FFA Research Digest 2019

Research Digest Editors Wayne Ganpat, Wendy Isaac and Sarojini Ragbir The University of the West Indies St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago November, 2019

Publisher: Communications and Publications Unit Printers: Faculty of Food and Agriculture Cover design: The University of the West Indies St. Augustine Campus, Trinidad and Tobago Multimedia Production Centre UWI, St. Augustine Trinidad and Tobago Terry Sampson

Main Sponsor: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We recognize the sponsorship from PLNL; Office of Graduate Research, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine; CARIRI and Caribbean Chemicals Ltd. Thanks to the review team – Ms. Treasure Alcindor, Dr. Martin Hughes, Dr. Vidya DeGannes, Dr. Tessa Barry, Dr. Marquitta Webb, Dr. Mark Wuddivira and Dr. Wendy-Ann Isaac

TABLE OF CONTENTS FOREWORD SECTIONS: 1. Food Production – Livestock 3 2. Food Production – Crops 18 3. Extension and Rural Development 39 4. Nutrition, Dietetics and Consumer Science 51 5. Geography, Environment and Sustainability 78 6. Climate Change 89 7. Food Safety 99 8. Agricultural Economics 110 9. On-going Research 129 10. Completed and Current Faculty Collaborative 155 Research Project Summaries 172 11. Invited Research Abstracts / FFA Collaborators 1

FOREWORD I paraphrase a famous saying to: “without research a university will perish”. Basic and applied research are the cornerstones of top universities worldwide and The University of the West Indies having recognized this, has taken steps to improve its research output over the recent years. Latest Times Higher Education (THE) rankings have put The UWI as the only Caribbean University to be ranked among the 150 best across Latin America and the Caribbean. The Faculty of Food and Agriculture (FFA) is involved in research across a wide spectrum of agriculture and related disciplines ranging from soils, climate change, livestock, environment, food and nutrition, economics, extension, agronomy and crop production. The results of research efforts must find their way into academia and then into the public domain. It is in the public domain where its impact on the development of the people will be judged. For the second time, the FFA is pleased to present to academic staff, students in The UWI, secondary school students and the public, the results of research work done or being conducted. It will be presented, firstly in the form of this book of abstracts, but also as poster displays and seminars. A lit lamp is no use under a table. As such, we contribute this research day offerings to all our stakeholders and hope that they accomplish what they were intended to do, that is, popularize the excellent work that is being done by the FFA. I take this opportunity to thank Dr. Wendy-Ann Isaac, Deputy Dean, Graduate Studies and Research and her team for organizing Research Day 2019. I thank all the graduate students especially, for being brave enough to expose their work to stakeholders. The feedback and experience will serve them well in their research endeavours. I acknowledge also the members of academic staff who supported either with abstracts or posters. Finally, this event would have been enhanced significantly by the generous contribution of the Point Lisas Nitrogen Limited who made good on their promise to support the FFA’s research efforts. Prof Wayne Ganpat Dean, Faculty of Food and Agriculture 2

FOOD PRODUCTION - LIVESTOCK 3

A SURVEY OF GASTROINTESTINAL PARASITES PRESENT IN THE AGOUTI (Dasyprocta leporina) REARED INTESNIVELY IN TRINIDAD Kegan Romelle Jones and Gary Wayne Garcia The Open Tropical Forage-Animal Production Laboratory [OTF-APL], Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St Augustine This study was conducted to determine the prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in the agouti, the species of endoparasites present in the gastrointestinal tract and the body condition of the affected animals. Endoparsites in rabbits were also investigated to determine if there were common parasites of the rabbit and the agouti. This study was done in two phases. Phase 1 entailed the collection and analyses of faecal samples, using the faecal floatation technique from the agoutis that were intensively reared in cages and on a cement floor at four locations in Trinidad, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. The average live body weight of the agoutis ranged from 2.69 kg to 2.56 kg. Helminth eggs found in the agoutis in Phase 1 (n=65) of the study included Strongyloides spp. 36.9%, Trichuris spp. 4.62% and Paraspidodera uncinata 15.4%. In Phase 2 of this study, eight agoutis and eight rabbits were slaughtered and contents of different anatomical regions of the gastrointestinal tract were examined using faecal floatation techniques for parasites of both mammals. The cage-reared agoutis were captive reared at the University of the West Indies University Field Station (UFS). The rabbits were commercially cage reared at the Sugarcane Feed Centre (SFC). Coccidia oocysts were observed in the contents of the stomach, caecum, colon and rectum of the rabbit. In the agouti, Strongyloides spp. eggs and were found in the caecal contents. Trichuris spp. eggs were found in the caecum and rectum and Paraspidodera uncinata eggs were found in the rectum only. The agoutis sampled had an average body condition score of three. Source: Jones, K.R. and G.W. Garcia. 2017. A survey of the gastrointestinal parasites present in the Agouti (Dasyprocta leporina) reared intensively in Trinidad. Livestock Research for Rural Development 29, (10): 1-6. 4

OBSERVATIONS ON ENDOPARASITIC LOAD IN CAPTIVE REARED AGOUTIS (Dasyprocta leporina) WITHOT ANTHELMINTIC EXPOSURE IN TRINIDAD, REPUBLIC OF TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO Kegan Romelle Jones and Gary Wayne Garcia The Open Tropical Forage-Animal Production Laboratory [OTF-APL], Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St Augustine This study was conducted on Agouti animals reared in captivity at the Sugarcane Feed Station in Trinindad. The agouti is a neo-tropical rodent that has been reared intensively in Trinidad and Tobago by farmers. Gastrointestinal contents were taken from ten (10) male agoutis approximately four years of age. The contents were examined for gastrointestinal parasites using faecal floatation techniques. In the study two (2) helminths and one (1) protozoon were found in the digestive tract, these were Trichuris spp., Strongyloides spp. and Eimeria spp. The average faecal egg count of the infected agoutis were Trichuris spp. 220 (± 130) egg per gram, Strongyloides spp. 428 (±558) egg per gram and Eimeria spp. 2150 (±2358) oocyst per gram. Of the animals sampled 40% were positive for gastrointestinal parasites. The animals in this study had an average live weight of 2.34 (±0.25) kg and an average body condition score of 3 out of 5. To the authors’ knowledge this was the first time that work was done on the parasitic load of gastrointestinal parasites in the Agouti (Dasyprocta leorina). The findings of this study showed that even at the parasitic loads recorded no effects on the animals’ body condition score or live weight was observed. Source: Jones, K.R. and G.W. Garcia. 2018. Observations on the endoparasitic load in captive reared agoutis (Dasyprocta leporina) without anthelmintic exposure in Trinidad, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. Livestock Research for Rural Development 30, (10): 1-7. 5

HAEMATOLOGICAL AND SERUM BIOCHEMICAL REFERENCE VALUES OF HEALTHY AGOUTIS (Dasyprocta leporina) REARED INTENSIVELY IN TRINIDAD, REPUBLIC OF TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO Kegan Romelle Jones, Kavita Ranjeeta Lall and Gary Wayne Garcia The Open Tropical Forage-Animal Production Laboratory [OTF-APL], Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St Augustine The agouti is a neo-tropical rodent that has the potential for domestication. At present it is reared in captivity and hunted for meat. Little information is known on some aspects of the agouti. This study investigated the haematological and biochemical values of ten (10) adult male captive-reared agoutis (Dasyprocta leporina) at the Sugarcane Feeds Centre (SFC) in the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. Animals had a mean (±SD) weight of 2.34±0.25 kg and exhibited a body condition of 3/5 with no history of illness. The mean values of the haematological parameters were: Red blood cells (RBC) 8.55±0.79x1012/l, haemoglobin (HGB) 16.92±2.13g/dl, haematocrit 52.97±5.62%, mean corpuscular volume (MCV) 62.50±3.13, mean corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH) 19.75±1.00pg, mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration (MCHC) 31.91±1.00 g/dl, red cell distribution width (RDWC) 16.06±0.87%, RDWS 37.89±2.63 fl, platelets (PLT) 178.9±112.85x 109/l, mean platelet volume (MPV) 9.43±0.84fl, Plateletcretin (PCT) 0.13±0.08%, Platelet distribution width (PDWC) 31.74±3.15%, PDWS10.13±2.84 fl. White blood cells (WBC) 12.15±3.89 x 109/l, lymphocytes (LYM) 2.08±0.96 x 109/l, monocytes (MON) 0.58±0.34 x 109/l, eosinophils (EOS) 0.00±0.00 x 109/l, basophils (BAS) 0.00±0.00 x 109/l, lymphocytes (LYM) 19.02±10.71%, monocytes (MON) 4.76±2.38% and neutrophils (NEU) 76.19±11.60. Biochemical parameter results were: alkaline phosphatase (ALP) 129.7±47.22 U/l, alanine aminotransferase (ALT) 46.8 ±42.89 U/l, amylase (AMY) 707.00±208.73 U/l, total bilirubin (TBIL) 0.39±0.05 mg/dl, blood urea nitrogen (BUN) 6.60±2.83 mg/dl, calcium (CA) 10.40±1.68 mg/dl, phosphorus (PHOS) 7.48±1.20 mg/dl, creatinine (CREA) 1.10±0.40 mg/dl, glucose (GLU) 170.3±29.57 mg/dl, sodium (NA) 145.00±4.76 mmol/l, potassium (K) 8.20±0.10 mmol/l, total protein (TP) 5.99±0.30 g/dl, albumin (ALB) 5.65±0.25 g/dl, globulin (GLOB) 0.04±0.05 g/dl. No blood parasites were found in the animals sampled. Blood and serum biochemical data gave similar results to other studies done in Dasyprocta spp. in other countries where animals were reared in captivity even though some animals had parasitic gastrointestinal 6

infestation. To the authors’ knowledge this is the first document that recorded the blood values of captive reared agoutis in the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. The information obtained can be used as references for captive reared male agoutis in the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. Source: Jones, K.R., K.R. Lall and G.W. Garcia. 2019. Haematological and serum biochemical reference values of healthy agoutis (Dasyprocta leporina) reared intensively in Trinidad, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. Livestock Research for Rural Development 31, (1): 1-6. 7

LOW NITROGEN FERTILIZER RATES AND STAGE OF MATURITY INFLUENCES NITROGEN FRACTIONS AND IN VITRO RUMINAL N DEGRADABILITY IN TROPICAL GRASSES Martin P. Hughes1, Victor Mlambo2 and Cicero H.O. Lallo1 1Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine 2 School of Agricultural Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Sciences, University of Mpumalanga, South Africa Ruminant production systems in the tropics are heavily dependent on grazed pastures to satisfy their nutritional requirements. Nitrogen fertilizer and stage of maturity at harvest are two simple, yet effective management strategies that can improve the nutritive value of tropical pastures. The high cost of N fertilizer in addition to the relatively high recommended application rates are major factors that limits the use of N fertilizer in pastures. This study evaluated the effects of low rates of N fertilizer (0, 25, 50 & 75 kg N ha-1) and stage of maturity (4, 8 & 12 weeks - except for P. atratum that was harvested at 6 and 12 weeks old) on total N, N fractions and in vitro ruminal N degradability in three tropical grasses (Brachiaria hybrid, M. maximus and P. atratum). There was a significant fertilizer N × maturity interaction (P<0.05) on total N, buffer soluble nitrogen (BSN), buffer insoluble N (BISN), acid detergent insoluble N (ADIN) and in vitro ruminal N degradability in all grass species. Total N, BISN and in vitro ruminal N degradability were highest in grasses receiving 75 kg N ha-1 and harvested at 4 weeks maturity. Grasses that did not receive N fertilizer and were harvested at the more advanced stages of maturity had the lowest concentrations of NPN. In vitro ruminal N degradability was consistently highest at 4 weeks maturity for Brachiaria hybrid and M. maximus that received 75 kg N ha-1 fertilizer. Concentrations of total N, BSN and BISN increased with N fertilization in all species (P < 0.05). In vitro ruminal N degradability increased by 24 - 50% in Brachiaria hybrid and M. maximus when N fertilizer increased from 0 to 75 kg N ha-1. It was concluded that low N fertilizer application rates and stage of maturity can significantly improves concentrations of total N and BISN while also improving in vitro N degradability of tropical grasses. This can, in turn enable ruminant livestock farmers with limited resources to better manage and optimize the benefits of and output from tropical pastures. 8

EXPLORING SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN THE MINERAL PROFILE OF ROTATIONALLY GRAZED TROPICAL PASTURES ON COMMERCIAL BEEF AND DAIRY FARMS IN JAMAICA Nugent J. Bernand1, Martin P. Hughes1, Cicero H.O. Lallo2 and Paul G.A. Jennings3 1Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine 2Open Tropical Forage-Animal Production Laboratory, Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine 3MARJEN Consulting Group – Spanish Town, Jamaica Beef and dairy cattle are primarily reared on pasture in Jamaica with minimal supplementary feeding. Therefore, it is expected that these pastures should satisfy the majority of their nutritional needs including minerals. However, the mineral profile of Jamaican pastures is largely unknown. This study explores seasonal variation in the mineral profile of rotationally grazed pastures supporting beef and dairy cattle on commercial farms in Jamaica. Grass samples were collected by “hand plucking” from three (3) dairy and two (2) beef farms during the dry (January - March), intermediate (May - July) and wet seasons (September - November) following a stratified random sampling scheme. Laboratory analysis were conducted to determine concentrations of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na), Zinc (Zn), iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn). Nitrogen concentration was significantly impacted by season (P < 0.05) and was highest in the wet season (18.4 – 27.6 g/kg DM) and lowest in the dry season (10 - 25.2 g/kg DM). Season significantly affected P content on all farms except Edward’s Dairy (P=0.034). The concentrations of P ranged between 2.63 - 4.26 g/kg DM. Potassium was significantly affected by season only at Serge Island Dairies (p = 0.000) and Barkeith farms (p=0.020). The K concentration of Jamaican pastures ranged between 4.16 - 12.3 g/kg DM while that of Ca ranged between 2.05 - 4.19 g/kg DM. Only on the dairy farms did season significantly affect magnesium concentrations. Season had no influence on the concentrations of Na, Zn, Fe and Mn. Calcium/Phosphorus ratio was significantly affected by season on all farms (p<0.05) and was highest in the dry season. It was concluded that the macro- mineral profile of Jamaica pastures supporting beef and dairy cattle is generally superior in the wet season while micro minerals seem to be less sensitive to seasonal variations, particularly on dairy farms. The concentrations of Ca, Na and Cu were below dietary requirement for lactating dairy cattle. 9

WILDLIFE REHABILITATION: A CASE STUDY OF THE NEO- TROPICAL, OPOSSUM DIDELPHIS MARSUPIALIS INSULARIS, ALLEN 1902. Laura Tardieu1 Wendy Rollock2 and Gary W. Garcia1 1Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine 2Director of The Wake up and Call Shelter, Stratmore Avenue, Glencoe, Trinidad and Tobago Wildlife rehabilitation facilities in the Caribbean region are limited, yet they can provide relevant information on wild populations. Didelphis marsupialis insularis is a popularly hunted, under-studied, neo-tropical marsupial species that is increasingly being admitted for rehabilitation. The aim of this study was 1. To record the experiences of rehabilitating D. marsupialis insularis in the neo-tropical island of Trinidad and Tobago and 2. To extract and highlight information on the biology of this opossum sub-species. Using admission records, obtained over a roughly four-year period, two breeding periods (February to March and August to October) were illustrated. Litter sizes averaged five individuals, with a range of 1 to 8 young. This species was found to be common in urban areas of the country, with dog attacks reported as the major cause for admission. Thus the information recorded by this wildlife rehabilitation facility has provided great insight on the sparsely studied opossum, D. marsupialis insularis. Source: Brazilian Journal of Biology, September 2019 DOI: 10.1590/1519- 6984.214757. 10

MANAGEMENT OF THE NON-GENETIC FACTORS FOR THEATTAINMENT OF 45KG LIVE WEIGHT AT 4 MONTHS OF AGE WITH TROPICAL HAIR SHEEP: THE BLENHEIM SHEEP PROJECT: A CASE STUDY 2011-2013 Keith George Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St Augustine The Blenheim Sheep Multiplication and Research Project (BSM&RP) (1972 to present) is a typical intensive farming systems model for small ruminants (sheep) in Tobago, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. High lamb mortality and poor growth performances have been critical constraints at the BSM&RP and the Tobago sheep industry. Reduced mortality and optimum lamb performance are possible if the negative impact of the non-genetic factors can be minimized. To achieve this, interventions were made at the BSM&RP between 2011 and 2013 that included: (1) an improved animal management (2) an enhanced nutrition (3) an improved watering system (4) an improved health management program (5) adjustments to the lighting, housing and pen floors (6) systematic weighing and data analysis (7) staff rotation to critical service areas and (8) intensive staff training and staff observation forums. The objectives were to observe lamb performances with the non-genetic interventions and to see how many lambs that were born and weaned and were able attained a live weight of 45kg in 120 days of age. This study focused on 330 lambs born in three lambing cycles: [A] December 2011- June 2012), [B] (November 2012 – June 2013) and [C] (January 2013 – July 2013). In Cycle (A), 100 ewes were exposed to the rams and 90 ewes gave birth to 120 lambs. In Cycle (B), 39 ewes were exposed and 37 gave birth to 62 lambs. In Cycle (C), 102 ewes were exposed and 94 ewes gave birth to148 lambs. The results obtained were as follows: (1) Cycle “A” one (1) lamb met the projected target of 45kg live weight at 4 months or 120 days; (2) Cycle “B” nine (9) lambs met the target and (3) Cycle “C” fifteen (15) lambs met the target of 45Kg in four months. This was the best achievement reported at BSM&RP from 1972 to 2013. The findings confirmed that genetics was not the major limiting factor to optimum lamb performance at the BSM&RP. The hypothesis was rejected and it was concluded that with improve management of the non-genetic factors, tropical hair sheep type at BSM&RP could achieve 45kg live weight at 120 days of age. 11

A LAMB BANK FARMING SYSTEM MODEL TO MITIGATE THE CHALLENGES OF SMALL-HOLDER AND LANDLESS SHEEP FARMERS IN TROPICAL SMALL-ISLAND-STATE ECONOMIES: THE CASE OF THE ISLAND OF TOBAGO Keith George Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St Augustine Tobago is a small island of 116 sq. miles and a part of the small Unitary State of The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. Tobago enjoyed a long history with Tropical Hair Sheep Production. At present there are approximately 20,000 heads of sheep farmed by roughly 400 farmers most of whom are small and/or landless. Within the last 30 years developments in Tobago has resulted in the complete decimation of dairy and beef cattle industries. The Tobago House of Assembly (Local Government) in collaboration with numerous local, regional and international agencies namely: UWI, CARDI, IICA, and Winrock International, sought to stimulate development of the Small Ruminant industry with various initiatives. However, farmers continue to experience severe challenges and their income security and survivability is threatened. This study sought to examine trade-offs and synergies with “The Lamb Bank Farming Systems Model” and addressed the challenges among small, landless sheep farmers in Tobago. The main objectives of the study were: (i) To identify and evaluate the challenges that affected small scale sheep production in Tobago. (ii) To conceptualize strategies to overcome the challenges and (iii) To create The Lamb Bank Farming Systems Model as a farmers’ co-operation strategy to address challenges. The study considered Three hundred post-weaned commercial market lambs of mixed breeds, 2-3 months old, in 6 cycles of 50 lambs each. Lambs were marketed after 60 days treatment. The aim was to optimize growth-performance through strategic management. The questions addressed were:- (a) What are the challenges faced by small landless sheep farmers? (b) What are the most appropriate solutions to the challenges? (c) Can a Lamb Bank Farming System effectively address the challenges of sheep production and improve income security for Farmers in the Small-Island of Tobago? Two hypothesis were evaluated: (1) Tropical Hair Sheep would NOT respond in a Lamb Bank Production System (2) Tobago’s Small, Landless sheep farmers would NOT co-operate for the benefits from a Lamb Bank Production System. A Phenomenological Mixed Method Research approach was considered in designing the study that included qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis. It also supported the environmental scan and the farmers’ invaluable perspective. Keen interest was directed to develop equity capital, marketing and pricing. Four business profitability ratios were considered. Due attention was given 12

to the welfare of animals, and consumers health in order to design a sustainable model. It was concluded that Tobago farmers can successfully explored the multi-functionality of their sheep and realized improved income security through the Lamb Bank Farming Systems Model despite, their small, landless circumstances. FEED PARTICLE SIZE PREFERENCE AND FEED WASTAGE IN AGOUTI (DASYPROCTA LEPORINA) REARED INTENSIVELY IN THE REPUBLIC OF TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO Birendra Dookie, Kegan Romelle Jones, Riyadh Mohammed and Gary Wayne Garcia The Open Tropical Forage-Animal Production Laboratory, Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St Augustine Increasing demands for agouti meat will eventually lead to a shift from small to large scale production where inefficient feed usage by the animal can result in high production costs. There are currently no commercial feeds designed for agouti which take into consideration the animal’s feeding habits and techniques. This study seeks to take the first step by determining whether or not the agouti exhibits a preference for a particular feed particle size. Twelve agoutis (6 male, 6 female) were offered three different particle sizes of varying thickness (6.35 mm ´ 25.4 mm, 9.53 mm ´ 25.4 mm and 12.7 mm ´ 25.4 mm) simultaneously over a period of seven (7) days and quantity selected was used to determine preference. Wastage of each feed particle size was also evaluated. It was observed that agoutis most preferred the 12.7 mm x 25.4 mm particle and that preference was not affected by gender. The particle size resulting in the least wastage and least likely to slip through the cage flooring was determined to be the 12.7 mm x 25.4 mm particle. This suggests that this may be the minimum sized feed pellet suitable for agoutis in this system. 13

EFFECTS OF SEGREGATED EARLY WEANING AT 7 DAYS ON DAMS’ BODY CONDITION, PARTURITION INTERVAL AND OFFSPRING BIRTH WEIGHT AND LITTER SIZE IN THE AGOUTI (DASYPROCTA LEPORINA) FOR INTENSIVE PRODUCTION Riyadh Mohammed, Kavita Kemeela Sant and Gary Wayne Garcia The Open Tropical Forage-Animal Production Laboratory, Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St Augustine The Agouti (Dasyprocta leporina) is a Neo-tropical rodent with the potential for domestication, production and utilization. There has been limited information reported on the impacts of segregated early weaning on agouti dams. The study lasted 485 days where 4 parturitions were recorded from 12 (2-year old) multiparous dams, hence there were 48 (12 x 4) parturitions in total with 100 offspring being born. Data was collected on 1) the live weight gain of dams (+/- g), 2) re-conception time and parturition interval (through theoretical calculations assuming that the gestation period was 104 days), 3) litter size at each parturition 4) weight of each individual offspring born per litter as a % of dams’ live weight and 5) the ratio of offspring sex at each parturition. Results showed that dams can reconceive and have a successive parturition as early as 119 days after the day of her previous parturition. Average live weight gain after 4 consecutive parturitions for dams were 276g. Average offspring weights increased by approximately 23 g (193 g to 216g) after 4 parturitions when weaned at 7 days. Average litter size per dam increased by 33% (1.75 to 2.33) after 4 parturitions when weaned at 7 days. Litter size as a percentage of dam’s body weight increased by 0.11% (5.47 to 5.58) after 4 parturitions when weaned at 7 days. It can be concluded that weaning at 7 days post-partum is very beneficial for dams’ body condition and re conception, offspring growth and development and for continuous reproduction in an intensive production unit. 14

COMPARING POST-PARTUM ALLOMETRIC GROWTH BY BODY WEIGHT BETWEEN SEX AND LITTER SIZE OF AGOUTI (DASYPROCTA LEPORINA) OFFSPRING FROM BIRTH TO 360 DAYS OLD Riyadh Mohammed, Asad Mohammed, Letetia Addison, Kavita Kameela Sant and Gary Wayne Garcia The Open Tropical Forage-Animal Production Laboratory, Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St Augustine The Agouti (Dasyprocta leporina) is a Neo-tropical rodent with the potential for domestication, conservation, production and utilization. There has been limited information reported on the allometric growth of young agouti from birth comparing both sexes and litter sizes. The objectives of this study were to 1) Measure the rate of growth (by weight) of agouti offspring of 5 time points (0, 30, 90, 180, 270, 360 days), 2) Find the differences in growth (by weight) between sexes and litter sizes over the 360 day period from birth, 3) Observe if there is any sexual dimorphism at a particular weight or age by allometric growth, 4) To differentiate the allometric body part growth differences by litter size and sex and 5) To use Heart girth as an estimator for live weight. Data was collected from 36 agouti offspring; 12 from each litter size of single, double and triple born and from both sexes. The measurements recorded were; 1) Live body weight 2) Skull Length (mm) (Tip of nose to middle point between ears), 3) Tail Length (mm), 4) Body Length (mm) (Middle point between ears to beginning of tail), 5) Hind Foot Length (mm) (Tip of toes to end), 6) Front Foot Length (mm) (Sternum to toes), 7) Ear Length (mm) and 8) Heart Girth (mm) (Circumference behind front legs). Findings were; 1) Sex does not have any effect on offspring weight, however females are heavier at birth and at day 360 and are horizontally longer than males, 2) Double and triple born offspring catch up in growing and weight gain after 6 months of age, 3) Females have larger skulls in the first 6 months of life, 4) Double and triple born offspring have longer front and hind feet than single born offspring, 5) Triple born offspring have longer ear lengths than other offspring, 6) At 6 to 9 months old, all 3 litter sizes showed the same rate of growth, 7) There is a strong correlation between front foot length (height) and body length in the growing agouti, 8) Heart girth circumference differs between litter sizes over 3 months old and 9) Heart girth is a useful predictor of live weight. The conclusion was that heart girth is a useful predictor of live weight and a more advanced categorical model can be used to refine this original model. 15

COMPARING THE EFFECT OF DAM’S AGE AND LIVE WEIGHT ON OFFSPRING BIRTH WEIGHT, SEX RATIO, LITTER SIZE AND EARLY GROWTH RATE IN THE AGOUTI (DASYPROCTA LEPORINA) IN AN INTENSIVE PRODUCTION SYSTEM Riyadh Mohammed, Asad Mohammed, Letetia Addison, Kavita Kameela Sant and Gary Wayne Garcia The Open Tropical Forage-Animal Production Laboratory, Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St Augustine The Agouti (Dasyprocta leporina) is a suitable animal for meat production in tropical regions because of its adaptability and its ability to utilize natural feed resources. This study was done to show how proper animal management can have positive effects on animal production. The objectives of this study were to observe:1) The effect of dams’ age and weight on offspring litter size, litter sex ratio, weight at birth, and initial growth rate from day 0 to 28 days post-partum. 2) To measure the productivity (by live weight) of all 6 ages of the reproductive females and to choose the best age and weight for intensive reproduction. 3) To observe the survivability rate of offspring among litters. 4) To compare the biological adjustments dams’ make for parturition. Results showed that there was no significant effect of dam’s age and weight on offspring litter size, offspring sex, birth weight, live weights at 7, 14, 21 and 28 days old and growth between 0-7, 7- 14, 14- 21 and 21- 28 days old. Thirty six (36) pregnant dams were weighed daily (with caution) from the detection of pregnancy until the day of parturition. The dams were of ages 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 years, hence 6 dams of each age were under observation. The measurements that were recorded were 1) dam’s age 2) dam’s weight on the day of parturition and immediately after giving birth. 3) total litter size at birth 4) litter sex ratio at birth 5) survivability of offspring at birth and 6) weights of offspring on day 0, 7, 14, 21 and 28. Results showed that there was no significant effect of dam’s age and weight on offspring litter size, offspring sex, birth weight, live weights at 7, 14, 21 and 28 days old and growth between 0-7, 7- 14, 14- 21 and 21- 28 days old, hence these parameters were a useful indicator. There were only 3 of 72 offspring that were born as stillbirths hence the survivability rate was 95.83%. It was also found that as the dams’ live weight increases, the ratio of her weight in relation to her offspring’s’ weight decreases. This study also showed that dams’ produced offspring around 5.9% of their total live weight postpartum. In an intensive production system, agouti dams’ of ages 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 were all very productive and offspring growth and development isn’t affected 16

by either dam’s age or live weight. In conclusion, there is no need to cull reproductive females of ages 1-6 years old in an intensive production system. The ratio of offspring live weight at birth compared to dam’s live weight ranged from 5-6%. EFFECTS OF SEGREGATED EARLY WEANING AT 7 DAYS ON DAMS’ BODY CONDITION, PARTURITION INTERVAL AND OFFSPRING BIRTH WEIGHT AND LITTER SIZE IN THE AGOUTI (DASYPROCTA LEPORINA) FOR INTENSIVE PRODUCTION Riyadh Mohammed, Kavita Kemeela Sant and Gary Wayne Garcia The Open Tropical Forage-Animal Production Laboratory, Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St Augustine The Agouti (Dasyprocta leporina) is a Neo-tropical rodent with the potential for domestication, production and utilization. There has been limited information reported on the impacts of segregated early weaning on agouti dams and their offspring. The objectives off this study were to 1) Observe the length of time in days between parturition 2) Observe the live weight gain/loss from dams through 4 parturitions 3) Observe litter size, sex ratio and birth weights of offspring 4) To observe the percentage (%) of individual offspring birth weight to dam’s live weight. The study lasted 485 days where 4 parturitions were recorded from 12 (2 year old) multiparous dams, hence there were 48 (12 x 4) parturitions in total with 100 offspring being born. Data was collected on 1) the live weight gain of dams (+/- g), 2) re-conception time and parturition interval (through theoretical calculations assuming that the gestation period was 104 days), 3) litter size at each parturition 4) weight of each individual offspring born per litter as a % of dams’ live weight and 5) the ratio of offspring sex at each parturition. Results showed that dams can reconceive and have a successive parturition as early as 119 days after the day of her previous parturition. Average live weight gain after 4 consecutive parturitions for dams were 276g. Average offspring weights increased by approximately 23 g (193 g to 216g) after 4 parturitions when weaned at 7 days. Average litter size per dam increased by 33% (1.75 to 2.33) after 4 parturitions when weaned at 7 days. Litter size as a percentage of dam’s body weight increased by 0.11% (5.47 to 5.58) after 4 parturitions when weaned at 7 days. This study concludes that weaning at 7 days post-partum is very beneficial for dams’ body condition and re conception, offspring growth and development and for continuous reproduction in an intensive production unit. 17

FOOD PRODUCTION - CROPS 18

YARA N TESTER AS A TOOL TO PREDICT LEAF N CONCENTRATION AND FRESH YIELD OF TWO FIELD GROWN TROPICAL CORN (ZEA MAYS L.) CULTIVARS Deneil A. Lara and Gregory A. Gouveia Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine It is crucial for small island developing countries, like Trinidad and Tobago, to apply appropriate modern diagnostic technology to boost crop production. This study sought to evaluate the YARA N-Tester, chlorophyll meter, as a potential diagnostic tool in quantifying the N status of two tropical corn cultivars on River Estate Series. It consisted of two field experiments given a single fertilizer application. Each utilized a different local corn cultivar and involved five incremental treatments, which ranged from 0 to 135 kg N/ha and 0 to 180 kg N/ha, for ICTA and UW7; respectively. They were laid out according to randomized complete block designs with three replicates. A significant and positive correlation was observed between N-Tester values (NTV) and leaf N concentration (LNC); as well as, NTV and fresh crop yield (FCY). NTV was found to be much more highly related to yield for rainfed ICTA Farm corn, producing a very significant relationship, P ≤ 0.01 and R2 ≥ 0.8, at 6.5 and 9.5 WAP and calculated critical NTVs were 760 at 6.5 WAP, 635 at 8 WAP and 725 at 9.5 WAP. However, the same could not be achieved with much certainty for UW7, due to viable crop plant loss. Results indicated that there is a need for further investigations involving the addition of an excessively fertilized plot, split fertilizer applications and better management, in order to improve the accuracy of data collected and regression modelling confidence. 19

IDENTIFICATION OF PHYTOPHTHORA CAPSICI CAUSING COLLAR ROT IN HOT PEPPERS IN TRINIDAD Bryan A.M. Smith, Gaius Eudoxie and Duraisamy Saravanakumar Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago Hot pepper (Capsicum chinense Jacq.) is an economically important commercial crop cultivated in Trinidad for domestic consumption and for export in its fresh and processed forms. Collar rot and wilting symptoms have been observed in major hot pepper producing areas of Trinidad over several years, resulting in severe crop losses. Isolations were made from infected plants using corn meal agar (CMA) amended with antibiotics. The isolated organism was identified as Phytophthora capsici based on morphological and microscopic observations. Inoculation of zoospores of P. capsici onto healthy seedlings confirmed the typical expression of symptoms of collar rot and wilting in hot peppers under greenhouse conditions. PCR amplification and nucleotide sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of rDNA using the primers ITS4 and ITS6 and of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase gene using primers FMPhy-8b and FMPhy-10b confirmed the pathogen as P. capsici. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report identifying and confirming P. capsici affecting hot peppers in Trinidad. Source: Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology: 41(1):129-134. 20

EFFECT OF HOST EXTRACT ON GROWTH AND SPORULATION OF CERCOSPORA LACTUCAE-SATIVAE Augustus Thomas and Duraisamy Saravanakumar Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Cercospora lactucae-sativae is a slow growing hemibiotrophic fungus that proves difficult to isolate and sporulate on many growth media. The study focused on the use of a simple isolation procedure for C. lactucae-sativae and examined the effect of host extract on growth and sporulation of C. lactucae- sativae on PDA and Water Agar. The mean colony diameter was significantly greater than that of the control treatment for WA + LE at 1 %, 2% and 4 % only, and for all of the LE concentrations on PDA. The mean conidial concentration was significantly different from the control treatment for all concentrations on WA at and above 2 % LE, while on PDA there were no significant differences between any of the treatment including the control. PCR has confirmed that the leaf spot disease affecting lettuce cultivation in Trinidad is caused by C. lactucae-sativae. Source: Australasian Plant Disease Notes: 14 (1), 19. 21

THE PREFERENTIAL FEEDING HABITS OF ACHATINA (LISSACHATINA) FULICA (BOWICH) ON SELECTED CROPS GROWN AND WEEDS FOUND IN TRINIDAD, WEST INDIES Marcus N.A. Ramdwar1, Jesse Harripersad1, Wayne Ganpat2, Wendy-Ann Isaac3 and Donald Palmer2 1Agriculture Biosciences Agriculture and Food Technologies, University of Trinidad and Tobago, ECIAF Campus, Caroni North Bank Road 2Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus 3Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine A study was conducted to determine the preferential feeding habits of the Giant African Snail (GAS) Achatina (Lissachatina) fulica (Bowdich) on selected crops and selected weeds found in Trinidad, West Indies. The intraspecific plant vulnerabilities such as vegetative (leaves) and reproductive structures (flowers and pods/fruits) of ochro, pumpkin, seim, papaya and eggplant were investigated. Additionally, the preference for leaves of selected weeds (Amaranth spp, Portulaca oleracea and Cleome spp) and root crops (cassava, sweet potato and dasheen) were investigated. In determining the intraspecific preference for the parts within a crop, 10 g of each component (leaves, flowers and pods) were placed into a chamber with three adult GAS, averaging 5 cm in length and replicated five times for each crop. The GAS had the option to choose between vegetative and reproductive structures. Similarly, 10 g of leaves for each weed were placed into a chamber with three adult snails and replicated five times. In determining the vulnerabilities for the leaves of the selected root crops, the treatment and replicates were similar to the weeds in that the GAS also had the option to select among the leaves of the root crops presented. The amount of plant material consumed after 24 and 48 h was recorded and statistically analyzed using Statistical Package for Student of Social Sciences (SPSS) version 22. The results of the study showed that the GAS exhibit significant preferences (p < .05) for components of plant parts within a plant and for consuming more leaves of one type of weed and root crop over another. The study concluded that by knowing the specific vulnerabilities of a crop to the GAS, the crop protection approaches to controlling the GAS in a cropping system can be more appropriately redesigned and precision based. Source: Cogent Food and Agriculture Journal (2018) 4 (1): 1-11 22

EFFECT OF SUSTAINABLE FERTILIZER REGIME ON PAPAYA FRUIT QUALITY ATTRIBUTES Whitney Martin1, Wendy-Ann P. Isaac1, Ayub Khan2 and Anand B. Persad3 1Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine 2Department of Life Science, Faculty of Science and Technology, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine 3Davey Institute, Plant Sciences, The Davey Tree Expert Company, Kent, Ohio, USA Papaya demands nutrients continuously in large amounts and use large quantities of expensive chemically formulated fertilizers. A field experiment was conducted at the University Field Station, Mt. Hope to study the effect of planting date and reduced/sustainable fertilizer regime on two cultivars of papaya (Carica papaya L.) (cv. Red lady and Tainung No. 2) production in a River estate loam soil. The experiment comprised of four reduced fertilizer regimes, which included, agribiotics (microbes and humic acid), arborgreen (30-10-7, slow release fertilizer), urea and 12-12-17+2 (usual farmers’ practice) and no fertilizer as the control. The results showed that arbogreen treated Red lady and Tainung No.2 performed significantly better than other treatments for plant height, fruit number and also postharvest storage and quality, regardless of planting date. Consumer preference was also for arborgreen treated papaya for both varieties. Arborgreen treated Red lady plants were also more tolerant to the Bunchy top virus and yielded higher fruit weights than other treatments. Tainung No. 2 plants produced higher yields with the Agribiotics treatment at both planting dates but were very susceptible to the Bunchy top virus. Results demonstrate that increased yields can be obtained using more sustainable fertilizer management, while decreasing fertilizer usage from 50-100 % thereby significantly increasing profits for farmers. Source: Acta Horticulturae (2019) 1250 (1): 7-14 23

SCREENING FOR BLAST RESISTANCE IN RICE USING AMMI MODELS TO UNDERSTAND G X E INTERACTION IN GUYANA. Rajendra Persaud1,2 and Duraisamy Saravanakumar1 1Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of The West Indies, St. Augustine 2Department of Plant Pathology, Guyana Rice Development Board, Rice Research Station, Burma, Mahaicony, East Coast Demerara, Guyana In rice, totally one hundred and three genotypes were evaluated for resistance against blast disease in three hot spot locations of Guyana. The experiments were conducted in spring and autumn seasons of 2015, 2016 and 2017. The modified upland blast nursery (UBN) method was adopted for screening blast resistance. The Additive Main effects and Multiplicative Interaction (AMMI) analysis was applied to understand the interaction between genotype (G) and environment (E). The results of all seasons at three locations showed the consistent expression of high resistance by genotype FL 127 followed by FG12–08 and FG12–273. The AMMI analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed that, resistance was dominated by the genotype main effect. The magnitude of genotypes by environment (G x E) sum of square (SS) was 3.64 times smaller than genotype SS, and 6.74 times larger than environment SS. The analysis has indicated that the differences of the genotypes across the environment were not substantial. All of the seven environment vectors appeared to be positively correlated. The screening at Onverwagt Back, autumn 2016 (E7) and Black Bush Polder, spring 2015 (E5) were observed to be the most representative environment. This was clearly revealed by smaller average - environment axis (AEA) angle. Likewise, E4 (Canje, autumn 2015) was observed closer to the ideal test environment^, thus suggested as an ideal environment for blast resistant screening. Also, genotypes clustered near the origin have showed stable blast disease resistant status and contributed little to both G and G x E. These genotypes proposed as useful ones for breeding disease resistant varieties and hybrids in rice. Source: Phytoparasitica (2018) 46:551–568 24

PLANT EXTRACTS, BIOAGENTS AND NEW GENERATION FUNGICIDES IN THE CONTROL OF RICE SHEATH BLIGHT IN GUYANA Rajendra Persaud 1,2, Ayub Khan3, Wendy-Ann Isaac1, Wayne Ganpat4, and Duraisamy Saravanakumar1 1Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, 2Department of Plant Pathology, Guyana Rice Development Board, Rice Research Station, Burma, Mahaicony, East Coast Demerara, Guyana 3Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine 4Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of The West Indies, St. Augustine Sheath blight disease has become a major constraint in cultivation of rice in Guyana inflicting significant yield losses. Eleven plant extracts, three biocontrol agents and five new generation fungicides were screened for their efficacy against sheath blight pathogen, Rhizoctonia solani under in vitro conditions. The extracts of lemon grass, thick leaf thyme, marigold and clove at 15% showed high inhibition to mycelial growth of R. solani. Among biocontrol agents, Bacillus cereus OG2L exhibited high inhibition against mycelial growth of R. solani. New generation fungicides viz., Antracol (Propineb), Nativo (Trifloxystrobin þ Tebuconazole), Silvacur Combi (Tebuconazol þ Triadimenol), Cyclops (Cinnamon Oil þ Clove Oil) and a biofungicide (Serenade - Bacillus subtilis cepa QST 713) recorded complete inhibition of R. solani under in vitro conditions. The plant extracts, bioagent and new generation fungicides that showed high inhibition to R. solani under in vitro were evaluated for their efficacy against shealth blight disease under greenhouse and field experiments. The extracts of lemon grass (7.21; 8.04; 4.85%), thick leaf thyme (6.71; 7.28; 4.71%) at 15%; B. cereus OG2L at 2 g L_1 (7.86; 8.68; 5.09%) and new generation fungicides viz., Antracol 70WP (8.51; 7.79; 5.27%), Nativo (7.62; 7.21; 4.20%) and Serenade (7.78; 7.66; 4.79%) have recorded low percent disease severity compared to untreated control (26.25; 31.16; 20.43%) in greenhouse, field trials I and II, respectively. The plant extracts, bioagent and new generation fungicides recorded a greater reduction (73.63%) in sheath blight disease incidence with an average yield increased from 10.25 to 36.03% compared to the control. The current study has provided chemical and non-chemical options for an integrated management of sheath blight disease in rice plants. Source: Crop Protection 119 (2019) 30–37 25

DIFFERENTIAL EXPRESSION OF PROTEINS IN RESISTANT AND SUSCEPTIBLE RICE GENOTYPES AGAINST BLAST INFECTION Rajendra Persaud1,2, Duraisamy Saravanakumara1 1Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine 2Department of Plant Pathology, Guyana Rice Development Board, Rice Research Station, Burma, Mahaicony, East Coast Demerara, Guyana Blast is one of the most important diseases affecting rice cultivation worldwide. The current study employed Two-Dimensional Difference Gel Electrophoresis (2D-DIGE) plus Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight-mass spectroscopy (MALDI-TOF MS) and TOF/TOF tandem MS/MS to investigate the differentially regulated proteins in the highly resistant (HR) genotype, FL 127 and highly susceptible (HS) genotype, Rustic against blast pathogen in rice. The differential expression of sevent- eight protein spots were observed in 2D-gel analysis of HR and HS genotypes. The comparision of protein expression ratio between HR and HS genotypes showed that twenty protein spots were predominant in differential expression against blast pathogen. Of which, seventeen were upregulated and three were down regulated. Characterization of these proteins using MALDITOF (MS) and TOF/TOF tandem MS/MS analysis with protein databases revealed that most of their functions either directly or indirectly related to plant defense and stress response, transcription and photosynthesis. The knowledge on various proteins characterized in this study suggested their possible role in expressing resistance by gentotype FL 127 against P. oryzae. Further, the knowledge generated in this study would be useful in the development of molecular markers for screening blast resistance using molecular biology approaches. Source: Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology 103 (2018) 62–70 26

POSTHARVEST PHYSIOLOGY, BIOCHEMISTRY AND QUALITY MANAGEMENT OF CHILI PLUM (SPONDIAS PURPUREA VAR. LUTEA): A REVIEW Majeed Mohammed1, Puran Bridgemohan2, Owen Graham1, Lynda Wickham1, Ronell S. H. Bridgemohan3 and Zareef Mohammed4 1Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies 2Biosciences Agriculture and Food Technology, The University of Trinidad and Tobago Waterloo Research Campus, Carapichaima, Trinidad, 3Georgia College and State University, GA, USA,4University of Miami, USA The chili plum (Spondias purpurea L.) is an exotic fruit with a climacteric pattern of respiration belonging to the Anacardiaceous family and is consumed in both the fresh and processed states. The fruit has a yellow pulp, pleasant aroma, sweet sour taste with vitamin A content being higher than cashew, guava, some papaya and mango cultivars. However, a relatively short shelf-life of 5-6 days at ambient temperatures for harvested fruits and widespread incidence of fruit-fly infestation are two major limitations for increased utilization of this fruit. Fruits can be successfully stored up to 14 days at 12.5oC. Fruits stored at 12.5oC and then subsequently transferred to 30-32oC ripened normally with a shelf-life of 4 days. Storage at temperatures below 9-10oC resulted in the occurrence of chilling injury damage accompanied by an inhibition of ripening. Chili plums have a caloric density of 74 kcal/100 g-1 edible portion which is significantly higher than the 39 to 58 kcal/100g-1 for peach, apricot, and mango and cherry. The higher caloric density is attributed to its total carbohydrates of 19.1% and fructose, glucose and sucrose which together account for 65% of the soluble matter. Unlike the other fruits, chili plum retains a fair amount of starch in the mesocarp. It is a moderate source of potassium (250 mg/100g-1 edible portion) and an excellent source of vitamin C (48 mg/100g-1 edible portion). Analysis of volatile flavour compounds showed 2-hexenal to be the main flavour compound present. Source: Journal of Food Research 8(3): 1-15. (2019) 27

CLEAN COLD CHAIN DEVELOPMENT AND THE CRITICAL ROLE OF EXTENSION EDUCATION Lisa Kitinoja1, Vijay Yadav Tokala1and Majeed Mohammed2 1The Postharvest Education Foundation 2Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture Perishable foods experience huge losses and sometimes more than half of the total produce is lost due to poor postharvest handling practices. A cold chain consists of a series of actors engaged in producing, transporting, storing, retailing and serving fresh, chilled and frozen foods. Availability of refrigeration and an unbroken cold chain is essential to manage qualitative and quantitative losses in perishables. The effectiveness of the cold chain relies on controlling product temperature at every step, and careful management of practices, technologies, capital and workers. Present refrigeration and cold transport technologies typically use either diesel fuel (expensive and a source of pollution) and/or electric power (often not available in rural areas). Promoting the expansion of existing technologies for cold chain development will have the side effects of increasing pollution, greenhouse gas production and associated climate change. Clean cold chain development is an environmentally sustainable way to achieve essential cooling and reduction in the postharvest losses. Effective promotion of clean cold technologies is possible only through appropriate extension outreach, capacity building and training activities. This paper focusses on the critical role of extension education in the implementation of clean cold chain management in developed and developing countries. Source: Agriculture for Development 36(3): 19-25. (2019). 28

HOT PEPPERS VIII. REDUCTION OF MICROBIAL INFECTION AND PHYSIO-CHEMICAL DETERIORATION IN PROCESSED CARIBBEAN PEPPERS 1Puran Bridgemohan, 2Majeed Mohammed, 3Ronell S. H Bridgemohan and 4Zareef Mohammed 1Biosciences Agriculture and Food Technology, The University of Trinidad and Tobago Waterloo Research Campus, Carapichaima 2Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies 3Georgia College and State University, GA, USA 4State University of New York (SUNY), Plattsburg, USA The quality in the small producers’ hot pepper industry is affected by microbial and thermal processing which reduces the physio-chemical qualities of the final product particularly colour retention and to a lesser extent pungency. A series of studies explored the causes and evaluated some protocols to reduce microbial infection and the loss of pigment using varying sealant caps of vegetable oil and sodium chloride, in addition to preserving agents (calcium chloride, ascorbic acid, sodium benzoate, sodium chloride, and calcium citrate). The result confirmed that red pepper mash in 100 g CaCl under vegetable oil sealant cap retained “L”, ‘a’, ‘b’ colour coordinates as the fresh peppers over 1oodays and beyond with no loss of colour, pungent and flavor. Source: Journal of Food Research 8(2): 32-41. (2019). 29

POSTHARVEST PHYSIOLOGY, BIOCHEMISTRY AND QUALITY MANAGEMENT OF CHILI PLUM (SPONDIAS PURPUREA VAR. LUTEA): A REVIEW Majeed Mohammed1, Puran Bridgemohan2, Owen Graham1, Lynda Wickham1, Ronell S. H. Bridgemohan3 and Zareef Mohammed4 1Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies 2Biosciences Agriculture and Food Technology, The University of Trinidad and Tobago Waterloo Research Campus, Carapichaima, Trinidad, 3Georgia College and State University, GA, USA, 4University of Miami, USA The chili plum (Spondias purpurea L.) is an exotic fruit with a climacteric pattern of respiration belonging to the Anacardiaceous family and is consumed in both the fresh and processed states. The fruit has a yellow pulp, pleasant aroma, sweet sour taste with vitamin A content being higher than cashew, guava, some papaya and mango cultivars. However, a relatively short shelf-life of 5-6 days at ambient temperatures for harvested fruits and widespread incidence of fruit-fly infestation are two major limitations for increased utilization of this fruit. Fruits can be successfully stored up to 14 days at 12.5oC. Fruits stored at 12.5oC and then subsequently transferred to 30-32oC ripened normally with a shelf-life of 4 days. Storage at temperatures below 9-10oC resulted in the occurrence of chilling injury damage accompanied by an inhibition of ripening. Chili plums have a caloric density of 74 kcal/100 g-1 edible portion which is significantly higher than the 39 to 58 kcal/100g-1 for peach, apricot, and mango and cherry. The higher caloric density is attributed to its total carbohydrates of 19.1% and fructose, glucose and sucrose which together account for 65% of the soluble matter. Unlike the other fruits, chili plum retains a fair amount of starch in the mesocarp. It is a moderate source of potassium (250 mg/100g-1 edible portion) and an excellent source of vitamin C (48 mg/100g-1 edible portion). Analysis of volatile flavour compounds showed 2-hexenal to be the main flavour compound present. Source: Journal of Food Research 8(3): 1-15. (2019) 30

HOT PEPPER V: POSTHARVEST QUALITY ATTRIBUTES OF 12 ORNAMENTAL PEPPER GENOTYPES DURING STORAGE AT REFRIGERATED AND NON-REFRIGERATED TEMPERATURES Mohamed, M. E. S1, Mohammed, M2, Bridgemohan, P1 and Baird, J2 1Centre for Biosciences, Agriculture and Food Technology, The University of Trinidad and Tobago, ECIAF Campus, Centeno, Trinidad bDepartment of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Twelve ornamental pepper genotypes were selected to determine quality characteristics, storage potential and relative sensitivity to chilling injury. For each genotype three replicates of seven fruits per genotype were evaluated prior to storage at refrigerated and non-refrigerated temperatures for fresh weight, shape, number of seed, placenta fresh weight, skin colour, fruit dimensions such as length, width and pericarp thickness, firmness, pH, total soluble solids (TTS), total titratable acidity (TTA), TSS: TTA. Measurements were also taken for fruits in each genotype that was sealed in low density polyethylene bags (LDPE) and stored for 15 days at 70C and 280C. These measurements included percentage fresh weight losses, percentage marketable fruits and percentage decayed fruits. Chilling injury symptoms were rated for all genotypes after 15 days at 70C and upon subsequent transfer for an additional day at 280C. Quality attributes varied among the 12 genotypes for all parameters listed above. However, genotypes 3 and 4 accounted for the best shelf life with fruits securing marketable values of 67% and 62% respectively after 15 days at 70C which was almost two-folds greater compared to their counterparts stored at 280C. While the same two genotypes were chilling tolerant after 15 days at 70C, they succumbed to severe chilling injury when transferred for 1 day at 280C. Source: International Research Journal of Natural and Applied Sciences 4 (1): 189-206. (2017) 31

EFFECTS OF PRE- AND POST-HARVEST TREATMENTS WITH HEXANAL FORMULATIONS ON TIME TO RIPENING AND SHELF LIFE OF PAPAYA (CARICA PAPAYA L.) FRUITS Nirmalla Debysingh1, Lynda D. Wickham1, Majeed Mohammed1, George Legall1, Gopinadhan Paliyath2 and Jayasankar Subramanian2 1Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies; 2Department of Plant Agriculture, University of Guelph, Canada Papaya (Caria papaya L.) cv. Red lady is used as ripened fresh fruit as well as in the unripe state in many processed products. Therefore, for uses other than fresh fruit consumption, maintenance of fruit in the unripe state is extremely important for viable commercial applications. The application of 2% enhanced freshness formulation (EFF) with hexanal as the main active ingredient, has been shown to delay the onset of ripening in several subtropical fruits. This investigation was done to determine its effect on ripening and senescence in papaya fruits. Trials were conducted using 2% EFF applied as a pre-harvest spray and as a post-harvest dip alone or in combination with the pre-harvest spray. Pre-harvest treatments were applied at two week intervals beginning 30-days before expected harvest maturity. For post-harvest treatments, fruits were completely immersed in the dip solution for ten minutes and allowed to air dry at room temperature before storage. Fruits on trees sprayed pre-harvest with 2% EFF developed first colour stripe approximately 75 days after second spraying while fruits on trees sprayed with the control solution developed first colour stripe 15 days after application of the second spray. This was as expected since the pre- harvest applications were timed to be begin within 30 days of expected harvest. Thus, pre-harvest treatment with 2% EFF resulted in a 60-day delay in the onset of ripening in fruits on treated trees. Fruits were harvested on development of the first colour stripe, indicative of the onset of ripening. Following the delayed onset of ripening, fruits harvested from trees sprayed pre-harvest with 2% EFF ripened to full colour change in 15-18 days during storage at 20-22oC / 90-95% RH. Fruits harvested from trees sprayed with the control solution ripened to full colour change in 8-10 days when stored under the same conditions. At full colour change, fruits from trees treated pre-harvest with 2% EFF had a lower incidence of post-harvest diseases than fruits from control trees. The application of 2% EFF as a pre-harvest treatment and as a postharvest dip can be used to increase the time to onset of ripening of papaya fruit in the field, delay the development of full colour change in fruits after harvest, maintain postharvest quality of fruits during storage at 20-22oC / 90-95% RH and reduce the incidence of post-harvest diseases. Source: Tropical Agriculture 95, Special Issue No. 1: 36-42 (2018) 32

THE EFFECTS OF PRE-HARVEST APPLICATION OF HEXANAL FORMULATIONS ON TIME TO RIPENING AND SENESCENCE AND FRUIT RETENTION TIME IN LIMEQUAT (CITROFORTUNELLA FLORIDANA J.W. INGRAM & H.E. MOORE) Nirmalla Debysingh1, Lynda D. Wickham1, Majeed Mohammed1, George Legall1, Gopinadhan Paliyath2 and Jayasankar Subramanian2 1Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies 2Department of Plant Agriculture, University of Guelph, Canada Limequat (Citrofortunella floridana J.W.Ingram & H.E.Moore), unlike many tropical fruits, is produced year-round in Trinidad and Tobago and there are periods where other seasonally available varieties of limes, for example, the West Indian variety, are in greater demand than the limequat, resulting in glut supplies and high losses in the field. Limequat has been known to produce in excess of 250,000 fruits per hectare and during periods of low demand, much of these fruits go to waste. Retention time of the fruit on the tree is usually around 35 days, after full colour change from green to yellow. Due to its soft texture, the fruit bruises very easily leading to high post-harvest losses and loss of earnings to farmers. This study was conducted to determine the effects of pre-harvest treatments with enhanced freshness formulation (EFF), applied at different concentrations and different application intervals, on retention time of the fruit on the tree and time to colour change of the fruit as an indicator of onset of senescence. Trials conducted showed that pre-harvest biweekly applications of EFF at four percent was more effective in delaying the onset of colour change of the limequat fruits than EFF application at two per cent. It was observed that application of two per cent EFF bi-weekly for four weeks gave a greater reduction in the average number of fruits showing full colour change after treatment when compared to weekly application. Results of the study indicated that application of four percent EFF at bi- weekly spray intervals for one month significantly reduced the rate of colour change of limequats on the trees. Weekly applications of two percent EFF gave the best retention times on the tree, in excess of 99 days, after treatment. Thus, treatment with EFF reduced pre-harvest losses and increased the time for which marketable quality of fruits was maintained. Source: Tropical Agriculture 95, Special Issue No. 1: 82-91 (2018) 33

THE EFFECTS OF PRE-HARVEST TREATMENTS WITH HEXANAL FORMULATION ON SELECTED POST-HARVEST QUALITY PARAMETERS OF LIMEQUAT (CITROFORTUNELLA FLORIDANA J.W.INGRAM AND H.E.MOORE) FRUITS Nirmalla Debysingh1, Lynda Wickham1, Majeed Mohammed1, Stephan Moonsammy2, Gopinadhan Paliyath3 and Jayasankar Subramanian3 1Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies; 2Departament of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies 3Department of Plant Agriculture, University of Guelph, Canada Generally, limequat (Citrofortunella floridana J.W.Ingram & H.E.Moore) fruits have a relatively short shelf life at supermarket display temperatures (17-22oC). In some cases, shelf life can be as short as four days, after which surface discolouration becomes evident, along with shrivelling, and in many instances, the development of post-harvest diseases. Therefore, for maintenance of marketable quality, these three factors must be controlled. Pre-harvest treatments are known to positively affect the post-harvest quality of many commodities. Among these, treatment with hexanal has resulted in improved post-harvest quality maintenance because of its retarding effect on enzyme-driven cellular degradation. This study was conducted to observe the effect of pre-harvest treatments with hexanal on the length of the shelf life and the post-harvest quality of limequat fruits. Pre-harvest spray applications of 2% and 4% EFF (Enhanced Freshness Formulation), containing hexanal as the active ingredient, were made at weekly and biweekly intervals 30-days before the expected date of harvest. Pre-harvest spray treatments of EFF at 2% and 4% to trees of limequat resulted in the delay in the rate of colour change from green to yellow by an average of 7 days and 14 days, respectively, in harvested mature fruit. Senescent changes and other signs of deterioration including surface discolouration as brown patches, appeared on the fruit only after full colour change from green to yellow had occurred. Pre- harvest treatment also resulted in a reduction in the incidence of post-harvest diseases by up to 21 days during storage at 17-19oC / 90-95% RH. Thus, pre- harvest spray application had a marked effect on appearance by delaying both yellowing and shrivelling of the fruit, and consequently on marketability since appearance is one of the main factors determining acceptability in the marketplace. Source: Tropical Agriculture 95, Special Issue No. 1: 92-96 (2018) 34

CAPACITY BUILDING IN POSTHARVEST LOSS ASSESSMENT, POSTHARVEST TRAINING AND INNOVATIONS FORREDUCING LOSSES: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE CARIBBEAN Majeed Mohammed1 and Lisa Kitinoja2 1Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, University of the West Indies, Trinidad. 2The Postharvest Education Foundation (PEF) Food security initiatives in the Caribbean have previously focused on increasing food production through the development of high yielding cultivars and agronomic testing. Although such studies provided information on the impact of new varieties and practices on yield, they did not provide adequate information on how the commodity performed under realistic commercial handling regimes. Consequently, most of the harvesting and handling damages that adversely affected retail quality and losses, estimated as high as 35-45% in the Caribbean, occurred before the commodities were displayed for sale. Accordingly, a priority for action to reduce food losses and waste is warranted and this depends on the development, adaption and communication of innovative technologies for improvement of current harvesting, postharvest handling, storage and distribution logistics, particularly for small–scale farmers and traders at the rural level. The importance of establishing and maintaining a close linkage between research, extension, training and capacity building in seeking this goal cannot be over emphasized. Involvement of producers and traders in determining research and extension priorities and identifying avenues in which information is unavailable has been restricted or even non-existent. The lack of postharvest technology extension to all segments of the postharvest system, severely constrains efforts to establish research/extension linkages and capacity building programs. Inadequate knowledge and skill of the extension officers themselves combine to provide major obstacles in the flow of information among the diverse actors and components of the system. This chapter looks at how postharvest research has contributed to the development of numerous innovative techniques aimed at reducing food losses and waste in large-scale farming in many developed countries, while highlighting how this has often been less so in developing countries in the Caribbean. Case studies of individual extension clientele will be provided to identify the gaps encountered along with examples of the efforts to provide information and training to reduce PHL. Finally, recommendations are provided on how to reduce the known gaps in postharvest research, training, extension and capacity building in the CARICOM region. 35

Source: In: (eds. M. Mohammed and V.T. Yadav), Postharvest Extension and Capacity Building for the Developing World, World Food Preservation Center Book Series, CRC Press, Boca Raton, USA, Chapter 2: 11-21. (2018). HOT PEPPER IX: MODIFIED ATMOSPHERE PACKAGING AND CHILLING INJURY TOLERANCE OF TWELVE ORNAMENTAL PEPPER GENOTYPES 1Majeed Mohammed, 2Puran Bridgemohan, 3Ronell S.H Bridgemohan and 4Zareef Mohammed 1Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, University of the West Indies, Trinidad, 2Biosciences Agriculture and Food Technology, The University of Trinidad and Tobago Waterloo Research Campus, Carapichaima,3Georgia College and State University, GA, USA. 4University of Miami, USA Ornamental pepper fruits are susceptible to physiological disorders that influence fruit quality. Among the most important of these is their susceptibility to chilling injury (CI). This problem limits the use of low storage temperature to manage postharvest quality, and seriously affects the ability of handlers to store or transport fruits over long distances, because temperatures that are low enough to delay senescence may also be damaging to the fruit. Evaluation of twelve (12) ornamental pepper genotypes was investigated to determine their relative sensitivity to chilling injury (CI), marketable quality and decay. Five fruits from each genotype were seal- packaged in 0.035 mm thick low density polyethylene bags (LDPE), and stored at 70C and 90-95% relative humidity and subsequently transferred for an additional day at 280C. A similar allocation of fruits from each genotype was stored in air as control at 280C. Although fruits were supplemented with modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), the advent of chilling injury symptom development, marketable quality and decay incidence varied among the 12 genotypes. Genotypes 3 and 4 accounted for the best shelf life with fruits securing marketable values of 67% and 62% respectively after 15 days at 70C which was almost two-folds greater compared to their counterparts stored at 280C. While the same two genotypes were chilling tolerant after continuous storage of 15 days at 70C, obvious symptoms of chilling injury such as pitting, stem and calyx discoloration and seed darkening were manifested even after 1-day exposure to 280C. At the same time, the majority of genotypes particularly 1, 2, 5, 9 and in particular 8 and 11 succumbed to severe chilling injury due to the high incidence of decay dominated with bacterial soft rot. Secondary infections induced by CI aggravated with multiple infections further compromised marketable quality and usability of genotypes 8 and 11 which were eventually identified with the highest sensitivity to chilling injury. Despite having a modified atmosphere 36

package to store fruits genotypic characteristics appeared to be the major limiting factor in the determination of chilling injury susceptibility and marketable quality of ornamental peppers. Source: Clinical Journal of Nutrition and Dietetics 1(2): 1-12 (2018). HOT PEPPERS: VII. PRE-PROCESSING OPERATIONS ON QUALITY AND COLOUR STABILITY IN CARIBBEAN RED HOT PEPPERS (CAPSICUM CHINENSIS L.) 1Puran Bridgemohan, 2Majeed Mohammed, 3Ronell S. H Bridgemohan and 4Zareef Mohammed 1Biosciences Agriculture and Food Technology, The University of Trinidad and Tobago Waterloo Research Campus, Carapichaima, 2Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, University of the West Indies, Trinidad, 3Georgia College and State University, GA, USA, 4State University of New York (SUNY), Plattsburg, USA. The Caribbean is the producer of some of the most pungent red hot peppers (Capsicum chinensis L.), however, quality is affected by pre- and post- processing methods. This reduces several physio-chemical quality parameters such as colour stability and pungency in particular. A series of experiments were conducted to develop a Caribbean hot pepper visual colour standard and the relative pungency of the fresh and processed products. Additionally, studies were conducted to assess the effects of preserving agents and various pre-processing methods on colour and pungency changes. The study has demonstrated that from the wide selection of Caribbean hot peppers, there are potential varieties which have met the standards set by ASTA for red colour pigmentation and pungency. Carvalho hot which is the second most pungent pepper cultivar (1.07mg capsaicinoids and 16, 000, 000 SHU) displayed no significant variation in Hue angle (130-300) and is similar to commercially graded paprika. The ASTA value for that pepper in acetic acid (377 ASTA units) and in the macerated state are similar to the bright red state (366 ASTA units) in the fresh mature hot fruit. The study found Carvalho hot peppers can be used for industrial processing as mash, flakes, or powder without loss of colour or pungency compared to all the other tested cultivars. Source: Clinical Journal of Nutrition and Dietetics 1(2): 1-12 (2018). 37

INTRODUCTION OF NEW COCONUT GERMPLASM TISSUE CULTURE-DERIVED PLANTLET: THE CASE OF SAINT LUCIA Marnus Cherry1, Govind Seepersad2, Andrea Veira3 1Department of Agriculture, Fisheries, Natural Resource and Cooperatives Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, Physical Planning, Natural Resource and Cooperatives, Saint Lucia, West Indies 2Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies 3Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI), St Lucia The international competitiveness of coconut farmers rest on the quantum of fruit juice produced per unit area, per unit time and on the cost of production. In order to compete on the beverage market of which St Lucia is a part, coconut germplasm was imported to increase farmers’ productivity. The country imported 7,000 coconut tissue-culture derived plantlets from Mexico, undertook acclimatization and field establishment. The study looks at the technical guidelines for the transboundary movement coconut-specific germplasm into Saint Lucia as the receiving country and the experiences of field establishment. While it is still early to measure the effectiveness of this technological input into the industry, this study examined the application of SPS Measures in the transboundary movement of the tissue culture-derived coconut plantlets. Given the rate of acclimatization and establishment in the fields, the study found there is a need for improvement in Saint Lucia’s SPS capabilities for the transboundary movement of coconut germplasm and coconut agronomy skills. Source: Presented at the 33rd West Indies Agricultural Economics Conference of the Caribbean Agricultural Economics Society, August 4-9, 2019. Mt Irvine Hotel, Tobago. 38

EXTENSION AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT 39

POLICY SUPPORT FOR WOMEN AGRI-ENTREPRENEURS IN THREE OECS COUNTRIES: STAKEHOLDERS PERSPECTIVES 1Tessa Barry and Wayne Ganpat Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Supporting policies are critical in fostering the development of women in agriculture and agri-entrepreneurship. The International Labour Organization (ILO) and the African Development Bank (AfDB), emphasized that policies should have evidence that the views and contributions of women are actively sought in policy leadership and development (ILO and AfDB 2007). This study sought to determine the extent of consideration given to the involvement of women in policy leadership and Development of Agri- entrepreneurs. The study surveyed forty (n = 40) key stakeholders in three countries, Grenada, St. Lucia and St. Vincent. Descriptive analysis was done using SPSS version 24. Most participants revealed that limited or no consideration was given to women’s representation on advisory boards for planning in policy leadership and development. Findings suggested that most of the key informants from key stakeholder organizations were involved in policy development and implementations relating to agri-entrepreneurship development which puts them in a strategic position to determine whether the policies and programmes were designed with women as a target. However, evidence suggested that these policies did not target women specifically and gave limited opportunities for women to be on advisory boards. These findings suggest that there is a critical need for policy and programme review and that in reviewing, concerted efforts should be made to incorporate women in the discussion towards change, as it is widely agreed that empowering women is important in addressing issues of food security (Quisumbing and Meinzen-Dick (2001). The study is recommending education and training to bring awareness to the importance of including women in the decision- making process for the development of gender sensitive policies towards an enabling environment for agri-entrepreneurial development. 1PhD Thesis Summary – 2019 40

A PEOPLE CENTERED APPROACH- THE COMMUNITIES OF PRACTICE FRAMEWORK OF STAKEHOLDER COLLABORATION- TO ADDRESS THE DECLINE OF THE TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO COCOA INDUSTRY 1Lorraine Waldropt Ferguson and Wayne Ganpat Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine On the global market, Trinidad and Tobago’s cocoa holds a comparative advantage and is a highly differentiated product. Cocoa production in Trinidad and Tobago, however, has declined significantly from 7,030 tons in 1961, to a mere 600 tons in 2012 (Bekele 2004) due to decreased cocoa production levels, reduced cocoa farmer populations, low productivity and labour availability, climate change and pests and disease problems (Bekele 2004, Spence et al. 2011, Wilson, Patterson-Andrews 2012). Past interventions to address the decline of Trinidad and Tobago Cocoa Industry were generally technological and government support but these interventions did not extensively include the “people” side in terms of stakeholder collaboration. Christopher and Peck (2004) have identified stakeholder collaboration as a strategy to restore and build commodity value chains. They have noted that key amongst the potential features of resilient value chains is a high degree of collaboration across organizations and stakeholders, if risk and change is to be successfully managed. The CDCTTL in its Strategic Plan (2017-2022) also noted that collaboration among actors along the Trinidad and Tobago cocoa value chain are “practically non-existent as they tend to operate in ‘silos’ however through a consensual collaborative framework there is great potential to leverage existing proclivities and to market Trinidad and Tobago as a cocoa destination (CDCTTL 2017). Studies have identified the stakeholder collaborative framework as the setting which builds social networks to address problems and initiate sectoral change because they act as critical hubs for generating social capital (Gubbins and Dooley 2013, Hu and Randel 2014, Tsai and Ghoshal 1998). Social capital can be defined as “the sum of the actual and potential resources embedded within, available through, and derived from the network of relationships possessed by an individual or social unit” (Nahapiet and Ghoshal 1998). Social capital therefore, provides mutual benefits of improved organizational learning, performance, and innovation to enable problem solving within an organization or industry through (1) Mutual activities, interaction, trust, knowledge sharing and cooperation as well as the ability of the network to generate assets of (2) New 41

knowledge capital; (3) Changes in practice; (4) Performance improvement and (5) Redefinition of success. A growing body of research indicates that communities of practice (stakeholder collaborative networks developed through the Communities of Practice Approach) act as hubs for developing the different dimensions of social capital, which in turn can lead to improved organizational learning, performance, and innovation (Gubbins and Dooley 2013; Hu and Randel 2014; Tsai and Ghoshal 1998). The purpose of this study was therefore to develop a community of practice for the Trinidad and Tobago Cocoa Industry to generate social capital to address the decline of the Trinidad and Tobago Industry. The community of practice for the study was developed through five of six lifecycle phases- Stage 1-Inquire; Stage 2- Design; Stage 3-Prototype, Stage 4-Launch, Stage 5-Growth and Stage 6- Sustain (Kaplan and Suter (2005). Due to the timeframe of the study, Stage 6 was not applied. The Cycle of Value Creation Framework then evaluated the community of practice set up by the study and it’s potential to generate social capital in which the proxies were five cycles of value immediate value, potential value, applied value, realized value and reframing value. In the final analysis, the results of the study showed the creation of social capital after application of the Communities of Practice Framework of Stakeholder Collaboration to the Trinidad and Tobago Cocoa Industry. The findings suggest that a framework of stakeholder collaboration- the Communities of Practice Framework of Stakeholder Collaboration and a community of a community of Practice representative of all stakeholders, can be applied to address the decline of the Trinidad and Tobago Cocoa Industry, through its generation of social capital to strategize and solve problems of the industry in order to stop industry decline and support industry sustainability. Furthermore, findings also suggest that the Communities of Practice Framework can be applied to other commodity industries undergoing decline and in need of intervention and for industries which seek improvement and sustainability intervention. 1PhD Thesis Summary – 2019 42

A QUALITATIVE ASSESSMENT OF WATERSHED CONCERNS FROM FOUR NORTHERN RANGE COMMUNITIES IN TRINIDAD Jeanelle Joseph and Wayne Ganpat Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Watersheds of Trinidad and Tobago are under threat, particularly those within the Northern Range. The legal and illegal clearing of land, illegal occupation of land, agriculture, logging and quarrying have resulted in destruction of the watersheds (National Environmental Policy, 2017). Despite the presence of legislation specifically drafted to protect various aspects of the environment in Trinidad and Tobago, little collaboration among institutional and non-institutional stakeholders exists, which often times presents itself in limited inclusion of community members who may be negatively impacting the watersheds in terms of decision-making activities. This study sought to determine perspectives on watershed management problems from four watershed communities in Trinidad, in an effort to develop suitable approaches towards addressing watershed problems. This qualitative study was guided by an interpretative theory. Focus group discussions were conducted in the four Northern Range communities of Lopinot, Guanapo, Maracas/ St. Joseph and Mausica, using three closed- ended questions to stimulate discussions. Responses from the focus groups were analysed utilizing In-vivo coding, following steps prescribed by Saldaña (2011). Relevant themes were developed and used to describe watershed issues from the community member’s perspective. Peer review of the transcripts ensured trustworthiness and neutrality of the data, and participant quotes were included to provide evidentiary support. Four main issues emerged during the discussions (i) Environmental Degradation, (ii) Unsustainable Agricultural Practices, (iii) Governance/ Institutional Pitfalls and (iv) Social Stressors. Environmental Degradation was discussed from two main points of view- because of the actions of persons from within the community and because of the actions of persons who were not from the community. Regarding unsustainable agricultural practices, most of the discussions were centred on the poor usage of agricultural chemicals and improper agricultural practices. Governance/Institutional Pitfalls, resulted from participants indicating that several projects have been started, but remain incomplete. Participants felt that law enforcement personnel are not performing their duties efficiently and inadequate law implementation allows negative environmental practices to take place. Social Stressors were also identified as an issue, as participants asserted that in most instances, people were the main culprits in that, their actions tended to have adverse effects on the surrounding environment. PhD Thesis Summary – 2018 43

FARMERS’ KNOWLEDGE AND TENDENCIES OF PESTICIDE APPLICATION IN TRINIDAD Brent Norris Georges, Kathiravan, Gopalan, and Brandon Murphy Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies While pesticides help in increasing crop production, inappropriate pesticide use not directed by the manufacturer can be detrimental to the health of farmers and farm ecology. Taking into consideration that the Caribbean archipelago is challenged by many food security issues and only produces a fraction of what is required to be food secure, the prevalence of pest and disease poses a great threat to farm lands, compounded by various natural disasters that frequently affect the Caribbean. Thus, farmers are compelled to protect their crop assets by employing precautionary measures, sometimes more than what is required, to minimize potential pest and disease attacks that can ruin their livelihood. However, inappropriate use and inadequate knowledge are among the reasons for accidental pesticide poisoning of farm workers and farm biodiversity. Therefore, it is important to assess the knowledge, attitudes, and tendencies that influences farmers’ use of pesticides. This study assessed farmers’ knowledge and compliance of pesticide labels and the factors that influences farmers’ tendencies of pesticide application. The study randomly interviewed 174 farmers via the use of a structured questionnaire in the eight municipal counties of Trinidad. Cross tabulation was used to calculate the frequencies of farmers’ socio- economic variables in relation to their knowledge of pesticides labels and the respective dosage traits. An order probit model was used to estimate the frequency (0-never; 1-sometimes; 2-rarely; 3- usually) of pesticide application. Results showed that females (100 per cent) were more likely to read pesticide labels and comply with the recommended dosage. Males on the other hand, (89 per cent) read the labels and almost 94 per cent comply with the recommended dosage. The study also showed that most (16%) farmers who experience problems to access information do not read pesticide label, as compared to 6% who do not read pesticide labels but have good access to information. Results from the order probit model confirmed that the probability of applying less pesticides is more (0.0795) with females as compared to males. Similarly, farmers who are between the ages of 41-60 years old and over 60 years old have a greater (0.2710 and0.2117 respectively probability of applying less pesticides. Likewise, farmers with greater than 10 years of experience (-.9053) are less probable to apply pesticides when compared to farmers with less than 5 years of experience (-.8188). Therefore, it is imperative for farmers and policy makers to design avenues for 44

intervention which could influence the safe and effective application of pesticides. The adoption of best management practices that are considered sustainable both to the environment and citizens of a country are important for the long term development of the country and the achievement of food security and food safety. AN ASSESSMENT OF PLANT QUARANTINE OFFICERS’ SELF- PERCEIVED COMPETENCIES IN THE CARIBBEAN REGION Wayne Ganpat1, Wendy-Ann P. Isaac2, Wayne De Chi3, Renita Sewsaran3 and Brandon Murphy1 1Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus 2Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus 3United States Department of Agriculture Plant quarantine is a key strategy in international plant protection efforts. This study identified the areas for knowledge and skills improvement among 108 Caribbean plant protection personnel from 20 countries. The Borich (1980) model of needs assessment was used. Results showed that respondents perceived all areas assessed as very important to their job functions. However, they perceived their proficiencies as low to average. Areas with highest training needs, as well as lowest need areas, were identified. The results can be used to revise the curricula for the regional training of plant quarantine personnel. Source: Journal of Agricultural & Food Information, (2019) 20(2):147 – 158 45

FACING BOLDLY THE SCOURGE OF PRAEDIAL LARCENY ON FOOD PRODUCTION IN THE CARIBBEAN. Wayne G. Ganpat1 and Wendy-Ann P. Isaac2 1Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus 2Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus Agricultural crimes or farm theft, commonly referred to as praedial larceny throughout the Caribbean, impacts significantly on food security through high levels of economic loss. This paper provides an overview of praedial larceny worldwide, losses in the Caribbean region and some evidence from Trinidad and Tobago where the situation is prevalent. The study was guided by the routine activities theory; identifying the types of criminal acts perpetrated, the level of risks posed to farmers and a special emphasis on the concept of guardianship. Data from group discussions and interviews conducted among farmers in two major areas in Trinidad representing different terrain (flat and hilly areas) and an acknowledged ‘hot spot’ area. The findings show that praedial larceny is no respecter of farmers, farming communities, type of crops, location or farmers’ economic circumstances. Finally, the paper reports on initiatives around the region and suggests other mechanisms which can be introduced to reduce the impact of praedial larceny on food security. Source: Journal of International Agricultural Extension Education. 25th Anniversary Special Issue (2018) 25 (4): 52-62 46