one o f the sections o f '4 Principes 4' ('4 Princes 4', 1993). The dominant feature of the '4 Princes 4' is the presence of a Prince C h a r m ­ ing who rejects his role as rescuer and refuses to make use of his talent for giving spell-break­ ing kisses, since the passion he has for a beauty that remains forever sleeping would vanish the moment she awoke to her own desire. CF V A L E R I , DlEGO (1887-1976), Italian lyric poet, writer, literary critic, and fine translator of French and German poetry. He captured the beauty o f his b e l o v e d V e n i c e in Guida senti­ mentale di Venecia (Sentimental Guide to Ven­ ice, 1942) and other w o r k s . V a l e r i w a s b y vocation and by moral choice a poet of the good life, evident in his many collections ran­ g i n g from Le gaie triste^e ( The Merry Sorrows, 1913) to Metamorfosi delVangelo (The Transfig­

535 V I C T O R I A N FAIRY PAINTING most notably A Midsummer Night's Dream and fairy painting to both entertain and edify the The Tempest, and the poetry o f Milton and British public. Fuseli, in his efforts to establish *Spenser. They usually added imaginative de­ a new kind of poetic history painting, estab­ tails to these works culled from folklore and lished the basic vocabulary of the genre: the fairy tales. A n even larger audience for fairy quotation of high art and literature, the add­ images emerged with the expanding readership ition of folkloric themes, and the establishment of illustrated books and magazines after mid- of a central narrative scene surrounded by col­ century. laborative vignettes. In his works for Alder­ man John Boydell's Shakespeare Gallery, Artists chose to paint fairy pictures for a Titania and Bottom (c. 1780—90) and Titania's variety of reasons. Some artists, like Daniel Awakening (1793—4), he set the standards for a Maclise, Richard *Dadd, and Joseph Noël new kind of literary history painting. His influ­ *Paton, chose fairy painting as one way to es­ ence would be felt later in both Victorian fairy tablish their professional careers and to solicit painting and illustration, especially in his hand­ critical and public recognition. Other artists, ling of multiple vignettes that comment upon such as John Anster Fitzgerald, John Simmons, the central action. Robert Huskisson, and John Atkinson Grim- shaw, developed a popular following for their William Blake (1757—1827) also incorpor­ small fantasy works, which mixed fairy scenes ated fairy imagery and lore into his idiosyn­ with eroticism and dream imagery. The Pre- cratic cosmology. Unlike Fuseli, he had no Raphaelite artists John Everett Millais, William interest in the grand scale of history painting, Bell Scott, and Arthur *Hughes found an inter­ preferring to work with the media of engraving est in fairy subject-matter that engaged them and watercolour. He saw fairies as nature elem- with varied success. Of the three, Hughes went entals. In Oberon, Titania, and Puck with Fair­ on to make a name for himself as a fantasy il­ ies Dancing (c.1785), the artist conceives o f lustrator. fairies as nature worshippers, miniature druidic celebrants of the corporeal earth. Blake depicts Not all artists chose an academic career as the king and queen of the fairies presiding over the best route to public approbation. George a free-spirited dance, a 'fairy ring'. He differs *Cruikshank and Richard 'Dicky' \"Doyle, for from Fuseli's approach to the fairy painting by example, were the successful founders of a cen­ concentrating solely on the diminutive partici­ tury-long dynasty of Victorian fairy illustra­ pants and giving the fairies wings, which add tion. Cruikshank's art acted as a link between to the airy feeling of the dance. Where Fuseli the satirical broadsides of the Regency period had set the tone for literary history painting, and the moral bromides of the early Victorian Blake provided the model for an imaginative era. Doyle helped initiate the Victorian revolu­ use of scale and schemata of body language for tion in popular media with his contributions to future artists to use when dealing with fairy the satirical journal Punch and his illustrations subjects. At the same time, Blake served as a to Charles Dickens's Christmas novels. B y the spiritual godfather to artists searching for vis­ 1870s, D o y l e had become one of the most ual metaphors for poetic inspiration in fantasy prominent fairy illustrators in a field that in­ art. cluded his brother Charles Altamont Doyle, Arthur Hughes, Kate *Greenaway, and Elea­ Surprisingly, the romantic era saw little im­ nor Vere *Boyle. A t the end of the century, portant work in fairy painting. Artists like Arthur *Rackham, Edmund *Dulac, John Henry Singleton (1766-1839), Henry Howard Dickson Batten, Henry Justice Ford, Robert (1769-1847), Frank Howard (1805-66), and Anning Bell, Jessie M. King, and the \"'Robin­ Joshua Cristall (1767—1847) carried on the son brothers (Charles, William Heath, and tradition in small-scale works. These works, Thomas Heath) developed the fairy vocabu­ however, did little but sustain the prevailing lary into a variety of sophisticated illustrative types established by Blake and Fuseli of di­ styles, both in colour and in black and white. minutive figures closely associated with the All of these artists contributed to the popularity world of flora and fauna. A more productive of fairy imagery through their illustrations in expansion of fairy lore came out of the writings novels, fairy-tale collections, folklore studies, of such folklorists as Sir Walter Scott engraved folios, and popular journals. (1771-1832), Nathan Drake (1766-1836), Thomas Crofton *Croker, and Thomas Fairy painting would seem to be a quintes- *Keightley (1789-1872). Most important, an sentially Victorian product, yet its roots lie English translation of Jacob and Wilhelm firmly within late 18th-century British art. * G r i m m ' s ^Kinder- und Hausmdrchen (Chil- Henry *Fuseli recognized the potential for

VICTORIAN FAIRY PAINTING 536 dren's and Household Tales) appeared in 1823. Maclise's early painting Faun and the Fairies, The publication of these various collections of which also served as a wood-engraved illustra­ ballads, plays, folklore, and fairy tales through­ tion to E d w a r d B u l w e r - L y t t o n ' s Pilgrims on the out the Victorian era would offer alternative Rhine (1834). Maclise returned to G e r m a n - literary sources for fairy painters and illustra­ derived 'fairy' subject-matter in his Scene from tors to those sources associated with the *Undine (1843), based upon a story b y Frie­ Shakespearian tradition. drich de la Motte *Fouqué. This painting was purchased by Queen Victoria as a birthday pre­ Francis Danby (1793—1861), an Irish artist, sent for her husband Albert, the Prince Con­ and D a v i d Scott (1806—49), a Scot, represent sort, signalling the royal support of certain two notable exceptions to the general lack of kinds of fantasy painting and the affinity some inventiveness in fairy painting during the ro­ of the British populace felt for German culture mantic era. Danby painted two watercolour at this time. versions o f Scene from a Midsummer Night's Dream (1832) during a period o f self-imposed Victorian fairy painting experienced its hey­ exile in Switzerland. The works have a Blakean day during the 1840s. Its popularity arose part­ simplicity made evocative through the addition ly out of the desire for new kinds of art by a of a moonlit landscape as a setting and the im­ growing middle-class audience and partly be­ aginative use of scale and vantage point. Scott, cause of the surreptitious restrictions gradually in contrast, grafted the theatricality of Fuseli imposed on other painting genres in the Royal onto the poetic expressivity of Blake and im­ Academy. Fairy painting became a surrogate bued the mixture with his own peculiar meta­ for certain subject-matter, motifs, and themes physical temperament. He drives the pictorial unavailable or unacceptable in more élite cat­ narrative o f his fairy paintings Ariel and Cali­ egories of the academic hierarchy of painting. ban (1837) and Puck Fleeing the Dawn (1837) This genre crossed boundaries between the with deliberately asymmetrical compositions, nude figure study, pastoral landscape, erotic an innovative use of body language and ex­ mythological scenes, sentimental narrative, and pression, and a robustly applied paint surface. literary history painting. Its success grew con­ Neither Danby's nor Scott's fairy paintings currently out of a confusion engendered by a would have much of an immediate impact upon crisis of identity about the nature of history the Royal Academy and the London art scene, painting within the Royal Academy itself. For however. Danby, despite the popularity of the artist, critic, and art lover, this change such fantasy landscape paintings as The En­ emerged from the demands of a burgeoning chanted Island (1825) and The Wood-Nymph's middle-class consumer culture for genre, land­ Hymn to the Rising Sun (1845) suffered from a scape, and portrait painting, as well as a devel­ covert ostracization within the academic hier­ oping popular taste for a new kind of narrative archy, while Scott, despite a legendary reputa­ painting. T h e cultural sense of an established tion among younger Scottish artists, led an artistic tradition, always shaky in the British isolated existence cut short by his death at a arts, fell prey to the developing values of the relatively young age. middle class as they infiltrated in greater num­ bers the ranks of patronage, the academic T h e work of the Irish artist Daniel Maclise organization, the art publication industry, and (1806-70) represents a more viable link be­ the critical press. A t this critical juncture in tween the Academy and fairy painting, as well early Victorian art history, fairy painters as the shift from romantic to Victorian art. He scored their greatest successes. recognized early in his career the possibilities of fairy imagery; his first published drawings Both Richard Dadd and Joseph Noel Paton appeared, etched by W. H. Brooke, in Thomas used fairy paintings as a way of garnering crit­ Crofton C r o k e r ' s Fairy Legends and Traditions ical and popular attention in the 1840s. Dadd in the South of Ireland (1826). T h e y o u n g artist began to experience a gradual success with entered the Royal Academy in 1828. B y the be­ such w o r k s as Titania Sleeping (c.1841) and ginning of the 1830s, he had turned his atten­ Come unto these Yellow Sands (1842). His des­ tion to unique interpretations of historical cent into madness, culminating in the murder genre painting, including fairy scenes, for ex­ of his father, led to his incarceration in Bethlem ample The Disenchantment of Bottom (1832). Hospital and his removal from consideration Another source of influence on Maclise's art (except as a curiosity) as a member of Victor­ came from the G e r m a n Màrchen painters ian art circles. Noel Paton made a satisfying Moritz von Schwind and Ludwig Schnorr von artistic debut with t w o fairy paintings, The Carolsfeld. This Germanic style can be seen in Reconciliation of Oberon and Titania (1847) and

537 VICTORIAN FAIRY PAINTING The Quarrel of Oberon and Titania (1849). One of Millais's early Pre-Raphaelite paint­ Planned as possible decorations for the West­ ings, Ferdinand Lured by Ariel (1849), r e P \" minster Hall competitions, these pendant resents his adoption of the new naturalistic works led to the young artist's highly success­ style and, concomitantly, testifies to the popu­ ful career as a painter of historical, allegorical, larity of fairy painting at the end of the 1840s. and religious scenes. Commissioned by the dealer William Weth- ered, this work evolved from two earlier ver­ Even such established artists as William Etty sions by Millais on the same subject: a (1787-1849), Joseph William Mallard Turner pen-and-ink drawing (1848) and a small oil (1775—1851), and E d w i n Landseer (1803—73) sketch (1849—50). A dramatic change occurs in briefly explored fairy subject-matter in the the final painting, w h i c h contains the h i g h l y 1840s, taking advantage of the genre's popular­ saturated colours and the meticulously ob­ ity. E t t y ' s The Fairy of the Fountain (1845) *s a served details of the nascent Pre-Raphaelite fairy painting in name only, while Turner's style. Millais's desire to depict the surface detail Queen Mab's Cave (1846) uses fairy subject- o f e v e r y form accurately leads to a flat cut-out matter as a peripheral element in what is essen­ effect that emphasizes individual areas and cre­ tially a landscape and colour study. Landseer, ates a separation of one part from another. This the youngest of the three, had already estab­ effect can be seen most clearly in the awkward lished his reputation as the best of the Victorian relationship of Ferdinand's head, modelled by animal painters. His Scene from 'A Midsummer F. G . Stephens, and his body, taken from Night's Dream' (1849) w a s privately c o m m i s ­ C a m i l l e B o n n a r d ' s Costumes Historiques. W e t h - sioned for Isambard Kingdom Brunei's dining- ered refused to purchase the finished painting, room, which the famous engineer had planned either because of the unusual naturalism of the to decorate with a Shakespearian gallery. piece or because he was disappointed with the grotesquely rendered sprites. Millais never Early Victorian fairy painters relied not only painted another fairy subject. upon the approval but also the recognition by their audience of their subject-matter. The cit­ Dante Gabriel Rossetti, the most romantic ation of fairy scenes in Shakespeare's plays of the Pre-Raphaelites, interpreted fairy brought a special kind of response, because the themes in a wholly different way. He contrib­ Victorian audience brought along certain ex­ uted an illustration to William Allingham's pectations, derived from both their theatre ex­ poetry collection The Music-Master (1855), for periences and their readings of Shakespeare, the poem 'The Maids of Elfin-Mere'. The poem about what a fairy might look like or do. With describes the encounter of a parson's son with the advent of Pre-Raphaelitism, the problem of the world of the supernatural in the form of investing fantastic subject-matter with some three sisters, who appear magically every night kind of verisimilitude takes on a new impera­ to sing to the lad and then, at the stroke of the tive. 'Eleventh Hour', disappear. His attraction proves so keen that he tries to keep them past The formation of the Pre-Raphaelite their time on earth, unleashing a gruesome fate Brotherhood grew out of a dissatisfaction on on the female trio. Rossetti concentrates on the the part of Dante Gabriel *Rossetti, William eerie relationship between the crooning Holman Hunt (1827-1910), and John Everett women and the spellbound man, and takes his Millais (1829—96) with current academic prac­ image of the fairy from the medieval tradition tice and the perceived sterility of subject-mat­ o f the fey sorceress, the femme fatale w h o en­ ter in contemporary Victorian art. T h e raptures men. He would continue this interest Brotherhood found some direction in their throughout his career in a series of sexually search for acceptable modern subjects in the charged portraits of beatific, predatory, or vic­ technique of realism they found in their study timized women. The popularity of Rossetti's of early Italian and Northern European paint­ imagery would sustain a wholly different kind ing before Raphael and in J o h n R u s k i n ' s first of fantasy art in the symbolism and Art N o u ­ volume of Modern Painters (1843). A t the same veau of the 1890s. time, these young artists, despite their disaffec­ tion with the Royal Academy, felt a sympathy William Bell Scott (1811-90) stays closer to with the work of certain older artists working the romantic tradition of the small cabinet pic­ in the 1840s, including F o r d Madox B r o w n , ture in Cockcrow (1856), based upon T h o m a s Maclise, and Paton, who anticipated the Parnell's 18th-century poem ' A Fairy Tale, in Brotherhood's interest in revitalizing history the ancient English style'. Scotts pays homage painting through complex narrative schemes to the work of his older brother David, who and an accurate use of historical details.

VlLLARDEFRANCOS, MARIA LUISA 538 had established in the 1830s a pictorial imagery British exhibitions, magazines, and books well of a private visionary experience associated with fairy phenomena. The younger Scott into the 20th century. Artists such as Arthur grafts the brightly hued Pre-Raphaelite style onto this more traditional visual conception of Rackham and Edmund Dulac revitalized the il- fairy behaviour. In melding fairy mythology to poetic vision, he chose a path more in tune with lustrative tradition with their conceptions of the direction of fairy painting after 1855. fairies as either fantastic grotesqueries or ether- This more intimate view of fairy life can also be found in the work of Frederick Goodall eal beauties. J o h n D i x o n Batten (i860—1932) (1822—1904) and Robert Huskisson (1820—61). G o o d a l l ' s Fairy Struck (c.1846) depicts the pla- and Henry Justice Ford (1860-1941) illustrated cid confrontation of two fairies with a mouse. The artist uses the transparency of watercol- important fairy-tale collections like those of ours to richly colourful effect, as the sunlight drenches the fairies' bower in a shimmering Andrew *Lang, carrying on the tradition of light. A more erotic mood inhabits Huskisson's The Midsummer Night's Fairies (c.1847), which Pre-Raphaelitism and the Aesthetic Movement. shows Oberon watching a sleeping Titania as belligerent fairies war with fauna in the fore- Fairies still proved popular in early 20th-cen- ground. T h e frame makes reference to the human protagonists in the play; the figures of tury children's book illustrations in the work of Bottom, Hermia, and Lysander slumber on a ledge beneath the fairy scene. Both artists Florence M a r y A n d e r s o n (ft. 1914—30), Ida examine the minutiae of fairy existence, pro- viding the spectator with the experience of Rentoul *Outhwaite, and Jessie M. King eavesdropping on the daily life of these tiny beings. (1876—1949). T h e post-World W a r II era has This voyeuristic element reappears in vari- also witnessed a growing revival of interest in ous guises in the work of John Anster Fitzger- ald (1819—1906), John Simmons (1823—76), fairy imagery. A painting by the British Pop T h o m a s Heatherley (exhib. 1858—87), and J o h n Atkinson Grimshaw (1836—93). Fitzger- artist Peter Blake, Titania (1978), for example, ald created perhaps the most interesting vari- ations on fairy themes with his small, brilliantly updates the canon with a depiction of the fairy coloured oil paintings. For example, his series of works on the conflict between the fairy queen as a barely pubescent young woman; the populace and Cock Robin mingles humanoid fairies and imaginative Boschian grotesques work makes an explicit association of women with carefully rendered birds, flowers, and in- sects. Fitzgerald's fairies, dressed in elaborate with nature and natural processes through the finery, possess a childlike bemusement as they move with tremulous bravado through a lush, decoration of her breasts and genitalia with exotic floral world. Simmons, Heatherley, and Grimshaw present a more forthright eroticism flowers, stems, and grass stalks. RAS in their depictions of the sylvan creatures. Their paintings usually focus on a single nude Adlard, John, The Sports of Cruelty: Fairies, female figure, framed by a natural setting and Folk-Songs, Charms, and Other Country Matters occasionally surrounded by the fairy court. In in the Works of William Blake ( 1 9 7 2 ) . some of these works, the inclusion of a toad- Briggs, Katherine, A Dictionary of Fairies ( 1 9 7 6 ) . stool adds a phallic detail to the erotic subtext. Butlin, Martin, The Paintings and Drawings of These works have a dreamy cast to them as the William Blake ( 2 vols., 1 9 8 1 ) . fairies go about their business, unmindful of Friedman, Winifred H., BoydelTs Shakespeare their human observers. Gallery ( 1 9 7 6 ) . Johnson, Diana L., Fantastic Illustration and Interest in fairy subject-matter did not die Design in Britain, 1850—1930 ( 1 9 7 9 ) . with the end of the Victorian era. Fairy paint- Landow, George P., 'There Began to Be a Great ings and illustrations appeared regularly in Talking about the Fine Arts', in Josef L. Altholz (ed.), The Mind and Art of Victorian England (1976). Maas, Jeremy, Victorian Painters ( 1 9 6 9 ) . et al., Victorian Fairy Paintings ( 1 9 9 7 ) . Ormond, Richard, Daniel Maclise, 1806—1870 (1972). Packer, Alison, Beddoe, Stella, and Jarrett, Lianne, Fairies in Legend and the Arts ( 1 9 8 0 ) . Phillpots, Beatrice, Fairy Paintings ( 1 9 7 8 ) . Roberts, Hélène E., 'Exhibition and Review: The Periodical Press and the Victorian Exhibition System', in Joanne Shattock and Michael Wolff (eds.), The Victorian Periodical Press: Samplings and Soundings ( 1 9 8 2 ) . Schindler, Richard, 'Art to Enchant: A Critical Study of Early Victorian Fairy Painting and Illustration' (Diss., Brown University, 1 9 8 8 ) . Tomory, Peter, The Life and Art of Henry Fuseli (1972). VlLLARDEFRANCOS, MARIA LUISA ( 1 9 1 5 - ? ) , Spanish writer. Her sister, Gloria Villardefran- cos, often collaborated with her in the creation of her works, which include fairy tales, le-

VILLENEUVE, MME DE The beast reveals his heart to the m '*Beauty and the Beast', illustrated by Jules Pellcoq in L

merchant's daughter in Mme de Villeneuve's Les Contes des fées offerts a Bébé ( c . 1 9 0 0 ) .

VILLENEUVE, GABRIELLE-SUZANNE BARBOT DE 540 gends, biographies, religious books, novels, tion for English schoolgirls learning French screenplays, and plays for children. They all are influenced by her religiosity and her peda- w h i c h appeared in Le Magasin des enfants (The gogical intention. [Erase que se era! (Once Upon a Time!, 1947) is her most important collection Young Misses' Magazine) in 1757. In addition to of fairy tales. T h e stories gathered in this work are written in both prose and verse, among the basic plot retained by Leprince de Beau- them 'El beso' ('The Kiss'), 'El principe Miedo' ('Prince Fear'), 'El enano del bosque' ('The mont, Villeneuve provides the Beast's story Dwarf in the Woods'), and 'Noche de Reyes' ('The Magi's Night'). Villardefrancos's plays (his enchantment by a fairy whose love he had for children are also greatly influenced by the fairy-tale genre. Some of her most famous rebuffed) as well as the narrative of Belle's true plays are La princesita fea (The Ugly Little Princess, 1949), El principe que no tenia common identity (she is a princess and not the daughter (The Prince without a Heart, 1949), and La princesa de nieve (The Princess of Snow, 1951). of the merchant who raised her). Belle's story CF is crucial to the dénouement when it is revealed VILLENEUVE, GABRIELLE-SUZANNE BARBOT DE that the Beast may marry only a woman of (1685—1755), French writer whose ' L a Belle et royal blood. For a good part of the narra- la bête' (*'Beauty and the Beast') was the basis for Mme *Leprince de Beaumont's famous ver- tive—and unlike the vast majority of French sion. Unhappily married to a military officer, Villeneuve was left impoverished after his fairy tales at the time—Belle is portrayed as a death and attempted to earn extra money through her writings, specifically historical and non-noble but none the less virtuous heroine. sentimental novels. She eventually became ac- quainted with Crébillon fils, another writer of In the end, though, her virtue is revealed to be fairy tales (among other things), and, from all accounts, cohabited with him. Although con- the innate consequence of her aristocratic birth, temporaries were quick to dismiss her as the mere 'governess' and mistress of her more il- and she may marry the Beast-turned-Prince. lustrious partner, Villeneuve was in fact his in- tellectual companion and continued to write Considered as a whole, then, Villeneuve's tale fiction on her own. displays a somewhat ambiguous stance towards Her version of 'Beauty and the Beast' ap- peared in La Jeune Amériquaine et les contes social class, witnessed especially in the favour- marins (The Young American Girl and the Sea Tales, 1740). T h i s frame narrative recounts the able treatment of Belle's adoptive father (a voyage of a young girl returning to Santo Domingo, where her parents are plantation merchant). owners, after finishing her studies in France. During the trip, the girl's chambermaid is Villeneuve's version of the tale also differs joined by everyone on board in telling stories. This volume contains two fairy tales—'Les from Leprince de Beaumont's in its eroticism Naiades' and 'Beauty and the Beast'—but it is the latter that was to be Villeneuve's claim to and its insistence on the Beast's monstrosity. fame. L a t e r , V i l l e n e u v e w r o t e Les Belles soli- taires (Solitary Beauties, 1745), i n w h i c h assem- Villeneuve makes explicit the transgressive bled friends tell the fairy tales 'Papa Joly', 'Mirliton ou la prison volontaire' ('Mirliton or sexual union at the heart of this tale type. Not the Voluntary Prison'), and 'Histoire du roi Santon' ('Story of King Santon'). only does the Beast repeatedly ask Belle to Villeneuve's best-known tale, 'Beauty and sleep with him (in Leprince de Beaumont's v e r - the Beast', is considerably longer and more complex than Leprince de Beaumont's adapta- sion he asks her to marry him), but Belle has pleasurable dreams of being courted by a hand- some prince. The transgressiveness of these descriptions is intensified by details of the Beast's frightening appearance and his equally repulsive stupidity. But at the end of the tale, this transgression is resolved when Belle dis- covers that the Beast is none other than the prince in her dreams. Overall, one of Villeneuve's most important contributions is her representation of women. In her novels and fairy tales alike she pays par- ticular attention to women's plight in marriage, their financial constraints, and ultimately their difficult quest for happiness. LCS Hearne, Betsy, Beauty and the Beast: Visions and Revisions of an Old Tale ( 1 9 8 9 ) . VOGELER, HEINRICH (1872-1942), German painter, architect, illustrator, and writer, who w a s one o f the pioneers of Jugendstil at the turn of the century. Influenced by Walter* Crane and William *Morris, Vogeler produced books that had a total unity; he designed the typeface, illustrations, and book covers of his works, and he favoured intricate and florid etchings that ornamented the entire page and heightened

VOGELER, HEINRICH The witch in \"\"Hansel and Gretel' contemplates her next step in this 1895 illustration by Heinrich Vogeler.

VOISENON, CLAUDE-HENRI DE FUZÉE, ABBÉ DE 542 particular scenes of a story. Most of his fairy­ years and were translated into English in 1886. KS tale illustration work was accomplished be­ tween 1900 and 1911. A m o n g his most notable illustrations of this period were those done for VOLKOV, ALEKSANDR (189 I - 1 9 7 7 ) , Russian H u g o v o n *Hofmannsthal, Der Kaiser und die writer, best known for his series of fairy-tale Hexe (The Emperor and the Witch, 1900), J a c o b novels for children. T h e first o f these, The and W i l h e l m * G r i m m , Màrchen (Fairy Tales, Wizard of the Emerald City (1939), is a free 1900), Clemens *Brentano and Ludwig T i e c k , adaptation o f F r a n k *Baum's The *Wi{ard of Romantische Màrchen (Romantic Fairy Tales, 0{. I n V o l k o v ' s version, the focus o f the story 1902), O s c a r *Wilde, The Ghost of Canterville is shifted towards collective rather than indi­ and Five Other Stories (1905), and J a c o b and vidual achievements, and friendship and obedi­ W i l h e l m G r i m m , ^Kinder- und Hausmdrchen ence are presented as main virtues. In order to (Children's and Household Tales, 1907). D u r i n g accentuate this, several new dramatic side epi­ World War I Vogeler volunteered for military sodes are added; otherwise the story follows service as a common soldier; disappointed and very closely that of Baum. T h e five sequels, outraged by the deceit and hypocrisy of the following the great success of the first book, German government, he joined the revolution­ have nothing to d o with B a u m : Urfin Jus and ary movement in the 1920s to transform the his Wooden Soldiers (1963), The Seven Under­ country into a democratic if not socialist state. ground Kings (1967), The Fiery God of the Mar- Consequently, his art became political, and he rans (1971), The Yellow Fog (1974), and The was strongly influenced b y Dadaism and futur­ Mystery of the Deserted Castle (published post­ ism. He also became involved in architectural humously, 1982). T h e plot of each involves projects for communal living and eventually new threats to the Magic Land, as the Land of emigrated to the Soviet Union in 1931. His last O z is called, whereupon first Ellie, the counter­ important fairy-tale illustrations were com­ part of Dorothy, and then her little sister pleted for the radical writer Hermynia *zur Annie, are summoned to assist in the struggle. Muhlen's b o o k s , Es war einmal. . . und es wird The three characters of Baum's novel, the sein (Once Upon a Time . . . and the Time Will Scarecrow, the T i n Woodman, and the Cow­ Come, 1930) and Schmiede der Zukunft (Smiths ardly Lion, are central in all these sequels. The of the Future, 1933). JZ enormous popularity of Volkov must be Petzet, H. W . , Von Worpswede nach Moskau. ascribed to the isolation of Soviet children's lit­ Heinrich Vogeler. Ein Kunstler ^wischen den Zeiten erature when the rich variety of Western liter­ (1972). ary fairy tale was practically unknown to Soviet readers, and Volkov's tales were appre­ VOISENON, CLAUDE-HENRI DE FUZÉE, ABBÉ DE hended as utterly original. If Baum's stories (1708—75), French writer especially known for have been regarded as American national his plays, who also wrote libertine novels and myth, Volkov's reflect the communist ideol­ fairy tales. The parody and light-hearted erotic ogy, not least the views on literature as educa­ a l l e g o r y in his Tant mieux pour elle (So Much tional and socializing tool. MN the Better for Her, 1745), Zulmis et Zelmaide Mitrokhina, Xenia, 'The Land of Oz in the Land (1745), and Le Sultan Mispouf et la princesse of the Soviets', Children's Literature Association Grisemine (Prince Mispouf and Princess Gray- Quarterly 21.4 (1996—7). face, 1746) are typical o f m a n y fairy tales w r i t ­ ten in 18th-century Parisian salons. LCS VOLTAIRE (pseudonym of FRANÇOIS MARIE VOLKMANN, RICHARD VON (pseudonym of AROUET, 1694-1778), French author, political polemicist, and Enlightenment philosopher. In RICHARD LEANDER, 1830-89). A German doctor, his fairy tale ' L e Taureau blanc' ('The White he was popular for his poems and stories but Bull', 1774), Voltaire freely mixes reality and only his fairy tales have stood the test of time. the marvellous in an ironic critique of Old Tes­ These he wrote for his children while serving tament stories. Built around the literal inter­ as a surgeon during the siege o f Paris in the pretation of Nebuchadnezzar's metamorphosis F r a n c o - P r u s s i a n W a r : Trdumereien an franid- into a white bull, the tale features humanized sischen Kaminen (Dreams by a French Fireside, talking animals and a princess who reads 1871). Using motifs and themes from both the Locke. True to the Enlightenment belief in ra­ romantic literary fairy tale and folk tales, the tional enquiry, Voltaire specifically targets the stories evoke an idyll of domesticity. A great Garden of Eden myth and denounces a God success, they had 48 G e r m a n editions in 40 that would forbid knowledge to humanity. A Z

WACKENRODER, WILHELM HEINRICH (1773-98), one of the most important writers of the early romantic movement in Germany. He studied law at Erlangen and Gôttingen and was a close friend of Ludwig Tieck. His early works on Italian Renaissance painters indicate that he would have played an important role in Ger­ man romanticism if he had not died at an early age. A s it is, he wrote two significant romantic w o r k s : Her^ensergiessungen eines kunstliebenden Klosterbruders (Confessions from the Heart of an Art-Loving Friar, 1797) and Phantasien iiber die Kunstfiir Freunde der Kunst (Fantasies on Art for WAECHTER, FRIEDRICH KARL (1937- ), German Friends of Art, published posthumously in cartoonist and author of satirical essays for 1799), which included 'Ein wunderbares mor- adults and picture books for children. Waech­ gendlandisches Marchen von einem nackten ter had made a name for himself by working Heiligen' ('A Wondrous Oriental Tale of a for the G e r m a n satirical weeklies pardon, Kon- Naked Saint'). T h e protagonist of this tale is a kret, and Twen before he turned to children's misunderstood genius who rejects the pettiness books. The turning-point was his parodistic re­ of everyday life. Only music can save him, and telling o f Heinrich Hoffmann's famous Der he abandons earth for a more divine artistic Struwwelpeter. W a e c h t e r had originally intend­ life. This theme was central to the German ro­ ed it for an adult audience, but because of its mantic fairy tales of the 19th century and w a s subject-matter the And-Struwwelpeter (1970) also picked up by Hermann Hesse at the begin­ was readily adopted as a children's book by ning of the 20th century. JZ parents w h o , in the w a k e o f the 1968 cultural Alewyn, Richard, 'Wackenroders Anteil', revolution, appreciated its subversiveness. T h e Germanic Review, 19 (1944). u p s i d e - d o w n w o r l d that can be found in Anti- Frey, Marianne, Der Kiinstler und sein werk bei Struwwelpeter and other parodies b y W a e c h t e r W. H. Wackenroder und E. T. A. Hoffmann is not just playful entertainment, reaffirming (1970). existing power structures, but instead an attack Schubert, Mary Hurst, Wilhelm Heinrich on moral taboos and the old social and political Wackenroder s Confessions and Fantasies (1971). Thornton, Karin, 'Wackenroder's Objective order. W a e c h t e r ' s Tischlein deck dich (1972) is Romanticism', Germanic Review, 37 (1962). such an ideologically charged revision of the Zipes, Jack, ' W . H. Wackenroder: In Defense of Brothers' Grimm fairy tale 'The Table, the his Romanticism', Germanic Review, 44 (1969). Ass, and the Stick', in which the stick, the sym­ bol of oppression and violence, is banned for­ ever. In addition to parodies, Waechter also WADDELL, MARTIN (1941- ), prolific author for wrote original experimental tales for children. children and young adults, who also writes In Die Kronenklauer (The Crown Thieves, 1972), under the pseudonym Catherine Sefton. Adept which Waechter wrote together with Berd at many different genres, Waddell's books for Eilerts, the authors not only create exemplary young children are often slapstick, while his children who are imaginative, active, and stand books for young adults are either mysteries or up for their rights, they apply the lesson to the novels that deal with social problems in North­ reading process itself by inviting readers to ern Ireland. His Little Dracula series, written look behind the scenes and participate in the between 1986 and 1992, recounts the comic ad­ storytelling process itself. EMM ventures of a fantastic dracula and his family Wild, Reiner, Geschichte der deutschen Kinder- and employs numerous fairy-tale motifs. His und Jugendliteratur (1990). most significant fairy-tale work, however, is The Tough Princess (1986) illustrated b y WAGNER, RICHARD (1813-83), German opera composer and music theorist who wrote the Patrick Benson. This delightful feminist story texts of his musical dramas and who remains as highly controversial as he has been extremely depicts a young feisty princess, who rebels influential. He studied music in Leipzig and held brief appointments at theatres in W u r z - against her greedy, manipulative parents and burg, Magdeburg, and R i g a in the 1830s while writing and composing several early operas. It takes a journey to determine her own destiny. Along the way, she wakes a sleeping prince with a kiss and bikes off with him into an un­ known future. JZ

WALKER, BARBARA G . 544 w a s with one o f these, Rienii (1840), in the McCreless, Patrick, Wagner's Siegfried: Its Drama, History, and Music (1982). style of grand opera of the 1830s, that he McGlathery, James M., Wagner's Operas and Desire (1998). achieved his first notable stage success and ap­ Rank, Otto, Die Lohengrinsage: Ein Beitrag ^u ihrer Motivgestaltung und Deutung (1911). pointment in 1843 as court Kapellmeister in Dresden. His fame rests, though, on the operas that followed: Der fliegende Hollander (The Flying Dutchman, 1841); Tannhduser (1845); WALKER, BARBARA G . (1930- ), American Lohengrin (1847); the tetralogy Der Ring des author o f feminist b o o k s such as The Women's Nibelungen (The Ring of the Nibelung), c o m ­ Encyclopedia of Myths and Secrets (1983), The prising Das Rheingold (The Rhinegold, 1854), Crone (1985), and The Woman's Dictionary of Die Walkure (The Valkyrie, 1856), Siegfried Symbols and Sacred Objects (1988). In 1996 she (1870), and Gbtterddmmerung (The Twilight of published Feminist Fairy Tales, a collection of the Gods, 1874); Tristan und Isolde (1859); Die 28 stories with didactic morals. She retells Meistersinger von Niirnberg (The Mastersingers many of the classical tales such as *'Little Red of Nuremberg, 1867); and Parsifal (1882)—all Riding Hood', *'Jack and the Beanstalk', of which continue to be performed regularly. *'Beauty and the Beast', and *'Aladdin' with W i t h the exception o f Die Meistersinger, these new titles. Thus, *'Cinderella' becomes 'Cin- operas that followed Rien{i d r e w h e a v i l y on der-Helle', who is born to a priestess of the myth, legend, folk beliefs, and medieval epic. Goddess of the Underworld. After the mother- E v e n Die Meistersinger prominently e m p l o y s spirit enables her to witness the death of god­ the biblical story of the Fall and Christian im­ dess worship, she revives the temples of the agery and folk traditions, notably that sur­ goddess. Most of Walker's tales are contrived rounding St John's E v e . Wagner's very first and contain overtly didactic messages that opera, Die Feen (The Fairies, 1833), w a s based smack of New Age ideology. JZ on a fairy-tale play by Carlo *Gozzi; and fairy­ tale motifs are evident in several of the later WALKER, WENDY (1951- ), American writer. operas, particularly the borrowing of the motif H e r b o o k The Sea-Rabbit, or, The Artist of Life of the youth who yearns to experience goose (1988) is a collection of six tales based on the flesh (the fourth story in the * G r i m m s ' *Kinder- * G r i m m s ' *Kinder- und Hausmdrchen (Chil­ und Hausmdrchen) for Siegfried and, less o b v i ­ dren's and Household Tales) along with two ously, the motif of a sister's magically trans­ new stories about Samson and Delilah and the formed brother—as found in a number of woman who lived in a shoe, and a parable Grimm tales, notably 'Die zwôlf Briider' ('The about the cathedral of Notre Dame. Walker Twelve Brothers'), 'Briiderchen und Schwes- seeks to alter our customary notions about the terchen' ('Little Brother and Little Sister'), and classical fairy-tale tradition b y fleshing out the 'Die sechs Schwane' ('The Six Swans')—in lives of the original characters, probing their Lohengrin. T h e legends o f the F l y i n g D u t c h ­ psyches, and altering narrative perspectives. In man, who is cursed with sailing the seas until the title tale o f the b o o k , The Sea Rabbit, based he finds salvation through love, and of Tann- on the Grimms' 'The Little Hamster from the hàuser's sojourn with the love goddess Water', she presents an unlikely protagonist Venus—legends well-known in Wagner's day w h o refuses to accept the role of hero, for he is as popularized by the poet Heinrich not particularly enamoured of the cruel and Heine—formed the basis for those two operas. haughty princess, who takes pleasure in cutting T h e W a g n e r operas from Der fliegende Hollan­ off the heads of her suitors. In another work, der to Parsifal invariably include such elements Stories out of Omarie (1995), W a l k e r revises of magic, marvel, or miracle, employing it to tales based on the Lais o f *Marie de France provide a transcendent or metaphysical dimen­ from a feminist perspective that celebrates the sion to the action and its psychological motiv­ powers of women as storytellers. JZ ation. His Musikdramen (music dramas) represent both a culmination of German ro­ WALSER, ROBERT (1878-1956), well-known Swiss writer. In his fairy-tale dramolettes mantic opera and a development beyond it to­ 'Aschenbrôdel' (*'Cinderella', 1901) and 'Schneewittchen' (*'Snow White', 1901), he wards realism and modernism. JMM treated the *Grimm fairy-tale tradition with irony. Metareflections about these dramolettes Cooke, Deryck, / Saw the World End: A Study are integrated in his prose story 'Dornrôschen' of Wagners Ring'(1979). (*'Sleeping Beauty', 1916). In such stories as Donington, Robert, Wagners Ring' and its Symbols: The Music and the Myth (1963, repr. 1974)-

545 W A R N E R , S Y L V I A T O W N S E N D 'Marchen' ('Fairy Tale', 1910) and 'Das Ende (1992) and her unique stories in The Mermaids der Welt' ('The End of the World', 1917) his in the Basement (1993) contain fairy-tale elem­ satire tends to subvert the traditional happy ents that revise conventional motifs and reflect endings of fairy tales. BKM her concern in restoring creative power to Hiibner, Andrea, 'Ei, welcher Unsinn liegt im women as strong protagonists and authors of Sinn?' Robert Walsers Umgang mit Marchen und Trivialliteratur (1995). their own lives. JZ WALSH, JILL PATON (1937- ), English novelist, WARNER, SYLVIA TOWNSEND (1893-1978), Eng­ lish novelist, short-story writer, and biograph­ who is highly regarded for her historical fiction er. H e r first n o v e l , Lolly Willowes (1926), w a s the story of a spinster who moves to the depths for young adults. However, Walsh is a versa­ of the country and becomes a witch; it was a best-seller. In 1940 she published The Cat's tile writer, who has also explored different Cradle Book, w h i c h purports to be a collection of old stories told by cats to their kittens. A c ­ genres related to the fairy tale. For instance, A cording to the narrator of the frame story, all our fairy tales originated with cats. That is w h y Chance Child (1978) is a time-travel n o v e l that their mood is not heated and sentimental, but 'cool. . . objective—and catlike'. sends an unloved young boy, locked in a T h e tone of the Cat's Cradle tales is one of closet, into the past where he learns all about calm, detached amusement. T w o of the best are riffs on the future adventures of the charac­ the abuse and exploitation of working-class ters in *'Puss-in-Boots' and *'Bluebeard' or their descendants. In 'Bluebeard's Daughter', children in the 19th century. The Green Book for instance, blue-haired Djamileh and her hus­ band are consumed with curiosity about the (1981) is a science-fiction work that recounts locked room in the castle, which fortunately turns out to be empty. the trials and tribulations of a group of families In the last y e a r o f her life, w h e n she w a s 84, who leave earth as it is about to disintegrate. Sylvia Townsend Warner published her last and most remarkable b o o k , Kingdoms of Elfin Another science-fiction n o v e l , Torch (1987), is (1977). It is a brilliantly written and original fantasy in the form of a series of linked stories. about children in a post-nuclear world, and the T h e y take off from traditional reports of the appearance and behaviour of the fairies in torch they carry symbolizes the values of European folklore and Shakespearian drama. Thus the fairies are slightly smaller than friendship, honesty, and sincerity that they humans but much l o n g e r - l i v e d ; they can fly and, unless they choose, are usually invisible to must maintain if the torch is to keep burning in mortals. They sing and dance with great skill, enjoy parties and feasts, and live in large their new society. In her work for adults, groups underground. The w a y to their world is through the small green hills known in Britain Walsh has made use of folk tales, myths, and as fairy mounds. A s in the folk tales, from time to time the fairies kidnap a human baby, substi­ history in one collection of stories, Five Tides tuting a changeling; they may also take adult captives. (1986), that recall folk tales, legends, and his­ According to Warner, fairies have no souls: tory about people who live along the coast dur­ they are beautiful and charming, but also cool, rational, and detached. They cannot weep or ing the time of Cromwell. Her most important hate, and their love affairs tend to be brief. In most Elfin societies there are only aristocrats fairy-tale w o r k for y o u n g adults is Birdy and and servants: politically, this suggests Europe in the late Middle Ages, except that the fairy the Ghosties (1989), w h i c h is about the ferry­ kingdoms are always ruled by queens. man's daughter Birdy, who learns from a mys­ The kingdoms of Elfin are located in several European countries and in Persia, and a satiric- terious old woman that she has second sight, and this power enables her to reap great benefits. JZ WARNER, MARINA (1946- ), English writer and critic. She has investigated how myths rule our perceptions in several important studies such as Alone of All Her Sex: The Myth and Cult of the Virgin Mary (1976), Monuments and Maidens: The Allegory of the Female Form (1985), Man­ aging Monsters: Six Myths of Our Time (1994) and No Go the Bogeyman: Scaring, Lulling and Making Mock (1998). W a r n e r incorporates a feminist perspective in all her endeavours, and her most notable w o r k in the field o f the fairy tale is From the Beast to the Blonde: On Fairy Tales and their Tellers (1995), a social history which seeks to recuperate the role that women have played in both the oral tradition of the folk tale and the literary one of the fairy tale. W a r n e r has also edited Wonder Tales: Six Stor­ ies of Enchantment (1994), a collection o f 17th- century French fairy tales. H e r novel Indigo

WEBER, CARL MARIA FRIEDRICH ERNST VON al intention is visible in the w a y in which the WELLS, H . G . (1866-1946), British novelist and inhabitants of each kingdom share the charac­ social critic, regarded as one of the pioneers of teristics of the local humans. The North Ger­ science fiction. His most famous works in this man fairies, for example, enjoy metaphysical genre are The Time Machine (1895), The Invis­ argument and the Austrians, rich, heavy cook­ ible Man (1897), and The War of the Worlds ing; the French Elfin court is elaborate, with (1897). He also published numerous stories of much emphasis on proper dress and manners, the supernatural such as 'The Man who Could while the Norwegian kingdom is simpler and W o r k Miracles' and fairy tales such as 'The cruder, and includes witches and trolls. Magic Shop' and 'Mr Skelmersdale in Fairy­ land' in Twelve Stories and a Dream (1903). Kingdoms of Elfin is witty, subtle, and often O n e o f his novels, The Sea Lady (1902), in­ enchanting; yet there is an undertone of sad­ volves a mermaid who appears to a family on ness in these stories. Though most of the aris­ the English coast and influences their lives. J Z tocratic fairies live in idle, frivolous luxury, they are not always happy; their affections are WENZ-VIËTOR, ELSE (1882-1973), the most fleeting, and their great dread is boredom. Per­ haps, Warner seems to be suggesting, there is famous German illustrator of picture books for something to be said for a short human life of work and struggle and strong emotions. A L children during the 1920s and 1930s. She pro­ Crossley, Robert, 'A Long Day's Dying: The duced more than 100 books during a career that Elves of J . R. R. Tolkien and Sylvia Townsend Warner', in Carl B . Yoke and Donald M. lasted until the early 1960s and provided illus­ Hassler (eds.), Death and the Serpent: Immortality in Science Fiction and Fantasy (1985). trations for works written by popular authors such as Adolf Hoist, Sophie Reinheimer, and Max Dingier. She also wrote her own texts. Wenz-Viëtor's early illustrations with anthro­ WEBER, CARL MARIA FRIEDRICH ERNST VON pomorphized animals and plants were influ­ (1786—1826), German composer and pianist. enced b y the Jugendstil movement, but later she Appointed director of the Opera at Prague in d r e w all creatures and flowers in a more natural 1813 and at Dresden in 1816, Weber was at the style. A m o n g her best fairy-tale books are: Das height of his career when he composed the Schlaraffenland {The Land of Milk and Honey, h i g h l y popular Der Freischut^ (1821). Its plot 1923), Màrchen-Os tern (An Easter Fairy Tale, derives from the common folklore motif of the 1927), and Das grosse Màrchenbuch (The Great man who sells the devil his soul; Weber's Fairy Tale Book, 1957). In addition, she drew huntsman protagonist bargains for magic bul­ illustrations for the classical authors Jacob and lets, so that he can win a contest of marksman­ Wilhelm *Grimm, Wilhelm *Hauff, Ludwig ship, and with it the hand of the woman he *Bechstein, and Hans Christian *Andersen with loves. She succeeds in redeeming him with her bright colours and cute characters that empha­ pure-hearted love, however, and the two sized the cheerful and humorous aspects of the lovers are happily united. The high point of the tales. JZ opera is the casting of the magic bullets at mid­ WERENSKIOLD, ERIK (1855-1938), Norwegian night in the ' W o l f s Glen', a scene of supernat­ illustrator and painter, who was greatly influ­ ural horror, expressed musically through enced b y French impressionism. In 1881 he col­ imaginative orchestration and unusual har­ laborated with Theodor Kittelsen to provide monies. Weber's serious use of supernatural the ink drawings for the first illustrated edition elements, combined with the wild natural set­ of Peter Christen *Asbjornsen and Jorgen ting, the struggle between forces of good and *Moe's Norwegian Folktales. JZ evil, the theme of redemption, and the source o f the story in medieval legend, made Der WHISTLER, R E X (REGINALD JOHN WHISTLER, Freischiiti the w o r k w h i c h defined and estab­ 1905—44), British painter, illustrator, and stage designer. Whistler's illustrations for Walter lished German romantic opera. His last opera, *de la Mare's The Lord Fish and Other Tales (1933), *A n d e r s e n ' s Fairy Tales and Legends Oberon, or The Elf King's Oath (1826), has even (1935), and Gulliver's Travels (1935) are par­ ticularly noteworthy. His Gulliver, with maps closer ties to the world of fantasy and fairy tale. and pictures in exquisitely detailed pen and ink, is considered one of the great illustrated books The English libretto, by James Robinson of the century. Whistler's first important com­ mission was a series of highly imaginative *Planché, is based on Oberon, a heroic p o e m b y murals for the Tate Gallery Refreshment Christoph Martin *Wieland, and weaves elem­ ents from *Shakespeare's Midsummer Night's Dream, the N e a r East o f The ^Arabian Nights, and the legendary court of Charlemagne into a far from cohesive whole. SR

^ PAO*******- WHISTLER, REX 'The Emperor walked under his high canopy in the midst of the Procession.' A plate by Rex Whistler to illustrate 'The Emperor's New Clothes' in a 1 9 3 5 edition of Fairy Tales and Legends by Hans Christian Andersen.

WHITE, T. H. 548 R o o m . The Expedition in Pursuit of Rare Meats W I E C H E R T , ERNST (pseudonym of ERNST BARANY (1927) depicts a hunting party embarking from BJELL, 1887—1950), German teacher and author. His popular novels urged the virtues of simpli- an 18th-century palace on horseback, chariot, city, humility, and ideal love. Despite a three- month internment in the concentration camp and bicycle. Journeying through mountains Buchenwald for his openly expressed criticism of the Nazi regime, he is a controversial figure and forests, they encounter mythical beasts, whose status as a dissident has been questioned because of his enduring popularity and success cross a broken bridge haunted by mermaids, as a published author under the Nazis. Never- theless, all his work bears testimony to his defi- and return home bearing caviar, lobsters, ant defence of his beliefs, including the immensely successful Das einfache Leben (The scented tea, and other delicacies. The romantic Simple Life, 1939), which advocated living a good life as an answer to the sickness of the realism of Whistler's style—deliberately rem- age, a guiding light for humankind lost in the gloom of despair. His critical writing survived, iniscent of rococo painting—and his subtle buried in his garden, to be published after the war: Die Jerominkinder (The Earth is Our Heri- and witty sense of fantasy were typical of his tage, v o l . i, 1945, v o l . ii, 1947) and Der Toten- wald (The Forest of the Dead, 1945), a mainly work. T h e 18m. (58-foot) mural he completed autobiographical record written expressly as a literary chronicle of Buchenwald and a memor- in the late 1930s for the dining room of Plas ial to the dead. Disenchanted with post-war de- velopments in Germany and the hostile N e w y d d — a trompe-l'œil panorama o f an i m - attitude towards his attempts to promote an honest coming-to-terms with the Nazi past, he aginary Italian city by the sea—has been de- emigrated in 1948 to Switzerland, where he died in 1950. scribed as the finest 20th-century example of Wiechert saw himself as a poet in the ro- decorative painting created for a country mantic sense, a seer and a translator of the inner world, with a mission to write in defence house; an adjacent room is now a Whistler mu- of the poor and the oppressed and to uphold the morals of his homeland. In works such as seum. Whistler had begun to reveal exception- Die Majorin (The Baroness, 1934), and Der weisse Buffel (The White Buffalo, 1937) he de- al talent as a stage designer for plays, ballets, velops the central idea of the intrinsic worth of the natural man, the simple life, and the posses- and operas when he was killed in action in sion o f a pure heart. Missa sine nomine (1950), his last and hugely successful novel, acknow- World War II. SR ledges the presence of evil but suggests that it can be overcome by love and altruistic service Whistler, Laurence, and Fuller, R., The Work of to others. All of Wiechert's extensive output contains elements of transposed autobiog- Rex Whistler (i960). raphy, but essentially his is a mystical vision which concentrates on the inner suffering of his W H I T E , T . H . (TERENCE HANBURY, 1906-64), heroes rather than their actions, and ultimately fails to analyse contemporary society. English author of novels based on Arthurian In 1944, concerned about the effect of the legend. T h e earliest, The Sword in the Stone w a r on the y o u n g , Wiechert wrote 40 fairy tales with the express aim of'making children's (1938) was published with his own illustrations. hearts glow again'. Published in the two-vol- u m e Màrchen (1946) and in v o l . viii o f Sàmt- Set in a mock medieval England, it is a fantastic liche Werke (Complete Works, 1957), they are, like all his writing, intensely polarized didactic and light-hearted account of the education of parables about the fight o f g o o d versus evil, where good is identified with nature, simpli- young Arthur (the Wart). He is brought up with K a y , his foster-father's son, under the tu- telage of Merlyn. Merlyn's lessons include much magic, and in the forest outside there are witches and outlaws. The book ends when the Wart, totally unaware of the significance of the act, pulls the sword from the stone and to his dismay becomes king. The original text of the book was altered so that it could be fitted into the four-part n o v e l , The Once and Future King (1958). This shows Arthur as king; the ro- mance of Lancelot and Guinevere is a promin- ent theme. Mistress Mas ham's Repose (1947) is a fantasy about a colony of Lilliputians, descended from a few brought back to England by the captain of Gulliver's ship. T h e y live on an island in a lake belonging to a ducal mansion, where 10- year-old Maria, the last survivor of the family who owned the place, chances upon them. T h o u g h she at first antagonizes them by her attempts to interfere in their lives, they become her friends, and through their resourcefulness and courage she is rescued from the fate the villainous governess and the vicar plan for her, and for the Lilliputians themselves. GA

549 W I L D E , O S C A R city, love, and a desire to help, while evil is Lim, Jeong-Taeg, Don Sylvio und Anselmus: Untersuchungen %ur Gestaltung des Wunderbaren personified by the city, mass civilization, greed, bei C. M. Wieland und E. T. A. Hoffmann (1988). power, and self-interest. Although there are in­ Nobis, Helmut, Phantasie und Moralitdt: Das Wunderbare in Wielands, 'Dschinnistan ' und der fluences of the Brothers * G r i m m — ' D i e arme 'Geschichte des Prin^en Biribinker' (1976). Stickney-Bailey, Susan, 'Tieck's Marchen and Magd' ('The Poor Maid'), for example, is the Enlightenment: The Influence of Wieland and Musàus' (Diss., University o f a version of 'Aschenputtel' (\"''Cinder­ Massachusetts-Amherst, 1986). ella')—Wiechert's stories are unlike folk tales WILDE, OSCAR (1854-1900), Dublin-born poet, playwright and aesthete. The child of two par­ in their contemplative and reflexive mood, ents who had both contributed to the collection of Celtic folklore, he was the author of two im­ concentrating on the inward quest of the hero portant collections of literary fairy tales. Oscar's father, Sir William Wilde, had retold to resist the temptations of ambition and wealth tales o f the Irish Sidhe in Irish Popular Supersti­ tions (1852), w h i l e his mother, the patriotic and retain a simple and pure heart. KS poet Lady Jane Wilde or 'Speranza', had used materials collected by her husband and herself Boag, Hugh-Alexander, Ernst Wiechert: The to write what *Yeats considered one of the most important books on the Celtic fairy faith, Prose Works in Relation to his Life and Times Ancient Legends, Mystic -Charms, and Supersti­ (1987). tions of Ireland (1887). S h e also w r o t e on An­ cient Cures, Charms and Usages in 1890. Venzin, Renate-Pia, Ernst Wiecherts Marchen. W i l d e ' s t w o v o l u m e s o f fairy tales, The Ein Beitrag ^um Kunstmdrchen der Gegenwart Happy Prince (1888) and A House of Pomegran­ ates (1891) w e r e written, according to a letter (i954)- of 1888, 'partly for children and partly for those who have kept the childlike faculties of WIELAND, CHRISTOPH MARTIN (1733-1813), wonder and joy'. Their creation may have German writer and poet, closely associated been prompted by his wife, Constance Lloyd, with the rise of Weimar culture. He studied who published two volumes of children's fan­ theology in a monastery near Magdeburg, but tasies in 1889 and 1892; b y W i l d e ' s desire for his interest in writing drew him to work with tales to tell his own two young sons; by his the renowned Swiss critic Johann Jakob mother's publications of collected folklore; and Bodmer in Zurich between 1752 and 1754. perhaps b y Y e a t s ' s Fairy and Folk Tales of the Thereafter he gained recognition for his poet­ Irish Peasantry (1889), a collection that W i l d e ry, novels, and tales, and by 1772, when he set­ admired and f a v o u r a b l y r e v i e w e d . W i l d e ' s first tled in Weimar, he was considered the volume, illustrated by Walter *Crane and foremost writer in Germany. Strongly influ­ Jacomb Hood and containing five tales, 'The enced by the French fairy-tale vogue of the Happy Prince', 'The Nightingale and the 18th century, Wieland published an important Rose', 'The Selfish Giant', 'The Devoted collection o f tales entitled Dschinnistan Friend', and 'The Remarkable Rocket', was a (1786-9), which included adaptations from the great success; most critics still consider ' T h e F r e n c h Cabinet des fées (see M A Y E R , C H A R L E S - Happy Prince' and ' T h e Selfish Giant', the fin­ J O S E P H D E ) as well as three original tales, ' D e r est of the fairy tales. Four more stories, ' T h e Stein der Weisen' ('The Philosopher's Stone'), Y o u n g King', 'The Birthday of the Infanta', 'Timander und Melissa', and 'Der Druide oder 'The Fisherman and his Soul', and 'The Star- die Salamanderin und die Bildsàule' ('The C h i l d ' , w e r e collected as A House of Pomegran­ Druid or the Salamander and the Painted Pil­ ates, this time in an elegant v o l u m e designed lar'). Typical of all these tales is the triumph of and decorated by Charles Ricketts and Charles rationalism over mysticism. Among his other Shannon in 1891. works that incorporated fairy-tale motifs are Der Sieg der Natur iiber die Sckwdrmerei oder die Wilde's literary fairy tales are influenced by Abenteuer des Don Sylvio von Rosalva (The Vic­ the Brothers *Grimm and especially by Hans tory of Nature over Fanaticism or the Adventures Christian *Andersen, whose moralized and of Don Sylvio von Rosalva, 1764), Der goldene Spiegel (The Golden Mirror, 1772), and Oberon (1780). In addition, he wrote 'Pervonte' (1778-9), a remarkable verse rendition of *Basile's 'Peruonto', which concerns a poor simpleton, whose heart is so good that he is blessed by the fairies and thus rises in society. JZ Bauer, Roger, ' \"The Fairy Way of Writing\": Von Shakespeare zu Wieland und Tieck', in Roger Bauer, Michael de Graat, and Jiirgen Werheimer (eds.), Das Shakespeare-Bild in Europa pvischen Aufkldrung und Romantik (1988).

WILDE, OSCAR 550 WiLDE, OSCAR The swallow, who is the prince's dear friend, arrives to comfort him in Oscar Wilde's The Happy Prince and Other Tales ( 1 8 8 8 ) , illustrated by Walter *Crane. sentimentalized versions of Scandinavian folk suous and mannered description ('The Birth­ tales are sometimes amplified and sometimes day of the Infanta' and 'The Fisherman and his subverted by him. 'The Nightingale and the Soul'), most often prose-poems in feeling. Yet Rose' is a tough-minded comment on Ander­ this artificial, highly decorated prose is used to sen's 'The Nightingale'; 'The Devoted Friend' convey parables of egoism and altruism, of an inversion of 'Great Claus and Little Claus'; Christian self-sacrifice as in 'The Happy and 'The Fisherman and his Soul', a reversal of Prince,' 'The Selfish Giant', and 'The Young and complex comment on 'The Tittle Mer­ King'; or of the Christlike artist, as in ' T h e maid'. Vyvyan Holland, Wilde's son, remind­ Nightingale'; or to produce cautionary tales of ed readers that his father spent much time in his selfishness and narcissism as in ' T h e Devoted childhood in Connemara, and Irish materials Friend' and 'The Remarkable Rocket'. The also contribute to Wilde's tales. For example, protest against social injustice and inequality, 'The Young King' and 'The Star-Child' may the sympathy with the poor and oppressed be read as accounts of changelings, while tales which w a s to figure in W i l d e ' s Soul of Man of undines and fishermen are particularly popu­ under Socialism (1891), are directly or indirect­ lar in Ireland, though common in all Indo- ly expressed in 'The Happy Prince', 'The D e ­ European lore. voted Friend', and 'The Selfish Giant', and later in ' T h e Y o u n g King' and 'The Birthday What makes Wilde's tales uniquely compel­ of the Infanta', while Wilde's anti-puritanism ling is the elegance of their language combined and anti-conventionalism are reflected in 'The with the strangeness of their content. Stylistic­ Nightingale and the Rose' and 'The Fisherman ally, they are perfectly articulated studies in ar­ and his Soul'. T h e artist as martyr and saint tifice and surface, sometimes biblical in tone figures in several tales, most notably in ' T h e ('The Star-Child'), sometimes filled with sen­

551 WILDE'S FAIRY TALES, FILM ADAPTATIONS Nightingale', and the impossibility or failure of absence. He immediately drives the children romantic love is explored in that tale as well as away, puts up 'Keep Out' signs, and barricades in 'The Birthday of the Infanta' and ' T h e Fish­ himself in. T h e result of this selfishness is that erman and his Soul'. Spring and Summer never come to the garden: instead there is always Snow and Frost. E v e n ­ Wilde's fairy tales are also notable for their tually, the children creep back through a hole unhappy or unresolved endings; some are in the wall; then the birds and flowers and sun simply sad, others ironic, many are deeply cyn­ return. T h e giant, realizing how selfish he has ical. A House of Pomegranates is even more been, knocks down the wall and welcomes the sombre than The Happy Prince; three o f its four children back. Many years later, one child he tales conclude with the demise of the sympa­ especially loves turns out to be an emissary thetic protagonists as the Dwarf, Star-Child, from Christ. T h e giant dies, and is taken to Fisherman, and Mermaid die. None of the tales Paradise. has a conventional happy ending. The Reader's Digest version of Wilde's Wilde's tales are less designed as works for b e s t - k n o w n story, The Happy Prince (1974), children than as attempts to mirror late Victor­ gives voices to the two main characters, as well ian life in a form remote from reality and to as to a narrator. It concerns a bejewelled and embody the problems of the era in an ideal gilded statue, the Prince, who is befriended by mode. Moreover, the creation of a fairy world a Swallow on his w a y south for the winter. See­ enables Wilde to deal symbolically with social ing ugliness and misery all around, the Prince taboos and to reveal his repressed feelings and persuades the Swallow to peck out his jewels desires. The tales have been read in different and peel off his gold leaf to distribute to the ways at various times. Recently they have been destitute people of the town. Thus delayed, the viewed as studies in homoerotic relations (see Swallow misses his chance to go with the other the Prince and the Sparrow in ' T h e Happy birds to Egypt; later, though there is still time Prince') or as explorations of the author's to go, he chooses to stay with the Prince, till in masochistic and sadistic impulses—see, for ex­ the depths of winter he dies of cold. The ample, the self-inflicted torments of the Giant Prince, who now looks shabby, is pulled down. and the Star-Child or the notable cruelty of the God summons an angel to bring the two Princess in 'The Birthday of the Infanta'—and friends to Paradise. even as totally ironic in intention. Neverthe­ less, they remain memorable and haunting add­ The same story has also been adapted ( U K , itions to the genre of the literary fairy tale. 1996) as a mini-opera performed by animated models, with the Swallow sung by Jimmy CGS Somerville and the Prince by William Dazely. Ellmann, Richard, Oscar Wilde ( 1 9 8 7 ) . The requirements of the form and medium re­ Pine, Richard, The Thief of Reason: Oscar Wilde sult in bits of Wilde's text being selected and expanded, while others are rejected. A drama­ (I995)- tist freezing in a garret is identified as Wilde Shewan, Rodney, Oscar Wilde: Art and Egotism himself, dreaming o f a first-night success if he (I977)- e v e r gets w a r m enough to finish his play; a lit­ Snider, Clifton, 'Eros and Logos in Some Fairy tle starving match-girl imagines vast quantities Tales by Oscar Wilde', Victorian Newsletter, 8 4 of food dancing before her eyes. A t the end, (fall 1 9 9 3 ) . when the Swallow is dead, a modern reference Tremper, Ellen, 'Commitment and Escape: The is slipped in: self-important local officials dis­ Fairy Tales of Thackeray, Dickens, and Wilde', parage him as a foreign bird, an immigrant that The Lion and the Unicorn, 2 . 1 ( 1 9 7 8 ) . lives by scrounging. WILDE'S FAIRY TALES, FILM ADAPTATIONS. Three T h e last R e a d e r ' s D i g e s t adaptation w a s The Remarkable Rocket (1975), narrated b y D a v i d of Oscar W i l d e ' s fairy tales h a v e been filmed in N i v e n . In it a g r o u p o f fireworks is c o n v e r s i n g their own right, one of them twice; and one of while waiting to be let off as part of the cele­ the three is positioned in a biographical film as brations at a royal wedding. The rocket, very a commentary on parts of Wilde's life. self-important, does most of the talking; then, because he is so sensitive, weeps at the thought The Selfish Giant ( C a n a d a / U S A , 1972), w a s of the royal couple losing their son—not even the first of a trio to reach the screen in adapta­ conceived yet—and in the process makes him­ tions, co-produced by the Reader's Digest A s ­ self d a m p . A s a result, the other fireworks g i v e sociation, which strive, within the parameters a good account of themselves when the mo- of a 2 5-minute animation, to be faithful to Wilde's text. A narrator tells the story of a lovely garden where children play until the owner, a giant, comes home from a seven-year

WILLIAMS, JAY 552 ment comes, but the remarkable rocket is when she is imprisoned in a tower, she wakes discarded as useless. Essentially, this plot is a device to allow Wilde, as storyteller, to make up a prince who is lying there in an enchanted epigrammatic criticisms of certain types of character. sleep, and then escapes by climbing down his Comments on his own character are implied long curly beard. in the biopic Wilde ( U K , 1997) b y the incorp­ oration of portions of the text of 'The Selfish Williams's other best-known genre-dissolv­ Giant', sometimes as voiceover, sometimes in­ tegrated into the screen action. T h e idea is that ing fairy tale, Petronella (1973) declares its in­ aspects of Wilde's life are reflected in the story. When he has just admitted and released his tention in the first paragraph: 'In the kingdom homosexuality, and consequently is neglecting his family, he sees himself as selfish, like the of Skyclear Mountain, three princes were al­ giant; at the same time, like the children in the story, he faces prosecution if caught trespass­ ways born . . . the youngest prince always res­ ing. Later, while his wife is reading a passage about the beauty of the giant's garden, he is cued a princess, brought her home, and in time seen walking in just such a place with Lord Alfred Douglas. Back home, telling his chil­ ruled o v e r the kingdom. That was the w a y it dren how the giant was 'really very sorry for what he had done', Wilde is wistful. Finally, in had always been . . . Until now.' This time the Reading gaol, after he has been sentenced to two years' hard labour, Wilde once again sees youngest child is a red-headed princess called himself as the giant, who 'grew very old and feeble' and 'could not play about any more'. Petronella. She won't stay home and wait for TAS suitors, but insists on going out into the world WILLIAMS, JAY (1914-78), American writer. with her brothers. A s a result of her kindness to A l t h o u g h he published nearly 70 books for children, as well as many adult novels and an old man, she finds a handsome prince in the mysteries, J a y Williams is best known today for his Danny Dunn juvenile science-fiction garden of an enchanter. T h e prince is lazy, self­ series (begun with Raymond Abrashkin, who died after the fifth volume appeared). T h o u g h ish, and somewhat stupid, but since he is the some of the plot motifs in these popular books can be traced back to folk-tale sources (invisi­ only prince around, Petronella continues to act bility, a monster who lives in a swamp, etc.), the emphasis is on scientific invention and out the standard plot. She manages to fulfil comedy. three difficult tasks: calming and taming fer­ Williams was also one of the first and best of the authors who responded to the feminist ocious dogs, horses, and hawks; then she and movement of the late 1960s and early 1970s b y writing a new kind of fairy tale. Though his the prince flee, pursued b y the enchanter. F i ­ stories are traditional in their choice of episode and motif, they also overturn nearly all the nally, to her amazement, she discovers that the conventions of the genre to illustrate new ideas about women. enchanter is glad to be rid of the lazy prince, Williams's famously funny and very influ­ who came for a visit and just wouldn't leave. ential picture b o o k The Practical Princess (1969) reworked both *'Rapunzel' and '\"'Sleep­ The enchanter isn't chasing the prince; he is ing Beauty'. Its heroine, Princess Bedelia, has been promised to a dragon, but instead of wait­ chasing Petronella, with whom he has fallen in ing for a prince to rescue her, she explodes the monster by arranging for a straw figure filled love. Recognizing her true destiny, Petronella with gunpowder to be dressed in her court robes and thrown into its open mouth. Later, agrees to marry him, and the lazy prince has to walk home alone. Though there are now many stories like these in print, w h e n The Practical Princess and Petronella first appeared, they caused a minor sensation, and as a result both readers and writers now approach fairy tales in new and interesting ways. AL WILLOW (film: U S A , 1988), the counterpart of Star Wars (1977). Premissed on magic rather than technology, Willow is a quest-story born from the research George Lucas did into folk­ lore and mythology while writing his space trilogy. A m o n g its numerous sources of inspir­ ation are \" T o l k i e n , The *Wqard of C \\ , the Bible, and A Midsummer Night's Dream. W i l ­ low Ufgood, a would-be magician, rescues a birthmarked b a b y from a river and sets off to find Raziel, the g o o d witch w h o alone can, through the baby, end the reign of the evil queen Bavmorda. Sometimes helped by Mad- martigan, a mercenary who comes to see the point of being compassionate rather than self­ ish, Willow progresses towards an understand­ ing of true magic. TAS

553 W I Z A R D O F O Z , T H E WIZARD OF OZ, THE (1900), w i d e l y considered passage in which she overcomes challenges by the most popular American fairy tale, is the learning to use her talents. This individual and first in a series of 14 Oz books b y L . Frank societal maturation is neatly underscored in *Baum. Hard hit by the brutal economic de­ Victor Fleming's Oscar-winning film, whose pression of 1890, this actor, journalist, and win­ host of screenwriters tightened Baum's story­ dow decorator established himself as an author line. They eliminated sub-plots and introduced of children's b o o k s with Father Goose: His Book new characters to the prologue (Miss Gulch, (1899). From rewritten nursery rhymes, Baum Professor Marvel, the trio of farmhands) that turned to the wonder tales of *Andersen and are 'ozzified' into the Wicked Witch (Margaret the *Grimms. Writing during the v o g u e of Uto­ Hamilton), Wizard (Frank Morgan), Scare­ pian novels, he wanted a 'modernized fairy crow (Ray Bolger), Tin Woodman (Jack tale' that would omit both romance and night­ Haley), and Cowardly Lion (Bert Lahr). The mare-causing violence yet still provide an en­ film also unifies Dorothy's narrative point of tertaining morality for children. He also view with songs like 'Over the Rainbow' (by modernized the talking beasts of folklore into Harold Arlen and E . Y . Harburg), and faithful­ sentient machines like the Tin Woodman: in ly exploits the metaphor of grey Kansas vs. this way, he could introduce turn-of-the-cen- Technicolor Oz. The endings of book and film, tury industrialization into a fairyland where no however, diverge: where Baum's Oz is real, one is injured (wicked witches notwithstand­ Hollywood's is a dream. ing). First illustrated b y W . W . * D e n s l o w , The Wonderful Wizard of 0 { (as it w a s first entitled) Dreams and the collective unconscious fig­ was a runaway best-seller of the first half of the ure in the film's psychoanalytical interpret­ century, although it received scant literary ac­ ations. Jungians stress Dorothy's quest for self claim. Indeed, the entire Oz series, consisting in which she is aided by personified characters of 14 novels published between 1900 and 1920, (Scarecrow, Cowardly Lion, etc.). Freudians was essentially blacklisted during the McCar­ address ineffectual parent figures and posit a thy era by librarians w h o dismissed it as sub­ 'family romance' that replaces them with good versive popular culture of poor literary quality. witches and wizards. They cite numerous im­ N o r was the 1939 M G M musical a critical suc­ ages of castration (Oz's floating head, the Tin cess, losing $1 million in its initial run. Filmed Woodman's mutilation), note the phallic im­ during the Depression when America needed agery of the cyclone and witch's broomstick, escapist fare, it only began its rise to cult status and find that Dorothy comes to sexual maturity in 1956, with its first annual televised showing. when she appropriates the broomstick and The public has since re-evaluated both the film gives it to Oz. Sexuality is further underscored and book, which boasts 10 million copies in 22 by the colour red (for menstruation) of the languages. film's ruby slippers. This is the story of Dorothy Gale (played Critics analysing the book, however, equate by Judy Garland). Ignored by foster-parents D o r o t h y ' s silver shoes with the silver standard on a bleak farm in Kansas, she is transported by of 1890s Populist debates. William Jennings a cyclone to the Utopia of Oz. Dorothy, how­ Bryan, farmers, and public-wary presidents are ever, wants to return home, and sets out to find represented by the Cowardly Lion, Scarecrow, the Wizard for help. On her quest, she encoun­ and Wizard. Midwestern politics are futher ters a Scarecrow, Tin Woodman, and Coward­ allegorized in the Tin Woodman's dehuman- ly Lion seeking a brain, a heart, and courage. ization from flesh to t i n — a metaphorical in­ The Wizard refuses to help unless they kill the dustrialization that is vanquished by the Wicked Witch of the West. Dorothy acciden­ Jeffersonian agrarianism of Kansas, geographic tally does this, but Oz cannot keep his promise and symbolic centre of the United States. This because he is not really a wizard. He does, model presents Kansas as a secular Garden of however, bestow the physical attributes of the Eden, but Oz-as-Utopia is championed in intelligence, compassion, and valour that the socio-political commentary of the later Oz trio have demonstrated all along. In the end, it books. Feminists cite the numerous emascu­ is Dorothy w h o takes herself home: she has lated males and analyse the suffragette-type learned that her silver shoes (ruby slippers in leaders o f The Land of 0\\. Others find in the the film) have always held the power to fulfil illness-free Emerald City of 0{ a (socialist) her dreams. paradise where poverty and money need not exist because happy workers share their wealth Dorothy's journey to Oz and back is there­ and talents. Solidarity and pacifism rule Oz, fore a child's quest of self-discovery, a rite o f where a giant L o v e Magnet imbues all who

THE WIZARD OF OZ 'You ought to be ashamed of yourself!' Dorothy scolds the Cowardly Lion in the first edition of L. Frank *Baum's The IViiard of 0 { (1900), illustrated by W . W . *Denslow.