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CONTRIBUTORS JESPER JOHNSØN Jesper Stenberg Johnsøn is a political scientist advising on governance and anti-corruption reforms in developing countries. He works at the Chr. Michelsen Institute’s U4 Anti-Corruption Resource Centre in Bergen, Norway. PAUL KELLY, CONSULTANT EDITOR NIALL KISHTAINY Paul Kelly is a Pro-Director and Professor of Political Theory Niall Kishtainy teaches at the London School of Economics, at the London School of Economics and Political Science. and specializes in economic history and development. He He is the author, editor, and co-editor of 11 books. His main has worked for the World Bank and the United Nations interests are British political thought and contemporary Economic Commission for Africa. political philosophy. JAMES MEADWAY ROD DACOMBE James Meadway is Senior Economist at the New Economics Dr. Rod Dacombe is Lecturer in Politics in the Department Foundation, an independent British think tank. He has of Political Economy at King’s College, University of London. worked as a policy advisor to the UK Treasury, covering His research focuses primarily on democratic theory and regional development, science, and innovation policy. practice, and on the relationship between the voluntary sector and the state. ANCA PUSCA JOHN FARNDON Dr. Anca Pusca is Senior Lecturer in International Studies at Goldsmiths College, University of London. She is John Farndon is the author of many books on the history the author of Revolution, Democratic Transition and of science and ideas and on contemporary issues. He also Disillusionment: The Case of Romania, and Walter writes widely on science and environmental issues and Benjamin: Aesthetics of Change. has been shortlisted four times for the young Science Book prize. MARCUS WEEKS A.S. HODSON Marcus Weeks studied philosophy and worked as a teacher before embarking on a career as an author. A.S. Hodson is a writer and former contributing editor He has contributed to many books on the arts and of BushWatch.com. popular sciences.

CONTENTS 10 INTRODUCTION MEDIEVAL POLITICS 71 The Church should devote itself to imitating ANCIENT POLITICAL 30 CE–1515 CE Christ and give up its THOUGHT secular power 54 If justice be taken away, Marsilius of Padua 800 BCE–30 CE what are governments but great bands 72 Government prevents 20 If your desire is for good, of robbers? injustice, other than such the people will be good Augustine of Hippo as it commits itself Confucius Ibn Khaldun 56 Fighting has been enjoined 28 The art of war is of vital upon you while it is hateful 74 A prudent ruler cannot, importance to the state to you Muhammad and must not, honor Sun Tzu his word 58 The people refuse the Niccolò Machiavelli 32 Plans for the country rule of virtuous men are only to be shared Al-Farabi RATIONALITY AND with the learned ENLIGHTENMENT Mozi 60 No free man shall be imprisoned, except by 1515–1770 34 Until philosophers are the law of the land kings, cities will never Barons of King John 86 In the beginning, have rest from their evils everything was Plato 62 For war to be just, there common to all is required a just cause Francisco de Vitoria 40 Man is by nature Thomas Aquinas a political animal 88 Sovereignty is the Aristotle 70 To live politically means absolute and perpetual living in accordance with power of a commonwealth 44 A single wheel does good laws Giles of Rome Jean Bodin not move Chanakya 90 The natural law is the foundation of human law 48 If evil ministers enjoy Francisco Suárez safety and profit, this is the beginning of 92 Politics is the art of downfall associating men Han Fei Tzu Johannes Althusius 49 The government is bandied 94 Liberty is the power about like a ball that we have over Cicero ourselves Hugo Grotius

140 All men are created equal THE RISE OF THE Thomas Jefferson MASSES 142 Each nationality contains 1848–1910 its center of happiness within itself 170 Socialism is a new system Johann Gottfried Herder of serfdom Alexis de Tocqueville 96 The condition of man 144 Government has but is a condition of war a choice of evils 172 Say not I, but we Thomas Hobbes Jeremy Bentham Giuseppe Mazzini 104 The end of law is to 150 The people have a right 174 That so few dare preserve and enlarge to keep and bear arms to be eccentric freedom John Locke James Madison marks the chief danger of the time 110 When legislative and 154 The most respectable John Stuart Mill executive powers are women are the most united in the same body, oppressed 182 No man is good enough there can be no liberty Mary Wollstonecraft to govern another man Montesquieu without that other’s consent 156 The slave feels Abraham Lincoln 112 Independent entrepreneurs self-existence to be make good citizens something external 183 Property is theft Benjamin Franklin Georg Hegel Pierre-Joseph Proudhon REVOLUTIONARY 160 War is the continuation 184 The privileged man is a THOUGHTS of Politik by other means man depraved in intellect Carl von Clausewitz and heart 1770–1848 Mikhail Bakunin 161 Abolition and the Union 118 To renounce liberty is to cannot coexist 186 That government is renounce being a man John C. Calhoun best which governs not Jean-Jacques Rousseau at all Henry David Thoreau 162 A state too extensive 126 No generally valid in itself ultimately falls 188 Communism is the riddle principle of legislation into decay of history solved can be based on happiness Simón Bolívar Karl Marx Immanuel Kant 164 An educated and wise 194 The men who proclaimed 130 The passions of individuals government recognizes the republic became the should be subjected the developmental needs assassins of freedom Edmund Burke of its society Alexander Herzen José María Luis Mora 134 Rights dependent on 195 We must look for a central property are the most 165 The tendency to attack axis for our nation precarious Thomas Paine “the family” is a symptom Ito Hirobumi of social chaos Auguste Comte

196 The will to power THE CLASH OF Friedrich Nietzsche IDEOLOGIES 200 It is the myth that 1910–1945 is alone important Georges Sorel 220 Nonviolence is the first article of my faith 202 We have to take working Mahatma Gandhi men as they are Eduard Bernstein 226 Politics begin where the masses are Vladimir Lenin 204 The disdain of our formidable neighbor 234 The mass strike results is the greatest danger from social conditions with for Latin America historical inevitability José Martí Rosa Luxemburg 206 It is necessary to dare 236 An appeaser is one who 250 Europe has been left in order to succeed feeds a crocodile, hoping without a moral code Peter Kropotkin it will eat him last José Ortega y Gasset Winston Churchill 207 Either women are to be killed, or women are to 238 The Fascist conception of 252 We are 400 million people have the vote the state is all-embracing asking for liberty Emmeline Pankhurst Giovanni Gentile Marcus Garvey 208 It is ridiculous to deny 240 The wealthy farmers must 253 India cannot really be the existence of a be deprived of the sources free unless separated Jewish nation of their existence from the British empire Theodor Herzl Joseph Stalin Manabendra Nath Roy 210 Nothing will avail to 242 If the end justifies the 254 Sovereign is he who save a nation whose means, what justifies decides on the exception workers have the end? Leon Trotsky Carl Schmitt decayed Beatrice Webb 246 We will unite Mexicans 258 Communism is as bad by giving guarantees to as imperialism 211 Protective legislation in the peasant and the Jomo Kenyatta America is shamefully businessman inadequate Emiliano Zapata 259 The state must be Jane Addams conceived of as an 247 War is a racket “educator” 212 Land to the tillers! Smedley D. Butler Antonio Gramsci Sun Yat-Sen 248 Sovereignty is not given, 260 Political power grows out 214 The individual is a single it is taken of the barrel of a gun cog in an ever-moving Mustafa Kemal Atatürk Mao Zedong mechanism Max Weber

POSTWAR 323 The intellectuals POLITICS erroneously fought Islam Ali Shariati 1945–PRESENT 324 The hellishness of war 270 The chief evil is 297 During the initial drives us to break with unlimited government stage of the struggle, every restraint Friedrich Hayek the oppressed tend to Michael Walzer become oppressors 276 Parliamentary government Paulo Freire 326 No state more extensive and rationalist politics do than the minimal state not belong to the same can be justified system Michael Oakeshott Robert Nozick 278 The objective of the 298 Justice is the first virtue 328 No Islamic law says Islamic jihad is to of social institutions violate women’s rights eliminate the rule of John Rawls Shirin Ebadi an un-Islamic system Abul Ala Maududi 304 Colonialism is violence 329 Suicide terrorism is in its natural state mainly a response to 280 There is nothing to Frantz Fanon foreign occupation take a man’s freedom Robert Pape away from him, save 308 The ballot or the bullet other men Malcolm X 330 DIRECTORY Ayn Rand 310 We need to “cut off the 340 GLOSSARY 282 Every known and king’s head” established fact can Michel Foucault 344 INDEX be denied Hannah Arendt 312 Liberators do not exist. 351 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The people liberate 284 What is a woman? themselves Simone de Beauvoir Che Guevara 290 No natural object is 314 Everybody has to make solely a resource sure that the rich folks Arne Naess are happy Noam Chomsky 294 We are not anti-white, we are against white 316 Nothing in the world is supremacy more dangerous than Nelson Mandela sincere ignorance Martin Luther King 296 Only the weak-minded believe that politics is 322 Perestroika unites a place of collaboration socialism with democracy Gianfranco Miglio Mikhail Gorbachev

INTRODU

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12 INTRODUCTION I f everyone could have or it might be a language of values, man is better off in a complex society everything they wanted such as rights and liberties or fair than abandoned and isolated. It whenever they wanted, there shares and justice. But central to is also the claim that there is would be no such thing as politics. the activity of politics, from its very something fittingly human about Whatever the precise meaning of beginnings, is the development of having views on how matters of the complex activity known as political ideas and concepts. These public concern should be decided. politics might be—and, as this ideas help us to make our claims Politics is a noble activity in which book illustrates, it has been and to defend our interests. men decide the rules they will live understood in many different by and the goals they will ways—it is clear that human But this picture of politics and collectively pursue. experience never provides us with the place of political ideas is not everything we want. Instead, we the whole story. It suggests that Political moralism have to compete, struggle, politics can be reduced to the Aristotle did not think that all compromise, and sometimes fight question of who gets what, where, human beings should be allowed for things. In so doing, we develop a when, and how. Political life is to engage in political activity: in language to explain and justify our undoubtedly in part a necessary his system, women, slaves, and claims and to challenge, contradict, response to the challenges of foreigners were explicitly excluded or answer the claims of others. This everyday life and the recognition from the right to rule themselves might be a language of interests, that collective action is often better and others. Nevertheless, his basic whether of individuals or groups, than individual action. But another idea that politics is a unique tradition of political thinking is collective activity that is directed Political society exists associated with the ancient Greek at certain common goals and ends for the sake of noble thinker Aristotle, who said that still resonates today. But which actions, and not of politics was not merely about the ends? Many thinkers and political mere companionship. struggle to meet material needs figures since the ancient world in conditions of scarcity. Once have developed different ideas Aristotle complex societies emerge, different about the goals that politics can or questions arise. Who should rule? should achieve. This approach is What powers should political rulers known as political moralism. have, and how do the claims to legitimacy of political rulers For moralists, political life compare to other sources of is a branch of ethics—or moral authority, such as that of the family, philosophy—so it is unsurprising or the claims of religious authority? that there are many philosophers in the group of moralistic political Aristotle said that it is natural thinkers. Political moralists argue for man to live politically, and this that politics should be directed is not simply the observation that

INTRODUCTION 13 toward achieving substantial goals, or ethical value such as happiness and disorder, in the 16th and or that political arrangements or freedom. Instead, they argue that 17th centuries respectively. should be organized to protect politics is about power. Power is Machiavelli’s view of human certain things. Among these the means by which ends are nature emphasizes that men things are political values such achieved, enemies are defeated, are “ungrateful liars” and neither as justice, equality, liberty, and compromises sustained. noble nor virtuous. He warns of the happiness, fraternity, or national Without the ability to acquire and dangers of political motives that go self-determination. At its most exercise power, values—however beyond concerns with the exercise radical, moralism produces noble they may be—are useless. of power. For Hobbes, the lawless descriptions of ideal political “state of nature” is one of a war societies known as Utopias, named The group of thinkers who focus of all men against each other. after English statesman and on power as opposed to morality Through a “social contract” with philosopher Thomas More’s book are described as realists. Realists his subjects, a sovereign exercises Utopia, published in 1516, which focus their attention on power, absolute power to save society from imagined an ideal nation. Utopian conflict, and war, and are often this brutish state. But the concern political thinking dates back to the cynical about human motivations. with power is not unique to early ancient Greek philosopher Plato’s Perhaps the two greatest theorists modern Europe. Much 20th-century book the Republic, but it is still of power were Italian Niccolò political thought is concerned with used by modern thinkers such as Machiavelli and Englishman the sources and exercise of power. Robert Nozick to explore ideas. Thomas Hobbes, both of whom Some theorists consider Utopian lived through periods of civil war Wise counsel political thinking to be a dangerous Realism and moralism are grand undertaking, since it has led in the For forms of Government political visions that try to make past to justifications of totalitarian let fools contest. Whate’er sense of the whole of political violence. However, at its best, experience and its relationship Utopian thinking is part of a is best administered with other features of the human process of striving toward a is best. condition. Yet not all political better society, and many of the thinkers have taken such a wide thinkers discussed in this book Alexander Pope perspective on events. Alongside use it to suggest values to be the political philosophers, there is pursued or protected. an equally ancient tradition that is pragmatic and concerned merely Political realism with delivering the best possible Another major tradition of political outcomes. The problems of war thinking rejects the idea that and conflict may never be politics exists to deliver a moral eradicated, and arguments ❯❯

14 INTRODUCTION about the relationship between regimes are encouraged to The social classes of Marx are political values such as freedom democratize. Similarly, slavery not the only source of ideological and equality may also never be was once thought of as a natural politics. Many recent political resolved, but perhaps we can make condition that excluded many ideas have also emerged from progress in constitutional design from any kind of rights, and until developments within liberalism, and policy making, or in ensuring the 20th century, most women conservatism, socialism, that government officials are as able were not considered citizens. and nationalism. as possible. Some of the earliest thinking about politics, such as that This raises the question of Ideological political thinking of Chinese philosopher Confucius, what causes some ideas to become has also been the subject of is associated with the skills and important, such as equality, and hostility and criticism. If ideas virtues of the wise counselor. others to fall out of favor, such as are merely a reflection of historical slavery or the divine right of kings. processes, critics argue, that must Rise of ideology Marx accounts for this historical mean that the individuals caught One further type of political change by arguing that ideas are up in those processes are playing thinking is often described as attached to the interests of social an essentially passive role, and that ideological. An important strand classes such as the workers or the rational deliberation and argument of ideological thinking emphasizes capitalists. These class interests have limited value. Ideological the ways in which ideas are gave rise to the great “isms” struggle is rather like the peculiar to different historical of ideological politics, from competition between football periods. The origins of ideological communism and socialism to teams. Passion, as opposed to thinking can be found in the conservatism and fascism. reason, matters in supporting one’s historical philosophies of German team, and winning is ultimately philosophers Georg Hegel and The philosophers have only all that counts. Many worry that Karl Marx. They explain how interpreted the world… the ideological politics results in the ideas of each political epoch the worst excesses of realism, in differ because the institutions point is to change it. which the ends are seen to justify and practices of the societies Karl Marx brutal or unjust means. Ideological differ, and the significance of politics appears to be a perpetual ideas changes across history. struggle or war between rival and irreconcilable camps. Plato and Aristotle thought of democracy as a dangerous Marx’s solution to this problem and corrupt system, while most was the revolutionary triumph of the people in the modern world see it working class and the technological as the best form of government. overcoming of scarcity, which Contemporary authoritarian would solve the problem of political conflict. In light of the 20th century,

INTRODUCTION 15 this approach to politics seems to ever—after all we believe in open what seems common sense to many to be highly overoptimistic, economies, constitutional us will be seen as persuasive since revolutionary change has government, human rights, and by our descendants. been seen to have replaced one democracy. But as we will see in kind of tyranny for another. In this this book, these are not simple Making sense of the present view, Marxism and other ideologies ideas, and they are not shared by requires an understanding of the are merely the latest forms of all societies and people even today. variety of political ideas and theories unrealistic Utopian moralism. conceived throughout history. These The last 80 years of world ideas serve as an explanation of the A disputed future history have seen the rise of possibilities of the present, as well According to Georg Hegel, political new nation-states as a result of as a warning against overconfidence ideas are an abstraction from the imperial retreat and decolonization. in our own political values, and political life of a society, state, Federations such as Yugoslavia and they remind us that the demands culture, or political movement. Czechoslovakia have fragmented of organizing and governing the Making sense of those ideas, into new states, as has the former collective life of society change in and the institutions or movements USSR. The desire for national ways that we cannot fully predict. they explain, involves examining sovereignty is also strong in places As new possibilities for the exercise their history and development. such as Quebec, Catalonia, of power arise, so will new demands That history is always a story of Kurdistan, and Kashmir. Yet, for its control and accountability, how we got to where we are now. while peoples have struggled for and with these will come new What we cannot do is look forward statehood, states have sought political ideas and theories. Politics to see where history is going. complex federations and political concerns all of us, so we should all union. The last three decades be involved in that debate. ■ In Roman mythology, the Owl of have seen the rise of the European Minerva was a symbol of wisdom. Union, which aspires to closer Politics is too serious a matter For Hegel, the Owl only “takes flight political integration, as well as the to be left to the politicians. at twilight.” By this he means that North American Free Trade area Charles de Gaulle understanding can only come and many other organizations for retrospectively. Hegel is warning regional cooperation. against optimism about developing ideas for where to go next. He is Old ideas of state sovereignty also issuing a subtle warning have an awkward role in the against his other famous claim that new political world of pooled the rise of the modern state is the sovereignty, economic cooperation, end of history. It is very easy to see and globalization. Hegel’s point ourselves as the most progressive, seems very pertinent here—we enlightened, and rational age cannot predict how we will appear to those in the future, nor whether

ANCIENT POLITICA THOUGHT 800 BCE–30 CE

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18 INTRODUCTION The Spring and Confucius proposes a The Roman In Greece, Sophists Autumn period system of government Republic is founded. including Protagoras begins in China, and based on traditional maintain that political the “Hundred Schools values, administered justice is an imposition of Thought” emerge. by a class of scholars. of human values, not a reflection of justice in nature. C.770 BCE 600–500 BCE C.510 BCE C.460 BCE 600 BCE 594 BCE 476–221 BCE 399 BCE The Chinese general Solon creates a During the Warring After years of Sun Tzu writes his constitution for States period, the questioning politics Athens that paves the treatise The Art of War way for a democratic seven largest and society in for King Helü of Wu. Chinese states vie Athens, Socrates is city-state. sentenced to death. for supremacy. P olitical theory can trace period, and various dynasties ruled atmosphere that thinkers such as its beginnings to the over the separate states relatively Han Fei Tzu and the Legalist school civilizations of ancient peaceably. Scholarship was highly advocated discipline as the guiding China and Greece. In both places, valued in this period, resulting in principle of the state, and the thinkers emerged who questioned the so-called Hundred Schools of military leader Sun Tzu applied the and analyzed the world around Thought. By far the most influential tactics of warfare to ideas of foreign them in a way we now call of the philosophers to emerge was policy and domestic government. philosophy. From around 600 BCE, Confucius, who combined moral These more authoritarian political some of them turned their attention and political philosophy in his philosophies brought stability to the way we organize societies. proposals for upholding traditional to the new empire, which later At first, both in China and Greece, Chinese moral values in a state led reverted to a form of Confucianism. these questions were considered by a virtuous ruler, and advised by part of moral philosophy or ethics. a class of administrators. Greek democracy Philosophers examined how society At much the same time as these should be structured to ensure not This idea was further refined developments in China, Greek only the happiness and security of by Mozi and Mencius to prevent civilization was flourishing. Like the people, but to enable people to corruption and despotic rule, but China, Greece was not a single live a “good life.” as conflict between the states nation, but a collection of separate increased in the 3rd century BCE, city-states under various systems Political thought in China the Spring and Autumn period of government. Most were ruled by From around 770 BCE, China came to a close, replaced by the a monarch or an aristocracy, but experienced a time of prosperity Warring States period and the Athens had established a form of known as the Spring and Autumn struggle for control of a unified democracy under a constitution Chinese empire. It was in this

ANCIENT POLITICAL THOUGHT 19 Chinese philosopher In his Politics, Aristotle Mencius popularizes The Han dynasty Mozi proposes a purely describes various forms Confucian ideas adopts Confucianism meritocratic class of of rule of the city-state, in China. ministers and advisors as the official chosen for their virtue and suggests polity philosophy of China. —constitutional and ability. government—as the most practical. C.470–391 BCE 335–323 BCE 372–289 BCE 200 BCE C.380–360 BCE C.370–283 BCE 300 BCE 54–51 BCE In the Republic, Plato Chanakya’s advice In the attempt to unify Cicero writes De advocates rule by to Chandragupta China, the authoritarian republica, modeled Maurya helps to on Plato’s Republic, “philosopher kings” who ideas of Shang Yang but advocating a possess the wisdom and establish the and Han Fei Tzu are more democratic knowledge to understand Mauryan empire form of government. the nature of a good life. adopted as the in India. doctrine of Legalism. introduced by the statesman Solon The Indian subcontinent was about 510 BCE with the overthrow in 594 BCE. The city became the composed of various separate of a tyrannical monarchy. A form cultural center of Greece, and states, but the emergence of of representative democracy provided an intellectual space in an innovative political theorist, similar to the Athenian model which philosophers could speculate Chanakya, helped to transform it was established. A constitution on what constituted the ideal state, into a unified empire under the evolved, with government led what its purpose was, and how it rule of his protégé, Chandragupta by two consuls elected by the should be governed. Here, Plato Maurya. Chanakya believed in a citizens annually, and a senate advocated rule by an elite of pragmatic approach to political of representatives to advise them. “philosopher kings,” while his pupil thinking, advocating strict Under this system, the Republic Aristotle compared the various discipline, with the aim of securing grew in strength, occupying possible forms of government. Their economic and material security for provinces in most of mainland theories would form the basis for the state rather than the moral Europe. However, in the 1st Western political philosophy. welfare of the people. His realism century BCE, civil conflict spread helped to protect the Mauryan in the Republic as various factions After Aristotle, the “golden age” empire from attack, and brought vied for power. Julius Caesar seized of classical Greek philosophy drew most of India into a unified state control in 48 BCE and effectively to a close, as Alexander the Great that lasted for more than 100 years. became emperor, bringing the embarked on a series of campaigns Republic to an end. Rome had once to extend his empire from Macedon The rise of Rome again come under a monarchical, into northern Africa and across Meanwhile, another power was dynastic rule, and the new Roman Asia as far as the Himalayas. But rising in Europe. The Roman empire was to dominate most of in India, he met with resistance Republic had been founded in Europe for the next 500 years. ■ from an organized opposition.

IF YOUR DESIRE IS FOR GOOD THE PEOPLE WILL BE GOOD CONFUCIUS (551– 479 BCE)



22 CONFUCIUS A leader should be a junzi, Less than perfect people a “superior man.” can be changed IN CONTEXT by an example IDEOLOGY of sincere goodness. Confucianism The junzi possesses the qualities of FOCUS virtue, faithfulness, and sincerity, Paternalist which he shows in rituals and ceremonies. BEFORE The junzi therefore sets 1045 BCE Under the Zhou a good example for his people. dynasty of China, political decisions are justified by the If a leader’s desire is for good, Mandate of Heaven. the people will be good. 8th century BCE The Spring and Autumn period begins, and the “Hundred Schools of Thought” emerge. AFTER 5th century BCE Mozi proposes an alternative to the potential nepotism and cronyism of Confucianism. 4th century BCE The philosopher Mencius popularizes Confucian ideas. 3rd century BCE The more authoritarian principles of Legalism come to dominate the system of government. K ong Fuzi (“Master Kong”), and scholars emerged, most of era, which became known as who later became known in them based in the courts of noble the Warring States period, it the West by the Latinized families, as valued advisors. became increasingly clear that name of Confucius, lived during a strong system of government a turning point in China’s political The influence of these scholars’ was necessary. history. He lived at the end of new ideas inspired a shake-up of China’s Spring and Autumn the structure of Chinese society. The superior man period—around 300 years of The scholars were appointed on Like most educated, middle-class prosperity and stability during merit rather than due to family young men, Confucius pursued a which there was a flowering of art, connections, and this new career as an administrator, and it literature, and in particular, meritocratic class of scholars was was in this role that he developed philosophy. This gave rise to the a challenge to the hereditary rulers, his ideas about the organization of so-called Hundred Schools of who had previously governed with government. Seeing firsthand the Thought, in which a wide range of what they believed was a mandate relationships between the ruler and ideas was freely discussed. In the from Heaven. This caused a series his ministers and subjects, and process, a new class of thinkers of conflicts as various rulers vied keenly aware of the fragility of the for control over China. During this

ANCIENT POLITICAL THOUGHT 23 See also: Sun Tzu 28–31 ■ Mozi 32–33 ■ Han Fei Tzu 48 ■ Sun Yat-Sen 212–13 ■ Mao Zedong 260–65 political situation of the time, he and generous response—underpins Confucius set about formulating a framework Confucius’s moral philosophy, and that would enable rulers to govern it is also a cornerstone of his Despite his importance in justly, based on his own system of political thinking. For a society Chinese history, little is moral philosophy. to be good, its ruler must be the known of Confucius’s life. He embodiment of the virtues he is traditionally believed to Confucius’s moral standpoint wishes to see in his subjects; in have been born in 551 BCE, in was firmly rooted in Chinese turn, the people will be inspired Qufu in the state of Lu, China. convention, and had at its heart the through loyalty and respect to His name was originally Kong traditional virtues of loyalty, duty, emulate those virtues. In the Qiu (he earned the honorific and respect. These values were collection of his teachings and title “Kong Fuzi” much later), personified in the junzi: the sayings known as the Analects, and his family was both “gentleman” or “superior man,” Confucius advises: “If your desire respected and comfortably whose virtue would act as an is for good, the people will be good. well off. Nevertheless, as a example to others. Every member The moral character of the ruler young man he worked as a of society would be encouraged to is the wind; the moral character servant after his father died in aspire to the junzi’s virtues. In of those beneath him is the grass. order to support his family, Confucius’s view, human nature is When the wind blows, the grass and studied in his spare time not perfect, but it is capable of bends.” In order for this idea to to join the civil service. He being changed by the example of work effectively, however, a new became an administrator in sincere virtue. Similarly, society structure for society had to be the Zhou court, where he can be transformed by the example established, creating a hierarchy developed his ideas of how of fair and benevolent government. that took account of the new a state should be governed, meritocratic administrative class but his advice was ignored The notion of reciprocity— while respecting the traditional ❯❯ and he resigned from the the idea that just and generous position. He spent the rest of treatment will be met with a just his life traveling throughout the Chinese empire, teaching The ruler sets an Confucius believed that a wise and his philosophy and theories of example for his subjects. just sovereign had a benign effect on government. He eventually the character of his subjects. returned to Qufu, where he died in 479 BCE. His policies and ideas are dispersed Key works through his ministers… Analects … and his people Doctrine of the Mean begin to emulate The Great Learning (All assembled during the 12th his goodness. century by Chinese scholars.)

24 CONFUCIUS The sovereign was regarded by Confucius as inherently superior. His task was to model perfect behavior, setting a good example to those below him. Loyalty Duty Ministers and advisors played an important role as “middle men” between the sovereign and his subjects. They had a duty of loyalty to both parties. The people, given a good example to follow and a clear idea of what was expected of them, would behave correctly, according to Confucius. Respect rule of the noble families. In his cohesion, creating an atmosphere innovative, advocating a class proposal for how this might be of loyalty and respect from each of scholars to act as ministers, achieved, Confucius again relied social stratum toward the next. advisors, and administrators to the very much on traditional values, ruler. Their position between the modeling society on relationships Justifying hereditary rule sovereign and his subjects was within the family. For Confucius, At the top of Confucius’s hierarchy crucial, since they had a duty of the benevolence of the sovereign was the sovereign, who would loyalty both to their ruler and the and the loyalty of his subject mirror unquestionably have inherited this people. They carried a high degree the loving father and obedient status, and in this respect Confucius of responsibility, so it was essential son relationship (a relationship shows the conservative nature of that they be recruited from the considered by the Chinese to be his political thinking. Just as the most able and educated candidates, of the utmost importance). family provided a model for the and that anybody serving in public relationships within society, Confucius considers that there the traditional respect shown Good government consists are five “constant relationships”: to parents (especially fathers) in the ruler being a ruler, sovereign/subject, father/son, extended also to ancestors, and the minister being a minister, husband/wife, elder brother/ this justified the hereditary the father being a father, younger brother, and friend/friend. principle. Just as a father was and the son being a son. In these relationships, he emphasizes considered the head of the family, not only the rank of each person the state should naturally be ruled Confucius according to generation, age, and over by a paterfamilias figure— gender, but the fact that there are the sovereign. duties on both sides, and that the responsibility of the superior to the Nevertheless, the sovereign’s inferior in any relationship is just position was not unassailable in as important as that of the junior Confucius’s thinking, and an unjust to the senior. Extending these or unwise ruler deserved to be relationships to the wider society, opposed or even removed. However, their reciprocal rights and it was in the next layer of society responsibilities give society its that Confucius was at his most

ANCIENT POLITICAL THOUGHT 25 office should be of the highest niceties, but served a much deeper The superior man moral character—a junzi. These purpose, and it was important that governs men according ministers were to be appointed the participants behaved with by the sovereign in Confucius’s sincerity for the rituals to have any to their nature, with system, so much depended upon meaning. Public servants not only what is proper to them, the sovereign’s own good character. had to fulfill their duties virtuously, and as soon as they change Confucius said: “The administration they also had to be seen to be what is wrong, he stops. of government lies in getting proper acting virtuously. For this reason, men. Such men are to be gotten by Confucius laid great emphasis on Confucius means of the ruler’s own character. ceremonies and rituals. These also That character is to be cultivated worked to underline the positions Many of these rituals and by his treading in the ways of duty. of the various members within a ceremonies had their basis in And the treading of those ways of society, and Confucius’s approval religious rites, but this aspect duty is to be cultivated by the of this illustrates his tendency was not important to Confucius. cherishing of benevolence.” to conservatism. His moral philosophy was not founded on religion, and the The role of these public servants The ceremonies and rituals political system he derived from was mainly advisory, and ministers allowed people to manifest their it simply acknowledged that there were not only expected to be well- devotion to those above them in the was a place for religion in society. versed in the administration and hierarchy and their consideration In fact, he seldom referred to the structure of Chinese society, but toward those below them. gods in his writings, except in also to have a thorough knowledge According to Confucius, these terms of a hope that society could of history, politics, and diplomacy. rituals were to permeate the whole be organized and governed in This was necessary to advise the of society, from formal royal and accordance with the Mandate of ruler on matters such as alliances state ceremonies right down to Heaven, which would help to ❯❯ and wars with neighboring states. everyday social interactions, However, this new class of civil with participants meticulously servants also served an equally observing their respective roles. important function in preventing Only when virtue was sincerely the ruler from becoming despotic, and honestly manifested in this because they showed loyalty to way could the idea of leading by their superior, but also benevolence example succeed. For this reason, to their inferiors. Like their ruler, Confucius held sincerity and they too had to lead by example, honesty to be the most important inspiring both the sovereign and of virtues, next only to loyalty. his subjects by their virtue. The importance of ritual Many parts of Confucius’s writings read like a handbook of etiquette and protocol, detailing the proper conduct for the junzi in various situations, but he also stressed that this should not merely be empty show. The rituals he outlined were not mere social Actors performing a Confucian ritual in Shandong Province, China, convey the importance of restraint and respect to modern visitors unversed in their highly formalized tradition.

26 CONFUCIUS unify the states vying for power. a tyrant rather than the murder of a He who governs Although he firmly believed legitimate ruler. He argued that the by means of his virtue is… in rule by a hereditary sovereign, flexibility of this hierarchy like the North Star: it remains he did not feel the need to justify engendered more real respect for it, it as a divine right. and that this in turn engendered in its place while all the political consent—a necessary basis lesser stars pay homage to it. This implicit dismissal of the for strong and stable government. divine right, combined with a class Confucius system based on merit rather than Crime and punishment inheritance, showed Confucius at The principles of Confucius’s moral could best be achieved by example his most radical. While he advocated philosophy also extended into the since, in his words, “When you meet a hierarchy reinforced by strict fields of law and punishment. someone better than yourself, turn rules of etiquette and protocol, so Previously, the legal system had your thoughts to becoming his that everybody was very aware of been based on the codes of conduct equal. When you meet someone not their place in society, this did not prescribed by religion, but he as good as you are, look within and mean there should be no social advocated a more humanistic examine your own self.” mobility. Those with ability (and approach to replace the divinely good character) could rise through ordained laws. As with his social Rather than imposing rigid laws the ranks to the highest levels of structure, he proposed a system and stern punishments, Confucius government, whatever their family based on reciprocity: if you are felt that the best way to deal with background; and those in positions treated with respect, you will act crime lay in instilling a sense of of power could be removed from with respect. His version of the shame for bad behavior. Although office if they failed to show the Golden Rule (“do as you would be people may avoid committing necessary qualities, no matter how done by”) was in the negative: “what crime if guided by laws and noble the family they were born you do not desire for yourself, do not subdued by punishment, they do into. This principle extended even do to others,” moving the emphasis not learn a real sense of right and to the sovereign himself. Confucius from specific crimes to avoidance of wrong, while if they are guided saw the assassination of a despotic bad behavior. Once again, this by example and subdued by ruler as the necessary removal of respect, they develop a sense of shame for any misdemeanors and learn to become truly good. Unpopular ideas Confucius’s moral and political philosophy combined ideas about the innate goodness and sociability of human nature with the rigid, The Chinese emperor presides over the civil service examinations in this Song dynasty painting. The exams were introduced during Confucius’s lifetime and were based on his ideas.

ANCIENT POLITICAL THOUGHT 27 Religious functions were absorbed into Confucianism when it became the official philosophy of China. Confucian temples such as this one in Nanjing sprang up throughout the country. formal structure of traditional that his emphasis on family his authority over the new empire. Chinese society. Unsurprisingly, relationships would lead to nepotism By the 2nd century BCE, however, given his position as a court and cronyism. Around the same peace had returned to China, and administrator, he found an time, military thinkers such as Confucianism was adopted as the important place for the new Sun Tzu had little time for the moral official philosophy of the state under meritocratic class of scholars. philosophy underlying Confucius’s the Han dynasty. It continued to However, his ideas were met with political theory, and instead took a dominate the structure of Chinese suspicion and were not adopted more practical approach to matters society from then on, particularly during his lifetime. Members of the of government, advocating an in the practice of recruiting the royal and noble ruling families were authoritarian and even ruthless most able scholars to the unhappy with his implied dismissal system to ensure the defense of administrative class. The civil of their divine right to rule, and the state. Nevertheless, elements service exams introduced in 605 CE felt threatened by the power he of Confucianism were gradually were based on classic Confucian proposed for their ministers and incorporated into Chinese society texts, and this practice continued advisors. The administrators might in the two centuries following his into the 20th century and the have enjoyed more control to rein in death. Championed by Mencius formation of the Chinese Republic. potentially despotic rulers, but they (372–289 BCE), they gained some doubted the idea that the people popularity in the 4th century BCE. Confucianism has not entirely could be governed by example, disappeared under China’s and were unwilling to give up their The state philosophy communist regime, and it had a right to exercise power through Confucianism may have been subtle influence on the structure laws and punishment. adequate to govern in peacetime, of society right up to the Cultural but it was felt by many not to be Revolution. Today, elements of Later political and philosophical robust enough for the ensuing Confucian thinking, such as thinkers also had their criticisms Warring States period and the those that deal with societal of Confucianism. Mozi, a Chinese struggle to form a unified Chinese relationships and the notion of filial philosopher born shortly after empire. During this period, a loyalty, are still deeply ingrained in Confucius’s death, agreed with his pragmatic and authoritarian system the Chinese way of life. Confucian more modern ideas of meritocracy of government known as Legalism ideas are once again being taken and leading by example, but felt supplanted Confucius’s ideas, and seriously as the country shifts from continued as the emperor asserted Maoist communism to a Chinese What you know, you know; version of a mixed economy. ■ what you don’t know, you don’t know. This is true wisdom. Confucius

28 IN CONTEXT THE ART OF WAR IDEOLOGY IS OF VITAL Realism IMPORTANCE TO THE STATE FOCUS Diplomacy and war SUN TZU (C.544–C.496 BCE) BEFORE 8th century BCE A “golden age” of Chinese philosophy begins, which produces the so-called Hundred Schools of Thought. 6th century BCE Confucius proposes a framework for civil society based on traditional values. AFTER 4th century BCE Chanakya’s advice to Chandragupta Maurya helps to establish the Mauryan empire in India. 1532 Niccolò Machiavelli’s The Prince is published, five years after his death. 1937 Mao Zedong writes On Guerrilla Warfare. I n the late 6th century BCE, China was reaching the end of an era of peaceful prosperity— the so-called Spring and Autumn period—in which philosophers had flourished. Much of the thinking had focused on moral philosophy or ethics, and the political philosophy that followed from this concentrated on the morally correct way that the state should organize its internal affairs. The culmination of this came with Confucius’s integration of traditional virtues into a hierarchy led by a sovereign and administered by a bureaucracy of scholars. Toward the end of the Spring and Autumn period, however, the political stability of the various

ANCIENT POLITICAL THOUGHT 29 See also: Chanakya 44–47 ■ Han Fei Tzu 48 ■ Niccolò Machiavelli 74–81 ■ Mao Zedong 260–65 ■ Che Guevara 312–13 War punishes those Planning, waging, and who threaten or harm avoiding war determines the state… foreign policy… …just as criminals …and military within the state strategies provide a are punished… framework for domestic political organization… …to ensure a stable and A terra-cotta army was built to line prosperous state. the tomb of Emperor Qin Shi Huang, showing the importance of the military The art of war is of vital to him. Qin lived 200 years after Sun Tzu, importance to the state. but would have read his works closely. states of China became fragile, and believed to have been written by The Art of War deals with the tensions between them increased Sun Tzu, a general in the army practicalities of protecting and as the population grew. Rulers of of the king of Wu. The opening maintaining the prosperity of the the states not only had to manage passage reads: “The art of war is state. Where previous thinkers had their internal affairs, but also to of vital importance to the state. It is concentrated on the structure of defend themselves against attack a matter of life and death, a road civil society, this treatise focuses from neighboring states. either to safety or to ruin. Hence it on international politics, discussing is a subject of inquiry which can public administration only in Military strategy on no account be neglected.” This connection with the business of In this atmosphere, military marked a distinct break from the planning and waging wars, or the advisors became as important as political philosophy of the time, and economics of maintaining military the civil bureaucrats, and military Sun Tzu’s work was perhaps the and intelligence services. strategy began to inform political first explicit statement that war and thinking. The most influential work military intelligence are critical Sun Tzu’s detailed description on the subject was The Art of War, elements of the business of the state. of the art of war has been seen as providing a framework for political organization of any sort. He gives a list of the “principles of war” that are to be considered when planning a campaign. In addition to practical matters, such as weather and terrain, the list includes the moral influence of the ruler, the ability and qualities of the general, and the organization and discipline of the men. Implicit in these principles of war is a hierarchical structure ❯❯

30 SUN TZU The Five Fundamentals with a sovereign at its head, to thwart the enemy’s plans; failing of Warfare taking advice from and giving that, he should defend against commands to his generals, who attack; only failing that should The Dao, or the Way, allows all soldiers lead and organize their troops. he launch an offensive. to be of one mind with their rulers. For Sun Tzu, the role of the To avoid the necessity for war, Generals must be aware of Heaven, sovereign is to provide moral Sun Tzu advocated maintaining which is Yin and Yang, and the cycle leadership. The people must be a strong defense and forming of the seasons. convinced that their cause is just alliances with neighboring states. before they will give their support, Since a war is harmful to both A strategist must take into account the and a ruler should lead by example; sides, it often makes sense to come Earth: high and low, near and distant, this was an idea that Sun Tzu shared to a peaceful settlement. Prolonged open and confined. with Confucius. Like the bureaucrat campaigns, especially tactics such of civil society, the general acts as as laying siege to an enemy’s city, Command is shown by wisdom, both advisor to the ruler and are such a drain on resources that integrity, compassion, and courage. administrator of his commands. their cost often outweighs the benefits of victory. The sacrifices Organization and the proper chain Unsurprisingly, Sun Tzu places that have to be made by the people of command instill Discipline. great emphasis on the qualities of put a strain on their loyalty to the the general, describing him as the moral justness of the cause. “bulwark of the state.” His training and experience inform the counsel Military intelligence he gives the sovereign, effectively The key to stable international determining policy, but are also relationships, argues Sun Tzu, is vital to the organization of the intelligence, which was then the army. At the head of the chain of responsibility of the military. Spies command, he controls the logistics, provide vital information on a and especially the training and potential enemy’s intentions and discipline of the men. The Art of capabilities, allowing the generals War recommends that discipline who command the spies to advise be rigorously enforced with harsh the ruler on the likelihood of victory penalties for disobedience, but in the event of conflict. Along the that this should be tempered by a same lines, Sun Tzu goes on consistent application of rewards to explain that the next most and punishments. important element in this information warfare is deception. Knowing when to fight While this description of a military If you know both hierarchy mirrored the structure of yourself and your enemy, Chinese society, The Art of War you can win a hundred was much more innovative in its battles without jeopardy. recommendations for international politics. Like many generals before Sun Tzu and since, Sun Tzu believed that the purpose of the military was to protect the state and ensure its welfare, and that war should always be a last resort. A good general should know when to fight and when not to fight, remembering that an enemy’s resistance can often be broken without armed conflict. A general should first try

ANCIENT POLITICAL THOUGHT 31 A leader leads by example not by force. Sun Tzu The Great Wall of China, begun in the 7th century BCE, acted to fence off newly conquered territories. For Sun Tzu, such defensive measures were as important as attacking force. By feeding misinformation to the based on moral values of justice, people and the acquisition of enemy about defenses, for example, appropriateness, and moderation. territory and wealth. The Art of War war can often be averted. He also It states that military tactics, became an influential text among advised against what he saw as international politics, and war exist the rulers, generals, and ministers the folly of attempting to destroy an to uphold these values and should of the various states in the struggle enemy in battle: this decreased the be conducted in accordance with for a unified Chinese empire. It was rewards that could be gained from them. The state exercises its later an important influence on the the victory—both the goodwill of military capability to punish those tactics of revolutionaries, including any defeated soldiers and the that harm or threaten it from Mao Zedong and Ho Chi Minh. wealth of any territory gained. outside, just as it uses the law to It is now required reading at many punish criminals within it. When military academies, and is often Underlying the very practical done in a morally justifiable way, included as a text in courses on advice in The Art of War is a the state is rewarded by happier politics, business, and economics. ■ traditional cultural foundation Sun Tzu Traditionally believed to be the writing his famous treatise to author of the legendary treatise be used as a handbook by the The Art of War, Sun Wu (later ruler. A concise book, made known as Sun Tzu, “the Master up of 13 short chapters, it was Sun”) was probably born in the widely read after his death in state of Qi or Wu in China in c.496 BCE, both by state leaders around 544 BCE. Nothing is fighting for control of the known of his early life, but Chinese empire, and military he rose to fame as a general thinkers in Japan and Korea. serving the state of Wu in many It was first translated into a successful campaigns against European language, French, the neighboring state of Chu. in 1782, and may have influenced Napoleon. He became an indispensable advisor (equivalent to a Key work contracted military consultant today) to King Helü of Wu on 6th century BCE The Art of War matters of military strategy,

32 PLANS FOR THE COUNTRY ARE ONLY TO BE SHARED WITH THE LEARNED MOZI (C.470–C.391 BCE) IN CONTEXT Toward the end of the philosophy to the practical “golden age” of Chinese business of social and political IDEOLOGY philosophy that produced organization. Foremost among Mohism the so-called Hundred Schools of these was Confucius, who proposed Thought between the 8th and the a hierarchy based on traditional FOCUS 3rd centuries BCE, thinkers began family relationships, reinforced Meritocracy to apply their ideas of moral with ceremony and ritual. Within BEFORE Only virtuous people Only capable people 6th century BCE Chinese should be given positions should be given positions philosopher Laozi advocates Daoism—acting in accordance of authority. of authority. with the Way (dao). Virtue and ability do not necessarily come 5th century BCE Confucius from adherence to tradition or belonging proposes a government system based on traditional values to a noble family. enacted by a class of scholars. Virtue and ability can be learned through study. AFTER 4th century BCE The Plans for the country are only authoritarian ideas of Shang to be shared with the learned. Yang and Han Fei Tzu are adopted in the state of Qin as the doctrine of Legalism. 372–289 BCE The philosopher Mencius advocates a return to a form of Confucianism. 20th century Mozi’s ideas influence both Sun Yat-Sen’s Republic and the communist People’s Republic of China.

ANCIENT POLITICAL THOUGHT 33 See also: Confucius 20–27 ■ Plato 34–39 ■ Han Fei Tzu 48 ■ Sun Yat-Sen 212–13 ■ Mao Zedong 260–65 For Mozi, skilled workers such atmosphere of “universal love.” At Exaltation of the virtuous as carpenters could—with training the same time, he recognized the is the root of government. and aptitude—be made into able human tendency to act in self- administrators in government. interest. This, he believed, often Mozi happened in situations of conflict, this hierarchy, however, he which arose not from a lack of Although Mozi attracted a large recognized the importance of an morality, but from differing ideas group of followers, he was regarded administrative class to aid and of what is morally correct. It was as an idealist, and Mohism was advise the ruler, an idea that was therefore the task of political not adopted by the Chinese rulers later developed by Mozi. leaders to unite the people with of the time. However, elements a coherent moral code that was of his political thinking were Both Confucius and Mozi enforced by a strong and ethical incorporated into later political believed that the well-being of the system of government. This code systems. For example, his emphasis state relied on the competence and would be based on what was on enforcing a unified moral code dependability of the bureaucratic necessary for the greatest good of was a significant influence on the class, but they differed over the society, and formulating it required authoritarian Legalist regimes way that administrators should knowledge and wisdom that was that arose in the 4th century BCE. be chosen. To Mozi, Confucius only available to the learned. In the 20th century, Mozi’s notions adhered too closely to the of equality of opportunity were conventions of the noble families, Mozi’s preference for a rediscovered by Chinese leaders which did not necessarily produce ministerial class chosen on merit Sun Yat-Sen and Mao Zedong. ■ the virtue and ability essential to and ability no doubt stemmed from a successful bureaucracy. Mozi felt his own experience of working his Mohists, as his followers were that the qualities and skills for high way up to high office from humble known, lived according to Mozi’s office resulted from aptitude and beginnings. He saw the potential principles of simplicity and study, regardless of background. for nepotism and cronyism when pacifism during the Warring the nobility appointed ministers. States period, until the Qin A unifying code He also believed that government dynasty established its Legalist “Elevating the worthy,” as Mozi needed to be run in such a way regime. After his death, Mozi’s described his meritocratic idea, that it would cultivate the teachings were collected in forms the cornerstone of Mohist prosperity of the state for the The Mozi. Mohism disappeared political thinking, but it is also welfare of the people as a whole. after the unification of China in linked to other aspects of Mozi’s 221 BCE, but were rediscovered moral philosophy. He believed in Mozi in the early 20th century. the inherent goodness of people, and felt that they should live in an It is believed that Mozi was born Key works around the time of Confucius’s death, in Tengzhou, Shandong 5th century BCE The Mozi Province, China, into a family of artisans or possibly slaves. Named Mo Di, he was a woodworker and engineer, and worked at the courts of noble families, rising through the civil service to establish a school for officials and advisors. His philosophical and political views gained him a following and the title Mozi (“Master Mo”).

UNTIL PHILOSOPHERS ARE KINGS CITIES WILL NEVER HAVE REST FROM THEIR EVILS PLATO 427–347 BCE



36 PLATO The role of rulers is to ensure the people follow the “good life.” IN CONTEXT Knowing what the “good life” is IDEOLOGY requires intellectual ability and Rationalism knowledge of ethics and morality. FOCUS Only philosophers have this Philosopher kings ability and knowledge. BEFORE Political power should only 594 BCE The Athenian be given to philosophers. lawmaker Solon lays down laws that act as the foundation Until philosophers are kings, cities for Greek democracy. will never have rest from their evils. c.450 BCE Greek philosopher Protagoras says that political justice is an imposition of human ideas, not a reflection of natural justice. AFTER 335–323 BCE Aristotle suggests that polity (constitutional government) is the most practical of the better ways to run a state. 54–51 BCE Cicero writes De republica, advocating a more democratic form of government than suggested by Plato’s Republic. A t the end of the 6th officials were chosen by a lottery This political environment quickly century BCE, a cultural from among the citizens, and made Athens a major cultural golden age began in decisions were taken by a center, attracting some of the Greece that was to last for 200 democratic assembly. All the foremost thinkers of the time. One years. Now referred to as the citizens could speak and vote at of the greatest of these was an Classical period, it saw the blooming the assembly—they did not elect Athenian named Socrates, whose of literature, architecture, science, representatives to do this on their philosophical questioning of the and, above all, philosophy, all of behalf. It should be noted, however, generally accepted notions of which profoundly influenced the that the “citizens” were a minority justice and virtue gained him development of Western civilization. of the population; they were free a following of young disciples. men aged over 30 whose parents Unfortunately, it also attracted At the very beginning of the were Athenians. Women, slaves, unwanted attention from the Classical period, the people of the children, younger men, and authorities, who persuaded the city-state of Athens overthrew foreigners or first-generation democratic assembly to issue their tyrannical leader and settlers were excluded from Socrates with a death sentence, on instituted a form of democracy. the democratic process. charges of corrupting the young. Under this system, government

ANCIENT POLITICAL THOUGHT 37 See also: Confucius 20–27 ■ Mozi 32–33 ■ Aristotle 40–43 ■ Chanakya 44–47 ■ Cicero 49 ■ Augustine of Hippo 54–55 ■ Al-Farabi 58–59 Democracy passes life,” which for ancient Greeks was in turn leads people to desire into despotism. a vital aim. “Living well” was not the wrong things, especially the Plato a question of achieving material transitory pleasures of honor and well-being, honor, or mere pleasure, wealth. These prizes come with One of Socrates’ young followers but rather living according to political power, and the problem is was Plato, who shared his teacher’s fundamental virtues such as intensified in the political arena. inquisitive nature and skeptical wisdom, piety, and above all, The desire to rule, for what Plato attitude. Plato was to become justice. The purpose of the state, saw as the wrong reasons, leads disillusioned with the Athenian Plato believed, was to promote to conflict among citizens. With system after what he saw as its these virtues so that its citizens everyone seeking increased power, unfair treatment of his teacher. could lead this good life. Issues this ultimately undermines the such as protection of property, stability and unity of the state. Plato went on to become liberty, and stability were only Whoever emerges victorious from as influential a philosopher as important in so far as they the power struggle deprives his Socrates, and toward the end of his created conditions that allowed opponents of the power to achieve career he turned his considerable citizens to live well. In his opinion, their desires, which leads to intellect to the business of politics, however, no political system had injustice—an evil that is exactly most famously in the Republic. yet existed that fulfilled this contrary to the cornerstone of Unsurprisingly, given that he had objective—and the defects Plato’s notion of the good life. seen Socrates condemned and was within them encouraged what himself from a noble family, Plato he saw as “evils,” or the opposite In contrast, Plato argued, there had little sympathy for democracy. of these virtues. is a class of people who understand But neither did he find much to the meaning of the good life: commend in any other existing The reason for this, Plato philosophers. They alone recognize form of government, all of which he maintained, is that rulers, whether the worth of virtues above the believed led the state into “evils.” in a monarchy, oligarchy (rule of the pleasures of honor and money, and few), or democracy, tend to rule in they have devoted their lives to the their own interests rather than for pursuit of the good life. Because of the good of the state and its people. this, they do not lust after fame and Plato explains that this is due to a fortune, and so have no desire for general ignorance of the virtues political power—paradoxically this that constitute the good life, which is what qualifies them as ideal ❯❯ The good life To understand what Plato meant by “evils” in this context, it is important to bear in mind the concept of eudaimonia, the “good Socrates chose to drink poison rather than renounce his views. The trial and conviction of Socrates caused Plato to doubt the virtues of the democratic political system of Athens.

38 PLATO rulers. On face value, Plato’s The shipowner, Plato used the metaphor of the ship argument would seem to be simply who represents the general of state to explain why philosophers that “philosophers know best,” and should be kings. Though he does not (coming from a philosopher) might populace, has no seek power, the navigator is the only appear to contradict his assertion knowledge of seafaring. one who can steer a proper course— that they have no desire to rule, but much as the philosopher is the only behind it he gives a much richer one with the knowledge to rule justly. and more subtle reasoning. Ideal Forms The sailors, who The navigator, who From Socrates, Plato had learned represent politicians, represents the philosopher, that virtue is not innate, but vie with each other for the dependent on knowledge and is not involved in the wisdom, and in order to lead a shipowner’s favor. struggle for power. virtuous life it is necessary first to understand the essential nature of examples of these Forms, and may become kings.” Plato goes as far virtue. Plato developed his mentor’s show only a part of their nature. as to suggest that they should be ideas, showing that while we might They are like inadequate reflections compelled to take positions of recognize individual instances of or shadows of the real Forms. power, in order to avoid the conflict qualities such as justice, goodness, and injustice inherent in other or beauty, this does not allow us to These ideal Forms, or Ideas, forms of government. understand what gives them their as Plato called them, exist in a essential nature. We might imitate realm outside the world we live in, Educating kings them—acting in a way that we accessible only via philosophical Plato recognizes that this is a think is just, for example—but this reasoning and inquiry. It is this that utopian stance, and goes on to is mere mimicry rather than truly makes philosophers uniquely say, “…or those now called kings behaving according to those virtues. qualified to define what constitutes must genuinely and adequately the good life, and of leading a truly philosophize,” suggesting the In his Theory of Forms, Plato virtuous life, rather than simply education of a potential ruling class suggested the existence of ideal imitating individual examples as a more practical proposition. In archetypes of these virtues (and of of virtue. Plato had already his later dialogues Statesman and everything that exists) that consist demonstrated that to be good, Laws, he describes a model for a of the essence of their true nature; the state has to be ruled by the state in which this can be achieved, this means that what we see as virtuous, and while others value teaching the philosophical skills instances of these virtues are only money or honor above all, only necessary to understanding the philosophers value knowledge and good life, in the same way as any The chief penalty wisdom, and therefore virtue. It other skills that can be of use to is to be governed by follows then that only the interests society. However, he points out that someone worse if a of philosophers benefit the state, not every citizen has the aptitude man will not himself and therefore “philosophers must hold office and rule. Plato

ANCIENT POLITICAL THOUGHT 39 Democracy… is full of even possible that they influenced Plato variety and disorder, Chanakya in India when he wrote dispensing a sort of equality his treatise on training potential Born around 427 BCE, Plato to equals and unequals alike. rulers. In medieval times, Plato’s was originally called influence spread to the Islamic Aristocles, later acquiring the Plato empire and to Christian Europe, nickname Plato (meaning where Augustine incorporated “broad”) because of his and intellectual ability to learn them into the teachings of the muscular physique. From a these skills. He suggests that where Church. Later, Plato’s ideas were noble Athenian family, he was this education is appropriate—for overshadowed by those of Aristotle, probably expected to follow a a small, intellectual elite—it should whose advocacy of democracy career in politics, but instead be enforced rather than offered. worked better with the political became a disciple of the Those chosen for power because philosophers of the Renaissance. philosopher Socrates and of their “natural talents” should be was present when his mentor separated from their families and Plato’s political notions have chose to die rather than reared in communes, so that their been seen as unacceptably renounce his views. loyalties are to the state. authoritarian and elitist by later thinkers, and they fell out of favor Plato traveled widely Plato’s political writings were with many in the modern world around the Mediterranean influential in the ancient world, in while it struggled to establish before returning to Athens, particular in the Roman empire, democracy. He has been criticized where he established a school and echoed the notions of virtue as advocating a totalitarian, or of philosophy, the Academy, and education in the political at best paternalistic, system of which numbered among its philosophy of Chinese scholars government run by an elite that students the young Aristotle. such as Confucius and Mozi. It is claims to know what is best for While teaching, he wrote a everyone else. Recently, however, number of books in the form of his central notion of a political elite dialogues, generally featuring of “philosopher kings” has been his teacher Socrates, exploring reappraised by political thinkers. ■ ideas of philosophy and politics. He is believed to Emperor Nero is said to have stood have carried on teaching and by and done nothing to help while a fire writing well into his later raged in the city of Rome. Plato’s ideal years, and died at about the of a philosopher king has been blamed age of 80 in 348/347 BCE. by some for the rise of such tyrants. Key works c.399–387 BCE Crito c.380–360 BCE Republic c.355–347 BCE Statesman, Laws

40 IN CONTEXT MAN IS IDEOLOGY BY NATURE Democracy A POLITICAL ANIMAL FOCUS Political virtue ARISTOTLE (384–322 BCE) BEFORE 431 BCE Athenian statesman Pericles states that democracy provides equal justice for all. c.380–360 BCE In the Republic, Plato advocates rule by “philosopher kings,” who possess wisdom. AFTER 13th century Thomas Aquinas incorporates Aristotle’s ideas into Christian doctrine. c.1300 Giles of Rome stresses the importance of the rule of law to living in a civil society. 1651 Thomas Hobbes proposes a social contract to prevent man from living in a “brutish” state of nature. A ncient Greece was not a unified nation-state as we would recognize one today, but a collection of independent regional states with cities at their center. Each city-state, or polis, had its own constitutional organization: some, such as Macedon, were ruled by a monarch, while others, most notably Athens, had a form of democracy in which at least some of the citizens could participate in their government. Aristotle, who was brought up in Macedon and studied in Athens, was well acquainted with the concept of the polis and its various interpretations, and his analytical

ANCIENT POLITICAL THOUGHT 41 See also: Plato 34–39 ■ Cicero 49 ■ Thomas Aquinas 62–69 ■ Giles of Rome 70 ■ Thomas Hobbes 96–103 ■ Jean-Jacques Rousseau 118–25 People come together The purpose of our lives to form households, is to lead a “good life.” households to form villages, and villages to form cities. We have developed ways of Aristotle organizing city-states The son of a physician to in order to live a “good life.” the royal family of Macedon, Aristotle was born in Stagira, Living in a society Anybody who lives Chalcidice, in the northeast of organized by reason, outside the city-state is modern Greece. He was sent such as a city-state, is either a beast or a god. to Athens at 17 to study with what makes us human. Plato at the Academy, and remained there until Plato’s Man is by nature a death 20 years later. political animal. Surprisingly, Aristotle was not appointed Plato’s successor to mind made him well qualified should be based on empirical data, lead the Academy. He moved to examine the merits of the city- organized in the same way as the to Ionia, where he made a state. He also spent some time taxonomy of the natural world. study of wildlife, until he was in Ionia classifying animals invited by Philip of Macedon and plants according to their Naturally social to be tutor to the young characteristics. He was later to Aristotle observed that humans Alexander the Great. apply these skills of categorization have a natural tendency to form to ethics and politics, which he saw social units: individuals come Aristotle returned to as both natural and practical together to form households, Athens in 335 BCE to establish sciences. Unlike his mentor, Plato, households to form villages, and a rival school to the Academy, Aristotle believed that knowledge villages to form cities. Just as some at the Lyceum. While teaching was acquired through observation animals—such as bees or cattle there, he formalized his ideas rather than intellectual reasoning, —are distinguished by their on the sciences, philosophy, and that the science of politics disposition to live in colonies ❯❯ and politics, compiling a large volume of writings, of which few have survived. After the death of Alexander in 323 BCE, anti-Macedonian feeling in Athens prompted him to leave the city for Euboea, where he died the following year. Key works c.350 BCE Nicomachean Ethics Politics Rhetoric

42 ARISTOTLE or herds, humans are by nature ideas about ethics and the politics Law is order, and social. Just as he might define a of the city-state. From his study good law is good order. wolf by saying it is by nature a pack of the natural world, he gained a animal, Aristotle says that “Man notion that everything that exists Aristotle is by nature a political animal.” By has an aim or a purpose, and he this, Aristotle means simply that decided that for humans, this is to by their very nature), but so that Man is an animal whose nature it lead a “good life.” Aristotle takes they can live well. How well they is to live socially in a polis; he is this to mean the pursuit of virtues, succeed in achieving this goal, not implying a natural tendency such as justice, goodness, and he observes, depends on the type towards political activity in the beauty. The purpose of the polis, of government they choose. modern sense of the word. then, is to enable us to live according to these virtues. The Species of rule The idea that we have a ancient Greeks saw the structure An inveterate classifier of data, tendency to live in large civil of the state—which enables people Aristotle devised a comprehensive communities might seem relatively to live together and protects the taxonomy of the natural world, and unenlightening today, but it is property and liberty of its citizens in his later works, especially important to recognize that —as a means to the end of virtue. Politics, he set about applying the Aristotle is explicitly stating that same methodical skills to systems the polis is just as much a creation Aristotle identified various of government. While Plato had of nature as an ants’ nest. For him, “species” and “sub-species” within reasoned theoretically about the it is inconceivable that humans the polis. He found that what ideal form of government, Aristotle can live in any other way. This distinguishes man from the other chose to examine existing regimes contrasts markedly with ideas animals is his innate powers of to analyze their strengths and of civil society as an artificial reason and the faculty of speech, weaknesses. To do this, he asked construct that has taken us out which give him a unique ability two simple questions: who rules, of an uncivilized “state of nature”— to form social groups and set up and on whose behalf do they rule? something Aristotle would not have communities and partnerships. understood. Anyone living outside Within the community of a polis, In answer to the first question, a polis, he believed, was not human the citizens develop an organization Aristotle observes that there are —he must be either superior to that ensures the security, economic basically three types of rule: by a men (that is, a god) or inferior to stability, and justice of the state; single person, by a select few, or by them (that is, a beast). not by imposing any form of social many. And in answer to the second contract, but because it is in their question, the rule could be either The good life nature to do so. For Aristotle, the on behalf of the population as a This idea of the polis as a natural different ways of organizing the life whole, which he considered true or phenomenon rather than a man- of the polis exist not so that people good government, or in the self- made one underpins Aristotle’s can live together (since they do this In ancient Athens, citizens debated political affairs at a stone dais called the Pnyx. To Aristotle, the active participation of citizens in government was essential for a healthy society.

ANCIENT POLITICAL THOUGHT 43 interest of the ruler or ruling class, Aristotle’s Six Species of Government a defective form of government. In all, he identified six “species” Rule By Rule By Rule of rule, which came in pairs. A Single A Select By The Monarchy is rule by an individual Person Many on behalf of all; rule by an Few individual in his own interests, or tyranny, is corrupted monarchy. True Aristocracy Polity Rule by aristocracy (which to the Government Greeks meant rule by the best, rather than rule by hereditary noble Monarchy families) is rule by a few for the good of all; rule by a self-interested Corrupt few, or oligarchy, is its corrupted Government form. Finally, polity is rule by the many for the benefit of all. Aristotle Tyranny Oligarchy Democracy saw democracy as the corrupted form of this last form of rule, as in citizens are merely a part, he also Although Aristotle categorizes practice it entails ruling on behalf examined the role of the individual democracy as a “defective” form of the many, rather than every within the city-state. Again, he of regime, he argues that it is single individual. stresses Man’s natural inclination only second best to polity, and to social interaction, and defines better than the “good” aristocracy Aristotle argues that the self- the citizen as one who shares or monarchy. While the individual interest inherent in the defective in the structure of the civil citizen may not have the wisdom and forms of government leads to community, not merely by electing virtue of a good ruler, collectively inequality and injustice. This representatives, but through “the many” may prove to be better translates into instability, which active participation. When this rulers than “the one.” threatens the role of the state and participation is within a “good” its ability to encourage virtuous form of government (monarchy, The detailed description and living. In practice, however, the aristocracy, or polity), it fosters the analysis of the Classical Greek polis city-states he studied did not all ability of the citizen to lead a seems on the face of it to have little fall neatly into just one category, virtuous life. Under a “defective” relevance to the nation-states that but exhibited characteristics regime (tyranny, oligarchy, or followed, but Aristotle’s ideas had from the various types. democracy), the citizen becomes a growing influence on European involved with the self-interested political thought throughout the Although Aristotle had a pursuits of the ruler or ruling class Middle Ages. Despite being tendency to view the polis as a —the tyrant’s pursuit of power, the criticized for his often authoritarian single “organism,” of which the oligarchs’ thirst for wealth, or the standpoint (and his defense of democrats’ search for freedom. Of slavery and the inferior status of The basis of a all the possible regimes, Aristotle women), his arguments in favor democratic state concludes, polity provides the best of constitutional government opportunity to lead a good life. anticipate ideas that emerged is liberty. in the Enlightenment. ■ Aristotle

44 IN CONTEXT A SINGLE IDEOLOGY WHEEL DOES Realism NOT MOVE FOCUS CHANAKYA C.350–C.275 BCE Utilitarian BEFORE 6th century BCE The Chinese general Sun Tzu writes his treatise The Art of War, bringing an analytical approach to statecraft. 424 BCE Mahapadma Nanda establishes the Nanda dynasty in India, and relies on his generals for tactical advice. AFTER c.65 BCE The Mauryan empire, which Chanakya helped to found, reaches its height and rules over all but the southern tip of the Indian subcontinent. 1904 Texts of Chanakya’s treatises are rediscovered and, in 1915, are translated into English. D uring the 5th and 4th centuries BCE, the Nanda dynasty slowly gained control over the northern half of the Indian subcontinent, defeating its rivals one by one and holding off the threat of invasion by the Greeks and Persians from the west. The rulers of this expanding empire relied on generals for tactical advice in battle, but they also began to recognize the value of ministers to advise on matters of policy and government. Scholars, especially those from Takshashila, a university established c.600 BCE in Rawalpindi, now part of Pakistan, frequently became these ministers. Many important thinkers developed

ANCIENT POLITICAL THOUGHT 45 See also: Confucius 20–27 ■ Sun Tzu 28–31 ■ Mozi 32–33 ■ Plato 34–39 ■ Aristotle 40–43 ■ Niccolò Machiavelli 74–81 A ruler is responsible for the welfare, he believed, was the responsibility security, and discipline of his people. of a sovereign who would ensure his people’s well-being and security He needs to have a wide range of knowledge, by administering order and justice, skills, and personal qualities. and leading his country to victory over rival states. The power to carry He must be trained in While in office, he must out his duties to his country and its self-discipline and statecraft be advised by able and people is dependent on several experienced ministers. different factors, which Chanakya before taking office. describes in Arthashastra: the personal qualities of the ruler, Governance is possible only the abilities of his advisors, his with assistance. A single wheel territory and towns, his wealth, his army, and his allies. does not move. The sovereign, as head of their ideas at Takshashila, but describing in direct terms how state, has the central role in this perhaps the most significant power could be gained and system of government. Chanakya was Chanakya (also known as maintained, and for the first time emphasizes the importance of Kautilya and Vishnugupta). He in India, it explicitly described a finding a ruler with the appropriate wrote a treatise on statecraft titled civil structure in which ministers qualities, but then goes on to say Arthashastra, meaning “the science and advisors played a key role that personal qualities of leadership of material gain” or “the art of in the running of the state. are not sufficient on their own: the polity.” Arthashastra combined the sovereign must also be trained accumulated wisdom of the art of A commitment to the prosperity for the job. He must learn the politics with Chanakya’s own of the state lies at the heart of various skills of statecraft, such as ideas, and was remarkable in its Chanakya’s political thought, and military tactics and strategy, law, dispassionate, and at times ruthless, he makes repeated references to administration, and the arts of analysis of the business of politics. the welfare of the people as the diplomacy and politics, but in ultimate goal of government. This, addition he should be taught the skills of self-discipline and ethics in order to develop the moral authority necessary to command the❯❯ Advising the sovereign The lion capital of Ashoka stood on Although sections of the treatise top of a pillar in Sarnath at the center dealt with the moral qualities of the Mauryan empire. Chanakya desirable in the leader of a state, helped to found this powerful empire, the emphasis was on the practical, which came to rule nearly all of India.

46 CHANAKYA All things begin Indian political philosophers of the choose from a number of different with counsel. time. Arthashastra is not a work of tactics, ranging from conciliation, Chanakya moral philosophy, but a practical encouraging dissent in the enemy’s guide to governance, and in ranks, and forming alliances of loyalty and obedience of his people. ensuring the welfare and security convenience with other rulers, to Before taking office, the sovereign of the state it often advocates using the simple use of military force. In needs assistance from experienced whatever means are necessary. deploying these tactics, the ruler and knowledgable teachers. Although Arthashastra advocates should be ruthless, using trickery, a regime of learning and self- bribery, and any other inducements Once instated, a wise sovereign discipline for an ideal ruler, and deemed necessary. Although this does not rely solely on his own mentions certain moral qualities, seems contradictory to the moral wisdom, but can turn to trusted it doesn’t flinch from describing authority Chanakya advocates in ministers and advisors for how to use underhanded methods a leader, he stipulates that after counsel. In Chanakya’s view, such to gain and maintain power. victory has been achieved, the ruler individuals are as important as the Chanakya was a shrewd observer should “substitute his virtues for sovereign in governing the state. of human weaknesses as well as the defeated enemy’s vices, and In Arthashastra, Chanakya states: strengths, and he was not above where the enemy was good, he “Governance is possible only with exploiting these to increase the shall be twice as good.” assistance—a single wheel does sovereign’s power and undermine not move.” This is a warning to the that of the sovereign’s enemies. Intelligence and espionage sovereign not to be autocratic, but to Arthashastra reminds rulers that arrive at decisions of state after This is particularly noticeable military advisors are also needed, consulting his ministers. in his advice on defending and and the gathering of information acquiring territory. Here he is important for decision-making. The appointment of ministers recommends that the ruler and his A network of spies is vital in with the necessary qualifications is ministers should carefully assess assessing the threat posed by therefore just as important as the the strength of their enemies neighboring states, or to judge the people’s choice of leader. The before deciding on a strategy to feasibility of acquiring territory; but ministers can provide a range of undermine them. They can then knowledge and skills. They must His advisors form a be utterly trustworthy, not only so A ruler is a single second wheel to help that the sovereign can rely on their wheel, and cannot move the state forward. advice, but also to ensure that guide the state well. decisions are made in the interests In Chanakya’s analogy, the of the state and its people—if state is like a chariot with the necessary, preventing a corrupt ruler sovereign forming one wheel and from acting in his own interests. his ministers making up the other; in order to move and be steered in The end justifies the means the right direction, the chariot It was this recognition of the needs both wheels. realities of human nature that distinguished Chanakya from other

ANCIENT POLITICAL THOUGHT 47 Through ministerial eyes others’ weaknesses are seen. Chanakya Chanakya goes further, suggesting Arthashastra comparison with Elephants played a big role in Indian that espionage within the state is Machiavelli’s The Prince, written warfare, often terrifying enemies so also a necessary evil in order to around 2,000 years later. However, much that they would withdraw rather ensure social stability. At home and the central doctrine, of rule by a than fight. Chanakya developed new in international relations, morality sovereign and ministers, has more strategies for warfare with elephants. is of secondary importance to the in common with Confucius and protection of the state. The state’s Mozi, or Plato and Aristotle, whose Maurya, who successfully defeated welfare is used as justification for ideas Chanakya may have come King Nanda to establish the clandestine operations, including across as a student in Takshashila. Mauryan empire in around 321 BCE. political assassination, should this This became the first empire to be necessary, aimed at reducing A proven philosophy cover the majority of the Indian the threat of opposition. The advice contained in the pages subcontinent, and Maurya also of Arthashastra soon proved its successfully held off the threat This amoral approach to taking usefulness when adopted by from Greek invaders led by and holding on to power, and the Chanakya’s protegé Chandragupta Alexander the Great. Chanakya’s advocacy of a strict enforcement of ideas were to influence government law and order, can be seen either and policy-making for several as shrewd political awareness or centuries, until India eventually as ruthlessness, and has earned succumbed to Islamic and Mughal rule in the Middle Ages. Chanakya be Nanda’s rival. Chandragupta overthrew Dhana Nanda and The text of Arthashastra The birthplace of Indian founded the Mauryan empire, was rediscovered in the early scholar Chanakya is not certain. which governed all of modern 20th century, and regained some It is known that he studied and India except the very south. of its importance in Indian political taught in Takshashila (modern Chanakya became chief advisor thinking, gaining iconic status Taxila, Pakistan). Leaving to Chandragupta, but is said to after India won independence Takshashila to become involved have starved himself to death from Great Britain in 1948. in government, he traveled to after being falsely accused by Despite its central place in Indian Pataliputra, where he became Chandragupta’s son, Bindusara, political history, it was little known an advisor to King Dhana Nanda. of poisoning his mother. in the West, and it is only recently There are many conflicting that Chanakya has been accounts of what happened Key works recognized outside India as next, but all agree that he left a significant political thinker. ■ the Nanda court after a dispute, 4th century BCE and in revenge groomed the Arthashastra young Chandragupta Maurya to Neetishastra

48 IF EVIL MINISTERS ENJOY SAFETY AND PROFIT, THIS IS THE BEGINNING OF DOWNFALL HAN FEI TZU (280–233 BCE) IN CONTEXT D uring China’s Warring Confucian idea of leading by States period, between the example and Mozi’s belief in the IDEOLOGY 5th and 3rd centuries BCE, innate goodness of human nature, Legalism rulers were vying for power over a and instead took the more cynical unified Chinese empire, and a new view that people naturally acted FOCUS political philosophy emerged to suit to avoid punishment and achieve State laws these turbulent times. Thinkers personal gain. The only way that such as Shang Yang (390–338 BCE), this could be controlled, the BEFORE Shen Dao (c. 350–275 BCE), and Shen Legalists argued, was by a system 5th century BCE Confucius Buhai (died 337 BCE) advocated a that emphasized the wellbeing advocates a hierarchy much more authoritarian approach of the state over the rights of the based on traditional family to government, which became individual, with strict laws to relationships, with the known as Legalism. Formalized punish undesirable behavior. sovereign and his ministers and put into practice by Han ruling by example. Fei Tzu, Legalism rejected the Administration of these laws was handled by the ruler’s 4th century BCE Mozi To govern the state by law ministers, who in turn were subject proposes a purely meritocratic is to praise the right to laws that held them accountable, class of ministers and and blame the wrong. with punishments and favors advisors chosen for their Han Fei Tzu given by the ruler. In this way, virtue and ability. the hierarchy with the ruler at the top could be maintained, and AFTER corruption and intrigue among the 2nd century BCE After the bureaucracy could be controlled. Warring States period ends, It was vitally important to the China’s Han dynasty safety of the state in times of war rejects Legalism and that the ruler could rely on his adopts Confucianism. ministers and that they should be acting in the interests of the 589–618 CE Legalist principles state rather than for their own are revived during the Sui personal advancement. ■ dynasty in an attempt to unify the Chinese empire. See also: Confucius 20–27 ■ Sun Tzu 28–31 ■ Mozi 32–33 ■ Thomas Hobbes 96–103 ■ Mao Zedong 260–65