Ashwamedh 2016

ASHWAMEDH ……chasing excellence! अश्वमेध Annual Magazine - 2016 1

KHALSA COLLEGE OF VETERINARY & ANIMAL SCIENCES, AMRITSAR Annual Magazine - 2015 ASHWAMEDH ……chasing excellence! अश्वमेध 2

KHALSA COLLEGE OF VETERINARY & ANIMAL SCIENCES RAM TIRATH ROAD, AMRITSAR, PUNJAB – 143 001 EDITORIAL BOARD Patron: Dr. S. K. Jand Chief Editor: Dr. N. A. Sudhan Editors: Dr. A. K. Srivastava Dr. Shivaji Pawar EDITORIAL DESIGN & MEMBER OUTLINE Dr. Irfan Ali Shah Dr. Shivaji Pawar Dr. Nitasha Sambyal Mr. Deep Kamal Ms. Gurleen Kaur Ms. Mansi Mr. Raja Partap PRINTING Printer name Vineet Pahwa 3

Principal Speaks I am delighted to release the inaugural issue of the KCVAS Magazine. The college has taken initiatives to bring out regular publications in form of magazine, newsletter, status reports, bulletins, books & periodicals etc. in order to share useful information for the professionals, students and stake holders especially the livestock owners and related industries. Through these publications, efforts are being made to reflect various developmental activities/programme in order to make ourselves more visible in the professional arena. The encouragement being offered to us by the cross section of professionals and educationists has ignited spark in us to upscale our determination & commitments towards fulfilling our mandated functions. In a short span of 5 years of its existence, this college has made a useful impact across the country. To make this college an ideal centre of learning by producing human resource in veterinary and animal sciences and in order to complement the efforts of the Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, it has constructed its programme while adhering to the minimum standards of veterinary education (MSVE), Regulation of the VCI and the university norms. Infrastructural developments, induction of faculty and making use of modern tools in curricular delivery and dissemination of newer technologies at the door steps of farming community are the priorities of the college. Infrastructure wise, the college is housed in excellent capacious buildings that meet all the requirements of VCI norms. Further, enough scope for expansion is available for future developments. The main campus houses 12 departments, besides administrative unit, library, museum, class rooms, lecture theatres, seminar hall, examination halls and auditorium. The TVCC has been constructed on modern lines with inbuilt facilities for treatment, diagnosis and surgery & gynecological maneuvering of all species of animals, birds and wild life. The ILFC houses all species of animals including poultry and fish units. Wallowing tank has been included in ILFC for better management of buffaloes. 4

A large and capacious amphitheatre has been constructed for demonstration to wider group of students. Faculty at this institute is well qualified, dynamic, competent and committed. There is a fair mixture of experienced professor’s duly supported by young faculty. Many of the experienced professors who served in the capacity of Dean, Director, Registrar, ADG, ICAR and officials from state animal husbandry department are on the active roll of the college. It is noteworthy to state that professors at this college are serving as members of the BOM, Academic Council, Selection committees of various SAUs/SVUs/ ASRB etc. Some professors are also member of ORT, Peers review committee and other prestigious committees across the country. The KCVAS has already made headway in organizing trainings to the officers of the state government under professional competence programs. Certain other training courses have been/ are being structured keeping in view the background level of the trainee. The KCVAS is regularly celebrating events of national importance in livestock sector. This year, World Veterinary Day was celebrated on 22nd April, 2015 in befitting manner on the focal theme “Vector-Borne Diseases with A Zoonotic Potential”. The College is regularly organizing NSS camp for one week under the supervision of a competent faculty. The programme is structured in a way that students are acquainted social values of life by making them to participate in blood donation camp, tree plantation, cleanliness drive as a part of national mission- Swachch Bharat Abhiyan etc. It is praise worthy to state that commendable efforts have been made by the editorial board in preparation of this magazine. I do hope that the professionals, the students and other will cherish reading the magazine. Dr. S. K. Jand (Principal) 5

PREFACE The college has taken several new initiatives on developmental activities during the recent past. The principal, in his introductions write up has already highlighted salient achievements made till date. The magazine contains technical articles, light reading recreational material and some quotes & relevant facts pertaining primarily to the livestock sector. Publications of bulletins are important for extension of knowledge, activate thought process and inculcate spirit of literacy talent. Creativity of the students are reflected through their constitutions. It gives impulse to the students to build their mental attitude and characterizing their energies for productive purpose. It is our endeavour to make students pro active by exploring their literacy talent. The beginning to this inaugural issue of magazine has been made to provide introductive note on the historical development of the Khalsa College Charitable Society preceding a detailed projection of the college followed by a glimpse of our affiliating university-the GADVASU. It was also thought to provide a general scenario on livestock in the country. Other highlighting features include articles on emerging zoonotic diseases, their treatment & cautions, new scientific developments and innovation techniques. It is worth appreciating for the help and support rendered by the editorial team and the faculty without which it would not have been possible to accomplish this adorable task. The students and faculty have played very attractive role in bringing out this magazine. Dr. S. K. Jand, Principal, KCVAS who have taken keen interest in shaping this document. His input at every stage in preparation of this magazine is praise worthy. I do hope that the young faculty and students will take advantage from the scientific, educational and professional thoughts emerging through the articles. Extreme care has been taken in preparation of this magazine, however, if any is accidental & unintentional. Editorial board would appreciate receiving valuable suggestions, comments and constitutive criticism. It would be our endeavour to bring improvisation of the document on getting feedback from the readers. Dr. N. A Sudhan (Chief Editor) 6

ENGLISH SECTION 7

OUR UNIVERSITY: The GADVASU Dr. (Ms) Harveen Kaur Randhawa Assistant Professor, Department of Veterinary Physiology & Biochemistry The Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Extension education in the university and Animal Sciences University are as under. (GADVASU) was established at Ludhiana by an act of the Punjab Legislature A) Education No. 16 of 2005 notified in the Punjab Government Gazette on August 9, 2005 and Educational Programs in the University are it became operational w.e.f. April 21, 2006 offered through three faculties viz. for promoting livestock production, health Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Dairy and of the disease(s) through integrated Technology, and Fishery Sciences. teaching, research and extension programs. By adhering to the basic principles of Model Veterinary Education: The University runs Act of the ICAR, the governance system and 5 years basic degree course in Veterinary & the mandated functions of the University Animal Sciences (B.V.Sc. & A.H.) as per revolves around the primary philosophy of VCI norms. It also offers M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. US model of land grant educational system. programs in all disciplines of veterinary and However, some structural changes have animal sciences through its constituent been made from time to time to make the College of Veterinary Science, Ludhiana. In system more relevant in Indian context addition it has an affiliated College of under the overall ambit of the VCI Veterinary & Animal Science, Amritsar w.e.f. 2010 which offers B.V.Sc. & A.H. degree course. regulatory norms. The Veterinary Council of In addition there is also one lower education India, New Delhi has laid down ‘Minimum Veterinary Polytechnic institute at Standards of Veterinary Education (B.V.Sc. Kaljharani which award Diploma in & A.H. degree course) Regulations’ which Veterinary Pharmacy. forms the principle binding force in implementation of educational standards in Dairy Technology: There is one College of India. A brief account of Teaching, Research Dairy Technology, Ludhiana offering 4 years B.Tech (Dairy Technology). It also Never stop learning because life never stops teaching. 8

offers Masters and Doctoral programs in and to different States for Dairy Technology. upgradation of local cows of that areas Fishery Sciences: There is a college of Fisheries at Ludhiana which offer 4 years Regional Livestock & Poultry Research & degree course in Fishery Science. Training Centre, Talwara (Hoshiarpur) B) Research  To understand the cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat and fish improvement There is an independent Directorate of programs suitable for Kandi area Research at the University. This Directorate is responsible to control, regulate and  To introduce small scale and back monitor the research activities (institutional, yard poultry for economic upliftment State funded and externally funded projects) of the rural people at the colleges and out stations. The University has also created Regional  To introduce managemental and Research and Training Centers with the aim nutritional strategies to reach the hitherto unreached, GADVASU opened its centers at two extremities and  To provide extension services to the very backward area of Punjab. One is in farmers of Kandi area for livestock village Kaljharani, District Bathinda and rearing other is at Talwara, district Hoshiarpur (the only disadvantaged district of Punjab out of C) Extension Education: Technology total 150 in India). dissemination These centers are mandated as under There is an independent Directorate of Extension Education of the University. The Research & Training Centre, Kaljharani primary role of this Directorate is to (BTI) propagate Innovation and research outcome of the University on various livestock  To conserve Sahiwal cattle development strategies to farmers, through  To improve its genetic potential for various extension methodologies. The activities of the Directorate covers almost production and reproduction traits entire spectrum of the state of Punjab. It is  To supply semen and bulls of primarily structuring its activities at the campus, regional research stations and Sahiwal breed to the dairy farmers conducting outreach programs round the The beautiful thing about learning is that no one can take it away from you. 9 .

year. Annual calendar depicting various occasion of ‘Pashu Palan Melas/Kisan activities are circulated every year. Besides, Melas’ (Farmers fairs), ‘Regional Kisan there are three KVK’s of ICAR located at Melas’, ‘Farmers day celebrations’ etc. held districts Barnala, Taran Taran and Mohali at GADVASU/PAU, Ludhiana and other operational under the aegis of the regional research stations of the University. GADVASU. In addition, the farmers also seek advice through personal contact with experts at The salient technologies transferred these fairs. mainly pertain to breeding, livestock production, housing and managemental Other strategies include (a) Using mass practices, nutrition, reproduction and health media to reach the unreached; (b) management. In doing such practices, the Publication of literature in English and the following Patterns of Knowledge form of popular (Vernacular language); (c) Dissemination Strategies are being adopted. Creation of model villages (d) Refresher training courses and (e) Organized interface Pattern of Knowledge Dissemination etc. Strategies In nutshell, the GADVASU is Trainings: The University conducts training emphasizing on utility oriented research. programmes in livestock and poultry World class infrastructure with ultra farming. These trainings help farmers in modern diagnostic facility was already gaining technical skills and the knowledge created in the university. Lot of research on to start the farming for self-employment and unconventional feed stuffs, nanotechnology, improve the existing management practices biotechnology, breeds improvement. Value for better and sustainable production in line addition, health and management practices with the government’s policy of are going on. Now with the opening of diversification in agriculture per se. Veterinary College in Private Sector in the State (affiliated to GADVASU) is expected to Other salient off campus activities provide complimentary support in speedily through the participation of TVCC and other meeting the challenges of livestock sector to departments include Ambulatory Clinical uplift the socio-economic status of rural Service at the door steps of farmer. In India. addition expert talks are given on the Work hard in silence. Let your success be your noise. 10

INDIAN LIVESTOCK SECTOR: CURRENT TRENDS AND PROGRESS Dr Trishna B. Kayastha1 and Dr Sanjeeb Dutta2 1Associate Professor, Department of Animal Nutrition 2Assistant Professor, Instructional Livestock Farm Complex Livestock sector of India is an ruminants, 2.4% camel, 1.4% equine, 1.5% integral component of Indian pigs and 3.1% poultry (FAO 2010). The agriculture supporting livelihood livestock sector of India plays a pivotal role of more than two-thirds of the rural in improving the socio – economic population. Animals provide nutrient-rich conditions of rural masses. So far a total of food products, draught power, dung as 151 livestock and poultry breeds of the organic manure and domestic fuel, hides & country have been registered with National skin, and are a regular source of cash Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources income for rural households. The livestock (NBAGR) which include 39 breeds of cattle, sector alone contributes nearly 25.6% of 13 buffaloes, 40 sheep, 24 goats, 6 horses value of output at current prices of total and ponies, 9 camels, 3 pigs, 1 donkey and value of output in Agriculture, Fishing and 16 poultry. According to the 19th livestock Forestry sector. Livestock sector also plays census total livestock population of India is an important role in utilization of non – 515.057 million comprising 37.28% cattle, edible agricultural byproducts. The overall 21.23% buffaloes, 12.71% goats and 2.01% contribution of Livestock sector in total pigs. The species wise population of animals GDP is nearly 4.11% at current prices during the inter census period (2007 – 2012) during 2012 – 13. The progress in this sector is given in the table 1. is achieved not only by the fact of increasing production of milk, egg, meat and wool but Livestock Production: Animal Husbandry also overall development of livestock by its and dairying not only provide nutritious diseases control, progeny development and food and draught power but also help in related infrastructure etc. generating employment in rural sector particularly among the landless, small and Indian livestock sector is one of the marginal farmers. According to estimate of largest in the world. It has 56.7% of world’s Central Statistics Office (CSO), the value of buffaloes, 14.7% cattle, 20.4% small The road to success comes through hard work, determinations and sacrifice. 11

output from livestock sector at current prices was Rs 5,37,535 crore during 2012– 13. Table 1: Livestock and Poultry Population Sr. Species Livestock census 2007 Livestock census 2012 (in Growth rate No (%) (in millions) millions) - 4.10 3.19 1. Cattle 199.075 190.904 - 7.64 12.88 2. Buffalo 105.342 108.702 -9.07 -3.82 3. Yak 0.083 0.077 2.12 43.07 4. Mithun 0.264 0.298 -27.17 -22.63 5. Sheep 71.558 65.069 -7.54 12.39 6. Goat 140.537 135.173 7. Horse/Pony 0.612 0.625 8. Mule 0.137 0.196 9. Donkey 0.438 0.319 10. Camel 0.517 0.400 11. Pigs 11.133 10.294 12. Poultry 648.829 729.209 India remained the largest milk (2006 – 07) to 127.9 million ton at the end producing country in the world since 1997. of the 11th plan (2011 – 12). Milk production According to FAO 2013, the global milk in the beginning of 12th (2012 – 13) is production reaches to 780 million ton, India 132.43 million ton with an annual growth contributing approximately 18% of it. rate of 3.54%. Number of animals in milk Several measures have been initiated by has increased from 62 million during 2000 Government to augment the productivity of to 83.15 million during 2012, that is about livestock, resulting in increase the milk 18 million improved milch animals have production significantly from the level of been added to milch herd of the country. 102.6 million ton at the end of the 10th plan The exotic/crossbred milch cattle increased Life is like a camera. Focus on what is important capture the good times. 12

from 14.4 million to 19.42 million, giving 4.95% over previous census. There exist a rise to an increase of 34.78% whereas the trend of increasing female cattle population indigenous milch cattle increased marginally from 2003 onward and reaches to 122,984 from 48.04 million to 48.12 million, with thousand on 2012 (Table 2). Steadily rising slight increase 0.17% of milk production. in the numbers of female cattle and buffalo The milch buffaloes increased from 48.64 supports India consistently to lead in milk million to 51.05 million with an increase of production. Table 2: Cattle and buffalo (Male and Female) population Category of animal Animal Census 2007 Animal Census 2012 Scenario (%) (Thousands) (Thousands) Exotic/Crossbred  6,844  5,971 - 12.75  26,212  33,760 28.78  Male  Female Indigenous  76,779  61,949 - 19.32  89,239  89,224 - 0.01  Male  Female Buffalo  19,597  16,103 - 17.83  85,745  92,599 7.99  Male  Female The per capita availability of milk in India is exotic/crossbred, indigenous/nondescript around 296 gm/day in 2012 – 13. The state cow, buffalo and goat during 2012 – 13 is of Punjab has recorded highest per capita 7.02, 2.36, 4.80 and 0.48 kg/day milk availability of 937 gm /day followed by respectively. Haryana 679 gm/day as per available data of NDDB (2011 – 12). Cattle, buffaloes and During the last two decades Indian goats are also contributing the total milk poultry sector has undergone a paradigm production. The average yield of milk per shift in structure and operation transforming day per animal at National level from itself from a mere backyard activity into a major commercial activity. India is Failure is success if we learn from it. 13

emerging as the world’s 2nd largest poultry The average yield of wool per season at market with an annual growth of more than National level from different category of 14%, producing 69.73 billion eggs with an sheep namely Ram/Weather, ewes and lamb annual growth rate of 4.94%, which is during 2012 - 13 is 1.09, 0.73 and 0.44 approximately 3.6% of global egg kg/season respectively. production. The current per capita availability is around 57 eggs per year. Meat production in the beginning of Apart from this India ranks 6th in broiler twelfth plan (2012 – 13) is 5.95 million ton, production (approx. 130 million rupees) which is about 2.21% of global meat with an annual output of 2.68 million ton of production (FAO 2012). India’s total meat broiler meat as per Ministry of Agriculture, production is contributed mostly by cattle, Govt. of India, New Delhi. The average buffaloes, sheep, goats and poultry. The yield of egg per year at National level from contribution of meat from buffalo is about fowl and duck during 2012 - 13 is 206.88 23.33%, while cattle contributes about and 116.32 nos/ year respectively. 17.34%, sheep 4.61%, goats 9.36%, pigs 5.31%, poultry 36.68% and other species India produced 46.05 million kg of 3.37%. Buffalo meat has emerged as India’s indigenous raw wool during 2012 – 13, with second highest agriexport commodity after an annual growth rate of 2.95%. Out of total Basmati rice, according to data released by indigenous raw wool production, only 5% is Agricultural and Processed Food Products of apparel grade, while 10% is coarse grade. Export Development Authority (APEDA) The remaining 85% is used for carpet under the Ministry of Commerce. The total manufacturing, which is a major source of value of India’s buffalo meat exports for the export earnings. The main woolen items year 2010 – 11 was USD 1.9 billion which producing states of India are Jammu and touched USD 2.3 billion during 2012 – 13. Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Govt of India has taken various measures to Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, increase buffalo meat production. Two Uttarakhand, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra schemes in operation in the country, namely Pradesh and Karnataka. Punjab alone Salvaging and Rearing Male Buffalo Calves accounts for 40% woolen units, followed by (SRMBC), and the Utilization of Fallen Haryana 27% and Rajasthan 10% . The rest Animal scheme (UFA) have created new of the states account for the remaining 23%. incentives to slaughter previously Always walk through life as if you have something new to learn and you will. 14

underutilized buffalos. These schemes the year 1919 and since then the exercise has promote the rearing of buffalo bull calves been continuing every five year. The data for meat production and assist in achieving are being used for policy formulation and the targeted growth rate of 10% for the meat has wide utility in the field of planning and sector. The average yield of meat per research activities. The progress in this animal/bird at National level from different sector is attributed not only by the fact of species viz. cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, increasing production of milk, egg, meat and pigs and poultry during 2012 – 13 is 102.43, wool but also overall development of 122.33, 12.91, 10.74, 38.56 and 1.24 livestock by its disease control, progeny kg/animal respectively. development and related infrastructure etc. The total numbers of animals in each of the The National as well as socio- identified species are very important economic growth of a country is enhances determinant factor in the growth of livestock by contribution of the livestock industry. sector. Livestock census in the country started in INTERESTING ENGLISH FACTS Ms. Imroj Kaur, 1st Year (A-2014-V-22-B)  In English “four” is the only digit that has the same number of letters as its value.  In English “rhythm” is only six letter word and “lymph” is only five letter word contains no vowel.  The names of all the continents end with the same letter that they start with.  “Dreamt” is the only English word that ends in the letters “mt”.  There are only four words in English language which ends in - “dous”, “tremendous”, “horrendous”, “stupendous” and “hazardous”.  There are no words in English that rhyme with ‘silver’ and ‘orange’.  The first word spoken on the Moon was ‘Okay’.  In Chinese, the English words ‘Crisis’ and ‘opportunity’ are the same. Ambition is the first step to success. The second step is action. 15

ROLE OF THE 21st CENTURY VETERINARIAN IN GLOBAL HEALTH Dr. R. Ralte Associate Professor, Department of Livestock Products technology A veterinarian, as most people health and welfare, food and agriculture think is a qualified professional security, ecosystem health and management, to cure, treat and prevent wildlife conservation and protection of diseases, injuries and pain of animals. But, environment and biodiversity, and the true role and contributions of a biomedical research. They contribute as veterinarian goes far beyond these epidemiologists, educators, trainers and contemporary tasks. Veterinarians have been policymakers, disease surveillance experts serving mankind for almost 3 centuries with and are effective sentinels and the first line a focus on protection and improvement of of defense in environmental, animal and both animal and human health. Global human health problems, disease diagnosis, miniaturization and the intricately prevention and control. interconnected and interrelated human- ecosystem make the various roles, Globalization has made the world obligations and responsibilities of a more accessible for the world citizens at veterinarian more complex than ever before. large. With advances in communication Because of the multi-disciplinary technology, research in biomedical and curriculum, training in comparative biology veterinary sciences, disease diagnosis, and education based on concept of multiple public health system, agriculture and animal determinants of population health, production, we see a fast changing and more veterinarians are well suited to help define, complex world. Complexity, progress and achieve and contribute to a more important, growth lead to the creation of new threats to diverse and profound ways in global health the health of both animals and humans. protection. Population of the world increases, travel becomes easier and faster; movement of The 21st century veterinarian not pathogens around the world inextricably only address infectious diseases or perform linked with movement of both animal and their general role as a veterinary practitioner human populations. This results in but play a huge part in human and animal pathogens adapting and finding new hosts 16

leading to cross-species infections and the view diseases globally. A veterinarian in consequent emergence of new zoonotic today’s world most integrate existing animal diseases like, SARS, pandemic avian and human disease surveillance and influenza, swine influenza and Ebola virus detection systems and create new strategic infections. This reiterates the need for a partnership with human and public health veterinarian to be better equipped to meet professionals. these challenging responsibilities and to IMPORTANT DAYS INTERNATIONAL DAYS 2nd October International Non-Violence Day 30th January World Leprosy Day 9th October World Postal Day 14th February Valentine Day 16th October World Food Day 8th March International Woman Day 9th November World Urdu Day 21st March World Forest Day 17th November World Epilepsy Day 22nd March World Water Day 1st December World AIDS Day 24th March World T.B. Day 10th December Human Right Day 7th April World Health Day NATIONAL DAYS 22nd April World Earth Day 10th January Army Day Last Saturday of every World Veterinary Day 26th January Republic Day April World Labour Day 30th January Shaheed Divas 1st May 8th May World Red Cross Day 10th May Kranti Divas 11th May Mother’s Day 01st to 07th July Forest Festival Week 12th May Nursing Day 15th August Independence Day 31st May World Tobacco Day 20th August Sadbhabana Divas 5th May World Environment Day 5th September Teacher’s Day 21st June International Yoga Day 14th September Hindi Divas 11th July World Population Day 8th October Air Force Day 29th August Malaria Day & Mosquito 12th November National Bird Day 8th September Day 14th November Children’s Day World Literacy Day 16th September International Ozone Day 16th November National Press Day 25th September World Heart Day 26th November National Law Day and NCC 27th September World Tourism Day 4th December Day Navy Day 17

VECTOR BORNE DISEASES OF PUBIC HEALTH IMPORTANCE Dr Nitasha Sambyal Assistant Professor, Department of Veterinary Public Health & Epidemiology Vector-borne diseases are those, in  Increased reliance on hydroelectric which organisms, typically power, requires construction of dams, thus changes local eco-system blood-feeding arthropods and alter its transmission cycles. (insects, ticks, or mites) carry the pathogen  Change in climatic and sanitation conditions cause social upheaval and from one host to another, generally population displacement, thus may provide opportunities for resurgence amplification takes place (increased of diseases. virulence) in the vector. Both domestic  Due to El-Niño phenomenon there is change in climate, causing loss of animals and wildlife, including marine biodiversity, thus there is change in vectors or animal reservoir mammals may play roles in its transmission populations. This in turn alters the dynamics of predator–prey by serving as zoonotic reservoirs. relationships, loss of predators and increase in vector population. Risk impact: Vector-borne diseases are becoming a major public health concern all  Change in the incubation period of over the world. In present scenario they are pathogen due to change in not only limited to tropical and subtropical precipitation and temperature. The area but had spread globally. People are extrinsic incubation period of becoming more vulnerable to vector-borne pathogens in invertebrate vectors is diseases due to following reasons highly dependent on ambient temperature.  Increase in global trade and travel  Large disruption and subsequent movement of human populations create conditions for wider distribution of pathogens and greater exposure to vector species.  Deforestation. The typical example of this is Kyasanur forest disease. 18

Table: Different vector borne diseases Sr. No. Vector Diseases Dengue fever Mosquitoes Rift Valley fever (a) Aedes Yellow fever Chikungunya 1 (b) Anopheles Malaria Japanese encephalitis (c) Culex Lymphatic filariasis West Nile fever 2 Sandflies Leishmaniasis Sandfly fever (phelebotomus fever) 3 Ticks Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever Lyme disease 4 Triatomine bugs Relapsing fever (borreliosis) 5 Tsetse flies Rickettsial diseases (spotted fever and Q fever) 6 Fleas Tick-borne encephalitis 7 Black flies Tularaemia Chagas disease (American trypanosomiasis) Aquatic snails Sleeping sickness (African trypanosomiasis) Plague (transmitted by fleas from rats to humans) Rickettsiosis Onchocerciasis (river blindness) Schistosomiasis (bilharziasis) Some important vector borne diseases consisting 20% of population residing in tribal, hilly, difficult and inaccessible areas. 1) Malaria is a potentially life threatening parasitic disease. It has been a major public It is caused by protozoa known as health problem in India, high incidence during the rainy season, coinciding with Plasmodium viviax, Plasmodium agriculture, sowing and harvesting. About 95% population in the country resides in falciparum, Plasmodium malaria endemic areas and 80% of malaria reported in the country is confined to areas malariaeand Plasmodium ovale. Common cause of human malaria in India is Plasmodium vivax and P. falciparum. Infection with P.falciparum is the most 19

deadly form of malaria. It is transmitted by after 5-6 days of being bitten by an infective the infective bite of Anopheles (Anopheles mosquito. culicifacies) mosquito. The mosquito starts biting soon after dusk. Therefore, biting It occurs in two forms: Dengue Fever starts much earlier in winter than in summer and Dengue Haemorrhagic fever (DHF). but the peak time varies from species to Dengue Fever is a severe, flu-like illness, species. Mosquitoes breed in rainwater pools frontal headache, retrobulbar pain, muscle and puddles, borrow pits, river bed pools, and joint pains, measles-like rash over chest irrigation channels, seepages, rice fields, and upper limbs. There is no vaccine or any wells, pond margins, sluggish streams with specific medicine to treat dengue. People sandy margins etc. Malaria triggers fever, who have dengue fever should rest, drink chills and a flu-like illness at first. If left plenty of fluids and reduce the fever using untreated, the disease can lead to severe paracetamol. Dengue Haemorrhagic Fever complications and death. Malaria symptoms (DHF) is a more severe form of disease. usually appear after a period of seven days Symptoms are similar to dengue fever but or longer after the bite of the mosquito. are more severe, continuous stomach pains, skin becomes pale, bleeding from nose, 2) Dengue is a viral disease. It is transmitted mouth & gums and skin rashes, frequent by the infective bite of Aedes aegypti vomiting with or without blood, difficulty in mosquito. Vector is a small, black mosquito breathing, which may cause death. All age with white stripes. Incubation period in groups & both sexes are affected but Deaths vector is 7 to 8 days. It is a Day biter. are more in children during DHF outbreak. Mainly feeds on human beings in domestic Disease is prevalent throughout India in and peridomestic situations and Bites most of the metropolitan cities and towns repeatedly. It rests in the dark corners of the houses, on hanging objects like clothes, 3) Japanese Encephalitis is a viral disease. umbrella, Tree holes, etc. or under the It is neurotorpic and arbovirus and primarily furniture or storage containers having even a affects central nervous system. It is small quantity of water. Eggs transmitted by infective bites of female of Aedesaegypti can live without water for mosquitoes mainly belonging to Culex more than one year. Man develops disease tritaeniorhynchus, Culex vishnui and Culex pseudovishnui group. Mosquitoes breed in water with luxuriant vegetation mainly in 20

paddy fields and the abundance is related to primary immunization. Two doses are rice cultivation, shallow ditches and pools administered sub-cutaneously within a gap but in summer may also rest indoors. They of 7-14 days followed by third dose any time are in principally cattle feeders, though after one month and before one year of the sometimes human. Water birds of Ardeidae second dose. A booster is required after 3 family (mainly pond herons and cattle years. Piggeries may be kept away (4-5 kms) egrets) are reservoir host. Pigs play an from human dwellings. important role in the natural cycle and serve as an amplifier host since they allow 4) Chikungunya is a viral illness caused by manifold virus multiplication without chikungunya virus, family Togaviridae that suffering from disease and maintain is spread by the bite of infected mosquitoes prolonged viraemia. Due to prolonged (Aedes aegypti). The disease resembles viraemia, mosquitoes get opportunity to pick dengue fever, and is characterized by severe, up infection from pigs easily. Man is an sometimes persistent, joint pain accidental and dead end host in transmission (arthiritis) (In Swahili, \"chikungunya\" cycle due to low and short-lived viraemia. means \"that which contorts or bends Mosquitoes do not get infection from JE up\". This refers to the contorted or stooped infected patient. posture of patients who are afflicted with the severe joint pain), as well as fever and Infection may result in febrile illness rashes. It is rarely life-threatening. The of variable severity associated with states affected by chikungunya are Andhra neurological symptoms ranging from Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharasthra, Madhya headache to meningitis or Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat& Kerala. In encephalitis. Symptoms can include the year 2006, total number of 13,90,322 headache, fever, meningeal signs, stupor, suspected Chikungunya fever cases were disorientation, coma, tremors, paralysis reported from the country. There is no (generalized), hypertonia, loss of specific treatment for chikungunya. coordination, etc. 5) Kala-azar is caused by a protozoan of Central Research Institute, Kasuali, genus Leishmania. In India Leishmani has developed Japanese encephalitis vaccine adonovani is the only parasite causing this indigenously. It is a mouse brain killed disease. Sandfly of genus Phlebotomus vaccine and 3 doses are required to produce argentipes are the only known vectors of 21

kala-azar in India. The parasite primarily  Use of mosquito repellent creams, infects reticuloendothelial system and may liquids, coils, mats etc. be found in abundance in bone marrow, spleen and liver. Post Kala-azar Dermal  Screening of the houses with wire Leishmaniasis (PKDL) is a condition when mesh Leishmani adonovani invades skin cells, resides and develops there and manifests as  Use of mosquito-nets for sleeping dermal leisions. infants and for young children treated with insecticides. Control strategies  Wearing clothes that cover A) Early case Detection and Prompt maximum surface area of the body Treatment (EDPT) C) Community Participation B) Vector Control  Sensitizing and involving the (i) Chemical Control community for detection of mosquitoes breeding places and  Use of Indoor Residual Spray (IRS) their elimination with insecticides recommended under the programme.  NGO schemes involving them in programme strategies  Use of chemical larvicides like Abate in potable water.  Collaboration with CII/ASSOCHAM/FICCI  Aerosol space spray during day time. D) Environmental Management & Source  Malathion fogging during outbreaks. Reduction Methods (ii) Biological Control  Source reduction i.e. filling of the breeding places  Use of larvivorous fish in ornamental tanks, fountains etc.  Proper covering of stored water  Use of biocides.  Management of roof tops, porticos and sunshades (iii) Personal Prophylatic Measures that individuals/communities can take up  Channelization of breeding source 22

E) Monitoring and Evaluation of the DO'S & DON'TS programme  Remove water from coolers and  Monthly Computerized Management other small containers at least once Information System (CMIS) in a week.  Field visits by state by State National  Use aerosol during day time to Programme Officers prevent the bites of mosquitoes  Field visits by Malaria Research  Do not wear clothes that expose arms Centres and other ICMR Institutes and legs.  Feedback to states on field  Children should not be allowed to observations for correction actions. play in shorts and half sleeved clothes. F) HEALTH EDUCATION  Use mosquito nets or mosquito  Impart knowledge to common people repellents while sleeping during regarding the disease and vector day time. through various media sources like T.V., Radio, Cinema slides, etc. 23

NIPAH VIRUS IN ZOONOSES Dr M. K. Borah1, Dr. A. K. Srivastava2, Dr. V. Bassessar1, Dr. S. Sharma3 and Dr. Ruprekha Gogoi4 1Associate Professor, 2Professor, 3Assistant Professor, Department of Veterinary Pathology 4Associate Professor, Department of Veterinary Physiology & Biochemistry S ynonyms: Porcine Respiratory & On this occasion, pigs were the intermediate Neurologic Syndrome, Porcine hosts. However, in subsequent NiV Respiratory & Encephalitic outbreaks, there were no intermediate hosts. Syndrome (PRES) and Barking Pig In Bangladesh in 2004, human became Syndrome (BPS) infected with NiV as a result of consuming date palm sap that had been contaminated by Nipah virus (NiV) infection is a infected fruit bats. Human-to-human newly emerging zoonosis that causes severe transmission has also been documented, disease in both animals and mans. The including in a hospital setting in India. organism which causes Nipah Virus encephalitis is a RNA virus of the family NiV infection in human has a range of Paramyxoviridae, genus Henipavirus, and is clinical presentations, from asymptomatic closely related to Hendra virus. The natural infection to acute respiratory syndrome and host of the virus are fruit bats of the fatal encephalitis. NiV is also capable of Pteropodidae Family, Pteropus genus causing disease in pigs and other domestic (including Pteropus vampyrus (Large Flying animals. There is no vaccine available for Fox), and Pteropus hypomelanus (Small either human or animals. The primary flying fox). NiV was first identified during treatment for human cases is intensive an outbreak of disease that took place in supportive care. Kampung Sungai Nipah, Malaysia in 1998. 24

Epidemiology: The transmission of Nipah spillage of urine, faeces and partially eaten virus from flying foxes to pigs is thought to fruit onto the pigs. Retrospective studies be due to an increasing overlap between bat demonstrate that viral spillover into pigs habitats and piggeries in peninsular may have been occurring in Malaysia since Malaysia. 1996 without detection. During 1998, viral spread was aided by the transfer of infected At the index farm, fruit orchards were in pigs to other farms, where new outbreaks close proximity to the piggery, allowing the occurred. The outbreak was originally mistaken for Japanese encephalitis (JE), however, physicians in the area noted that persons who had been vaccinated against JE were not protected, and the number of cases among adults was unusual. Table showing Morbidity & Mortality due to Nipah virus infection(NIV) in Asia pacific region Year/Month Location No of cases No. of Case fatality deaths (%) Sept 1998- April 1999 Malaysia 265 105 40 March 1999 Singapore 11 1 9 February 2001 Siliguri, India 66 45 68 April- May 2002 Meherpur, Bangladesh 13 9 69 January 2003 Naogaon, Bangladesh 12 8 67 January, 2004 Goalando, Bangladesh 29 22 76 April 2004 Faridpur, Bangladesh 36 27 75 Jan - March 2005 Tangail, Bangladesh 12 11 92 Janu-Feb, 2007 Thakurgaon, Bangladesh 7 3 43 Mar-Apr, 2007 Kushtia, Bangladesh 8 5 63 April, 2007 Nadia, India 5 5 100 Feb 2008 Manikgonj & Rajbari 11 6 55 April, 2008 Shatkira & Jessore 21 50 Total 477 248 52% The above table shows that out of 477 reported cases 248 (52%) died due to NIV at different geographic pacific regions. 25

Pathogenesis Virus initially enter into the body through dendritic cells (DC) found within certain epithelium DC's reach to local lymph nodes where virus particles be released Bind to the white blood cells The infection spread to endothelial cells within the blood vessels Virus finally disseminate into multiple organs. The diagram showing way of spread of the disease (DC- Dendritic cell) Clinical Signs: Nipah Virus in pigs affects virus. In general, mortality (death due to the the respiratory and nervous systems. It is a disease) is low except in piglets. However, highly contagious disease in pigs; however morbidity (illness from the disease) is high the clinical signs vary depending on the age in all age groups. Most pigs develop a and the individual animal’s response to the febrile respiratory disease with a severe 26

cough and difficult breathing. While the appearance from clear to blood- respiratory signs predominate, encephalitis tinged. has been described, particularly in sows and  Meningeal oedema with congestion boars, with nervous signs including of the cerebral blood vessels has twitching, trembling, muscle fasciculation, been observed in the brain; some spasms, muscle weakness, convulsions, and cortical renal congestion may be death. Typically the human infection evident. presents as an encephalitic syndrome  Microscopically, epithelia of all the marked by fever, headache, drowsiness, major respiratory pathways are disorientation, mental confusion, coma, and affected with presence of syncytial potentially death. During the outbreak in cells in vascular endothelium. Malaysia, up to 50% of clinically apparent  A mononuclear vasculitis with human cases were fatal. There is no specific fibrinoid necrosis is often observed treatment for Nipah Virus. Supportive care associated with thrombosis. is the general treatment for this disease.  Principal histological changes in the brain, if present, are perivascular Lesions cuffing and gliosis.  Reports of a generalised vasculitis in  Principal gross and microscopic cats and non-suppurative meningitis lesions associated with Nipah in in horses have been recorded. swine found in lungs and/or central nervous system. Diagnosis  Lung lesions may vary from mild to The disease is difficult to diagnose, but severe pulmonary consolidation with based on clinical signs further confirmation petechial or ecchymotic can be made through prescribed laboratory haemorrhages and distended tests (OIE Manual of Diagnostic Tests and interlobular septa. Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals).  Trachea and bronchi may be filled with frothy exudate which varies in 27

METHODS OF PREGNANCY DIAGNOSIS IN DIFFERENT LIVESTOCK SPECIES Harveen Kaur Randhawa Assistant Professor, Department of Veterinary Physiology & Biochemistry Pregnancy diagnosis in domestic luteal phases and retained CL. Therefore, it animals has become increasingly is not a commonly used test. important for the livestock breeders 2) Pregnancy Specific Protein B (PSPB) and the veterinarians. Early identification of Test: It requires a blood sample taken 30 pregnancy post breeding improves days after a known breeding date. Elevated reproductive efficiency. New and old levels are indicative of an early pregnancy. techniques are available to identify pregnant PSPB are produced by placenta. It is and nonpregnant animals post service and expensive and time consuming process that can play a key role in an overall takes days to get results. Not in vogue in reproductive management strategy to rapidly routine. return non pregnant animals to the breeding 3) Ultrasound: The Transrectal programme without wasting time. This ultrasonography is done after day 25 of paper reviews various methods of pregnancy pregnancy. Results are known immediately. diagnosis in different livestock species. Detection of amniotic vesicle, fluid, fetus, and fetal heartbeat cent percent accurate. Methods of Pregnancy Diagnosis: Cattle 4) Rectal Palpation: Palpation of pregnancy through the rectal/uterine walls. 1) Milk and Blood Progesterone Tests: Measured in blood and (or) milk samples 28 taken 21 to 24 days after a known breeding date. Elevated progesterone concentrations > 1 ng/mL would be indicative of a cow with a corpus luteum (CL) and possible pregnancy; whereas, progesterone < 1 ng/mL is indicative of no CL. Milk test results are known within hours but blood test results can take days. The test can lead to false positives due to prolonged

Results are known immediately. • Cuboni’s test measures presence of Veterinarian palpates for fetal membranes, conjugated estrogens in urine. amniotic vesicle, cotyledons and fetus. An experienced vet can determine pregnancy 35 4) Ultrasound: Transrectal ultrasonography to 40 days after insemination. This is the is done after day 14 of pregnancy. Results cheap and easiest applicable method. are known immediately. Detection of amniotic vesicle, fluid, fetus, and fetal Methods of Pregnancy Diagnosis: Horses heartbeat is indication for pregnancy. 1) Blood progesterone test: Performed 18 5) Rectal Palpation: Palpation of to 20 days after known breeding dates. pregnancy through the rectal and uterine Known breeding dates, detect for presence walls. Results known immediately. or absence of corpus luteum (CL). Low Veterinarian palpates for changes in uterine progesterone (< 1 ng/mL): mare is not tone, shape of uterus, and presence and size pregnant due to lack of CL. High of the amniotic vesicle. Pregnancy can be progesterone (> 1 ng/mL): mare could be determined 20 days after insemination. pregnant but can lead to false positive due to pseudopregnancy, retained CL, prolonged Methods of Pregnancy Diagnosis: DOGS luteal phase. and CATS 2) Blood test for equine chorionic 1) Abdominal Palpation: This is best gonadotropin (eCG): Secretion of eCG by carried out at 3–4 weeks gestation when the endometrial cups from day 40 to 100 of firm amniotic vesicles of the fetuses may be gestation. Limited usefulness since it will palpated in the uterine horns. At this stage not allow determination of pregnancy < 40 each vesicle has a bead-like consistency and day post breeding. is between 1 and 2 cm in diameter. Palpation beyond 4 weeks of pregnancy is less 3) Estrogen concentrations (blood or satisfactory because the amniotic vesicle urine): Estrogens are high in middle/last enlarge rapidly and become less tense after trimester of pregnancy. An enzyme-linked this stage of pregnancy. In late pregnancy – immunosorbent assay (ELISA) can be used from 6 weeks onwards – individual fetuses to determine estrone sulfate concentrations may be palpable and fetal movement in horses, which can be used to determine detected. pregnancy status 70 days after breeding. 29

2) Ultrasonographic scanning of the 3) ELISA test: In both the bitch and queen the hormone relaxin is found in the blood of abdomen: B-mode real-time pregnant animals from day 25 of pregnancy. Relaxin can be readily detected by an ultrasonography provides a highly accurate ELISA test. As each fetus produces relaxin, it may eventually be possible to estimate method of diagnosing pregnancy in both dog fetal numbers by estimating the amount of relaxin present. and cat. At 5 weeks of pregnancy fetuses are 4) Acute-phase proteins: In the bitch, readily detected, fetal hearts can be acute-phase proteins appear in the maternal blood – their presence in a healthy animal visualized, and the heart rate counted. Fetal indicates pregnancy – between 27 and 35 days of gestation. Acute-phase proteins also numbers can be quite accurately assessed. rise in cases of pyometra, which may develop 21 days after estrus. The bitch must The clarity of the amniotic fluid may also be receives a thorough clinical examination when the blood sample is taken to ensure observed and gross fetal defects may be that she is free from inflammatory diseases that might cause elevation of the acute-phase seen. In some dogs, pregnancy may be proteins unrelated to pregnancy. detected as early as 14 days post coitus, 5) Abdominal radiography: Pregnancy can be confirmed by abdominal radiography, but while in late pregnancy confirmation of fetal only after 35 days of pregnancy when organogenesis is completed. Ossification of numbers becomes less accurate. Evidence of the fetal skeletons is demonstrable at about fetal life – through fetal heart beats and 40 days of pregnancy. Radiography of the movements – may also be detected using entire abdomen will enable a count of fetal numbers to be made. Doppler ultrasound from approximately 21 days of pregnancy. 30

INDUCED PLURIPOTENT STEM CELLS (IPSC) AND IT’S APPLICATION Dr. Amlan J. Phukan1, Dr. Harihar N. Verma1, Dr. Ruprekh Gogoi2 and Dr. K. C. Chaudhary3 1Assistant Professor, 2Associate Professor, 3Professor, Department of Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry The Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs) vector like adenovirus or lentivirus that are adult cells which are reprogrammed to encode critical transcription factor proteins, an embryonic stem cell-like state by which themselves regulate the function of introducing genes important for maintaining other genes important for early steps in the essential properties of embryonic stem embryonic development (See Fig. 10.1). In cells (ESCs). In 2006, Shinya Yamanaka the initial study, it was reported that only made a groundbreaking discovery that four transcription factors (Oct4, Sox2, Klf4, would win him the Nobel Prize in and c-Myc) also called the “Yamanaka Physiology or Medicine. Just six years later: factors” were required to reprogram mouse he found a new way to ‘reprogramme’ adult, fibroblasts (cells found in the skin and other specialized cells to turn them into stem cells. connective tissue) to an embryonic stem cell These laboratory-grown stem cells are like state by forcing them to express genes pluripotent – they can make any type of cell important for maintaining the defining in the body and are called induced properties of ESCs. These factors were pluripotent stem cells, or iPS cells. Only chosen because they were known to be embryonic stem cells are naturally involved in the maintenance of pluripotency, pluripotent. Yamanaka’s discovery means which is the capability to generate all other that theoretically any dividing cell of the cell types of the body. The newly-created body can now be turned into a pluripotent iPSCs were found to be highly similar to stem cell. ESCs and could be established after several weeks in culture. In 2007, two different How are these iPS cells made? research groups reached a new milestone by deriving iPSCs from human cells, using This approach involves taking mature either the original four genes or a different ‘somatic’ cells from an adult and introducing the genes with the help of a viral 31

combination containing Oct4, Sox2, Nanog, reported generating iPSCs from somatic and Lin28. Since then, researchers have tissues of the monkey and rat. Figure: Generating Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (ipsCs) iPSC and it’s application: Although much fibroblasts taken from a child with spinal additional basic research will be required muscular atrophy were used to generate before iPSCs can be applied in the clinic, motor neurons that showed selective deficits these cells represent multi-purpose tools for compared to those derived from the child’s medical research. Using the techniques unaffected mother. As iPSCs illuminate the described in this article, researchers are now development of normal and disease-specific generating myriad disease-specific iPSCs. pathologic tissues, it is expected that For example, dermal fibroblasts and bone discoveries made using these cells will marrow-derived mesencyhmal cells have inform future drug development or other been used to establish iPSCs from patients therapeutic interventions. with a variety of diseases, including ALS, adenosine deaminase deficiency-related Current challenges for iPSC: severe combined immunodeficiency, Reprogramming poses several challenges for Shwachman Bodian-Diamond syndrome, researchers who hope to apply it to Gaucher disease type III, Duchenne and regenerative medicine. To deliver the Becker muscular dystrophies, Parkinson’s desired transcription factors, the DNA that disease, Huntington’s disease, type 1 encodes their production must be diabetes mellitus, Down syndrome/trisomy introduced and integrated into the 21, and spinal muscular atrophy. iPSCs genome of the somatic cells. Early efforts created from patients diagnosed with a to generate iPSCs accomplished this goal specific genetically-inherited disease can using retroviral vectors. A retrovirus is an then be used to model disease pathology. RNA virus that uses an enzyme, reverse For example, iPSCs created from skin transcriptase, to replicate in a host cell and 32

subsequently produce DNA from its RNA imagination of researchers and clinicians genome. This DNA incorporates into the seeking to develop patient-specific host’s genome, allowing the virus to therapies. Reprogramming adult tissues to replicate as part of the host cell’s DNA. embryonic like states has countless However, the forced expression of these prospective applications to regenerative genes cannot be controlled fully, leading to medicine, drug development, and basic unpredictable effects. While other types of research on stem cells and developmental integrating viruses, such as lentiviruses, can processes. Based on the exciting increase the efficiency of reprogramming, developments in this area to date, induced the expression of viral transgenes remains a pluripotent stem cells will likely support critical clinical issue. Given the dual needs future therapeutic interventions, either of reducing the drawbacks of viral directly or as research tools to establish integration and maximizing reprogramming novel models for degenerative disease that efficiency, researchers are exploring a will inform drug development. While much number of strategies to reprogram cells in remains to be learned in the field of iPSC the absence of integrating viral vectors or to research, the development of use potentially more efficient integrative reprogramming techniques represents a approaches. breakthrough that will ultimately open many new avenues of research and therapy. Conclusion: Since their discovery, induced pluripotent stem cells have captured the FOURTEENTH VETERINARY UNIVERSITY CREATED IN TELANGANA Sri P. V. Narsimha Rao Telangana University of Veterinary, Animal & Fishery Sciences, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad has been established on carving out from Sri Venkateswara Veterinary University, Tirupati, AndraPardesh.The following Veterinary Colleges have been transferred to the newly created Sri P. V. Narsimha Rao Telangana University of Veterinary, Animal and Fishery Science, Hyderabad.  College of Veterinary Science, Rajendra Nagar, Hyderabad.  College of Veterinary Science, Korutla. 33

FEED SUPPLEMENTS AND THEIR ROLE IN PREVENTION OF MASTITIS Dr. Amit Challana1, Dr. Priyank Yadav2 and Dr. Jatinderveer Kaur Billing3 1, 3 Assistant Professor, Department of Veterinary Anatomy, 2 Assistant Professor, Department of Livestock Products Technology Mastitis continues to be one of plays a key role in inhibition of the most common diseases of keratinization. Deficiency of vitamin A dairy cattle that result in a culminates with hyperkeratinization of the negative economic impact for the dairy secretory epithelium thereby, increasing the industry. Currently dairy cow management susceptibility to diseases. Beta-carotene, a focuses on maximizing milk production, precursor of vitamin A, functions as which has increased the incidence of health reducing superoxide formation within the disorders due to failure to control the phagocyte and can directly enhance production and elimination of free radicals; immunity with reproductive and mammary that metabolically activate tissue damage benefits. Vitamin A plays an important role result in gowing to oxidative stress. The in maintaining epithelial tissue health and periparturient period predisposes immune preserving the integrity of the mucosal suppression where oxidative stress has a surface, which may contribute in preventing significant impact on the health of dairy the entrance of mastitis causing pathogens cows. One of the main factors in controlling into the mammary gland. mastitis is maintaining proper nutritional status of the animals to prevent health Vitamin E and Selenium disorders. Mastitis incidence can be reduced by controlling nutritional and management Vitamin E is a lipid soluble aspects. Improving the animal’s immune antioxidant that protects against lipid system to increase its effectiveness against peroxidation initiated by free radicals and invading pathogens is an important point in has been shown to play an important role in controlling mastitis. immune response and health of dairy cows. Blood levels of vitamin E decrease as β -Carotene and Vitamin A parturition approaches and remain low for several days of postpartum. Studies have Vitamin A is necessary for all shown that Vitamin E is directly associated cellular division and differentiation and with neutrophil function in dairy cows by 34

enhancing neutrophil function, improving cows is by observing presence of one third the killing ability of blood polymorphs of Se in plasma and two-thirds in the red during the periparturient period. In addition, blood cells, as Se is incorporated into the vitamin E supplementation during the glutathione peroxidase in the red blood cells transition period prevented a decline in during erythropoiesis in normal cattle. neutrophil superoxide anion production, interleukin-1 (IL-1) production, and MHC- Zinc and Copper II expression by blood monocytes after parturition as well as prevent decrease in Zinc (Zn) plays an important role in chemotactic responsiveness of neutrophils maintaining health and integrity of skin due before and after parturition. to its role in cellular repair and replacement. In addition to this healing effect, Zn also Selenium (Se) is an essential reduces somatic cell count due to its role in component of the enzymes glutathione keratin formation. Zinc plays a critical role peroxidase and thioredoxin reductase in function and effectiveness of some located in the cytosol of the cells which immune components. It is an essential function in preventing oxidative stress. In component of several metalloenzymes addition, Se is also considered to have a involved in the synthesis of DNA and RNA, protective effect on phagocytic cells from and has an antioxidant role by being part of autoxidative damage during the respiratory a group of elements that induces the burst. Leakage of free radicals from the synthesis of metallothionein, which binds to phagolysosomes, or failure to detoxify these free radicals. As a component of the enzyme products, could affect the microbiocidal and superoxide dismutase, it can stabilize cell metabolic functions of phagocytic cells. The membrane structures. Zn levels in dairy Se concentration in colostrum is 4 times cows decrease at parturition due to a higher than in milk. decrease in dry matter intake, transfer of Zn to colostrum, increased stress at this time, In addition to the benefit of and return to baseline levels within 3-5 days supplementing dairy cows with Vitamin E postpartum. In addition, during Escherichia and Se in reducing clinical mastitis, it coli induced mastitis, the blood improves milk quality by decreasing somatic concentration of Zn declines, suggesting an cell counts. The best way to assess the antibacterial mechanism by which Zn is efficacy of vitamin E and Se status in dairy made less available for bacterial growth. 35

Copper (Cu) has also been associated incidence of mastitis during the with immune function. It is a component of periparturient period. the enzyme ceruloplasmin, which is synthesized in the liver that assists in iron Zinc and Cu play important roles in absorption and transport. Furthermore, Cu is removing superoxide radicals (free radicals) an integral part of superoxide dismutase, an from the body. Deficiency of these metals enzyme that protect cells from the toxic can disrupt membrane integrity and cause effects of reactive oxygen metabolites cellular damage leaving the mammary gland released during phagocytosis. Both more susceptible to infection, and eventually functions may be important in reducing the leads to loss of milk production. THE NOBEL PEACE PRIZE 2014 The Nobel Peace prize 2014 was jointly awarded to (a) Kailash Satyarthi from India and (b) Malala Yousafzai from Pakistan on December 10, 2014 for their struggle against the suppression of children and for their right of education for children and especially girls. Kailash, an electrical engineer by profession has dedicated his life for helping millions of children forced into slavery. He founded ‘Bachpan Bachao Andolan’ (BBA) or save childhood movement aiming to eliminate child trafficking and labour. This movement spread across the globe covering 103 countries. Malala, a Pakistani (17) is the youngest recipient of Nobel Peace award. She came into fame when she was shot in the head by a Taliban gunman two years ago for her voracious Campaign for educating girls. She was airlifted to England where she was treated for life threatening injuries. She continued to campaign for girls education. She won Nobel Prize for her heroic struggle for girls’ right to an education. 36

PESTICIDE USE: ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND HEATH ISSUES Dr. Kamalpreet Kaur Gill1 and Dr. Supriya Beri2 1Associate, 2Assistant Professor, Department of Veterinary Pharmacology & Toxicology Agriculture is the mainstay of diseases, in which insecticides account for Indian economy. Agriculture and 73 per cent, herbicides14 per cent, agriculture allied sectors fungicides 11 per cent and others 2 per cent. contribute nearly 22 per cent of Gross The main use of pesticides in India is for Domestic Product (GDP) of India, while cotton crops (45%), followed by paddy and about 65 -70 per cent of population depends wheat. on agriculture for livelihood. Modern agriculture practices have been great Tremendous benefits have been promise for economic development of derived from the use of pesticides in nation. Farm productivity is directly forestry, public health and the domestic proportional to use of agrochemicals as sphere – and, of course, in agriculture, a observed from the first green revolution. sector upon which the Indian economy is Improper and unsafe use of these largely dependent. Vector-borne diseases are agrochemicals, especially pesticides is not most effectively tackled by killing the only harmful to environment but also human vectors. Insecticides are often the only health. Pesticide is a general term for practical way to control the insects that substances, which are used to poison pests spread deadly diseases such as malaria. (weeds, insects, molds, rodents etc.). Disease control strategies are crucially important also for livestock. The transport It covers a wide range of compounds sector also makes extensive use of including insecticides, fungicides, pesticides, particularly herbicides. herbicides, rodenticides, molluscicides, Herbicides and insecticides are used to nematicides, plant growth regulators and maintain the turf on sports pitches, cricket others. India is now the second largest grounds and golf courses. Insecticides manufacturer of pesticides in Asia after protect buildings and other wooden China and ranks twelfth globally. Indian structures from damage by termites and farmer is using wide ranges of chemical wood boring insects. pesticides to limit the losses from pests and 37

Impact on the Environment populations of beneficial soil microorganisms to decline. As much as 80– If the credits of pesticides include 90% of an applied pesticide can be enhanced economic potential in terms of volatilised within a few days of application increased production of food and fibre, and which is responsible for presence of amelioration of vector-borne diseases, then pesticide residues in air. their debits have resulted in serious health implications to man and his environment. Pesticide exposure and health issues There is now overwhelming evidence that some of these chemicals do pose a potential Across the globe pesticides have risk to humans and other life forms and been found in human blood, urine, breast unwanted side effects to the environment. milk, semen, adipose tissue, amniotic fluid, Pesticides can contaminate soil, water, turf, infant meconium and umbilical cord blood. and other vegetation. In addition to killing The four routes of pesticide exposure are insects or weeds, pesticides can be toxic to a dermal (skin), inhalation (lungs), oral host of other organisms including birds, fish, (mouth), and the eyes. Cumulative exposure beneficial insects, and non-target plants. to pesticides may come from food, water, They can reach surface water through runoff air, dust, soil etc. Similarly, livestock from treated plants and soil. Groundwater population is exposed to pesticides through pollution due to pesticides is a worldwide feed, fodder, water, insecticidal sprays and problem. Once ground water is polluted with dips etc. The harmful effects that occur from toxic chemicals, it may take many years for a single exposure by any route of entry are the contamination to dissipate or be cleaned termed “acute effects.” Acute effects mainly up. Cleanup may also be very costly and include dermal and eye irritation, respiratory complex, if not impossible. A large number and nervous problems etc. The symptoms of of transformation products (TPs) from a acute pesticide poisoning can range from a wide range of pesticides have been mild skin irritation to coma or even death. documented. The pesticides and their TPs Any harmful effects that occur from small are retained by soils to different degrees, doses repeated over a period of time are depending on the interactions between soil termed “chronic effects. Suspected chronic and pesticide properties. In addition, heavy effects from exposure to certain pesticides treatment of soil with pesticides can cause include birth defects, toxicity to a fetus, production of benign or malignant tumors 38

(cancer), genetic changes, blood disorders, approach to the use of pesticides should be nerve disorders, diminished intelligence, pragmatic. In other words, all activities endocrine disruption, and reproduction concerning pesticides should be based on effects. scientific judgment and not on commercial considerations. There is a dire need to Because of the extensive benefits develop health education packages based on which man accrues from pesticides, it is not knowledge, aptitude and practices and to possible to abolish their use. In order to disseminate them within the community in protect environment, human and animals order to minimize human exposure to from harmful effects of pesticides, our pesticides. INTERNATIONAL YOGA DAY United Nations Assembly on December 11, 2014 had declared June 21 as International Yoga Day. Yoga is a physical, mental and spiritual practice or discipline that originated in India. Our honorable Prime Minister Narendra Modi in his UN Address suggested the date to be June 21 as the International Yoga Day as it is the longest day of the year (Summer Solstice) in the Northern Hemisphere and has special significance in many part of the world. From the perspective of yoga, the Summer Solstice marks the transition to Dakshinayana. The first full moon after Summer Solstice is known as Guru Poornima. Lord Shiva, the first yoga practitioner is said to have begun imparting the knowledge of yoga to the rest of mankind on this day and became the first guru. Yoga is an extremely valuable gift of India's ancient tradition. This tradition is 5000 years old. It symbolizes unity of mind and body; thought and action; restraint and fulfillment; harmony between man and nature; a holistic approach to health and well-being. It is not about exercise but to discover the sense of oneness with us, the world and the nature. By changing our lifestyle and creating consciousness, it can help us to deal with climate change. Let us work towards adopting an International Yoga Day on 21st June. 39

APPLICATION OF GOLD NANOPARTICLES: A SHORT REVIEW Dr. H. N. Verma1, Dr. A. J. Phukan1, Dr. K. C. Chaudhary2 1Assistant Professor, 2Professor, Department of Physiology & Biochemistry Nanoparticles: Nanotechnology is Biomedical Uses & Applications the science of materials 1 to 100 nm in size. When metals reach Gold have distinguish history in medicine. the nanoscale in the form of nanoparticles The gold was used in the treatment of their properties begin to differ from bulk ailments such as smallpox, skin ulcers and materials. Particularly gold nanoparticles measles. In Japan, thin gold foils placed in have attracted intensive interest, because tea, sake and food were seen as beneficial to they are easily prepared, have low toxicity health. In Bangladesh-Pakistan-India, and can be readily attached to molecules of traditional Ayurvedic medicines are still biological interest. Recent years have seen used widely with gold taken as a tremendous progress in the design and study 'rejuvenator' by millions of people each year. of gold nanomaterials geared towards As medical science and medicine have biological and biomedical applications. advanced, so too the biomedical uses and applications of gold. Most important reason Synthesis of gold nanoparticles: Gold for this has been their wide uses and colloidal nanoparticles, were chemically applications in the fields of diagnostics, synthesized with different passivating surgery and medicine. Some investigators ligands including didecylsulfides, citrate and reported the widespread use of gold magnesiumoleatemolecules. The citrate nanoparticles in four areas of biology, i.e. reduction method is very simple. From the labelling, delivering, heating and sensing. analysis of transmission electron microscopy (TEM) photomicrographs of the 40 nanoparticles, synthesized by citrate reduction method, the diameter of gold nanoparticles were 13-18 nm (Fig.1) Fig.1: Size distribution of 10mM, colloidal gold solution by TEM Imaging

A resistance to bacterial infection immunity and hair loss. A recent study coined the fact that tiny goldparticles when has led to a long tradition of gold being used added to a previously failed drug against HIV rekindled its ability to stop the virus in microsurgery of the ear and other invading the body's immune system. procedures which require implants that are Conclusions at risk of infection, including in the eye. In Although the history of chrysotherapy, i.e. use of gold compounds in addition to gold's resistance to bacteria, the medicine, is long and distinguished, work after the Second World War demonstrated radiopacity of the metal means that gold- conclusively that gold drugs are effective in treating patients with rheumatoid arthritis. plated stents offer the best visibility under Many experts still consider gold to be among the most effective drugs for reducing X-ray, enabling them to be positioned inflammation in joints, thus reducing the symptoms of pain and stiffness. An oral accurately during surgery. More recently, tablet containing gold, called auranofin (Radaura), is also available. As the diseases new technologies have used the ability of evolve, the need for this robust and versatile metal to aid in the treatment of a range of tiny gold nanoparticles to collect specifically conditions, now and into the future. That is why gold nanoparticles are medically more in a cancerous tumour by passing through precious than pretty gold. Currently, the World Gold Council's Gold Research the inherently leaky blood vessels attached Opportunities Worldwide (GROW) programme supports research into new uses to a tumour. Several forms of gold are for the precious metal 'gold'. available, but usually one of the injectable forms of gold salt (e.g. gold sodium thiomalate [Myochrysine] or aurothioglucose [Solganal] is used. Thus, when injected into a patient, there is a means by which a potent anticancer compound attached to a gold nanoparticle can be delivered directly and accurately to a tumour while avoiding surrounding healthy tissues. Such an effective drug delivery mechanism with reduced toxicity is considered to be a major step forward in cancer treatment, limiting side effects such as reduced 41

TOXIC PLANTS AVAILABLE IN COLLEGE CAMPUS Dr. Alok Mishra and Dr. Preeti Bisht Assistant Professor, ILFC Introduction: Man and animals mostly content from early growth to maturity. With depend on vegetable kingdom for some plants, there is an increase in their their food. Plants by their metabolic ability to poison with advanced stages of activities besides being the source of feeds growth, whereas with others the danger and fodder also elaborate other substances lessens. The state of the plant when eaten like alkaloids, glycosides, toxalbumin, may also be important. In some cases, essential oils, resins and bitter principles etc. damage to the plant or wilting may produce which are important from medicinal and poisonous chemicals in the plant which were toxicological point of view. The presence of not present in the fresh material. Certain certain chemicals in plants is believed to parts of a plant may be poisonous and other confer some degree of protection from plant parts not. predators such as insects and ruminants. A plant is called a toxic plant when through Animals are poisoned mostly when contact or ingestion it hinders or destroys hunger or other conditions cause them to normal processes leading to distressing graze abnormally or when wrong manage symptoms, pathology or mortality. The toxic mental or/and agricultural practices are principle present in the plants is called as adopted in farm. A number of factors can phytotoxin. Poisonous plants are among the contribute to an animal being poisoned by important causes of economic loss to plants. Fundamentally, there is the livestock industry. The results of poisoning requirement that a sensitive species of can range from minor irritations and slightly animal ingest, or otherwise be exposed to, a lowered animal performance to severe cases toxic plant at an appropriate time of the where the animal is in a great deal of year. There are many examples of species distress and may die. There are many plant differences with regard to sensitivity to the factors that contribute to the toxic principles toxic effects of plants. In addition, it is in plants. Individual plant species and possible for animals to adapt to a potentially varieties may differ in their poisonous toxic plant if exposure is allowed to occur over a period of time. Therefore, if given the 42

choice, animals will avoid ingesting them animals often involves routine even though they may be prevalent in the decontamination procedures such as environment of the animal. In these induction of emesis (in appropriate species) situations, animals will often eat such plants and the administration of activated charcoal only when other suitable feedstuffs are and a cathartic to hasten elimination of the unavailable or when the animal is not able to plant from the gastrointestinal tract. In selectively avoid the plants. The addition, symptomatic and supportive care concentration of toxic constituents in plants needs to be provided. can vary from year to year, throughout the growing season of the plant, or as a result of CASTOR OIL PLANT environmental factors such as drought. The Common name: Eranda, Bherenda, Erendi, diagnosis of plant poisonings can be Eri, Manda, Erandam, Amankku, Erandamu difficult. Ingestion of many plants produces Scientific name: Ricinus communis non-specific clinical signs that must be differentiated from other disease conditions. Plant description In addition, death due to toxic plant  The castor oil plant has large palm- ingestion often does not result in shaped leaves with 7-9 portions characteristic post-mortem lesions.  Cluster-like blossoms and prickly fruits Unfortunately, relatively few  Each carrying 3 seeds laboratory tests are available to detect plant  Toxic for both animals and human toxins in either ante-mortem or post-mortem samples. In most cases, the best way to 43 support a diagnosis of plant poisoning is to confirm the presence of a toxic plant in the animal's environment, confirm that the plant has been ingested, and correlate clinical findings where possible, with those known to be associated with the suspected plant. Unfortunately, there are few antidotal therapies for treating plant poisonings. The best approach for treating intoxicated

Toxic part: All parts are poisonous, Toxic principle: Parthenin a sesquiterpen especially the beans lactone (Photodynamic) Toxic principle: Alkaloid ricinin and toxalbumin ricin Toxic symptoms: Dermatitis (primary Toxic symptoms: Nausea and vomiting, photosensitization) and respiratory stomachache, bloody diarrhea, headache, malfunction cold sweat, sleepiness, disorientation, fever, shortage of breath, seizures, followed by a Treatment: Line of treatment should be by collapse and death. treating cutaneous lesions by giving Treatment: Symptomatic treatment: to antipruritis and antiseptics. restore the circulation, give blood transfusion or plasma expander, i.v. infusion GHENERI of electrolyte. Common name: Bara phulanoo, Panch phool booti, Curi, Chadurang gheneri, Puli kumoa GAJAR GHANS Scientific name: Lantana camara Common name: Santa Maria Feverfew, Plant description: Hard shrub White top Weed Toxic part: Leaf, stem Scientific name: Parthenium hystrophorus Plant description: Weed Toxic part: Whole plant Toxic principle: Lantadene A and Lantadene B Toxic symptoms: Hepatotoxicity and secondary photosensitization 44

Treatment: Stop exposure of animals to Contraindication: Infusion of calcium noxious weed, Keep animal in shade, No containing fluids is contraindicated. specific antidote BHANG KANER Common name: Bhang, Marijuana, Common name: Oleander rose laurel Marihuana, Hemp, Hashish, Pot Scientific name: Nerium oleander Scientific name: Cannabis indica Plant description: Perrineal shrub with green Plant description: A large, coarse annual 6- bark and dark green leathery leaves. 12 ft tall; leaves opposite below and Toxic part: Leaves alternate toward top, long-stalked, palmately divided into 3-7 toothed leaflets; flowers small and green, crowded on axillary clusters. Toxic principle: Neriodorin and nerioderein Toxic part: All parts, but greatest toxicity in (cardiac glycoside) flower stalks Toxic symptoms: Gastrointestinal signs: Toxic principle: Canabinoid (Resin) anorexia, nausea and vomition, Cardiovascular signs: slowing of heart, Toxic symptoms: Exhilaration, arrhythmias etc. hallucinations, delusions, blurred vision, Treatment: No specific antidote, Gastric demulcents, Administer atropine in poor coordination, stupor, and coma conjunction with propranolol, Provide artificial respiration Treatment: Symptomatic 45

SNAKE VENOM: THE MIRACLE OF NATURE Dr. Shivaji Pandurang Pawar1 and Dr. Kamalpreet Kaur Gill2 1Associate Professor, Department of Animal Nutrition 2Associate Professor, Department of Veterinary Pharmacology & Toxicology The snake venom is a highly spines on their bodies to inject venom as a concentrated digestive juice and form of defence. consists of proteolytic enzymes, phosphatidases, neurotoxins and many other Poisons on the other hand are enzymes. Although snake venoms are passively acquired toxins that are produced primarily made up of proteins and peptides, by either animals or plants as a means of they may also contain small organic defence. These organisms do not have an compounds. Although there can be up to 100 active mechanism through which the poison distinct compounds (including subtypes and is delivered. Many species of frogs defend isoforms) within any one snake's venom, themselves against enemies and predators by there are snakes that possess less than a producing poison in glands on or under the dozen different venom components. There is skin; if they are picked up or eaten, the no direct association between the number of poison comes in contact with the enemy and venom components present and toxicity of may either kill it or taste so unpleasant that the venom. the animal spits out the frog and learns never to try and eat the same type of frog again. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN VENOM Venoms are typically mixtures of proteins or AND POISON: There are no ‘poisonous’ peptides, while poisons may be much more snakes, but many snakes are ‘venomous’. diverse types of chemicals including According to definition given by Russell, steroids, alkaloids, amines and other venom is the toxic substance produced by a substances. plant or animal in a highly developed secretory organ or group of cells which is THE BIOLOGICAL ROLES OF SNAKE delivered during the act of biting or stinging. VENOMS: There are three natural uses of In the case of snakes, spiders, ticks and snake venom. The most obvious is the role centipedes this mechanism is through biting, of venom in subduing or killing other while stingrays and stonefish used special animals that the snake wants to eat. The second very important role of many types of 46

venom is as an aid to the actual digestion of assisting in the breakdown of the food. This the prey killed by the snake. Many of the gave these snakes an important biological toxins in snake venom are powerful advantage that helped them to survive and hydrolysing agents that break down cellular colonize different environments. Evolution tissue into more basic, easily absorbed and also recognized that snakes with larger teeth utilized nutrients. The snake uses the venom made larger wounds in their prey, allowing as a defensive tool against enemies at the more of the toxic saliva to enter, resulting in time of threatening. quick effects and even more success at obtaining food. SNAKE VENOM EVOLUTION: It is believed that the venoms of all venomous Over millions of years three different snakes evolved from common biological large groups of snakes evolved very similar ancestors many millions of years ago. but structurally different teeth i.e. fangs and However, nearly every species of snake has jawbones that aided the injection of toxins. different venom, with different types of First, the snake with fangs at the rear of the components and different types of activity mouth that allowed venom to seep into a against different types of cellular targets. wounded prey animal along slight grooves The vast majority of the world’s 3,000 or so such as garter snakes, water snakes, ring species of snakes belong to an evolutionary neck snakes and hognose snakes; second, superfamily known as the Colubroidea, the snakes with fangs at the front of the which includes all of the venomous species. mouth such as cobras, sea snakes, mambas Some of these snakes evolved specialized and coral snakes and the third, the snakes forms of saliva that served as aids to the with very large fangs that folded against the digestion of food, and over time the glands roof of the mouth when not in use but which producing this saliva diversified and rotated forwards to enable downward developed further. Through a process of stabbing bites that injected venom deep into positive selection, proteins and peptides with the prey for maximum digestive effect such specific toxic activity were conserved and as Russel’s viper. retained. When these early snakes bit their prey the wounds made by their teeth allowed The process of evolution means that these toxic chemicals in their saliva to enter while most snakes started their development the bodies of the prey, speeding death and of venom with an arsenal of common components (many toxins can today be used 47

to study the evolutionary relationships of These enzymes break the peptide different snakes), over the millions of years bonds between amino acids and in which the species have developed and denature proteins. evolved into those that we see today, their venoms have also diversified and evolved.  Arginine ester hyrdolases break carbon-oxygen bonds that are not VENOM CHEMISTRY: Venoms contain neurotransmitter related but rather cause breakup of certain proteins proteins, lipids, steroids, where arginine residues are frequent. aminopolysaccharides, amines, quinines,  Collagenase degrades collagen, which is a major component of neurotransmitters and other compounds. connective tissue, skin and flexible vascular tissue. This enzyme is found Elapid venom is the least complex, while pit in crotalid and viperid venoms and this explains the necrosis often seen vipers have the most complex venoms. following viper bites. Elapid venoms have higher concentrations  Phospholipases A and B degrade lipids to free fatty acids and can of esterases, such as acetylcholinesterase, cause damage to the cell membrane causing lysis and apoptosis. while viper venoms have higher  Phosphodiesterases break the concentrations of endopeptidases. This is the phosphate bonds that provide the backbone for nucleic acids, thus reason behind neurotoxic action of elapid rendering DNA and RNA useless in the effected cell, eventually causing venom while viper venom is mainly a apoptosis. It also cause interference with the cardiac system and is known somatic toxin. to lower blood pressure There are about 20 different types of  Acetylcholinesterase is a toxic enzymes found in snake venoms which neurotransmitter esterase that breaks are known to man. Each type of enzyme has its own specific function, some aiding in 48 digestion and others helping to paralyze the pray. No snake venom possesses all of these enzymes; instead, around 6 to 12 exist in each type of venom. Some of are described in the following:  Proteolytic enzymes are trypsin like and account for much of the digestive reactions of snake venoms.

the acetate ester bond found in cause shock in victims and acetylcholine. The main site of immobilize smaller prey. action is in the synapse, although some vesicle-contained acetylcholine  Hyaluronidase degrades hyaluronic may be degraded as well. The end acid, which is directly linked to the result of this action is an inability to inflammation of the skin and the enervate/ weaken smooth muscle and healing of skin tissue. This enzyme the inability to relax striated muscle increases the permeability of the skin resulting in spasmodic paralysis and and surrounding tissue, increasing sometimes a concurrent drop in the rate of venom injection into the blood pressure and difficult victim as well as venom breathing. Some venom also contains absorption by the victim. It is found highly competitive antagonists that in Elapidae, Viperidae snakes. prevent acetylcholine from binding at the postsynaptic membrane  Haemorrhagins are zinc receptors, also causing neurotoxic metalloproteinases that damage the symptoms and often apnea and endothelial lining of blood vessel asphyxiation will result. walls causing spontaneous local and systemic hemorrhage.  DNase and Rnase are enzymes that degrade DNA and RNA respectively. Besides enzymes, there are some factors which interfere with the blood coagulation.  NAD Nucleotidase degrades Procoagulants cause blood coagulation to nicotinamide, which is an important occur; conversely anticoagulants prevent part of the cellular metabolism blood from clotting. Both chemicals may be machinery. Cellular respiration is found in the same venom, which is interrupted and cell death may ensue. perplexing since they may antagonize each other. Anticoagulant action is more frequent  L-Amino acid oxidase is found in all and will cause bleeding at the site of known snake venoms. envenomation and can also lead to internal bleeding and tissue edema. There are  Adenosine Triphosphatase catalyzes various factors such as taxonomy, the decomposition of ATP into ADP geographical locations, individual variation, and a phosphate ion. It is believed to 49

sex, age, diet and environment. These realize that even in the case of dry bites or various factors partially explain the when people suspect or simply imagine that difficulties and complications in they have been bitten by a snake, they can effectiveness of antivenom. It can be develop some signs due to extreme anxiety: difficult to account for all of these sources of over-breathing, stiffness or dizziness, venom variation in the production of agitation, or shock with profound slowing of antivenom. the heart. The diet of a snake is one important Within the same species, larger factor. A species that feeds on mammals is snakes will also tend to inject more venom likely to have venom that acts more than smaller ones, but the venom of the effectively against mammals than against latter may be richer in some very dangerous fish or frogs. Another factor is the ability of components. Bites by small snakes should the prey to defend itself against the snake. If therefore not be neglected but should receive the prey animal is potentially dangerous to the same attention as those by larger snakes. the snake, there is a much greater chance of this species having extremely potent venom CLASSIFICATION OF VENOM: There that acts quickly and lethally, than would be are many ways of classifying snake venoms; the case if the prey animal was unable to some still frequently used in medical texts mount an effective defence. are misleading or inaccurate. Foremost amongst these is the old aphorism that The amount of venom injected Elapids are neurotoxic and Viperids are during a bite depends on various factors: haemorrhagic, a classification that is quite species and size of the snake, mechanical inaccurate and should be abandoned. It is efficiency of the bite, whether one or two true that the neurotoxic venom causes death fangs penetrated the skin, and whether there by paralyzing respiratory muscles and were repeated bites. For some reason, not all asphyxia and Haemotoxic venom causes bites by venomous snakes lead to venom death by causing tissue destruction and injection (dry bites). Even after several bites widespread haemorrhage. However, some of or after eating their prey, snakes do not the most potent toxins active against human exhaust their venom and they remain just as haemostasis are found in some Elapid venomous. It is, however, very important to venoms, while some other Elapid species cause major local tissue injury at the bite 50