Social and Life Skill Book Class 11

$= tnsf] 36gf cWoog u/f“} / 5nkmn u/f}“ M bO' { ufpFnfO{ hf8] \\g] kSsL k'n sxfF lgdf0{ f ug{] eGg] ljjfbdf uf]ug] / cf]ng] ufpsF f :yfgLolar emu8f / em8kn] c;f]hsf] klxnf] xKtf cvaf/sf kfgfx¿ el/P . clxn] agfO/x]sf] 7fpdF f kn' agfP cfkm\"nfO{ dfGo gx'g] ufu] g]k6l\\ 6sf :yfgLox¿sf] egfO lyof] . o;f] ubf{ cfkm\\gf] ufpkF 6\\l6 af9L k:g] / ufpFdf Iflt kU' g] pgLx¿sf] bfaL lyof] eg] cfn] g]tkms{ f :yfgLo eg] clxn] ag]sf] 7fpdF f g} kn' aGgk' g{] c8\\8L lnP/ a;s] f lyP . o;/L em8k x'Fbf b'j}tkms{ f ufpFn]x¿ 3fOt] ePsf lyP . s]xL ;do o;n] ufpFdf pu|¿k lnof] . kl5 b'j} ufpFdf :yfgLo / ebe| nfb\\dLsf] dWo:ytfdf ;xdlt eO{ jftf;{ d]t eof] bj' } ufpFnfO{ cg's\"n xg' ] :yfgdf k'n agfpg] ;xdlt eof] . tyflk of] 36gfsf] c;/ b'j} ufpdF f nfdf] cjlw;Dd /xo\\ f] . kl5 b'j} ufpFsf :yfgLo txn] ljjfb ;dfwfg ug{ / cfk;L ;DaGwnfO{ k'ghL{ljt ug{ cGt/ljm| of sfoj{ m| d ;~rfng u/] . o;n] bj' } ufpdF f dflg;x¿lar /xs] f] ltSttfnfO{ w/] } xb;Dd sd ug{ dbt k¥' ofof] . 3fOtx] ¿sf] pkrf/df b'j} :yfgLo txn] ;xof]u ug]{ / tL ufpFx¿df cGo ljsf; lgdf{0fsf sfo{x¿ ug{] sfd eof] . bj' } ufpsF f o'jfx¿lar dq} Lk0\" f{ ljm| s6] kl| tof] lutf klg ;~rfng u/L ;DaGwnfO{ klxns] } cj:yfdf k¥' ofpg] jftfj/0f tof/ kfl/of] . clxn] b'j} ufpFsf v]nf8Lx¿ ;d]6L Pp6} ljm| s]6 Sna u7g ul/Psf] 5 eg] b'j} ufpsF f dflg;x¿larsf] cfTdLotf, ;xofu] / ;xsfon{ ] ubf{ clxn] bj' } gdg' f ufpF ePsf 5g\\ . 5nkmnsf laifox¿ -s_ ljjfbsf sf/0f -v_ ljjfbsf] ke| fj -u_ ljjfb ;dfwfgsf] pkfo -3_ o; 36gfaf6 ePsf] l;sfO ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgf]kof]uL lzIff , sIff !! 47

%kf7 M cGt/jo} lSts l;kx¿ != cGt/j}olSts l;ksf] cy{ / dxŒj ljBfnosf] jflifs{ f]T;jdf dn} ] jSt[Tjsnfdf efu lnPsL lyPF . dnfO{ cGt/j}olSts l;k / ltgsf] dxŒj zLif{sdf jStJo lbg' lyof] . k|ltof]lutf glhs cfpFb} ubf{ dgdf x'6x6' L a9o\\ f] . cfdf ;fdfflhs sfo{stf,{ pxfnF fO{ kf] s]xL yfxf 5 ls Û ;fW] g dg nfUof] . cfdf cfkm\\gf ;fyLx¿;Fu cgnfOg a}7sdf x'g'x'GYof] . d}n] cfdf / pxfFsf ;fyLx¿;Fu k|Zg ;f]Wg] cgd' lt dfu]F . pxfFx¿n] cg'dlt lbPkl5 ;f]w]F æcfdf cGt/jo} lSts l;k eg]sf] s] xf] <Æ cfdfn] pQ/ lbg gkfpFb} cfdfsf] Ps ;fyLn] eGge' of,] gfgL Û d atfOlbG5' ltdLnfO,{ cGt/jo} lSts l;k t ltdLn] ko| f]u u¥of} lg Û cfkmn\" ] ghfg]sf s'/f c¿;uF ;f]w]/ l;Sg] / cfkmg\\ f ljrf/ /fv]/ c¿;Fu ;~rf/ ug]{ l;k cGt/j}olSts l;k xf] .Æ cfdf a7} sdf Jo:t x'g'eof] . olt ;'Gbf dnfO{ cfgGb nfUof] . dnfO{ c? ;r\" gf rflxPsf] lyof] . dfdfnfO{ kmfg] u/F] . pxfnF ] OG6/g6] df vfH] g ;e' mfj lbge' of] . afn] rnfpg] sDKo6' / vfn] F] . ToxfF w/] } tYo kmn] f k/] ;fRF r} cGt/j}olSts l;k eg]sf] t ;fdflhs ;+jfb ug]{ / c¿;uF ;DaGw a9fpg] l;k kf] /x]5 . jo} lSts bIftf / cGt/;j+ fb l;k ljsf; ug{] ePsfn] o;nfO{ hgl;k klg elgFbf] /x]5 . o;n] JolStsf] cGt/ Ifdtfsf] ljsf; u/L ;fdflhs kl/j]zdf cfkmn\" fO{ ;dfof]hg ug{ ;xofu] ug{] /x]5 . o;n] t xfdLnfO{ c¿sf s'/f ;ljm| otfkj\" s{ ;'g]/ ;dx\" df sfd ug{, pQ/bfloTj jxg ug{, gt] [Tj l;k ljsf; ug{, pTkl]| /t xg' , wo} { / ;xfge' l\" t ljsf; u/L nrsbf/ JolStTj ljsf; ug{ ;xof]u ug]{ /x]5 . dn} ] ;fr] ,]F æolt ePkl5 d k|ltofl] utfdf efu lng ;S5' .Æ dgn] t'?Gt eGof], æxfO] g Û o;sf] dxŒj klg a'em ;+;[lt ÛÆ d}n] ;fdflhs ;~hfndf ;'emfj dfu]F . oxfF n]lvPsf] lyof] – cGt/jo} lSts l;ksf] dxŒj ;a;} Fu ;j+ fb ubf{ yfxf kfOG5 . c¿sf s'/f ;'g/] / cfkm\\gf s'/f ;'gfP/ ljifoj:t'df :ki6 x'g' ;+jfb xf] . o;n] t hLjgdf cfOkg]{ ;d:of ;dfwfg ug{ l;sfp5F . cfkm\\gf] nIo kf| lKtsf nflu r'gft} L ;fdgf ug{ l;sfpF5 . c¿nfO{ ljZjf;df lnP/ cfkm\\gf sfd ;kmn agfpg ;lsG5 . cfkm\\gf sfdnfO{ Jojl:yt ug{ ;lsG5 . cfkm\\gf cfrf/ ljrf/ / ;j+ fbsf] ;+:sl[ t kl/jt{g ug{ ;lsG5 . cfkm\"leq ljsf; x'g] c;dembf/L x6fP/ ;a}nfO{ lrGg] cj;/ k|fKt x'G5 . j}olSts ;DaGw lj:tf/ u/]/ cfkmg\\ f] bl} gsLdf cfOkg{] åGå ;dfwfg ub{} ;kmntfsf] af6f] lgwf/{ 0f ug{ ;lsG5 . of] JolStTj ljsf; ug],{ ;ª\\s6 Joj:yfkg ug]{ / hg' ;s' } cj:yfdf sfdnfO{ ;Ddfg ug]{ c;n l;k xf] . æwGojfb ;fyLx¿ Û d}n] vf]hs] f ;a} hfgsf/L kfPF . ca d lglZrGt eP/ jStT[ jsnfdf efu 48 ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgf]kofu] L lzIff , sIff !!

lng ;S5' .Æ ;;+ l[ t p7/] efG;fdf uOg\\ . lrof ksfP/ NofOg\\ clg af, cfdf / efOnfO{ klg cfkm\"n] l;ss] f s/' f / cfkmg\\ f] of]hgf ;'gfOg\\ . ;aa} f6 k|fKt pTk/|] 0ffn] pgnfO{ k|ltof]lutf lhTg] cf6F hufOlbof] . -s_ dfly lbOPsf tYo jf hfgsf/Ln] dfq ;:+ s[ltn] k|ltofl] utf lhTg ;lS5g\\ xfn] f, tkfOn{F ] hfgs] f jf vfh] s] f tYo sIffdf k:| tt' ug'{xf];\\ . @ cGt/jo} lSts ;DaGw ;'wf/sf pkfo æd sf]7fdf u[xsfo{ ub}{ lyPF . l5d]sLsf 3/df emu8f ;'? eof] . tNnf] 3/sf hGt/] bfO /S;L vfP/ 5f]/f5f]/L s'6\\g yfNg'eof] . lxhf] kfp/f]6L k;n] klg s;}nfO{ tyfgfd ufnL ub}{ lyof] . xf]Og s] ePsf] xf] of] <Æ cfkm}F 3f]l/PF clg u[xsfo{ ug{ 5f8]/ /]l8of] vf]nF] . /l] 8of] afN] of], æ>f]tfu0f Û ;wF} h;f] cfh klg xfdL ;sf/fTds ;f]r sfoj{ m| d lnP/ cfPsf 5f}F . cfh cGt/j}olSts ;DaGw ;'wf/sf pkfoaf/] rrf{ ul/g] 5 .Æ d pTk]l| /t ePF . sfkL kN6fP/ /]l8of] ;'Gg yfn]F . Ps JolSt cfkmg\\ f] jStJo lbg yfn] – cGt/j}olSts l;k eg]sf] dgsf] dn} f] kmfn/] 1fgsf] y}nf] eg{] dfWod xf] . o;n] c¿nfO{ g/fd|f] 7fGg] / cfkmn\" fO{ >i] 7 dfGg] b'j} s'/fsf] cGTo u5{ . dflg;n] ;sf/fTds ;fr] /fVof] eg] c¿nfO{ klg cfkm\" h:t} bV] 5 . xfdLn] l/;, Oi{ of,{ 8fxh:tf ;j+ u] lgoGq0f ugk{' 5{ . gq kT| os] 3/df emu8f, czflGt / tgfj xG' 5 . d}n] dfq} hfgs] f] 5' eGg] la;]{/ c?sf] lj1tf / cge' jsf] ;Ddfg ugk{' 5{ . c?sf OR5f, cfsfª\\Iff klg t xfdLn] a'em\\gk' 5{ . cfkmg\\ f s/' f dfq /fd|f xg' \\ eg/] lh4L lnP/ x'G5 / Û tkfO{F hxfF x'g'x'G5, h;nfO{ e6] \\g'x'G5, tL JolStaf6 Ps Ps /fdf| s'/f l;Sgx' f];\\ t Û tkfOn{F ] cfkmg\\ f cju0' f To;} x6fpg ;Sg'xG' 5 lg Û x}g / < c?sf s/' f /fd|/L ae' m\\g'xf];\\ t Û s] ltgn] tkfOnF{ fO{ /fdf| ] 7fg]sf 5g\\ < cfkm\"n] t ;a}nfO{ /fdf| ] eG5g\\, c?n] /fd|f] eGg] sfd kf] ugk{' 5{ . clg kf] tkfOnF{ ] ;a;} uF c;n ;DaGw ljsf; ug{ ;Sgx' G' 5 . c¿kl| t ;xfge' l\" t /fVgx' f;] ,\\ cuu| fdL ;fr] /fVg'xf];\\ . ljsf/ kmfn/] ljhoL aGgx' f];\\ . c?nfO{ xf]RofP/ / bdg u/]/ xf]Og, ;Ddfg u/]/ ;kmn aGg ;lsG5 . 3dG8 Tofu]/ / c;n ;Gb]z c?nfO{ ;'gfP/ ;DaGw ;'wf/ ug{ ;lsG5 . æ P nLnf efph\" Û /l] 8of] vfN] gx' f;] \\ t Û slt /fdf| ] sfoj{ m| d cfpbF } 5 .Æ d PSsfl; l5ds] L efphs\" f] gfd lng k'u]5F ' . ;a}n] /l] 8of] vfn] ] . pgLx¿n] dnfO{ wGojfb lbP. d v;' L xb'F } ux[ sfo{ ug{ yfn] #= cGt/j}olSts ;DaGw / ;fdflhs ;~hfn æcfdf Û cfpg' g Û /fdf| ] kmf]6f] lvr]/ ;fdflhs ;~hfndf /fvf}F . slt nfOs cfp5F . sltn] ;]o/ u5{g\\ . efO/n x'G5 xfd|f] kmf6] f] .Æ æs] eG5] of] ÛÆ lsg xfNg] lg kmf6] f] < kmf6] fsf] b'?kof]u klg xg' ;S5 . ;fdflhs ;~hfndf ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgfk] of]uL lzIff , sIff !! 49

hxfF;s' } cfkmg\\ f ;r\" gf, kmf6] f, /fVg'xb'F }g 5f/] L ÛÆ æxf===, cfdf klg Û hdfgf sxfF k'lu;Sof] . cfdf rflxF 9ª' u\\ ] o'ud} ÛÆ 5f/] L 7l' :sPssf] bv] ]/ cfdfn] ;Demfpg yfNge' of] – dflg;sf ;DaGw lj:tf/ ug]{ w/] } tl/sf x'G5g\\ . ;fdflhs ;~hfndf k|ToIf e6] 3f6 gxg' ] dflg;x¿;Fu e]6 xG' 5 . ;+;f/sf hf];'s;} Fu ;+jfb / 5nkmn ug{ ;lsG5 . cg'xf/ x]/]/} ukmufkm ug{ ;lsG5 . 5nkmn, a}7s / ;l] dgf/df efu lng ;lsG5 . oL ;fdflhs ;~hfnaf6 cGt/j}olSts ;DaGw lj:tf/ ug]{ /fd|f tl/sf xg' \\ . o;nfO{ c;n dflg; / c;n ljifoaf6 c;n ljrf/ l;Sg] ;fwgsf ¿kdf lngk' 5{ . æ;fdflhs ;~hfndf kmf6] f] /fVg' v/fa xf] t Û ;a}n] /fVof 5g\\ .Æ 5f/] L kg' M 7l' :sO{ . d}n] To;f] eg]sf] xf]Og . ;fdflhs ;~hfnnfO{ sltkon] unt tl/sfn] k|of]u u5g{ \\ . s;s} f jo} lSts hfgsf/L x]/]/, ukm ;'g/] , kmf]6fsf] b?kof]u u//] b'Mv lbG5g\\ . ltd|f] kmf6] fsf] s;n} ] b'?kofu] u¥of] eg] s] xG' 5 < ltdf| ] kmf]6fnfO{ nfOs, ;o] / ug{] ;a}nfO{ ltdL lrG5o\\ f} <cl:t ltdLn] g} eg]sL xf]Ogf}, ;fyLn] cfTdxTof ug{ vfh] L eg]/ <Æ cfdfn] yKge' of] . æ;fyLnfO{ t s;}n] km;fP5 lg t ÛÆ 5f/] Ln] ;kmfO lbO{ . d}n] oxL s/' f eg]sf] Û ;fdflhs ;~hfn l;sfOsf] c;n dfWod xf] . ;fyL ;~hfn agfpg], lj1;uF ;Dks{ a9fpg], 1fg l;k cfh{g ug]{ /fd|f] dfWod xf] . t/ o;nfO{ ae' m]/ ;/' lIft 9ªu\\ n] ko| f]u ug'{k5{ . o;n] ;DaGw ;w' f/sf] dfWod agfpgk' 5{ . o;nfO{ c:j:y ;DaGw lj:tf/ ug]{ dfWod agfOof] eg] dflg; s'ntdf km:g], lx+;fdf km:g] / bafadf kg]{ ;Defjgf x'G5 . To;}n] xfdLn] cgfjZos ;fO6 x]g,]{ c:j:y dgf/] ~hg ug]{ / v/fa lgotsf dflg;;Fu ;DaGw agfpg] s/' fdf ;rt] xg' k' 5{ . kmf6] f] xfn/] nfOs a6N' gs' f] ;66\\ f a? ;fdflhs ;~hfnaf6 s;/L cGt/j}olSts ;~hfnaf6 ;DaGw lj:tf/ ug{ ;lsG5 eGg] s'/f k9 g Û cfdfn] pkfo klg l;sfpge' of] . ægl/;fpg' g cfdf ÛÆ 5f]/L cfdfsf sfvdf klN6O{ . -s_ 5f/] L 7'l:sg' clg cfdfsf] sfvdf klN6g' s] sf/0fn] ubf{ ePsf xg' \\ < @= tnsf] ;+jfb k9]/ pQ/ lbg'xf];\\ M dgfh] M P /dg' f, eg t ltdLn] u[xsfo{ gu/s] f] lbg x'Fbg} . 3/sf] sfddf klg ;3fpg EofpF5\\of} . hlxn] klg xFl;nL, cflF 6nL / ;sf/fTds b]lvG5\\of} . s;/L of] s'/f ;Dej xG' 5 < xfdLnfO{ klg l;sfpm g ;fyL . 50 ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgf]kof]uL lzIff , sIff !!

/d'gf M dgfh] ;a}eGbf dxŒjk0\" f{ s/' f, d slxNo} klg ;do v/] kmflNbgF, cfkmg\\ f sfdx¿ hlxn] klg sfot{ flnsf agfP/ u5{' . ;dosf] ;b'kofu] / Joj:yfkg ug'{ g} d]/f] ;kmntfsf] ;\"q xf] . dgfh] M s;/L ;do Joj:yfkg ug{ ;lsG5, /d'gf < /d'gf M ;a} sfdsf] ;r\" L tof/ kfg,{] ;lhnf sfd klxnf ug,{] h?/L sfdnfO{ klxnf] kf| yldstf lbg] / Ps sfd / csf]{ sfdsf lardf 5f]6f] ;do 5'6\\ofpg] ug{'k5{ . ;f] ;dodf uLt ;'Gg], v]n v]Ng,] cGo /dfOnf ljm| ofsnfk ug]{ ug'{kb{5 . Ps k6sdf Pp6f dfq sfd ug,{] sfdsf] bl} gs clenv] /fVg] cflb ubf{ klg ;do Joj:yfkg ug{ ;lsG5 . dgfh] M d t l6eL xg] { yfnk] l5 k9g\\ / 3/sf c¿ sfd klg ug{ EofpFlbgF . csf]{ sfd ug{ dg klg nfUb}g . ltdLnfO{ To:tf] xb'F }g . /dg' f M d ;fdflhs ;~hfndf nfdf] ;do al:bgF . To;n] gsf/fTds ntsf] ljsf; ug{ ;S5 . ;fdflhs ;~hfn ko| fu] ubf{ d]/f] sfot{ flnsfnfO{ c;/ kfg]{ u/L d al:bgF t/ ToxfF a:bf klg ;fyLx¿;Fu k9fOsf s'/fx¿ ug{], cGt/ljm| of ug{], gofF ;r\" gfsf] vf]hL ug]{, ;fyLnfO{ s]xL s'/f vf]Hg ;xofu] ug]{ u5'{ . ;fdflhs ;~hfndf cfPsf ;r\" gf jf hfgsf/Ldf lzi6 kl| tso[ f / /rgfTds ;e' mfj lbg dnfO{ /dfOnf] nfU5 . dgf]h M wGojfb, /d'gf, d klg ltdLn] eg] h:t} u5{' . -c_ ;fdflhs ;~hfnsf] k|of]un] kfg{] gsf/fTds c;/x¿sf] ;\"rL tof/ kfg{x' f;] \\ . -cf_ cGt/jo} lSts l;k / ;fdflhs ;~hfnlarsf] ;DaGw pNn]v ug{'xf;] \\ . $= c;n g]t[Tjsf nflu cGt/j}olSts ;DaGw Joj:yfkg gt] T[ j JolSt, ;dx\" / ;ªu\\ 7gsf] cuj' fO ug{] sfo{ xf] . of] c¿nfO{ pTkl]| /t ug{] snf klg xf] . gt] T[ j ug{ OR5fzlSt, l;hg{ fTdstf / ljgd| efj rflxG5 . cfTdfgz' f;g, lgodsf] kfngf, ;xgzLntf / w}o{lagf gt] [Tj ;Dej 5}g . o;sf nflu a'l4, :jR5tf / ;fjh{ lgs JolStTj xg' ' klg cfjZos 5 . lbbL Ps dfl;s klqsfdf ks| flzt nv] ;:j/ k9b\\ } xg' x' G' Yof] . dnfO{ pT;s' tf hfUof] s] ;a} gt] T[ j o:t} x'G5g\\ . d}n] ufpFsf Ps gt] fnfO{ x]/F,] pgn] ;dfh;]jf / k/fk] sf/df cfkmg\\ f] ;DklQ;Dd vr{ u/] . dGqL;Dd ags] f csf{ g]tf ;Dem,F] pgn] ;x/df 3/hUuf / uf8L hf]8] . cefjsf an] fsf / r'gfjsf an] fsf g]tf ;Dem]F / ltgsf] gt] [Tjsnf ;DemF] . ltgn] hgtf;Fu ug{] Jojxf/ ;Dem]F clg lbbLsf s/' f ljZn]if0f ug{ yfn]F . ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgf]kofu] L lzIff , sIff !! 51

gt] T[ j dfgj ;dfhsf] dxŒjk0\" f{ kIf xf] . c;n gt] T[ jsf nflu ;fdflhs / ;j+ u] fTds cGt/ljm| of cfjZos 5 . of] Ps JolStn] c?;uF ldqtf, kfl/jfl/s ;DaGw, k;] fut ;DaGw, dfofddtf, ef| tT[ j / ;defj ljsf; ug{] cfwf/ xf] . To;n} ] gt] [Tj cGt/jo} lSts ;DaGw lj:tf/sf] cfwf/ klg xf] . c;n gt] T[ j ljsf; ug{ ;j{ky| d cfkm\"nfO{ a'emg\\ k' 5{ . ;fdl\" xs ljrf/nfO{ ;Ddfg ub{} ljleGg Ifq] df sfd ug{ ;Sg] ;lj|mo ;dx\" lgdf0{ f ugk{' 5{ . ;dx\" lardf jo} lSts / cGt/j}olSts ;~rf/, ;dGjo / ;xofu] sf] jftfj/0f ljsf; ug{k' 5{ . lg0f{o ug]{ Ifdtf / ;d:of ;dfwfg ug'{ lzNk klg kl/is[t agfpgk' 5{ . ljrf/, lg0fo{ / r'gf}tLsf] ;~rf/ t emg\\ dxŒjk\"0f{ xG' 5 . c;n g]tT[ j ljsf; ug{ t JolStn] cfkm\", JolSt / ;dx\" sf lardf ;DaGw lj:tf/ u/L sfo{ ug{ ;Sgk' 5{ . g]tT[ jn] c¿nfO{ ;Ddfg ug,{ ;sf/fTds k[i7kf]if0f ux| 0f ug{, ug' f;f ;'Gg / c¿sf c;n sfdsf] k|z;+ f ug{ hfGgk' 5{ . c:j:y cfnfr] gf, gsf/fTds ;f]r, ckxn] gf / unt ;Gb]z k|jfx ug'{xbF' }g . ;fdflhs ;f:+ s[lts, JolStut / ;Gbeu{ t afwfnfO{ ;dfwfg ug{ ;Sg] JolStn] dfq cGt/jo} lSts ;DaGwsf] Joj:yfkg ug{ ;S5 . d}n] kml] / cfkmn\" ] klxn] ;Dem]sf g]tfnfO{ kml] / ;Dem]F . cGtdg{ n] t];f| ] gt] fsf] kl/sNkgf u¥of] . -s_ oxfF pNnv] ePcg;' f/ t;] |f] gt] f s:tf] xg' k' 5{ . t;] f| ] gt] fdf xg'kg{] ljz]iftf nV] gx' f;] \\ . %= 6f]nLsfo{ / g]tT[ j ljsf; 6fn] Lsfo{ ;dx\" df sfd ug{] l;k xf] . ;dx\" df sfd ubf{ Joj:yfks / sfdbf/ JolSt cfkmF} xG' 5 . sfd ubf{ub}{ dflg;x¿n] l;S5g\\ / To;nfO{ gt] T[ jsf ¿kdf kl/0ft u5g{ \\ . 6fn] L sfo{ ;+jfb, ofh] gf, a}7s / ;xsfod{ f c?;uF ldn/] sfd ug]{ bIftf / u0' f:t/ xf] . sfsfn] Pp6f ;'Gb/ j0fg{ ;g' fpge' of] – xfdf| ] ufpdF f klxn] ;f/} /fd|f rng lyP . b;F} cfpgk' j\" { xfdL ;a} ufpFsf] af6f] vGg hfGYofF} . k|Tos] 3/af6 Ps Ps hgf s6' f] sf]bfnf] af]s/] cfpyF ] . lz/fgrfs] bl] v k5' f/ 3/;Dd dn\" af6f] lyof] . jiffs{ f] en] n] af6f] laluP| sf] xG' Yof] . xfdL vfN8fvN' 8L kY' of{F} . xfd|f ;fNF bfO kvfn{ nufpg l;kfn' x'gx' 'GYof] . xfdLn] ghfGbf pxfF l;sfOlbgx' 'GYof] . jL/axfb/' sf] bz a;]{ 5f]/fnfO{ hfnL afFWg cfpbF f] /x5] . p;n] ;fNF bfOnfO{ hfnL afwF ]/ kvf{n nfpg l;sfof] . ;fgf] s6] fn] kfsf] dfG5n] fO{ l;sfpFbf ;a} xf;F ] t/ ;fNF bfOn] wfk df//] p;nfO{ :ofaf;L lbg'eof] . pxfnF ] ;a}nfO{ ;DemfP/ eGg'eof], æo:tf ;fdl\" xs sfd ;a}n] ldn/] ug{k' 5{ . Pp6fn] hfg]sf] l;k c¿nfO{ l;sfpgk' 5{ . of] af6f] /fd|f] kfg{ ;a}n] cfcfkmg\\ f] a'l4 k|ofu] u/fF} g . b;dF} f cfpg] kfx'gfn] xfdL ;an} fO{ k|z+;f u5g{ \\ .Æ xfdL pxfsF } ljrf/df nfUof}F . x/]s jif{ kmn\" kftLsf lbg af6f] vGg] lgod g} agfof}F . o;} u/L xfdL c;f/sf] !% ut] s'nf] ;kmf ug{ hfGYofF} . ;an} ] wfg /fK] g kfpyF ] . ebf} !% ut] wf/f s'jf ;kmf uYof}F . dªl\\ ;/df jgef]h hfGYofF} . oL ;a} sfddf ;fFNbfOn] g} ofh] gf agfpgx' 'GYof] . pxfsF f] ;Nnfx, l;h{gzLntf, lgb]z{ g, ke| fj, efiff / pTk|/] 0ffnfO{ ;an} ] :jLsf/ uy{] . pxfFsf] of]ubfgnfO{ sb/ ub}{ xfdLn] 52 ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgf]kofu] L lzIff , sIff !!

j8fWoIf agfofF} . pxfF /xG' h]n pxfsF } g]tT[ jdf ufpsF f ljsf; eP . clxns] f j8fWoIfn] klg ;fFnbfOaf6} k|efj u|x0f u//] sfd ul//x]sf 5g\\ . of] klg k9g\\ x' f;] \\ M olb tkfO{“ 6fn] Lsfoa{ f6 g]tT[ j ljsf; ug{ rfxgx' 'G5 eg], ;dx\" df vn' f / Odfgbf/Lk\"js{ sfd ug{x' f;] \\ . ;fdl\" xs nIo lgwf/{ 0f ug'x{ f];\\ . cfkm\\gf ;kmntfnfO{ ;Ddfg ug{x' f;] \\ . ;d\"xsf k|Tos] nfO{ ;d:of ;dfwfgdf ;xefuL agfpg'xf;] \\ . ;dx\" sf nflu ;f| ]t / bIftf ljsf;sf] Joj:yf ug'x{ f];\\ . ;a}nfO{ pQ/bfoL agfpg'xf;] \\ . ;a}k|lt ;xfge' \"lt /fvL vn' f bl[ i6 /fVgx' f;] \\ . JolSt JolStlar ;DaGw lj:tf/ ugx'{ f;] \\ . ;an} fO{ ;Ddfg ug{'xf];\\ . cEof; != cGt/jo} lSts l;k eg]sf] s] xf] < @= cGt/j}olSts l;k lsg dxŒjk0\" f{ 5 < #= cGt/jo} lSts ;DaGw ;'wf/ ug{] pkfox¿ n]Vgx' f];\\ . $= cGt/jo} lSts ;DaGw ;'wf/sf nflu ;fdflhs ;~hfnnfO{ s;/L k|of]u ugk{' 5{ < %= c;n gt] [Tj ljsf; ug{ s] s] ug{ ;lsG5 < ^= 6f]nLsfo{ eg]sf] s] xf] / o;af6 s;/L g]t[Tj ljsf; xG' 5 < kl/ofh] gf sfo{ != dfly d kfqn] /l] 8of] ;G' bf;G' b} l5ds] L nLnf efphn\" fO{ /l] 8of] ;G' g cg/' fw] u/s] L 5g\\ . /l] 8of] ;g' k] l5 nLnf efphn\" ] s] ul/g\\ xfn] f < s] 3/df eme} mu8f cGTo eof] xfn] f < tkfO“{ pxfn“ fO{ s] ;e' mfj lbg ;Sgx' G' 5 < plNnlvt kIf ;d6] L kl| tjb] g tof/ kf//] k:| tt' ugx{' f;] \\ . ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgfk] ofu] L lzIff , sIff !! 53

@= lbOPsf] lr7L k9\\gx' f;] \\ / o;af6 5f]/Lsf l;sfO / zld{nfsf] Jojxf/af6 lng ;lsg] s/' f pNn]v u/L 5f/] Ln] cfdfnfO{ n]Vg] lr7L tof/ kfg'{xf;] \\ . Kof/L 5f]/L 8f]Ndf ze' fzLjfb{ xfdL oxfF ;a} cf/fd 5f}F . ltdLnfO{ cf/fd xf;] \\ eGg] rfxG5fF} . 5f/] L, ltdL k9g\\ /fhwfgL uPbl] v g} dnfO{ vfnL ltdf| ] dfq ofb / lrGtfn] ;tfO/xs] f] 5 . sd afN] g] ltdf| ] afgL, ;fyL ;uF L;uF vf;} 3n' ldn gug{] ltdf| ] :jefjn] st} ltdf| ] eljiodf cK7/] f] t kfbg{} . ;xh / ;kmn hLjg lhpg oL afgLx¿ afws t aGbg} g\\ . o;d} f dnfO{ lrGtf nflu/xs] f] 5 . jf:tjdf cfkm\\gf] hLjgnfO{ ;fy{s / k];fnfO{ ;kmn agfpg k|efjsf/L ;~rf/ / cGt/ljm| of ug{] l;k, ;fyLx¿;Fu 3n' ldn x'g] afgL / ;xofu] ug{] tTk/tfsf] h?/t kb{5 . ltdLn] Tof] l;ksf] hfgsf/L / dxŒj an] }df a'emo\\ f} eg] JolStut / k];fut hLjg ;kmn / dof{lbt agfpg ;S5o\\ f} . oL l;kx¿nfO{ cGt/jo} lSts l;ksf ¿kdf a'em\\g] / cEof; ug]{ ul/Psf] 5 . jf:tjdf cGt/jo} lSts l;k Pp6f JolStn] cfkm\\gf] ;kmn JolStut / k;] fut hLjgsf nflu cjnDag ug'k{ g]{ hLjgf]kof]uL l;k xf] . ltdLnfO{ yfxf 5 lg, xfd}| dflyNnf] 3/sL zldn{ f sfsLsf] ;lj|motf / sfd u/fOnfO{ x]/ t, pxfdF f lgw{Ss eP/ af]Ng] l;k / cfTdljZjf; klg 5 . ;xLnfO{ ;xL / untnfO{ unt eGg] pxfFsf] lg8/kgf, c?sf ljrf/nfO{ Wofg lbP/ ;G' g] / dgg ug{] afgL, ;wF} ;sf/fTds ;fr] / ;d\"xdf ldn/] sfd ug{] l;kn] pxfF cfkm\"n] g]tT[ j u/s] f] s[lif ;xsf/LnfO{ kflnsfdf g} gd'gf ;xsf/L agfpg ;kmn xg' e' Psf] 5 . of] pxfFsf] ;donfO{ ;xL Joj:yfkg ug,]{ ;;fgf dte]b tyf åGånfO{ cfk;L ;Nnfx Pjd\\ ;xL k/fdz{ u/L Joj:yfkg ug{] snf / cfkmg\\ f ;xsdLx{ ¿nfO{ ljZjf; ug{] / sfo{ lhDdj] f/L ;D' kg] sfoa{ f6 dfq ;Dej ePsf] xf] . ;dx\" df ljZjf; ug{] / ;dx\" sf] pTk|]/0ffaf6 sfd ;xh agfpg] pxfsF f] afgL dnfO{ dg k5{ . ltdLn] klg o:tf s/' fx¿nfO{ ljrf/ ug{'kg]{ x'G5 5f/] L . l;s]sf] l;kn] ;dx\" df ldn]/ sfd ug{ dbt u5{ . To:t} kl/jf/ / ;fyLx¿;uF ke| fjsf/L ;~rf/ / cGt/lj|mof u/L c;n ;DaGw / ldqtf sfod ug{ ;lsG5 . ;an} ] ;fd\"lxs ;ljm| otf / prf] dgf]ann] sg' } klg ;+:yfsf] p2]Zo k|flKtdf dbt k¥' ofp5F . ;:+ yfsf] k|ltkmndf j[l4 xG' 5 . /f]huf/Ldf o:tf l;k ePsf JolStx¿n] kf| yldstf kfpg] cj:yf /xG5 . sfo{ ynf]df klg /f]huf/bftfn] ;sf/fTds ;fr] , 6f]nLdf ldn]/ sfd ug],{ cfTdljZjf;L / lhDd]jf/L af]w ePsf] sf/0fn] a9L ljZjf; ug]{ cj:yf /xG5 . ;d\"xdf ldn]/ sfd ug],{ c¿nfO{ ;xofu] / ;dGjo ug{], cfkmg\\ f ljrf/ lgw{Ss /fVg], c¿kl| t ;dfg'e\"lt k|bz{g ug{] JolSt ;lhn} ;dfhdf 3n' ldn x'g] xG' 5 . d}n] olt s/' f ul//xbF f ltdLn] o;sf] cfjZostf / dxŒj a'em\\of} xfn] f . 5f]/Lsf] eljiokl| tsf] rf;f] / lhDd]jf/L af]wsf] sf/0f olt s'/f u/]F x} . ltdL| cfdf l8ªd\\ f 54 ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgf]kof]uL lzIff , sIff !!

! kf7 M PsfO $ dfgj tyf ;dfhsf] pbe\\ j / ljsf; dfgjsf] h}ljsLo pTklQ / ljsf;jm| d != dfgjsf] hl} jsLo pbl\\ jsf; kY[ jLdf /xs] f ;Dk\"0f{ hLjx¿ h}ljs pbl\\ jsf;sf] k|lj|mofaf6 pTklQ eO{ jm| lds ¿kdf ljsl;t x'Fb} clxns] f] cj:yf;Dd cfOk'u]sf xg' \\ . cGo hLjx¿ h:t} dfgj hfltsf] pTklQ / ljsf; klg ToxL h}ljs pb\\ljsf;sf] k|lj|mofaf6 ePsf] xf] . sltkon] dfgjsf kv' f{ afbF / jf g/jfg/ xg' \\ eGg] vfnsf cjwf/0ffx¿ /fVg] u/]sf] kfOG5 t/ j1} flgs cWoogaf6 dfgjsf] pbl\\ jsf; afbF / jf g/jfg/ (ape) af6 geO{ g/jfg/ h:t} b]lvg] (ape-like) k'vf{af6 ePsf] lyof] . g/jfg/h:t} kv' fa{ f6 pbl\\ jsf; eO{ j|mlds ¿kdf clxn]sf] dfgjsf ¿kdf ljsl;t ePsf] kl| jm| ofnfO{ g} dfgjsf] hl} jsLo pb\\ljsf; elgG5 . j}1flgs juLs{ /0fsf cfwf/df dfgjsf] hflt …xfd] fÚ] xf] . dfgjn] hl} jsLo pbl\\ jsf;sf] kl| jm| ofåf/f g} cfˆgf g/jfg/ h:t} kv' fa{ f6 56' l\\ 6O{ ljleGg r/0fx¿ j|mdzM kf/ ub{} clxns] f] …xf]df]Ú hfltsf] …;]lkoG;Ú k|hflt;Dd cfOk'us] f] xf] . @= dfgj hfltsf] h}ljsLo ljsf;jm| d cjz]ifzf:qL, zf/Ll/s dfgjzf:qL tyf o; ;DaGwdf cWoog ul//x]sf j}1flgsx¿sf cg';f/ cfw'lgs dfgjsf] pTklQ cfheGbf sl/a ^) nfv jif{cufl8 ePsf] lyof] . To; a]nf kR' 5/ gePsf, 7f8f] lhp8fn, 7n' f] dl:tis / bO' { v6' \\6fn] lx8F g\\ ;Sg] ljz]iftf ePsf g/ jfg/x¿sf] pTklQ ePsf] lyof] . pbl\\ jsf;sf jm| ddf jt{dfg dfgjsf k'vf{n] log} ljzi] ftfx¿ j|mlds ¿kdf ljsf; u/L kl/is[t agfpFb} nus] f] kfOG5 . dfgjsf oL kv' f{nfO{ xfl] dlg8 (hominid) eGg] ;femf gfdn] lrlgG5 . vfh] tyf cg;' Gwfgsf j|mddf el] 6Psf g/jfg/x¿ ;x]nfGy|f]k; (Sahelanthropus), cf]/f]l/g (Orrorin) / cfl8{lky]s; (Ardipithecus) sf cjz]ifx¿af6 klg logLx¿df xf]ldlg8sf s]xL ljz]iftfx¿ /x]sf] kfOPsf] 5 . oLdWo] cfl8{lkys] ;nfO{ klxnf] xf]ldlg8 dflgPsf] 5 . dfgj cjzi] fzf:qLx¿n] xfn;Dd el] 6Psf xf]ldlg8x¿sf cjzi] fx¿nfO{ c:6«fnfl] kys] ; / xf]df] u/L hDdf b'O{ hfltdf juL{s/0f u/]sf 5g\\ . xfn;Ddsf] vf]h cg;' Gwfg / cflbd dfgjsf cjz]ifx¿sf] ljZni] f0f ubf{ dfgjsf] ljsf; kfrF r/0fdf ePsf] dflgPsf] 5 . != c:6f« nfl] ky]s; (Australopithecus) @= xfd] f] x\\oflaln; (Homo habilis) #= xf]df] O/]S6; (Homo erectus) $= xfd] f] lgoG8/yn]lG;; (Homo neanderthalensis) ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgfk] of]uL lzIff , sIff !! 55

%= xfd] f] ;]lkoG; (Homo sapiens) -s_ c:6«fnfl] kys] ; (Australopithecus) c:6f« nfl] kys] ;n] cfheGbf sl/a $) nfv jif{cufl8 b]lv !) nfv jif{ cufl8;Dd kY[ jLdf a;f]af; u/]sf] lyof] . c:6«fnf]lky]s;sf cjz]ifx¿ k'aL{ clk|msfsf s]Gof, tfGhflgof / Olyofl] kof tyf dWo clk|msfsf] rf8df ;d]t el] 6Psf 5g\\ . l;wf ¿kdf bO' { v'6\\6fn] lx8F g\\ ', vKKf/sf] cfsf/ jfg/;uF ldNg,' xf]rf] sbsf] x'g', kf]yLeGbf efn] 7'Nff] xg' ' / cgx' f/sf] cufl8 Rofk' lg:sg' o; hfltsf ljz]iftf x'g\\ . logLx¿ emG' 8 agfP/ a:g] uby{ ] . -v_ xf]df] (Homo) xfd] f] hfltsf ljz]iftfx¿ M xf]df] cfwl' gs dfgjsf] kv' f{ xf] . o; hfltdf kg{] dfgj • l;wf lhp dfq PSnf] ;b:o xf] hf] xfn kY[ jLdf cl:tTjdf /x]sf] 5 . • b'O{ v6' 6\\ ] lxF+8fO cfheGbf sl/a @)–@% nfv jif{ cufl8 c:6f« nf]lky]s;af6 • 7n' f] vfk] 8L tyf lbdfu xf]df] hfltsf] pbl\\ jsf; ePsf] bl] vG5 . xf]df] hfltcGtu{t • k0\" f{ ¿kdf 5'6\\l6Psf] a9' LcfFn} f rf/cf6] f k|hfltx¿ kb{5g\\ . • xltof/ agfpg ;Sg] Ifdtf -c_ xfd] f] xo\\ flaln; (Homo habilis) xf]df] xo\\ flaln;nfO{ xfd] f] hfltsf] klxnf] k|hflt dflgG5 . xo\\ flaln; cfheGbf @# nfv jif{ cl3b]lv !% nfv jif{ cl3;Dd cl:tTjdf lyof] . x\\oflaln;n] 9'ªu\\ fsf] xltof/ gagfPtf klg ;;fgf 9'ªu\\ fx¿nfO{ l;sf/ vN] gsf nflu xltof/sf ¿kdf ko| f]u ub{Yof] . 3fF;] d}bfgdf n6\\7Ln] vg/] sGbdn\" lgsfNg / hgfj/nfO{ l;sf/ ug{ ;Ifd ePsfn] o;nfO{ l;kfn' (handy) dfgj klg elgG5 . logLx¿ klg emG' 8 agfP/ a:g] ub{y] . -cf_ xfd] f] O/]S6; -Homo erectus) clk|msf dxfb]zaf6 c¿ dxfbz] df kml} nPsf] klxnf] dfgj hflt xfd] f] O/]S6; xf] . o;sf cjz]ifx¿ blIf0f clk|msf, s]Gof, Olyof]lkof / tfGhlgof, OG8f]g]l;ofsf] hfef / rLgsf] k]lsª tyf o/' fk] sf ljleGg 7fpdF f k|fKt ePsf 5g\\ . o;sf] klxnf] cjzi] f ;g\\ !*() df 8r Pgf6fl] d:6 ol' hg 8'afO] ;n] OG8fg] ]l;ofsf] hfefdf kf| Kt u/s] f lyP . xfd] f] O/]S6;sf aªu\\ f/fx¿sf] cfsf/ cl3Nnf xfl] dlg8x¿sf] eGbf cem ;fgf] lyof] . o;n] logLx¿sf] vfgs] /' f / vfg] tl/sfdf cfPsf] kl/jt{gnfO{ k|:6;uF ;ª\\s]t ub5{ . logLx¿sf ufnfsf x88\\ Lx¿ / Rofk' clxns] f] dflg;sf] eGbf 7n' f] cfsf/sf lyP eg] lrpF8fsf] ljsf; eO;ss] f] lyPg . -O_ xf]df] lgoG8/ynl] G;; (Homo neanderthalensis) hd{gLsf] 8;]n8km{ glhs}sf] lgoG8/ pkTosfsf] gfdcg';f/ lgoG8/yn dfgj gfds/0f 56 ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgf]kofu] L lzIff , sIff !!

ul/Psf] xf] . o;sf cjz]ifx¿ dV' o ¿kdf o/' fk] tyf klZrd Pl;ofsf ljleGg dn' s' x¿df e]l6Psf lyP . cfheGbf sl/a !,%),))) jif{ cufl8b]lv #),))) jif{ cufl8;Dd lgoG8/ynn] k[YjLdf a;f]af; u/]sf] lyof] . clxn]sf dfgjx¿eGbf xf]rf / ul7nf, cfvF fdflysf cfvF LefF} k:| 6 bl] vg,] nfDrf] vKk/ cflb lgoG8/ynsf zf/Ll/s ljzi] ftfx¿ xg' \\ . oL 9ª' u\\ faf6 ljleGg vfn] xltof/ agfpFy] . o;nfO{ d:tl] /og (Mousterian) ;:+ sl[ t elgG5 . oL pHofnf,] tfk / hªu\\ nL hgfj/x¿nfO{ eufpgsf nflu cfufsf] ko| fu] ug]{ ub{Yf] . oL ;dx\" df a:g] uby{ ] . lgoG8/ynn] d/s] f JolStx¿nfO{ uf8g\\ ] u/s] f] kd| f0f el] 6Psfn] logLx¿df ;fdflhs ;:+ sf/x¿sf] ;dt] ljsf; ePsf] dfGg] ul/G5 . clxns] f] h:tf] efiffsf] ljsf; geP klg logLx¿ ;fª\\sl] ts ¿kdf s'/fsfgL uy]{ . -O{_ xfd] f] ;l] koG; (Home sapiens) xfd] f] ;]lkoG; cyf{t\\ cfwl' gs dfgjsf] cfheGbf sl/a ! nfv %) xhf/ jif{cufl8 pb\\ljsf; eO;s]sf] lyof] . To;n} ] sx] L ;do lgoG8/yn dfgj / cfwl' gs dfgj ;Fu;uF } afrF ]sf lyP . lgoG8/yn dfgj cfw'lgs dfgj;uF sf] kl| t:kw{fn] ubf{ nfk] eP/ uPsf] xf] jf cfwl' gs dfgjd} ;dflxt ePsf] xf] eGg] af/d] f vfh] stfx{ ¿df Psdt 5g} . sf/0f h] eP klg #),))) jif{ otfsf] lgoG8/ynsf] cjzi] f k|fKt ePsf] 5g} . To;kl5sf] xfn;Ddsf] dfgj hflt xf]df] ;]lkoG; g} xf] . ljm| ofsnfk != ljleGg ;f| t] sf] ko| fu] u/L dfgj pb\\ljsf;sf] jm| dnfO{ tflnsfdf bv] fpgx' f;] \\ . @= k':tsfno jf OG6/g]6af6 dfgj hfltsf] pTklQ ;DaGwdf vf]hL u/L dfgj hfltsf] pb\\ljsf;sf r/0fx¿ emNsfpg] kf]:6/ jf :nfO8 agfO{ k|:tt' ugx{' f];\\ . #= lgoG8/ynaf6 xfn;Ddsf] dfgj pb\\ljsf;sf] cj:yfdf cfOk'Ubf dfgjhfltdf ePsf zf/Ll/s kl/jt{gnfO{ ;d]6L cfk\\mgf] ;fyLnfO{ lr7L n]Vg'xf];\\ . cEof; != dfgjsf] h}ljsLo pb\\ljsf;sf] 5f]6f] kl/ro n]Vgx' f];\\ . @= c:6f« nf]lky]s; / xfd] f] xo\\ flaln;larsf ;dfgtf / leGgtf k:| 6 kfg'{xf];\\ . kl/of]hgf sfo{ tkfOsF{ f] k'vfs{ f] pbl\\ jsf; sxfF ePsf] lyof] < s;/L xfnsf] 7fpdF f cfP/ a;fa] f; u/]sf x'g\\ jf klxnb] ]lv g} ToxLF kf] lyP ls cfkm\\gf cuh| x¿;Fu ;fw] /] jf j+zfjnL cWoog u/]/ hfgsf/L ;ªs\\ ng ug'{xf];\\ / Ps k|ltjb] g agfO{ k:| tt' ugx'{ f;] \\ . ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgfk] ofu] L lzIff , sIff !! 57

@kf7 M dfgj ;dfhsf] ljsf;j|md cflbd dfgjsf] r]tgfsf] ljsf;;Fu} ;dfhsf] pTklQ ePsf] dfGg ;lsG5 . ;dosf] kl/jtg{ ;Fu} dfgj ;dfhsf] ljsf; xFb' } uPsf] xf] . lxhf]sf dfgjn] ;'/Iffsf nflu ;dx\" df a:gk' g,{] vfgf vfH] g klg ;fd\"lxs ¿kdf lx8F g\\ ] / l;sf/sf] vf]hL ugk'{ g{] sf/0faf6 ;dfh lgdf{0f ug{'k/s] f] lyof] . dflg;df /x]sf] r]tgf / ;fdl\" xs ;fr] sf] sf/0f, kl/jf/sf] ljsf; / kl/jf/ kl/jf/sf] lj:tf/af6 klg ;dfh lgdf{0f x'g uof] . dfgj ;dfhsf] ljsf;sf] ;Gbe{df ljleGg ljåfgx\\ ¿n] ;dfh ljsf;sf ljleGg r/0fx¿ kf/ u/L o; cj:yfdf cfPsf] egL atfPsf 5g\\ . sfn{ dfS;{n] clxns] f] ;dfhsf] ljsf; lgDgfg';f/sf r/0fx¿ kf/ ub{} ePsf] xf] egL JofVof u/s] f 5g\\ M -s_ cflbd ;fDojfb -v_ bf;k|yf -u_ ;fdGtjfbL ;dfh -3_ k'hF LjfbL ;dfh o;} u/L dfgjzf:qLx¿ O={ aL= 6fOn/ / P= Pn= df]uf{gsf cg';f/ ;dfhsf] ljsf; lgDglnlvt tLg r/0fdf ePsf] dflgG5 M -s_ 9ª' \\u] ou' -kf| /lDes r/0f_ -v_ aa/{ ou' -dWosfnLg r/0f_ -u_ ;Eo o'u -cfw'lgs r/0f_ dfgj ;dfhsf] ljsf;jm| d 9'ª\\u] ou' af6 ;?' ePsf] lyof] . o; kl5 dfgj ;dfh s[lif o'u x'Fb} j|mdzM cfwl' gs o'u;DDf cfOku' s] f] xf] . -s_ 9'ªu\\ ] o'u o; ou' df dflg;x¿ ef]hg / cf>osf] vf]hLdf 3'dGt] hLjg afRF g] uby{ ] . logLx¿n] l;sf/ sf nflu 9'ªu\\ ] cfh} f/x¿ k|ofu] uy{] . ;fgf] ;dx\" df a:g] logLx¿ l;sf/ klg ;fd\"lxs ¿kdf g} ug]{ ub{y] . 9'ªu\\ faf6 ljleGg vfnsf cf}hf/ Pjd\\ xltof/ agfO{ uh' f/f ug{] d\"n ;:+ sl[ t /x] sfn] o; sfnv08nfO{ 9'ªu\\ ] ou' elgPsf] xf] . 58 ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgf]kof]uL lzIff , sIff !!

dflg;sf] 1fg, ljZjf;, kl| jlw, /xg;xg, Jojxf/, tf/} tl/sf, ljleGg cf}hf/ tyf ;fwgx¿sf cfwf/df dflg;sf] hLjg k4lt rn]sf] x'G5 . hªu\\ nL o'uaf6 ;?' ePsf] dfgj ;+:s[ltsf] 7f;] ¿kdf ;?' cft Pjd\\ pbl\\ jsf; 9'ªu\\ ] ou' af6 ePsf] x'gfn] o; ou' nfO{ dfgj ;:+ sl[ tsf] hggLsf ¿kdf lnOG5 . cfheGbf nueu @% nfv jifc{ ufl8 ;?' eO{ lgs} nfdf] ;do;Dd sfod /x]sf] 9'ª\\u] o'u sl/a %)))–&))) jif{ cufl8 wft'sf] o'usf] ;'?cft;Fu} cGTo ePsf] lyof] . 9'ª\\ufaf6 ljleGg vfnsf cf}hf/ Pjd\\ xltof/ agfO{ u'hf/f ug{] d\"n ;+:s[lt /x] sfn] o; sfnv08nfO{ 9'ª\\u] o'u elgPsf] xf] . xfd] f] x\\oflaln;, xf]df] O/S] 6; / lgoG8/ ynnufotsf cflbd dfgjn] 9'ª\\u] o'usf] ;+:s[ltsf] ljsf; u/]sf lyP . 9'ª\\u] o'usf dfgjx¿sf] k|d'v sfd egs] f] vfgs] '/f vfh] ]/ vfg] x'g] ub{Yof] . o;sf nflu o; ou' sf dflg;x¿n] 9'ª\\ufaf6 ljleGg lsld;sf cf}hf/÷xltof/x¿ agfO{ hgfj/x¿sf] l;sf/ ug]{ tyf jg:klthGo vfg]s'/fx¿sf] ;ª\\sng ug]{ u/L cfkm\\gf] hLjg k4lt ljsf; u/]sf lyP . To;n} ] 9ª' \\u] ou' sf] ;+:sl[ t dV' o ¿kdf 9ª' \\ufaf6 cf}hf/÷xltof/ agfpg] tyf vfg] s'/fsf] Joj:yfkg ug{] s'/fx¿df s]lGb|t lyof] . vf]h tyf cWoog ug{] j|mddf e]l6Psf k|fuP\\ l] txfl;s ;:+ s[ltsf ljleGg cjz]ifx¿sf cfwf/df k/' ftŒjljbx\\ ¿n] 9ª' \\u] o'usf] hLjg k4ltnfO{ lgDgfg;' f/sf tLg r/0fx¿df ljefhg u/s] f 5g\\ M != k'/fkfiff0f hLjg k4lt @= dWokfiff0f hLjg k4lt #= gjkfiff0f hLjg k4lt != k'/fkfiff0f hLjg k4lt cfheGbf sl/a @% nfv jif{ cufl8bl] v !) xhf/ jif;{ Ddsf] sfnv08nfO{ k'/ftŒjljb\\x¿n] k/' fkfiff0f o'u gfd lbPsf 5g\\ . nueu @% nfv jif{;Dd sfod /xs] f] o; sfnv08df dfgjn] ljsf; u/]sf] 9ª' \\ufaf6 xltof/ agfpg] k4ltnfO{ k/' fkfif0f ;:+ sl[ t gfd lbOPsf] 5 . o;cGtut{ 9ª' u\\ f km' 6fNbf lg:ss] f rfO] 6fx¿ (flakes) af6 ljleGg lsld;sf cfh} f/ agfOGYof] . o; ;:+ sl[ tsf 9'ª\\u] cf}hf/x¿ t'ngfTds ¿kdf e2f vfnsf 5g\\ . dn\" tM of] ;+:sl[ t clkm| sfdf ljsl;t eO{ o/' f]k tyf Pl;of;Dd k}mlnPsf] dflgG5 . el] 6Psf 9ª' \\u] cfh} f/, xltof/x¿sf] ljljwtfsf] cfwf/ df k'/ftŒjljbx\\ ¿n] k'/fkfiff0f ;:+ s[ltnfO{ lgDglnvt tLg k|sf/df afF8s] f 5g\\ M -s_ lgDg k/' fkfiff0f hLjgz}nL kfiff0f ou' df lgDg k'/fkfiff0fsf] hLjgzn} LnfO{ ;ae} Gbf k/' fgf] dflgG5 . cfheGbf sl/a @% nfv jifb{ l] v @ nfv jif{ cufl8;Dd lgDg k'/fkfiff0f ;+:s[lt /xs] f] lyof] . o; sfnv08sf] d'Vo dfgj k|hflt xfd] f] O/S] 6; (Homo erectus) lyof] . of] dfgjn] g} oL cfh} f/x¿sf] lgdf{0f u/L ljleGg hgfj/x¿sf] l;sf/ ug{ tyf sGbd\"nx¿ ;ªs\\ ng ug{ ko| f]u ug{] uYof]{ . o; cjlwdf ag]sf 9ª' \\u] cfh} f/ kf| oM ;/n / e2f vfnsf lyP . o; ;:+ s[ltsf] k|d'v cfh} f/ xft] aGr/f] ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgf]kofu] L lzIff , sIff !! 59

(hand axe) lyof] . o; sfnv08sf] dfgj em' G8d} a:g] ub{y] eg] hLjgz}nL dV' otof 3d' Gt] k|sf/sf] lyof] . logLx¿sf] dV' o sfd gofF gofF 7fpdF f uO{ vfgs] '/f vf]Hg' lyof] . lgDg k'/fkfiff0f ;:+ s[ltsf] csf]{ dxŒjk\"0f{ ljsf; egs] f] cfuf]sf] lgoGq0fk\"js{ k|ofu] lyof] . o; sfnv08sf dfgjx¿ u'kmf, gbLsf lsgf/ tyf ?vsf 5xf/Lx¿df a:g] uby{ ] . lghL ;DklQsf] cjwf/0ffsf] ljsf; geO;ss] fn] dflg;x¿lar ;dfgtf /xs] f] lyof] . -v_ dWo k/' fkfiff0f hLjgz}nL cfheGbf sl/a @ nfv jif{b]lv $) xhf/ jif{ cufl8;Ddsf] sfnv08nfO{ dWo k'/fkfiff0f o'u elgG5 . o; sfnv08df lgofG8/yn dfgjsf] hLjg k4ltsf] ljsf; ePsf] lyof] . o; ;+:s[ltdf 9'ªu\\ ] cf}hf/ agfpg] k4lt klxn]eGbf lgs} vfl/Psf] lyof] . o; ou' df dl:tissf] a9\\bf] cfsf/sf sf/0f ;fr] fO Ifdtf a9b\\ } uof] . xltof/ agfpg] k4lt kl/ist[ xbF' } uof] . o; sfnv08df d:tl] /og (Mousterian) / ne] fOnfO] l;Og (Levalloisian) u/L bO' {cf6] f ;+:sl[ tnfO{ kd| 'v dfGg] ul/G5 . 9'ª\\ufnfO{ km' 6fP/ lg:ss] f] rf]O6fnfO{ w/] } wfl/nf] agfpg] snf dfgjn] l;ls;s]sf] lyof] . pgLx¿n] wfl/nf] 9'ªu\\ fnfO{ afFw]/ xft] aGr/f] agfpg l;s] / ;f] cf}hf/nfO{ sf6g\\ sf cltl/St /6] g\\ , v'sg{ ,] vf8n vGg,] tf5g\\ ,] Kjfn kfg]{ cflb sfdsf nflu k|of]u ug]{ u/s] f] tYo kQf nfu]sf] 5 . o; ;:+ s[ltcGtut{ sf cf}hf/x¿ a9L pkof]uL, cfsifs{ tyf ljljw vfnsf ePsfn] dfgj hLjgz}nL of] sfnv08;Dd cfOkU' bf lgs} ljsl;t eO;s]sf] lyof] . -u_ pRr k/' fkfif0f hLjgzn} L dWo k/' fkfiff0f o'usf] ;dflKt;uF } cfheGbf sl/a $) xhf/ jif{ cufl8af6 sl/a !) xhf/ jif{ cufl8;Dd /xs] f] sfnv08sf] hLjg k4ltnfO{ pRr k/' fkfiff0f hLjg z}nL elgG5 . o; ;dodf lgofG8/yn dfgj xf]df] ;]lkoG;åf/f lj:yflkt xF'b} hfg yfn] . dfgj dl:tissf] cfsf/ a9\\b} uPsfn] / sfo{zn} Ldf cfPsf] kl/jt{gn] cfw'lgs dfgj ljsf;df o; sfnv08sf] ofu] bfg /xs] f] 5 . pRr k/' fkfiff0f hLjg zn} Lsf kd| v' ljzi] ftfdWo] 9ª' u\\ ] xltof/ agfpg] k4ltdf cfPsf] Jofks kl/jtg{ Ps xf] . o; ou' df rfO] 6faf6 9'ª\\ufsf ;;fgf, wfl/nf / Psbd} kl/ist[ An8] sf] ljsf; u/L Aol' /g, efnf tyf tL/, ;fO8 :j|m\\ofk/ cflb h:tf kl/ist[ 9'ªu\\ ] xltof/x¿ agfO{ k|of]udf Nofpg yflnPsf] lyof] . logLx¿ lrqsf dfWodaf6 cfkm\\gf cleJolStx¿ k|:tt' ug]{ ub{y] . o;/L sf]l/Psf lrqx¿ o'/f]k, Pl;of tyf clk|msfsf ljleGg u'kmfx¿df e]l6Psf 5g\\ . oL lrqx¿df kf| oMh;f] hgfj/sf ck/' f lrqx¿ /xs] f 5g\\ . l;sf/ ug{'sf cltl/St df5f dfg]{ sfd klg oxL ;:+ s[ltaf6 ;?' ePsf] dflgG5 . a;f]af;sf nflu jf;:yfgsf] lgdf0{ f, sk8f nufpg] afgL, hª\\unL hgfj/nfO{ kj|m]/ kfNg] sfdsf] ;?' cft cflb o; sfnsf hLjg k4lt xg' \\ . @= dWo kfiff0f hLjgz}nL k'/fkfif0f o'usf] cGTo;Fu} ;?' eO{ nueu !) xhf/ jif{;Dd /xs] f] sfnv08nfO{ dWokfiff0f 60 ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgfk] of]uL lzIff , sIff !!

o'u elgG5 . o;} o'udf dWokfiff0f hLjg z}nL ljsf; ePsf] lyof] . o; sfnv08df k/' fkfiff0f hLjg zn} L / gjkfiff0f hLjgz}nL b'js} f sx] L ljzi] ftfx¿nfO{ cjnDag ul/Psf] kfOG5 . dWokfiff0f ;+:sl[ tsf cf}hf/x¿ tyf xltof/x¿ o;eGbf cufl8sf] k/' fkfiff0f ;+:sl[ tdf h:t} 9'ª\\ufaf6 lgsflnPsf kftnf An8] (Blade) sf] k|of]u u/L agfPsf lyP . oL An8] x¿ sf7sf] la8F jf xo\\ fG8ndf hf8] /] k6s k6s ko| fu] ug{ ;lsg] u/L agfOPsf] lyof] . o; ;dosf sltko cf}hf/x¿ lqeh' fsf/, rGbf| sf/, cfotfsf/nufotsf ljleGg HofldtLo cfsf/ lbO{ agfOPsf] lyof] . o;afxs] tL/ Pjd\\ efnfsf ¿kdf klg xltof/ agfO{ ko| f]udf NofPsf] lyof] . o; ;dodf cjzi] fsf ¿kdf /x]sf 9ª' u\\ ] cfh} f/x¿ hfkfg, dWoka' {L{ If]q, Oª\\NofG8, cfo/NofG8, 8g] dfs{, ;lao{ f cflbsf ljleGg :yfgx¿df k]mnf kfl/Psf] 5 . cGo dxŒjk0\" f{ ;f:+ sl[ ts ljsf;sf ;Gbed{ f 9ª' u\\ ] cfh} f/sf cltl/St hªu\\ nL jg:kltaf6 ljleGg vfB j:t'sf] kz| f]wg u/L k|of]udf Nofpg yflnPsf] lyof] . To:t} aN5Lsf] k|ofu] u/L df5f dfg,]{ afF;sf] rfo] faf6 6f]s/L agfpg,] sk8f agfpg] h:tf sfo{x¿;d]t o;} ;dodf ljsf; ePsf xg' \\ . hªu\\ nL jg:klt / hgfj/nfO{ 3/kfnj' f agfpbF } ;fgf]ltgf] s[lif sfo{sf] ;'?cft xg' ' g} o; o'usf] csf]{ dxŒjk0\" f{ ;f:+ sl[ ts pbl\\ jsf; xf] . o:tf dxŒjk\"0f{ ljsf;x¿n] ubf{ g} o;kl5sf] gjkfiff0f ;:+ s[ltn] km8\\sf] dfg{ ;ss] f] lyof] . #= gj kfiff0f hLjgzn} L o; sfnv08df 9'ª\\ufaf6 kfln; u/]/ lrNnf] agfOPsf cf}hf/x¿ lgdf{0f / k|of]u ug]{ hLjgzn} L k|rngdf lyof] . a9\\bf] r]tgf :t/sf] sf/0f Pjd\\ gofF ks| f/sf] cfjZostfnfO{ ;Daf] wg ug{ o:tf vfnsf 9'ªu\\ ] cfh} f/x¿ agfOPsf lyP . cfheGbf sl/a ( xhf/ jif{ cufl8af6 ;?' ePsf] gjkfiff0f o'u (Neolithic period) nfO{ ;f:+ s[lts kl/jtg{ sf cfwf/df jm| flGtsf/L o'u;dt] eGg] ul/G5 . 9ª' \\u] cfh} f/df cfPsf] Jofks kl/jtg{ ;uF } s[lifsf] ljsf;nfO{ ;a}eGbf j|mflGtsf/L kl/jt{gsf ¿kdf k/' ftŒjljb\\x¿ JofVof ub{5g\\ . o;} sfnv08af6 dflg;n] 3'dGt,] l;sf/L, hLjgz}nLsf ;6\\6f :yfoL a;f]af; ;'? ug{] j|mddf sl[ if / kzk' fngnfO{ cFufn]sf s/' f k'/ftflŒjs vf]hx¿n] bv] fPsf 5g\\ . gjkfiff0f ;:+ s[ltsf 9ª' \\u] cfh} f/x¿ o;cl3sf] dWokfiff0f ;+:sl[ tsf] lg/Gt/tf xg' \\ . o;sf ;fy} oL cfh} f/x¿nfO{ cem} a9L wfl/nf] agfO{ vGg, sf6g\\ , a'Gg, sf7sf] sfd ug{ ko| f]u ug{ ldNg] u/L lgdf0{ f ul/Psf] lyof] . sl[ ifsf] Jojl:yt ;?' cft eO;s]sfn] sl[ if sfo{sf nflu cfjZos 6fs] /L, gfª\\nf], kfyLnufotsf ;fduL| sf] ;dt] o; o'udf lgdf{0f ul/Psf] lyof] . ljleGg :yfgdf xfjfkfgL, df6fc] gs' \"nsf afnLx¿sf] vt] L ug{ yflnPsf] lyof] . lxdou' sf] cGTo;uF } tfltFb} uPsf] jftfj/0fLo cj:yfn] s[lif pTkfbgdf 7'nf] e\"ldsf lgjfx{ u/]sf] lyof] . d;] f]kf6] fldof, hf8] {g / OlhK6nufotsf :yfgx¿df ux,'F hf}, bnxgnufotsf afnL nufOGYof] . rLgdf d'Votof sfb] f] / wfg nufOGYof] . To:t} clk|msfdf sfb] f,] wfg, t?n cflbsf] v]tL ul/Psf] lyof] eg] cdl] /sfdf ds}, e6df;, cfn' cflb v]tL ul/GYof] . o; ;dodf kzk' fng klg Jofks alg;ss] f] ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgfk] ofu] L lzIff , sIff !! 61

lyof] . sl[ ifdf cfjZos >d ;fwg h'6fpg / bw' , df;h' :tf vfBj:t'sf] ;l' glZrttf ug{ ljleGg hªu\\ nL hgfj/x¿nfO{ ;dft]/ kfNg ;'? ul/Psf] lyof] . s's'/af6 ;'? ul/Psf] hª\\unL hgfj/ nfO{ 3/kfn'jf agfpg] j|mddf ufO,{ e;F} L, ;F'u'/, e]8f cflbnfO{ klg j|mdzM kfNg yflnPsf] lyof] . vt] LkftL / kzk' fngsf] Jofks ljsf;;uF } gjkfiff0f ou' sf] ;dfhn] cgs] fF} ;fdflhs / ;f:+ sl[ ts kl/jt{gx¿ ;fIffTsf/ u¥of] . sk8f nufpg] afgLsf] ljsf; eof] . :yfoL a;fa] f; tyf v]tLkftL ug{sf nflu hldg cfu] 6g\\ ] j|md a9b\\ } ubf{ JolStut ;DklQnfO{ clws dxŒj lbg yflnof] . o;n] ubf{ ;dfhdf c;dfgtfsf] ;d]t ljsf; x'g yfNof] . ;dfhdf wds{ d{ ;+:yfut xFb' } uP eg] /fhgLlts rt] gfsf] ljsf;;Fu} ;;fgf /fHo / /hf6} fx¿n] zf;g ug]{ k4lt;dt] ;?' xbF' } uof] . gjkfiff0f o'usf] r/d ljsf; xg' ] jm| ddf wft'sf] cfljisf/ eO{ o;nfO{ 9'ª\\ufsf] ;6\\6f cfh} f/ agfpg] sfddf k|o]fu ug{ yflnof] . o;ks| f/ gjkfiff0f ;+:s[ltsf] ljsf;sf] r/d ¿kdf lnFbf wft' ou' xF'b} ;Eotf (Civilization) sf] ljsf;sf nflu alnof] hu v8f u¥of] . ljleGg :yfgdf k|fKt kf| ul} txfl;s tYox¿sf] cWoog ubf{ oL ou' x¿ Pskl5 csf]{ j|mlds ¿kdf ;'? geO{ sg' } ;dodf ;dfgfGt/ ¿kdf cl:tTjdf /x]sf] kfOG5 . lj|mofsnfk != dfgj ;dfhsf] pbl\\ jsf;sf af/]df ljleGg ;|ft] x¿sf] cWoog u/L hfgsf/L ;ªs\\ ng ug'x{ f];\\ / Ps ;fgf] a'sn]6 jf :nfO8 tof/ kf/L sIffdf k|:t't ug'x{ f;] \\ . @= sIffdf 5nkmn u/L 9'ªu\\ ] ou' sf dfgj / clxns] f] dflg;sf] hLjgzn} Llar tn' gf ug'x{ f];\\ . #= cfhsf] dfgj ;dfh nfvf}“ jif{bl] vsf] j|mda4 ljsf;sf] kl/0ffd xf] . o; zLif{sdf jStt[ f tof/ u/L sIffdf jStT[ jsnf kl| tof]lutf ug{x' f];\\ . cEof; != sfn{ dfS;,{ O={ aL= 6fOn/ / P= Pn= dfu] fg{ sf ;dfhsf ljsf;sf r/0fx¿ pNnv] ugx{' f;] \\ . @= tkfO“{ a:g] ;dfh ;dfh ljsf;sf sg' r/0f;u“ ldNbfh] N' bf] 5, cfkm\\ gf] ts{ nV] g'xf;] \\ . #= gjkfiff0f o'usf] ;fdflhs ;f+:sl[ ts ljzi] ftfx¿ pNnv] ug{'xf;] \\ . $= gjkfiff0f ou' (Neolithic period) nfO{ jm| flGtsf/L ou' elgG5 . cfkm\\ gf] ts;{ lxt kl' i6 ug'{xf];\\ . kl/of]hgf sfo{ tkfOF a:g] ;dfh jf Ifq] sf] pTklQ / ljsf; ;DaGwdf cfkmg\\ f cuh| x¿;uF ;fw] /] hfgsf/L lngx' f;] \\ / Ps nv] jf :nfO8 ;f] tof/ u/L k|:t't ugx{' f;] \\ . 62 ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgf]kof]uL lzIff , sIff !!

#kf7 M sl[ if ou' sf] ;?' cft / ljsf; 9ª' u\\ ] ou' kl5sf] ;dfhdf hLjg lgjf{xsf] d'Vo cfwf/ s[lif lyof] . To;n} fO{ g} sl[ if ;dfh elgG5 eg] dfgj ;Eotfsf] ljsf;sf] To; sfnv08nfO{ s[lif o'u eg/] lrlgG5 . dflg;n] vfg] s'/f ;xh ¿kdf kf| Kt ug{sf nflu kz'kfng tyf vt] LkftL ug{] sfo{ gjkfiff0f -Neolithic_ ou' bl] v g} ub{} cfPsf lyP . To;}n] gjkfiff0f o'unfO{ g} s[lif ou' sf] ;'?cft dflgG5 . kf| u\\Pl] txf; zf:qLx¿sf cg';f/ P]ltxfl;s ¿kdf sl[ if o'u Jojl:yt a;f]af; / ;Eo hLjgsf] ljsf;sf nflu dV' o husf ¿kdf dflgG5 . vfg]s'/fsf nflu af]6la?jf / hgfj/x¿dflysf] lge{/tfaf6 vfB pTkfbg ug]{ lj|mofsnfkdf nfUg] sfo{ ljZjsf ljleGg 7fpxF ¿df ljleGg ;dodf bv] f k/]sf] kfOG5 . To;}sf cfwf/df s[lif ou' sf] ljsf;sf af/]df rrf{ ul/G5 . kf| u\\Pl] txf;zf:qLx¿, dfgjzf:qLx¿ / k'/ftŒjljbx\\ ¿sf cg;' f/ s[ifs ;db' fox¿ ;a}eGbf kl5Nnf] lxpF ou' -Pleistocene_ sf] cGtkl5 sl/a O;fkj\" { !)))) af6 bv] f k/s] f lyP . vf]hstfx{ ¿n] ltgLx¿sf cjz]ifx¿ blIf0fka' L{ Pl;ofb]lv dl] S;sf];Dd Jofks ¿kdf 5l/Psf If]qx¿af6 k|fKt u/s] f 5g\\ . o;/L k|fKt kd| f0fx¿dWo] d];f]kf]6fldof -cfw'lgs O/fs_ sf 6fOlu|; / o'k|m]6;\\ gbLsf zLtf]i0f / cToGt pAhfp pkTosfb]lv hf8] {g;Dd kml} nPsf] pj/{ cw{rG›fsf/ -Fertile Crescent_ gfdn] lrlgg] Ifq] df e]l6Psf kd| f0fx¿ ;a}eGbf k|l;4 dfgssf ¿kdf lnOPsf 5g\\ . sl/a O;fkj\" { *%))–&%)) df pj/{ cwr{ G›fsf/ Ifq] sf] dflyNnf] efudf hªu\\ nL e8] f, afvf| , / ufO{j:t'sf] ayfg kfNg] ul/GYof] . ToxfF uxF' / hfs} f] v]tL klg ug{] ul/GYof] . sl/a O;fkj\" { &)))–^))) df rLgn] sfb] f], wfgnufotsf afnLsf] Jojl:yt vt] LkftL ug{ yfns] f] el] 6G5 . gofF ljZjsf ¿kdf lnOg] dWo tyf blIf0f cd]l/sfdf sl/a O;fk\"j{ *))) af6 vt] LkftL ;?' u/s] f] kfOPsf] 5 . ToxfF ds,} l;dL, :Sjf;, v;' f{gL, cfn' cflbsf] v]tL ul/GYof] . o;sf ;fy} 6sL{ / lugL lkux¿ vfBfGg ;f| t] sf ¿kdf kfNg ;'? ul/Psf] lyof] . O;fkj\" { %))) ;Dddf cfOkU' bf l;l/of, 6sL,{ na] gfg, Oh/fon, hf8] g{ , lu;| , ;fOk;| nufotsf Ifq] x¿df v]tLkftL ug{] ;d'bfox¿ :yflkt eO;s]sf lyP . k|fu\\P]ltxfl;s k/' ftŒjzf:qLx¿sf cg';f/ oL 7fpFx¿df :yflkt s[lif ;dfhx¿n] 9'ª\\ufsf ejgx¿ lgdf0{ f u/s] f lyP . cGgafnL leqo\\ fpg xlF ;of ko| fu] u/s] f lyP . xnf] agfO{ ko| f]u ug{ yfns] f lyP / wft'sf ;fdfg agfpg] l;kdf kf/ªu\\ t xbF' } uPsf lyP . o;/L v]tLkftL ug{] ;+:sl[ t O;fk\"j{ %))) b]lv $))) ;Dddf dWo klZrd o/' fk] sf] 8G] oa' gbL;Dd, blIf0fdf clkm| sfsf] gfOn gbLnufot ed\" Wo;fu/sf] lsgf/;Dd ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgf]kofu] L lzIff , sIff !! 63

/ k\"j{df l;Gw' 3fF6L;Dd km}lnPsf] lyof] . oL Ifq] df ;?' df uxF' / hfs} f] vt] L ul/Psf] lyof] . v]tLkftLsf] tLj| ljsf;;uF } gfOn gbL pkTosfdf cGo kl| jlwsf If]qdf ;d]t pNn]vgLo ku| lt eof] . To; pkTosfdf jiff{ sd x'g] ;dodf afnLnfO{ kfgL lbg l;rF fO / gx/ k|0ffnL ljsf; ul/Psf] lyof] . oxfF af9Ln] hldg af8F kmfF8sf lg;fgx¿ d]6fOlbO/xg] x'gfn] ;jI]{ f0f k0| ffnLåf/f kT| os] jif{ hUuf :jfldTjsf] kg' Mkl/eflift ug{] ul/GYof] . 6fOlu|; / ok' m| 6] \\; pkTosfx¿df klg af9L lgoGq0f ug{ ljleGg vfn] cj/f]wsx¿ lgdf0{ f ul/Psf] lyof] . vf]hstf{x¿sf cg';f/ ;du|df cfheGbf sl/a !) xhf/ jif{b]lv #%)) jif{;Dddf ;+;f/sf] nueu ;a}lt/ dflg;x¿sf] afnL pAhfpg] sfo{ Jofks eO{ s[lif cy{Joj:yf :yfkgf eO;s]sf] lyof] . t/ kflnPsf hgfj/x¿ tyf vt] LkftL ul/Psf afnLx¿ 7fpFcg';f/ leGg leGg k|sf/sf lyP . s]xL hgfj/ / af]6la?jfaf6 ;'? ePsf] s[lifsfo{ la:tf/} Jofks aGb} uof] . oxfF gofF gofF hª\\unL hgfj/x¿nfO{ lgoGq0fdf lnP/ 3/]n' agfpg yfn] . gofF gofF af]6la¿jfx¿sf lap ;ªs\\ ng u//] v]tLkftL ug{ yflnof] . o;n] ubf{ kflng] hgfj/ / vt] L ul/g] afnLsf] ks| f/ a9b\\ } uof] . k/' ftŒjljbx\\ ¿n] dflg;n] 3d' Gt] hLjgzn} L Tofu/] kzk' fng tyf vfB pTkfbgsf] ;'?cft ug{s' f sf/0faf/] y/Ly/Lsf cg'dfgx¿ nufPsf 5g\\ . s]xLn] lxpFou' sf] cGtdf ePsf] hnjfo' kl/jt{g / hg;ª\\Vof j[l4n] lgDTofPsf] vfB ;ª\\s6nfO{ dV' o sf/s tŒjx¿sf ¿kdf JofVof u/s] f 5g\\ . csfy{ /Ln] eg] vfB pTkfbglt/ nfUgn' fO{ dflg;sf] jftfj/0f;uF cGt/ljm| of ug{] tl/sfdf cfPsf] cfwf/et\" kl/jt{gsf ¿kdf JofVof u/s] f 5g\\ . vfh] stf{x¿sf cg';f/ sl[ if o'usf] ljsf;;uF } ;dfhdf 7n' f ;fdflhs kl/jt{gx¿ cfPsf lyP . vt] LkftL / kzk' fngsf] ;?' cft;uF } kl/jf/df a:g] cjwf/0ffsf] ljsf; eO;ss] f] lyof] vfBj:ts' f] k|dv' ;f| ]tsf ¿kdf /x]sf] v]tLof]Uo hldg crn ePsfn] Ps} 7fpdF f a:g'kg{] ePsfn] :yfoL a;f]af;sf] ljsf; eof] . kmn:j¿k 3/x¿ lgdf{0f ugd{ f clws ;do / ko| f; vr{ ul/of] . 3/ lgdf0{ fdf cfa4 l;sdL,{ 8sdL{ cflbsf] dxŒj / pkof]lutf a9\\b} uof] . :yfoL a;f]af;sf] ljsf;;Fu} kl/jf/sf] cfsf/df ;dt] jl[ 4 x'bF } hfg yfNof] . hldgsf] dxŒj a9\\b} uPsfn] a9LeGbf a9L hldg cf]u6\\g] k|lt:kwf{ x'g yfNof] . o; j|mddf ;Lldt JolStn] c¿sf] t'ngfdf w]/} hldg cf]u6g\\ ;kmn eP . log} dflg;x¿ kl5 uP/ ;fdGtsf ¿kdf :yflkt x'Fb} uP . o;n] ubf{ ;dfhdf c;dfg jux{ ¿ ljsf; xFb} uof] . s[lif o'udf hldgaf6 ul/g] pTkfbgsf] k|dv' ;fwg dfgj >d lyof] . hldg w]/} gx'g]x¿n] hldg xg' x] ¿sxfF sfd u/L cfˆgf] uh' f/f rnfpFy] . o;/L s[lif o'udf c;dfg ju{x¿ ljsf; xbF' } uof] . sl[ if ou' ljsl;t aGb} hfFbf vfh] / cljisf/sf gofF gofF Ifq] x¿ vN' b} uP . vfBj:ts' f] pTkfbgsf ;fy} k|zf]wg Pjd\\ e08f/0fsf nflu ljleGg cf}hf/ tyf k|ljlwsf] ljsf; x'Fb} uof] . af;F / lgufnfsf rfo] faf6 ljleGg ;fdfg agfpg,] wfts' f gofF gofF cfh} f/x¿ agfpg,] wfuf] sfTg] tfg nufpg] / a'Ggn] ufotsf ljleGg kl| jlwsf] ljsf; ePsf] 5 . ls;fgx¿n] a9L ePsf] 64 ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgfk] of]uL lzIff , sIff !!

pTkflbt cGg ufpsF f ahf/df aR] g yfn] . la:tf/} oL sx] L ahf/ jf sG] ›x¿sf] hg;ªV\\ ofdf jl[ 4 xbF' } uof] cGttM cfwl' gs ;x/x¿sf] ljsf;sf] yfngL eof] . ;x/sf] ljsf;;uF } >d ljefhgn] ljlzi6 ¿k lnbF } uof] . kmn:j¿k Jofkf/L, lzNksdL,{ l;kfxL, kh' f/L, zf;s / gf]s/zfxL;lxt w/] } gofF ks| f/sf sfdx¿ b]vf kb{} uP . pbLodfg ;x/L s]G›x¿ d'VotM o:tf u/} vfB pTkfbsx¿ / pgLx¿sf kl/jf/x¿sf] ax'Nftf xF'b} uof] . o;k|sf/ ;x/sf] ljsf;;Fu} sl[ if o'un] ;Eotfsf] ljsf;df gofF cfofd kb| fg u¥of] . lj|mofsnfk != k|frLg sl[ if k0| ffnL / cfwl' gs s[lif k|0ffnLsf ;dfgtf Pjd\\ leGgtfx¿ ;DaGwdf ;d\"xdf 5nkmn ug{'xf;] \\ . @= sl[ if ou' sf] ;?' cft / ljsf;sf ;DaGwdf sIffdf ;fyLx¿lar 5nkmn u/L ab“' f l6kf6] ug{x' f];\\ . #= s[lif ou' clGtd cj:yflt/ cfOk'Ubf w]/} hldgsf] dflnssf ¿kdf el\" dkltx¿ /xs] f lyP . w/] } ls;fg / e\"bf;x¿sf] cj:yf bogLo lyof] . pgLx¿ el\" dkltaf6 a9L zfi] f0fdf k/]sf lyP . o; ;dfhnfO{ ;fdGtL ;dfh elGfG5 . o; ;dfhsf yk ljzi] ftf vf]hL u/L sIffdf k|:tt' ug{x' f;] \\ . cEof; != …gjkfif0f o'unfO{ g} s[lif ou' sf] ;?' jft dflgG5 .Ú ts{ lbg'xf];\\ . @= …sl[ if o'u Jojl:yt a;fa] f; / ;Eo hLjg ljsf;sf] hu xf] .Ú k'li6 ug{x' f;] \\ . #= d;] f]kf]6fldofsf] s[lif lj|mofsnfksf af/d] f 5f]6f] rrf{ ug'x{ f;] \\ . $= s[lif ou' sf] ljsf;;“u} ;dfhdf c;dfg ju{x¿ ljsf; x“b' } uPsf] k|;ªu\\ nfO{ hf8] b\\ } jtd{ fg ;dodf ljsf;n] NofPsf] ;fdflhs c;dfgtfsf] JofVof ug'{xf;] \\ . kl/of]hgf sfo{ tkfOF{sf] ;d'bfodf k|rlnt sl[ if ljm| ofsnfkx¿sf] vfh] L u/L d'Vo d'Vo lj|mofsnfk / To;n] ;dfhdf kf/s] f] k|efj ;d]6L Ps k|ltjb] g tof/ ug'x{ f;] \\ . ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgfk] ofu] L lzIff , sIff !! 65

$kf7 M kF'hLjfbL o'u / cf}Bf]lus ljZj != k'“hLjfbL o'u / cf}Bf]lus ;dfhsf] ljsf;jm| d kF'hLjfbL cy{ Joj:yfdf pTkfbgsf ;fwgx¿df lghL :jfldTj sfod /xG5 . k'FhLjfbL ;dfhdf lghL ;DklQsf] dxŒj xG' 5 . o:tf] ;dfhdf j:ts' f] ljt/0f / ljsf; :jtGq ahf/sf] cjwf/0ffdf cfwfl/t x'G5 . o:tf] Jofkf/ k|0ffnLdf kT| o]s JolStn] k|lt:kwfd{ fkm{ t a9LeGbf a9L d'gfkmf sdfpg] k|of;df nfUg] ub{5g\\ . o:tf] cy{ Joj:yfdf /fHosf] el\" dsf Go\"g /xG5 . ljleGg ;|ft] sf cg';f/ kFh' Ljfb !& cfF} ztfAbLaf6 cl:tTjdf cfPsf] xf] . of] jt{dfg ;dodf klg sfod /x]sf] 5 . o;n] o'/f]ksf] cfB} f]lus j|mflGtkl5 ljZj ;dfhdf alnof];Fu h/f uf8]sf] bl] vG5 . o/' fk] df ;'? ePsf] cfB} fl] us jm| flGtkZrft\\ ljsl;t ePsf] ;dfhnfO{ cfB} f]lus ;dfh eg/] lrlgG5 . of] cfB} fl] us ;dfh sl[ ifdf cfwfl/t ;dfg ;fdflhs ;DaGwx¿sf] r/d ljsf;kl5 ljsl;t ePsf] xf] . o;nfO{ cfw'lgs ;dfhsf] P]ltxfl;s ljsf; j|mddf lgs} dxŒjsf ;fy JofVof ug]{ ul/G5 . o/' fk] af6 ;?' cft ePsf] o; ;dfhn] tLj| ¿kdf k}mF lnFb} ;;+ f/sf cGo efudf ;dt] b/\" ufdL k|efj 5f]8\\g ;kmn ePsf] 5 . t;y{ cl:tTjdf cfPsf] ;do km/s ePtf klg cfB} fl] us / k'hF LjfbL ;dfhsf] ljsf; ljZjdf ;uF ;Fu} ePsf] bl] vG5 . k'hF LjfbL ;dfh vf; u/L cfB} fl] us pTkfbgdf cfwfl/t xG' 5 . u'hf/fd'vL pTkfbg k0| ffnLnfO{ 7'nf] dfqfdf j:t'sf] pTkfbg ug]{ k|0ffnLåf/f kl| t:yfkg u/L of] ;dfh cl:tTjdf cfPsf] xf] . kh'F LjfbL ;dfhsf] ljsf; xbF' } hfFbf pTkfbgsf] b/ / dfqf a9fpgsf nflu hLjfZd (Fossil) OGwgaf6 rNg] d]l;gsf] tLj| ljsf; eof] . dl] ;g tyf cfh} f/x¿sf] Jofks k|of]un] dfgjLo >dsf] k|of]unfO{ 7'nf] dfqfdf s6ft} L u¥of] . cfB} fl] us pTkfbgdf dfgj >dsf] pkof]u sd ePtf klg pTkflbt j:t'x¿sf] ahf/Ls/0f tyf ;]jf If]qsf] Jofks lj:tf/n] ubf{ cfB} fl] us ;x/x¿sf] ljsf; x'Fb} uof] . tL ;x/x¿df hg;ª\\Vof tLj| ¿kdf a9g\\ yfNof] . cfB} f]lus ljsf;sf] csf{] dxŒjk0\" f{ kIf egs] f] o;n] ;x/Ls/0f k|lj|mofnfO{ cem Jofks agfof] . ;g\\ !()) sf] ;'?cft;Dd cfOk'Ubf /]ndfus{ f] ljsf; eO;s]sf] lyof] . ;d'b|df OlGhgaf6 rNg] 7'nf cfsf/sf kfgLhxfh rnfpg yfln;s]sf] lyof] . o;kl5 ;jf/L ;fwgsf] ljsf; tLj| ultn] xg' yfNof] . o;n] cfjthfjt / b}lgsLdf 7'nf] kl/jt{g Nofof] . ;x/ / ;xl/of hLjgz}nLn] a9LeGbf a9L hg;ª\\VofnfO{ ufpaF f6 ;x/tkm{ tfGg yfNof] . oL ;ad} f cf}Bfl] usLs/0fn] g} kd| 'v e\"ldsf vN] of] . hnljB't\\ ux[ sf] :yfkgfsf] jm| d a9g\\ yfNof] . pmhf{sf ;f| t] x¿df cfPsf] kl/jt{gn] bl} gs pkef]Uo j:t'sf] pTkfbgdf gofF lbzf lbg yfNof] . ;~rf/sf] ljsf;;d]t Jofks ¿kdf 66 ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgf]kof]uL lzIff , sIff !!

eO{ 6l] nkmf]g, /]l8of], l6eL / OG6/g]6 dflg;sf] b}lgs hLjgdf hf]l8g cfOk'u] . To;} u/L lzIff Ifq] df cfPsf] kl/jtg{ n] lzlIft hg;ª\\Vof a9b\\ } uof] . of]Uotf ePsf dfgj ;+;fwgx¿sf] pTkfbg xg' yfn] . o;n] dfgj ;dfhdf lzIffsf] dxŒj a9fof] . a9\\bf] cf}Bf]lusLs/0f;uF } Jofks Pjd\\ alnof] aGb} uPsf] ;x/Ls/0fn] ubf{ k/Dk/fut ;dfhdf 7'nf] kl/jt{g Nofpg yfNof] . JolStjfbL / pkef]ujfbL ;fr] a9b\\ } uof] . df}lns ;:+ sl[ tnfO{ cfofltt ;:+ sl[ tn] lj:yflkt ub}{ hfg yfNof] . k/Dk/fut ¿kdf 3/fo;L bfo/fdf ;Lldt dlxnfx¿ sfdsf nflu 3/aflx/ cfpg yfn] . o;n] dlxnf ;zStLs/0fsf] cjwf/0ffnfO{ ljZjJofkL ¿kdf kr| f/k|;f/ u¥of] . dflg;sf] hLjg :t/ a9fpg :jf:Yo ;l' jwf tyf pkrf/ k4ltdf ePsf] ljsf;n] 7'nf] el\" dsf vN] of] . k'FhLjfbsf] ;dfhdf jr{:j a9\\b} hfFbf cf}Bf]lus pTkfbgx¿;d]t o;}nfO{ alnof] agfP . cf}Bf]lus pTkfbgn] hghLjgnfO{ ;xh agfpbF } nu] klg ;dfh la:tf/} pkefu] jfbL aGb} uof] . ;;fgf df}lns pTkfbgx¿ j|mdzM x/fpFb} hfg yfn] . o;n] ubf{ ;dfhdf k/lge{/tf a9b\\ } uof] . dflg;sf] /fh] fu/Lsf] / cfocfh{gsf] k|d'v dfWod cfB} fl] us >d g} aGg YffNof] . o;df kT| o]s JolStsf] cfly{s pkfh{g p;n] >d a]Rg] jm| ddf ug{ ;Sg] sl;s;fpdf cfwfl/t xb'F } uof] . cf}Bf]lus pTkfbgsf ;fwg / pTkfbgx¿ k\"0f{tof dflnssf] lgoGq0fdf xg' yfn] . cf}Bfl] us kl/jt{gsf] c;/ /fhgLltdf ;dt] kg{ yfNof] . o;n] ;dfhdf ju{ ljefhg Nofof] / juLo{ /fhgLltsf] hu cf/De u¥of] . kj\" :{ yflkt /fhgLlts k0| ffnLx¿nfO{ gofF k|0ffnLx¿n] lj:yflkt ub{} nu] . o;ks| f/ cf}Bfl] us ;dfh ljsl;t aGb} hfFbf la:tf/} cfw'lgs ;dfhsf] hu alnof] aGb} uof] . ljm| ofsnfk != k'“hLjfbL / cf}Bf]lus ;dfhsf] ljsf;n] ljZjdf NofPsf] ;sf/fTds / gsf/fTds kl/jtg{ x¿ ;d\"xdf 5nkmn u/L tnsf] tflnsfdf k:| t't ug{'xf];\\ M ;sf/fTds kl/jt{gx¿ gsf/fTds kl/jt{gx¿ != != @= @= #= #= $== $= @ = kh“' LjfbL / cfB} f]lus ;dfhsf] ljsf;n] dlxnf ;zStLs/0fdf s:tf] ke| fj kf¥of], 5nkmn u/L ab“' f l6kf]6 ugx'{ f;] \\ . ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgfk] of]uL lzIff , sIff !! 67

cEof; ! k'“hLjfbL Joj:yf / ;fdfGtjfbL Joj:yflarsf] km/s 56' \\ofpg'xf];\\ . @= o/' f]ksf] cfB} fl] us jm| flGt / o;n] dfgj ;dfhdf kf/]sf] ke| fj pNnv] ub}{ Ps ;j+ fb tof/ ugx'{ f;] \\ . #= k“h' LjfbL ;dfh / cfB} fl] usLs/0flarsf] ;DaGw k|:6 kfg{'xf];\\ . $= k'“hLjfbL ;dfhdf lghL ;DklQsf] dxŒj a9L xg' 'sf sf/0fx¿ pNn]v ug{x' f;] \\ . %= cfB} f]lus ;dfh / kh“' LjfbL ;dfh Pscsfd{ f cGt/;DalGwt 5g\\ . o; egfOnfO{ kl' i6 ug{x' f;] \\ . 68 ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgf]kof]uL lzIff , sIff !!

% kf7 M jtd{ fg ljZj kl/j]z / ;fdflhs Jojxf/ != jtd{ fg ljZj kl/j]z cfd;~rf/sf ;fwgx¿, ;fdflhs ;~hfn tyf oftfoftsf] ;'ljwfdf cfPsf] cfd\"n kl/jt{g;Fu} l;ª\\uf] ljZj Ps a[xt\\ kl/jf/ aGb} uPsf] 5 . PSsfO;f}F ztfAbLdf ljZjJofkLs/0f jf ed\" 08nLs/0f cem Jofks aGb} uPsf] 5 . efu} f]lns ¿kdf 6f9f 6f9f /x] sf dflg; Pjd\\ ;dfhx¿ klg Pscfk;df glhs ePsf] cge' j ug{ yfn]sf 5g\\ . kl| jlwdf cfPsf] pRrtd ljsf;n] o;nfO{ ;Dej t'NofPsf] 5 . e\"d08nLs/0fsf sf/0f ljsl;t bz] x¿sf] k|efj cljsl;t bz] x¿sf] ;fdflhs, cflys{ , ;f+:s[ltsnufotsf If]qx¿df cem a9b\\ } uO/xs] f] 5 . o;sf sf/0f ljleGg 7fpsF f cfˆgf ljlzi6 df}lnstfx¿ x/fpFb} hfg yfns] f 5g\\ . ;dsfnLg ljZj kl/jz] ablnbF } hfbF f ;+;f/sf] sg' } Ps 7fpFdf b]lvPsf] s'g} Ps kl/jtg{ sf] c;/ ;lhn} csf{] 7fpdF f bv] f kg{ yfns] f] 5 . @= jtd{ fg ljZjsf d\"ne\"t ljzi] ftfx¿ ljZjsf clwsf+z dn' 'sx¿df cg]s vfn] ljljwtfx¿ ljBdfg /x]sf 5g\\ . jt{dfg ljZjnfO{ kl| tlalDat ug]{ sx] L d'Vo ljz]iftfx¿ lgDgfg';f/ pNn]v ug{ ;lsG5 M -c_ a9b\\ f] ;x/Ls/0f hg;fª\\lVos cfwf/df ;g\\ @)!) sf] bzssf] ;'?cftaf6} ;;+ f/sf cfwfeGbf a9L dflg;x¿ ;x/df a:b5g\\ . ;x/x¿sf] ;ªV\\ of / ;x/L hg;ªV\\ of lbgkl| tlbg a9b\\ } uPsf] 5 . cdl] /sf, o/' fk] tyf Pl;of dxfbz] x¿sf dn' s' x¿nufot clxns] f] ljZjsf ;a} bz] x¿df ;x/Ls/0f Jofks aGb} uPsf] 5 . a9b\\ f] ;x/Ls/0fn] ubf{ ;j;{ fwf/0fsf] b}lgs hghLjgdf cfdn\" kl/jtg{ cfPsf] 5 . -cf_ ljZjJofkLs/0f ljZjJofkLs/0f clxns] f] ljZjsf] csf]{ k|dv' ljzi] ftf xf] . ljZjJofkLs/0f a9b\\ } hfFbf ljZj g} Pp6f ;fgf] ufpsF f ¿kdf ;fFu/' f] xb'F } uPsf] 5 . s'g} dn' 'ssf] Ps 7fpsF f] pTkfbg ;lhn} ljZjsf] sg' } klg sg' fdf k'u]sf] 5 . ljleGg ;dfhsf dfl} ns ljzi] ftfx¿;d]t ljZjJofkLs/0fs} sf/0f ;dfKt x'g] cj:yfdf ku' s] f 5g\\ . ljZjJofkLs/0fsf sf/0fn] g} ubf{ clxn] oftfoft, ;~rf/, lj1fg tyf kl| jlwnufotsf If]qdf ePsf] ljsf;;Fu} cfly{s ljsf; / k/lge/{ tfn] ubf{ xfdL ;+;f/sf] hg' ;s' } 7fpFdf /x]/ ;Dk0\" f{ ultljlwsf af/]df yfxf kfpg ;S5fF} . ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgfk] of]uL lzIff , sIff !! 69

-O_ a;fO“;/fO lxhfc] fh ;;+ f/e/ g} a;fOF;/fOsf] b/ a9\\b} uPsf] 5 . ufpaF f6 ;x/lt/sf] a;fO;F /fO t w]/} jif{ cufl8bl] v ljZjJofkL k|lj|mof ag/] :yflkt eO;ss] f] lyof] eg] xfn cfP/ sd ljsl;t tyf ljsf;zLn b]zx¿af6 cfly{s ¿kn] ljsl;t b]zx¿df a;fOF ;g{] kl| j|mofn] ;dt] Jofkstf kfPsf] 5 . ljzi] fu/L /fh] uf/L, lzIff, :jf:Yo tyf cGo ;'ljwf Pjd\\ cj;/sf] vfh] Ldf ljleGg dn' s' x¿df eO/xs] f] cfGtl/s dfq} geO{ cGt/fl{ i6o« a;fO;F /fOn] ljZjsf ;dfh Pjd\\ dn' s' x¿sf] hg;fª\\lVos, ;f+:sl[ ts, cflys{ / /fhgLlts kl/bZ[ o g} kl/jtg{ xb'F } 5 . -O{_ kl| jlwsf] kxr“' df lj:tf/ ljleGg vfn] k|ljlwsf] lj:tf/ ;dsfnLg ljZjsf] csf]{ k|dv' ljz]iftf xf] . lxhf]cfh k|ljlwsf] tLj| ljsf;;uF } ljZjsf sg' fsfKrfdf 5l/Psf] hg;ªV\\ of;Dd k|ljlwsf] kxr'F Jofks ¿kdf jl[ 4 ePsf] 5 . kl| jlwsf] kl/jt{g Pjd\\ lj:tf/sf sf/0f ;~rf/, :jf:Yo, lzIff, oftfoftnufot w/] } kIfx¿df cfd\"n kl/jtg{ x¿ cfPsf 5g\\ . -p_ kh'“ LjfbL rl/q ljZjJofkLs/0f;Fu} kF'hLjfb lgs} zlStzfnL aGb} uPsf] 5 . khF' LjfbL pTkfbg ;DaGw dhat' aGb} hfbF f ;dfhdf ljBdfg juLo{ c;dfgtf emg\\ a9\\b} uPsf] 5 . khF' Ljfb ;zSt aGb} hfbF f ;dfh, ;fdflhs ;DaGw / j}olSts hLjgdf ax'cfoflds ke| fj k/s] f 5g\\ . -pm_ JolStjfbL kj| l[ Qdf j[l4 a9b\\ f] cfw'lgstf, kl| jlwsf] lj:tf/ cflbsf sf/0f JolStjfbL kj| l[ Qdf a9f]Q/L xb'F } uPsf] 5 . cfˆgf] kmfObfnfO{ s]G›df /fv/] sfd ug]{ k|j[lQ Jofks aGb} 5 eg] JolStx¿df kl/jf/ tyf gftf;DaGwsf] k|efj sdhf]/ aGb} uPsf] 5 . -C_ ax;' f:+ s[ltstf a9\\bf] ljZjJofkLs/0f / a;fOF;/fOsf sf/0f ;dfh Pjd\\ d'n'sx¿ ax';f+:s[lts aGb} uPsf 5g\\ . km/s km/s ;fdflhs tyf ;f+:s[lts ljz]iftf ePsf dflg;x¿larsf] a9b\\ f] cGt/3'ngn] ;fdflhs tyf ;f+:sl[ ts cfbfgk|bfgnfO{ ;3g agfpFb} nu]sf] 5 . s'g} Ps dn' s' sf df}lns ;fdflhs / ;f:+ s[lts kl/rox¿ csf]{ dn' 'sdf klg ljsl;t g} xg' yfn]sf 5g\\ . pbfx/0fsf nflu tLh cd]l/sf, c:6]l« nof, Sofgf8fnufotsf dn' 'sx¿df dgfpg yflnPsf] 5 eg] lj|m;d; gk] fn, ef/t, rLg cflb b]zx¿df ;d]t Jofks ¿kdf dgfpg yfn]sf] 5 . o;/L Ps d'ns' sf ;fdflhs / ;f:+ sl[ ts ljzi] ftfx¿ csf{] dn' 'sdf ljsl;t xg' yfns] f 5g\\ . 70 ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgfk] of]uL lzIff , sIff !!

#= jtd{ fg ljZjdf ;fdflhs ljljwtf ljljwtf dfgjLo ;dfhsf] d'Vo ljz]iftf xf] . jtd{ fg ljZjdf /x]sf ;dfhx¿ g} Pscsf{af6 w/] } lsl;dn] leGg 5g\\ . t/ ljZjJofkLs/0fn] cfˆgf] JofkstfnfO{ cem alnof] agfpFb} hfFbf ljsl;t d'ns' sf ;dfh tyf ;fdflhs oyfy{x¿nfO{ ljsf;f]Gdv' dn' s' sf ;dfhx¿n] cª\\ uLsf/ ub{} n}hfg] ko| f; u/]sf] bl] vG5 . P]ltxfl;s ¿kdf ljZjsf kT| os] dn' 's cfˆg} ljlzi6 ;fdflhs ljljwtfdf cfwfl/t 5g\\ . To;}n] ljZjsf] ;fdflhs ljljwtf lgs} Jofks, hl6n Pjd\\ sl7g ljifo xf] . To;sf/0f oxfF ;dsfnLg ljZjsf sx] L d'Vo ljljwtfsf] dfq} rrf{ ul/Psf] 5 . ;dsfnLg ljZjdf eflifs, wfld{s, juLo{ , n}ª\\lus / /fhgLlts k0| ffnLut ljljwtf h:tf ;fdflhs ljljwtfx¿ dV' o ¿kdf b]Vg ;lsG5 . ljZjsf] hg;ªV\\ ofsf] sDtLdf ! k|ltzteGbf a9Ln] cf:yf /fVg] wdx{ ¿ O;fO{, O:nfd, lxGb' / af4} xg' \\ . UNESCO n] +;g\\ @)!^ df ;+;f/df sl/a 5 xhf/ kfFr ;oeGbf a9L efiff af]lnG5g\\ egL pNnv] u/s] f] 5 . cflys{ ju{sf] ljefhg dn' 'scg;' f/ km/s km/s vfnsf] eP klg pRr, dWod tyf lgDg ju{ eg]/ cyz{ f:qLx¿n] kl/eflift ug]{ u/s] f 5g\\ . k0\" f{ kh| ftGq, lgolGqt k|hftGq, ;j+ }wflgs /fhtGq, ;}lgs tfgfzfx, k\"0f{ /fhtGq cflb h:tf /fhgLlts k0| ffnLsf Joj:yfx¿ ;+;f/df sfod} 5g\\ . o;} u/L ljZjdf 5l/P/ /x]sf ;dfhx¿df /xs] f kl/jf/sf] k|sf/ / dxŒjdf ;d]t ljljwtf kfOG5 . kj\" {Lo{ ;Eotfsf k/Dk/fut ;dfhx¿df ;o+ S' t kl/jf/x¿ kfOG5g\\ eg] klZrd]nL d'n'ssf ;dfhx¿df Psn kl/jf/x¿ kfOG5g\\ . kl/jf/sf cltl/St j}jflxs k4lt / gftf ;DaGwx¿;dt] ;dfh / d'n'scg';f/ km/s km/s k|sf/sf kfOG5g\\ . o;afxs] ;fdflhs :t/Ls/0fsf :j¿kx¿;dt] km/s km/s vfnsf kfOG5g\\ . o/' fk] , cdl] /sf / clkm| sfsf ;dfhdf j0f{ / n}lªu\\ s cfwf/df x'g] :t/Ls/0f kw| fg 5 . To;} u/L lxGbs' f] axN' ftf /xs] f dn' 'ssf ;dfhx¿ n}ªl\\ ussf ;fy} hftsf cfwf/df ljeflht ePsf] kfOG5 . $= ;fdflhs Jojxf/ -s_ kl/ro ;fdflhs ;/+ rgf (Social Structure) / ;fdflhs ;DaGw (Social relationship) sf] ;dli6ut :j¿k g} ;dfh xf] . ;dfh lgdf{0fsf jm| ddf o;sf ;/+ rgfut ;+:yfx¿ tof/ x'bF } ubf{ ljleGg ;fdflhs cGt/lj|mofx¿dfkm{ t ;fdflhs ;DaGwx¿ :yflkt x'G5g\\ . o;/L ;fdflhs ;DaGwx¿ :yflkt ug]{ j|mddf dflg;x¿lar ;fdflhs cGt/ljm| ofdfkm{ t ;fdflhs Jojxf/sf] ljsf; xG' 5 . kT| o]s ;fdflhs Jojxf/ lglZrt p2Z] osf] k|flKtsf nflu :yflkt ePsf] x'G5 . o;/L p2Z] o kf| lKt xbF' f dfgjsf cfwf/et\" ;fdflhs cfjZostfx¿ k/\" f xg' ] ub5{ g\\ . o;ks| f/ ;fdflhs Jojxf/n] dflg;sf ljleGg vfn] cfjZostfx¿ kl\" t{ ul//xs] f xG' 5g\\ . ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgf]kofu] L lzIff , sIff !! 71

-v_ ;fdflhs Jojxf/sf] ljsf; kl/jf/nfO{ ;dfhsf] cffw/et\" PsfO dflgG5 . ;dfhsf] cfwf/e\"t PsfO ePsfn] ;fdflhs Jojxf/sf] ;'?cft;dt] kl/jf/af6 g} xg' ] ub{5 . dflg;sf ax'cfoflds -cflys{ , ;fdflhs Pjd\\ ;f:+ sl[ ts_ cfjZostfx¿ x'G5g\\ . dflg;sf ltg} cfjZostfx¿ kl/kl\" t{ ugs{ f nflu ;fdflhs ;DaGwx¿ ljsl;t xg' ] ub5{ g\\ . ltg} ;fdflhs ;DaGwn] g} ;fdflhs Jojxf/nfO{ ljsl;t, lgbl{] zt Pjd\\ kl/eflift ub5{ g\\ . ;fdflhs kl| jm| ofx¿ ;fdflhs cGt/ljm| ofsf cfwf/et\" dfWodx¿ x'g\\ . Psftkm{ ;fdflhs Jojxf/x¿sf] ljsf;df ltg} ;fdflhs cGt/ljm| ofsf] dxŒjk\"0f{ el\" dsf /xG5 eg] csf{t] km{ ;fdflhs Jojxf/x¿n] ;fdflhs cGt/ljm| ofnfO{ lglZrt ¿k lbg] ub5{ g\\ . ;dfhdf /xgsf nflu x/]s JolStn] csf]{ JolStsf] ;xof]u lngk' b{5 . o;/L ul/g] ;xof]usf] n]gb]gnfO{ ;fdflhs Jojxf/sf ¿kdf a'‰g ;lsG5 . pbfx/0fsf nflu lrlsT;sn] cfˆgf] 3/ lgdf0{ fsf nflu gS;f tof/ ug{ OlGhlgo/sf] e/ kg'k{ b{5 . To;} u/L la/fdL kbf{ pkrf/sf nflu OlGhlgo/nfO{ 8fS6/sf] ;xofu] sf] cfjZostf xG' 5 . xfdf| ] ;dfhdf k|rlnt 5/l5d]sdf xg' ] P]Frf]kF}rf]n] dflg;x¿larsf] cGt/lge{/tf / ;xsfo{sf] Jojxf/nfO{ emNsfpF5 . o;} u/L cfˆgf] jl/kl/sf] jftfj/0f tyf 5/l5d]snfO{ zfGt / ;kmf /fVg kT| o]s kl/jf/n] Pscsf{;uF ;xsfo{ ugk'{ b5{ . t;y{ ;fdflhs Jojxf/dfkm{ t dflg;n] ;fdflhs cGt/lge/{ tf sfod /fVg] ub{5 . o:tf ;fdflhs Jojxf/x¿ bfx] fl] /bF } hfFbf ;fdflhs cGt/ljm| of / ;fdflhs kl| jm| ofsf] ¿k lnG5g\\ . o; jm| ddf Jojxf/df cfa4 xg' ] JolSt jf ;+:yfx¿lardf ;fdflhs ;DaGw :yflkt x'G5 . o;/L ;fdflhs Jojxf/;Fu ;DalGwt s]xL ;fdflhs k|lj|mofx¿ k/;+:s[lt u|x0f (acculturation), cfTd;ft\\ (assimilation), Pstf (integration), ;Demft} f (accomodation), kl| t:kwf{ (competition), ;xsfo{ (cooperation), åGå (conflict),cgj' m\" ng (adaptation) cflb xg' \\ . -c_ k/;:+ s[lt ux| 0f (acculturation) k/;:+ sl[ t u|x0f o:tf] k|ljm| of xf] h;df b'O{ leGg ;d\"xx¿sf lar nuftf/ klxnf] ;Dks{ eO{ ;fdflhs Jojxf/dfkm{t ;fdflhs tyf ;f+:s[lts ljz]iftfx¿sf] cfbfgk|bfg x'bF } hfG5 . o;sf sf/0f Ps ;d\"x jf b'j} ;dx\" n] csf{] ;d\"xsf ljz]iftfx¿ ckgfpFb} hfG5g\\ . o; k|ljm| ofdf bj' } ;dx\" sf] df}lns ;fdflhs ;f+:s[lts 9frF fdf kl/jtg{ cfpg ;S5 . o:tf] cj:yfdf ;d\"xx¿ eg] cnu g} /xG5G.\\ . -cf_ cfTd;ft\\ (assimilation) k/;+:sl[ t ux| 0f Jofks aGb} hfbF f slxns] fxLF Ps ;dx\" n] cfˆgf ;fdflhs ;f:+ s[lts ljz]iftfx¿ k\"0f{ ¿kdf 5f8/] csf]{ ;dx\" sf ljz]iftfx¿ ckgfpbF } hfG5g\\ eg] o:tf] kl| jm| ofnfO{ cfTd;ft\\ eGg] ul/G5 . o; k|lj|mofdf cfTd;ft\\ ug{] ;dx\" sf] dfl} ns ;fdflhs ;f+:s[lts ljzi] ftfx¿ g} x/fP/ hfG5G.\\ . 72 ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgfk] of]uL lzIff , sIff !!

-O_ Pstf (integration) Pstf To:tf] ;fdflhs kl| jm| of xf] h;df km/s ;fdflhs ;f:+ sl[ ts ljzi] ftfx¿ ePsf ;dx\" x¿n] cfkm\"x¿larsf leGgtfx¿ / cj/fw] x¿nfO{ kG5fpbF } ;dut| fsf] cªu\\ sf ¿kdf Pstfa4 eP/ ;femf p2Z] o kf| Kt ug{ cufl8 a9b\\ 5g\\ . Pstfsf] dfWodn] ubf{ g} km/s km/s ;f:+ sl[ ts ;dx\" lar xfdL Ps xf}F eGg] efjgfsf] ljsf; xb'F } ;d' w/' ;fdflhs ;f+:sl[ ts ;DaGw :yflkt xG' 5 . -O_{ ;Demf}tf (Accomodation) leGg leGg ;fdflhs tyf ;f:+ sl[ ts ljz]iftf ePsf JolStx¿ ;dfhdf /xFbf slxns] fxLF pgLx¿lardf a]d]n tyf em}emu8f x'g ;Sb5 . ;Demf}tf To:tf] ;fdflhs Jojxf/ xf] h;sf dfWodn] ;dfhdf pTkGg ePsf ljleGg vfn] ad] n] / eme} mu8fx¿sf] ;dfwfg ub5{ . o; k|ljm| ofdf dflg;n] cfˆgf x7x¿ Tofu/] ;fdflhs Joj:yf sfod ug{] ub5{ g\\ . -p_ k|lt:kwf{ (Competition) dflg;sf JolStut tyf ;fdflhs cfjZostfx¿ k\"lt{ ug]{ ;f| ]tx¿ sd xbF' f dflg; jf ;dx\" n] cfkm\" h:t} kl| t:kwL{ n{ fO{ k5fl8 kf//] cfˆgf nflu cfjZostfx¿ kl\" t{ ugk'{ g]{ xG' 5 . o:tf] ;fdflhs kl| j|mofnfO{ kl| t:kwf{ elgG5 . k|lt:kwf{Tds Jojxf/n] ubf{ g} ;dfhdf dflg; jf ;dx\" x¿sf] Ifdtf ljsf;;d]t x'g] ub5{ . -pm_ ;xsfo{ (Cooperation) ;xsfo{ To:tf] ;fdflhs kl| jm| of xf] h;df dflg;x¿ cyjf ;dx\" x¿n] cfˆgf ;femf cfjZostfx¿ kl\" t{ ugs{ f nflu Pscsf;{ uF ldn/] sfd ug]{ ub5{ g\\ . ;fdflhs hLjg tyf ;fdflhs Joj:yfnfO{ hLjGt /flv/fVg ;xsfo{sf] Jojxf/nfO{ clt cfjZos dfGg] ul/G5 . -C_ åGå (Conflict) ;dfhdf /xs] f JolSt jf ;dx\" x¿n] cfˆgf JolStut tyf ;fdflhs ;f:+ sl[ ts cfjZostfx¿nfO{ k\"lt{ ug{] j|mddf slxn]sfxLF k|lt:kwf{df plqg'kg{] x'G5 . olb k|lt:kwf{sf j|mddf cfˆgf kl| t:kw{Lx{ ¿nfO{ lgif]w u//] dflg; jf ;dx\" n] cfˆgf] cfjZostf k\"lt{ ug{] k|of; ub5{ g\\ eg] To:tf] ;fdflhs Jojxf/nfO{ åGå elgG5 . åGåsf sf/0f ;dfhdf cl:y/tf pTkGg eO{ ;fdflhs Joj:yfdf cfrF cfpg] ub{5 . -P_ cgs' n\" g (Adaptation) cgs' \"ng To:tf] ;fdflhs k|lj|mof xf] h;df dflg; jf ;dx\" n] cfˆgf ;fdflhs tyf cGo cfjZostfx¿ k\"lt{ ugs{ f nflu ;dfhdf /xs] f] ;fdflhs jftfj/0f;uF cfkm\"nfO{ ;dfofl] ht u/fpg] ub{5 . s'g} JolSt jf ;d\"x cfˆgf] ;dfh 5f]8/] gofF ;dfhdf a:g kU' bf cfkmn\" ] ub{} ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgfk] of]uL lzIff , sIff !! 73

cfPsf ;fdflhs tyf ;f:+ s[lts Jojxf/x¿ To; ;dfhdf k|rlnt gePsf] kfpg ;S5g\\ . o:tf] cj:yfdf cgs' n\" gsf] cfjZostf xG' 5 . ;+:s[lt s'g} klg ;dfhsf] ;a}eGbf dxŒjk\"0f{ ljz]iftf xf] . dfgjzf:qLx¿n] s'g} klg ;dfhsf ;b:ox¿lar /x]sf ;femf ;fdflhs Jojxf/, 1fg, k|ljlw, efl} ts j:tx' ¿, dN\" o / dfGotfx¿nufotsf] pkofu] u/L cfˆgf] ;dfhsf] ;b:osf ¿kdf lgdf0{ f u/]sf x/s] s/' fx¿sf] ;du|tfsf] ¿kdf kl/eflift ug]{ ub5g{ \\ . ;fdflhsLs/0fsf] kl| j|mofdfkmt{ ;+:s[lt l;Sg] jm| dd} dflg;n] s:tf] ;fdflhs Jojxf/ sxfF, slt an] f / s;/L ug{] eGg] s/' f klg l;Sg] ub{5g\\ . To;}n] ;fdflhs Jojxf/ klg ;+:s[lts} Ps dxŒjk\"0f{ kf6f] xf] / ;fdflhs Jojxf/sf :j¿kx¿ klg ;+:s[ltcg;' f/ km/s km/s vfnsf xg' ;Sb5g\\ . ljm| ofsnfk != cfhsf] ljZjsf d\"n ljz]iftfx¿ pNn]v ub{} ;fyL ;fyLlar x'g] ;+jfbsf] gd'gf tof/ ugx{' f];\\ / sIffdf k|:t't ug{x' f;] \\ . @= ;fdflhs ;DaGwsf] ljsf;df ;xofu] k'¥ofpg] ;fdflhs Jojxf/x¿sf] ;r\" L agfpg'xf;] \\ / ltgLx¿n] ;fdflhs ;DaGwsf] ljsf;df s:tf] el\" dsf lgjfx{ ub5{ g,\\ 5nkmn ugx'{ f;] \\ . cEof; != …a9\\bf] ljZjJofkLs/0f / a;fO“;/fOsf sf/0f ljZjsf d'ns' x¿ ax';f+:sl[ ts aGb} uPsf 5g\\ .Ú o; egfOnfO{ kl' i6 ugx'{ f];\\ . @= …;dsfnLg ljZjeflifs, wflds{ , juL{o, n}ªl\\ us / /fhgLlts k|0ffnLut ljljwtf h:tf ;fdflhs ljljwtfx¿n] el/k0\" f{ 5 .Ú cfk\\mgf] ts{;lxt JofVof ug{x' f];\\ . #= dfgjsf cfwf/et\" ;fdflhs cfjZostfx¿ s] s] x'[g,\\ pNnv] ug'{xf];\\ . kl/of]hgf sfo{ tkfOs{F f] ;d'bfosf ljzi] ftfx¿ vfh] L u/L sIffdf k|:tt' ug'{xf;] \\ . 74 ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgfk] of]uL lzIff , sIff !!

! PsfO % eu\" f]n / ;fdflhs ;DaGw ljZjdf g]kfn kf7 M k[YjLsf] kl/ro If]qkmn %! s/f]8 ju{ lsnfl] d6/ 5 . s'n If]qkmnsf] &! k|ltzt kfgLn] / @( kl| tzt hldgn] 9fs]sf] 5 . hn ;txdf kf“rcf]6f dxf;fu/x¿ / :yn ;txdf ;ftcf6] f dxfbz] x¿ /x]sf 5g\\ . cgd' flgt tf}n %=(&@× x !)@$ s=] hL= 5 . w'|jLo Jof; !@&!$ ls=ld= / e\"dWo/v] Lo Jof; !@&%^ ls= ld=, -;|ft] M la6| flgsf kY[ jLn] ;o\" a{ f6 tfk / ks| fz kf| Kt ub5{ . kY[ jLdf OG;fOSnf]kl] 8of / NASA_ km/s $@ ls=ld= xfjf, kfgL, tfk / ks| fzsf] ;o+ 'St cj:yf 5 . e\"dWo/]vLo kl/lw $))&% ls=ld / w|'jLo To;n} ] oxfF hLjg ;Dej ePsf] xf] . clxn;] Ddsf] kl/lw $)))* -National Geographic, cg';Gwfgdf of] a|x\\df08df k[YjL Ps dfq Space) ls=ld= 5 . To:tf] u|x xf] hxfF hLjg ;Dej 5 . To;sf/0f kY[ jLnfO{ lgnf] ux| klg elgG5 . oxfF hnr/, ;\"o{nfO{ Ps kmGsf] 3D' g k[lYjLnfO{ #^% lbg % :ynr/ / peor/ hLj hLjfTdf tyf jg:kltx¿ 306f %& ldg6] nfU5 . cIfdf Ps kmGsf] 3D' g @# 3G6f %^ ldg6] $=)( Pscfk;df kof{j/0fLo rj|mdf afFlwP/ /x]sf ;s] G8nfU5 . 5g\\ . ltg} hLjx¿dWo] dfgj ;ae} Gbf pTsi[ 6 k|f0fL xf] hf];Fu r]tgf, ljj]s tyf a'l4nfO{ ko| fu] ug{] Ifdtf /fVb5 . To;n} ] o; kY[ jLdf dfgjn] cgs] g\\ cfljisf/ u//] cfkm\" klg afrF ]sf] 5 / cGo kf| 0fLnfO{ lgoGq0fdf /fVg ;kmn ePsf] 5 . kY[ jL ljljw ks| f/sf efu} fl] ns cj:yf /xs] f] ux| xf] . efu} fl] ns cj:yfcGtut{ w/ftn, xfjfkfgL, jg:klt, hLjhGt' / hghLjgnufotsf s'/fx¿ kb{5g\\ . k[YjLsf] ;a} efudf Ps}gf;sf] efu} fl] ns cj:yf gxg' d' f ljleGg tŒjx¿n] el\" dsf vn] s] f] xG' 5 . efu} fl] ns ljljwtfsf] sf/0f dfgjsf] hghLjg, cflys{ ultljlw, k;] f, ;f:+ sl[ ts ultljlw cflbdf kT| oIf / ckT| oIf ke| fj kb5{ . != ljZj dfglrqdf gk] fn g]kfn ljZjdf g} cnu klxrfg ePsf] ljlzi6 bz] xf] . ljZj dfglrqdf cfsf/n] ;fgf] ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgf]kof]uL lzIff , sIff !! 75

b]lvP klg g]kfnnfO{ lrgfpg] w]/} s/' fx¿ /x]sf 5g\\ . gk] fn *) l8u|L $ ldg6] ka' L{ bz] fGt/b]lv ** l8u|L !@ ldg6] k'aL{ b]zfGt/df kml} nPsf] 5 . To;} u/L @^ l8uL| @@ ldg]6 pQ/L cIff+zbl] v #) l8u|L @& ldg6] pQ/L cIff+zdf cjl:yt /x]sf] 5 . gk] fnn] ljZjsf] sn' Ifq] kmnsf] )=)# k|ltzt / Pl;ofsf] If]qkmnsf] )=# k|ltzt ee\" fu cf]u6s] f] 5 . gk] fnnfO{ lrgfpg] ef}ufl] ns / ;f+:s[lts kIfx¿ o;ks| f/ /x]sf 5g\\ M -s_ ef}uf]lns kIf lxdfno kj{tsf] bz] eg]/ lrlgPsf] b]z xf] . g]kfn ljZjs} cUnf] rr' /' f] ;u/dfyf /x]sf] b]z xf] . o;sf] prfO *,*$* ld6/ /x]sf] 5 . To:t} ljZjs} t;] f| ] cUnf] rr' /' f] sGrghª\\3f lxdfn klg oxLF 5 . *,))) ld6/eGbf cUnf ljZjsf !$ lzv/dWo] cf7cf6] f g]kfndf g} kb5{ g\\ . gk] fndf @)) lsnfl] d6/sf] b'/Ldf ;d'b| ;txaf6 %( ld6/ prfOdf /xs] f] wg'iffsf] dl' vofk66\\ L d;' x/lgofb]lv *,*$* ld6/ cUnf] ;u/dfyfsf] r'r/' f] /xs] f] 5 . gk] fndf blIf0fsf] t/fO{b]lv pQ/sf] lxdfn;Ddsf] olt 5f]6f] b'/Ldf ljZjdf kfOgd] Wo] w]/} ks| f/sf xfjfkfgL / jg:kltx¿ kfOG5g\\ . To;n} ] gk] fn hl} js ljljwtf ePsf] bz] eg/] lrlgG5 . g]kfn hnljBt' \\ pTkfbgsf b[li6n] Ifdtfjfg\\ bz] xf] . oxfsF f gbLgfnx¿af6 Jofj;flos ¿kdf g} $@,))) d]ufjf6 ljB't\\ pTkfbg ug{ ;Sg] Ifdtf /xs] f] 5 . g]kfn ;db' n| ] g5fP] sf] e\"kl/j]li7t bz] xf] . ljm| ofsnfk != gk] fn jL/ uf]vf{nLx¿sf] bz] xf] hf] ;fxl;s n8fs'sf ¿kdf ljZj kl| ;4 5g\\ . g]kfn cª\\uh]| o4' df cªu\\ |]h ;g] fnfO{ xfonsfon kf/]sf ufv] f{nL ;g] f klxnf] / bf;] |f] ljZjo'4df s;};uF g8/fpg] axfb/' ;]gfsf ¿kdf lrlgPsf lyP . gk] fn zflGtsf cu|bt\" uft} d a'4sf] hGd:yn xf] . a'4sf] hDd:yn nl' DagL ljZje/sf af}4 wdfj{ nDaLx¿sf] kljq tLy:{ yn xf] . o;sf ;fy} sf7df8fF} pkTosfdf klg af}4gfy, :joDeg\" fynufotsf kl| ;4 :t\"kxx¿ / af4} cWoog s]Gb|sf ¿kdf lrlgg] ljxf/ tyf u'Dafx¿ /x]sf 5g\\ . ljZjsf ljleGg :yfgaf6 dflg;x¿ af4} bzg{ sf] cWoog ug{ g]kfn cfpg] ub{5g\\ . lxGbx' ¿sf] cf:yfsf] s]Gb| cf/fWob]j kzk' ltgfy, d'lStgfy, hfgsL dlGb/;lxt gk] fnnfO{ dlGb/} dlGb/sf] bz] eg]/ lrlgG5 . . bz] }el/ k|To]s ufp,F 6f]ndf dlGb/, b]jn / wfld{s :ynx¿ /xs] f 5g\\ . 76 ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgfk] ofu] L lzIff , sIff !!

-s_ plNnlvt ljifoj:tn' ] gk] fnsf] sg' sg' kIfsf] lrgf/L lbPsf 5g,\\ ;r\" L tof/ ugx{' f;] \\ . -v_ g]kfnnfO{ ljZjdf lrgfpg] ljljw k|fs[lts / ;f+:s[lts ljz]iftfx¿ tflnsfdf bv] fpg'xf;] \\ . @= P6n; x/] ]/ jf u'undf vf]h/] ljZjsf efu} f]lns tYox¿sf ;DaGwdf ljleGg ;r\" gf ;ª\\ sng u/L sIffdf k|:tt' ug{x' f;] \\ / 5nkmn ugx'{ f];\\ . #= ljZjdf gk] fnsf] klxrfg zLif{sdf jSt[Tjsnf k|ltof]lutf cfofh] gf ugx'{ f;] \\ . $= tkfO{F ljb]z hfFb} x'gx' G' 5 eGg] sNkgf ugx'{ f;] \\ . tkfO{nF fO{ ljbz] df ToxfFsf dflg;x¿n] g]kfnsf af/]df hfgsf/L u/fOlbg'xf;] \\ eg]df tkfOnF{ ] pgLx¿nfO{ g]kfnsf af/]df hfgsf/L u/fpgsf nflu Ps kl/rofTds k'l:tsf (brochure) sf] gd'gf tof/ kf/L sIffdf k:| tt' ug'x{ f];\\ . cEof; != ljZj dfglrqdf g]kfn Ps ljlzi6 ljzi] ftfx¿ ePsf] uf}/jzfnL bz] sf ¿kdf lrlgG5 . o; egfOnfO{ dfly lbOPsf cfwf/x¿ / yk a“'bfx¿ ;d]6/] kl' i6 ugx'{ f;] \\ . @= …ef}ufl] ns cj:yf / hghLjg lardf 3lgi6 ;DaGw /xs] f] xG' 5Ú o; egfOnfO{ k'li6 ug'{xf];\\ . kl/ofh] gf sfo{ cfkm\" a;]sf] 7fp“ jf hGd]sf] 7fp“nfO{ lrgfpg] ljzi] ftfx¿ ;d]6]/ d/] f] 7fp“ d]/f] uf}/j jf o:t} zLif{sdf Ps kf]:6/ tof/ kfg'{xf;] \\ / sIffdf kf:] 6/ kl| tofl] utf ug{x' f];\\ . pTsi[ 6 kf]:6/x¿nfO{ ljBfnosf] ja] ;fO6 jf km;] as' k]h jf o6' o\\ 'adf cknf8] ug'{xf;] \\ . ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgf]kofu] L lzIff , sIff !! 77

@kf7 M dfgj / jftfj/0f xfd|f] j/k/ ljleGg k|sf/sf k|fs[lts tŒj /x]sf 5g\\ . jfo'd08n / oxfF ePsf ljleGg k|sf/sf UofF;x¿, afbn, w'nfsf s0f, 3fd, hldg, ;d'b,| gbLgfnf, jghª\\un, tfn kfv] /L, hLjhGt' cflb xfdf| j/k/ /xs] f jftfj/0fLo tŒj xg' \\ . dfgjn] agfPsf a:tL / oftfoft, ;~rf/, pmhfn{ ufotsf k\"jf{wf/x¿ Pjd\\ ltgaf6 l;lht{ kl/l:yltx¿ klg ljBdfg 5g\\ . oL tŒjx¿ / logaf6 l;lh{t cj:yfnfO{ ;f+:s[lts jftfj/0f elgG5 . o;/L o; k[YjLdf pknAw k|fsl[ ts / ;f:+ s[lts tŒjx¿sf] ;du| cj:yf g} jftfj/0f xf] . dfgj klg jftfj/0fsf] Ps cz+ xf] . jftfj/0fsf /xs] f hl} js tŒjdWo] dfgj ;ae} Gbf pTsi[ 6 kf| 0fL xf] . dfgj;uF rt] gf / al' 4 5 . o;sf] ko| fu] u//] dfgj afsF L jftfj/0fLo tŒjnfO{ cwLgdf /fVg] sfl] ;; ul//xs] f] xG' 5 . ha dfgj hªu\\ nL ou' df lyof] To; an] f dfgj cfkmF} cGo hgfj/ h:t} jftfj/0fs} Ps tŒjsf ¿kdf dfq lyof] . dfgjn] cfkmg\\ f] dfgl;s ljsf;sf j|mddf ;dx\" df a:g yfNof,] xltof/sf] cfljisf/ u¥of], cfufsf] pkofu] u¥of] To;kl5 dfgj c¿ k|fsl[ ts tŒjnfO{ cfkm\\gf] OR5fcg';f/ pkfof]u ug{ yfNof] . s[lif / kz'kfng o'u;Dd cfOkU' bf dfgjn] ljleGg k|ljlwsf] cfljisf/ ul/;s]sf] lyof] eg] 1fgsf ljleGg Ifq] df k|ult ul/;s]sf] lyof] . jftfj/0f e\"uf]ndf dfgj / jftfj/0flarsf] ;DaGwnfO{ ljleGg lsl;dn] JofVof u/s] f] kfOG5 . -s_ ks| l[ tn] dfgjsf] zf/Ll/s agf]6, :jefj, afl} 4s tLI0ftf cflbdf klg k|efj kfb{5 . pbfx/0fsf nflu ed\" Wo/v] Lo If]qdf a:g] dflg;eGbf ed\" Wo;fu/Lo Ifq] df a:g] dflg;x¿ a9L hfFul/nf, km'lt{nf / s8f ldlxg]tL x'G5g\\ . e\"dWo/]vLo If]qdf a9L udL{ x'g], /fu] JofwLn] cfj|md0f ug{] / cfnZokg a9L xG' 5 . kjt{ Lo If]qdf a;f]af; ug]{ dflg;x¿ hfuF l/nf / kml' t{nf klg x'G5g\\ . pgLx¿sf] zf/Ll/s agf]6df klg km/s k5{ . a9L udL{ 7fpFdf a:g]x¿ ;fdfGotof /ftf] j0f{sf xG' 5g\\ . zLtn 7fpFdf a:g]x¿ uf]/f x'G5g\\ . of] l;4fGt ;a} 7fpFdf Psgf;n] nfu' xG' 5 eGg] t 5}g clxn] ljZjdf hf]hxfF klg a;]sf] b]lvG5 . t/ k/Dk/fut a:tLnfO{ x]g{] xf] eg] of] s/' f k'li6 xG' 5 . -v_ ha dfgjn] cfkmg\\ f] al' 4sf] ko| fu] u//] ks| l[ tsf] pkofu] ug{ hfGof] ta dfgjdf Pp6f wf/0ff hGds] f] kfOG5 . ks| l[ t xfdf| nflu xf] / xfdLn] ks| l[ tsf] a9LeGbf a9L pkof]u ugk'{ b5{ . ks| l[ tdf p;n] cfDbfgLsf] cj;/} cj;/ bV] g yfNof] . o;cg;' f/ ljZjdf clgolGqt ¿kdf k|sl[ tsf] bfx] g xg' yfNof] . ks| [ltsf] a9L pkofu] u//] a9L sdfpg ;lsG5 eGg] xf8] afhL rNg yfNof] . vlgh kbfys{ f] Jofks pTvgg ul/of] . el\" dut kfgL, e\"ldut tn] , e\"ldut 78 ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgfk] of]uL lzIff , sIff !!

Uof;F cflbsf] Jofks bf]xg eof] . s[lifsf] cfw'lgsLs/0fsf] gfpdF f e\"ldsf] cTolws pkof]u dfq ul/Pg To;nfO{ ljiffSt klg agfOof] . clgolGqt a;fa] f; xg' yfNof] . Jofks ¿kdf jg kmF8fgL eof] . hª\\unL hLjx¿ nfk] xbF' } uP . h}ljs k0| ffnLdf g/fdf| ];Fu cfj|md0f eof] . o;n] ubf{ k|sl[ t / dfgjlarsf] ;DaGw laluo| f] . af9L, klx/f], cfwF Lx'/L, dxfdf/L h:tf kf| s[lts ljktx\\ ¿ cfOnfUg yfn] . -u_ csf]{ r/0fdf dfgjsf] af}l4stfsf] ljsf;;Fu} dfgjn] ljleGg s'/fx¿sf] cfljisf/ u¥of] . sl[ ifsf] pTkfbsTj a9fpg /f;folgs dn / ljiffbLsf] pTkfbg u/]/ Jofks k|of]u ug{ yfNof] . cfB} f]lusLs/0fsf nflu sfO] nf, k6] f« l] nod kbfy{ / k|fsl[ ts Uof;F sf] Jofks pkof]u u¥of] . dflg;n] /]lk|mh/6] / / ljleGg ks| f/sf Aof6L« sf] ko| f]u a9fof] . jftfj/0fdf Wjlgsf] kb| i\" f0f a9\\g yfNof] . jfod' 08ndf ePsf] kb| \"if0fsf sf/0f jfod' 08nsf] cfh] f]g tx kftlnP/ k[YjLdf hnjfo' kl/jt{ gsf] c;/x¿ bv] f k/s] f 5g\\ . -3_ dfgjn] k|fs[lts jftfj/0fdfly u/]sf] cltj|md0fsf] kl/0ffd:j¿k ljleGg k|sf/sf jftfj/0fLo ;d:ofx¿ efU] g kU' of] / p;nfO{ rt] gf cfof] . ca dfgj kf| sl[ ts jftfj/0fsf] bf]xgstf{ dfq xfO] g pm ;/+ Ifs klg xf] . To;n} ] dfgjn] kf| s[lts jftfj/0f dflysf] cltjm| d0f /fS] gk' 5{ eGg] cjwf/0ffsf] ljsf; eof] . lbuf] ljsf;sf] cjwf/0ffcg¿' k k[YjLnfO{ ;femf 3/ dflgof] . ljZj Pp6f k|0ffnLdf rn]sf] x'G5, pSt k|0ffnLdf cj/fw] xg' ] jf k|ltsn\" c;/ kg]{ sg' } klg ultljlwnfO{ /f]Sg'kg{] rt] gfsf] ;~rf/ eof] . oxL cjwf/0ffcg';f/ lbuf] ljsf;sf] cjwf/0ff cfPsf] xf] / clxn] ljZjdf of] cjwf/0ffcg;' f/ ljljw ljm| ofsnfkx¿ ;~rfng eO/xs] f 5g\\ . ;o+ 'St /fi6;« ª3\\ Lo ljsf; sfoj{ m| dcGtut{ ;g\\ !(!^ b]lv !(#) ;Ddsf nflu !& cf6] f nIo;lxt lbuf] dfgj / jftfj/0flarsf] ;DaGw ;'wf/ ug]{ u/L lbuf] ljsf; nIo sfof{Gjogdf cfPsf] 5 . o; lj:tfl/t sfo{j|md ;kmn kfg{ ljZjsf ljleGg d'ns' x¿n] ;fem]bf/L ug'{kg]{ cjwf/0ff pSt sfo{jm| dn] lnPsf] 5 . gk] fnn] klg ;fx] Lcg';f/ sfo{jm| dx¿ ;~rfng ub}{ cfPsf] 5 . cfhsf] ljZj ef]lnsf ;Gtltsf nflu hfu] fOlbg' xfdf| ] st{Jo xf] . lj|mofsnfk != dfgj / jftfj/0f Pscsfs{ f kl/k/\" s x'g\\ . o; egfOnfO{ k'li6 ub}{ Ps nv] tof/ kfg'{xf;] \\ / sIffdf k|:tt' ug{'xf];\\ . @= Ps :yfgLo txsf g]tfn] hªl\\ u“b} eg] æs] jftfj/0f laluG| 5 eg/] ljsf; g} gug]{ t < Nofpg;' ,\\ 8fh] / rnfpgx' f;] \\ Û 3/3/df af6f] k¥' ofp5“ ' eg/] rg' fjdf jfrf u/s] f] 5' dn} ] Û csf]{ r'gfjdf sg' d'v lnP/ hgtf;fd' hfg' . c¿ s/' f yfxf 5g} ljsf; t ug}{ k5{ .Æ rg' fjsf] ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgfk] ofu] L lzIff , sIff !! 79

jfrf k\"/f ug{ hyfefjL 8fh] / sb' fP/ ljsf; ug{ tlD;Psf oL g]tfsf]egfOkl| t s] tkfO“s{ f] ;xdlt 5 < lbuf] ljsf;sf] ddc{ g';f/ ljsf; sfo{ cufl8 a9fpg] ;Gbe{df pxfFnfO{ s;/L ;Demfpgx' G' 5 < #= cfkmg\\ f] ;db' fosf] jftfj/0f / dfgjlarsf] ;DaGw cWoog jf ;fw] vfh] u/L Ps kl| tjb] g tof/ kfgx{' f;] \\ . cEof; != jftfj/0f ;/+ If0f ubf{ xg' ] kmfObf / ljgfz ubf{ cfOkg{] ;d:ofx¿nfO{ tflnsfdf k:| t't ug{x' f];\\ . @= jftfj/0f ;/+ If0fdf dflg;sf] e\"ldsf a9L lhDdj] f/ xG' 5, cfkmg\\ f ljrf/x¿ k:| t't ug'x{ f];\\ . kl/of]hgf sfo{ ;fyLx¿lar ;dx\" agfO{ jftfj/0f ;+/If0fsf nflu s'g} ofh] gf agfO{ sfoG{ jog ug{x' f];\\ / clGtddf tkfOF{sf] of]hgf / sfok{ u| lt ;d]6L Ps kl| tjb] g ;dt] tof/ kfg{x' f];\\ . 80 ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgfk] ofu] L lzIff , sIff !!

# kf7 M ljZjsf efu} f]lns ljljwtf / hghLjg xfd|f] ljZj /f]df~rs / cgf}7f] 5 . ljZjdf ljljw k|sf/sf ef}uf]lns ljlzi6tfx¿ kfOG5g\\ . oxfF ljleGg kofj{ /0fLo Ifq] x¿sf] lgdf{0f ePsf 5g\\ . km/s km/s ef}uf]lns cj:yfsf Ifq] x¿sf] cflys{ cj:yf klg km/s km/s g} 5 . Ps} ks| f/sf] efu} fl] ns cj:yf ePsf :yfgdf eg] p:t} vfn] cflys{ ultljlw ePsf] kfOG5 . o;/L efu} f]lns cj:yfn] ToxfsF f] cflys{ ultljlw / hLljsfk] fhg{ sf] :j¿knfO{ k|ToIf k|efj kf/]sf] x'G5 . o;nfO{ lgDglnlvt pbfx/0fx¿af6 k|:6 kfg{ ;lsG5 . s]xL kof{j/0fLo If]qx¿sf pbfx/0fx¿ oxfF k:| tt' ul/Psf] 5 M -s_ j;}e{ l/ udL{ xg' ] If]q blIf0f cdl] /sfsf] cdh] g a;F] Ldf a;e{} l/ c;fWo} udL{ xG' 5 . lbpF;f] ck/fx\\gdf sx] L a/] ef/L jiff{ xG' 5 . w/] } jiff{ / udLs{ f sf/0f cUnf, df6] f, 6K' kfdf emo\\ fDd k/s] f ;l' /nf ?v ePsf 3gf ;bfjxf/ hªu\\ n /xs] f 5g\\ . slxn] af9Ln] klg bM' v lbG5 . oxfF xhf/fF} k|hfltsf hLjhGt' / jg:klt kfOg] xg' fn] cWoog cg;' Gwfgsf nflu ko6{ sx¿ hfg] ub{5g\\ . ljleGg ks| f/sf hgfj/, /fu] / ls/fx¿n] klg b'Mv lbG5g\\ . oxfF w/] } jiff{ xg' ] x'Fbf dlnnf] df6f] aufP/ n}hfG5 To;}n] sl[ if pTkfbg /fd|f] xbF' g} . 3gf hªu\\ n xg' ] x'gfn] dflg;x¿ sf7 sf6\\g] Joj;fodf ;+nUg 5g\\ . o; If]qdf klg cToGt lk5l8Psf hfltx¿sf] a;f]af; 5 . oxfsF f a:tLx¿ 5l/P/ /x]sf kftnf x'G5g\\ . sltko hfltx¿ lkm/Gt] hLjg latfO/xs] f 5g\\ . ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgf]kof]uL lzIff , sIff !! 81

Rainfall and temperature of Amazon region Month J F MA MJ J AS ON D Avg. 26.5 26.7 26.8 27.1 27 26.6 26.7 27.5 27.8 28 27.4 26.8 Temp (°C) 230 109 135 167 300 351 284 168 94 112 178 330 Avg. Rainfall (mm) -v_ a;}e{ l/ w/] } lr;f] xg' ] Ifq] ljZjsf pQ/L / blIf0fL w|'jLo If]qdf cToGt lr;f] xfjfkfgL kfOG5 . oxfsF f] hldg j;e{} l/ lxpnF ] 9fss] f] x'G5 . cG6fs{l6sf, lug| NofG8, pQ/L Sofg8f / pQ/L Pl;ofdf of] xfjfkfgL kfOG5 . oxfF dflg;sf] a;fa] f; vf;} x'Fb}g . oxfF lxpFdf a:g] OGo'6 / Pl:sdf] hfltsf] a;fa] f; 5 . pgLx¿ l;n df5f / k]Gu'Ogsf] l;sf/ ub5{ g\\ . of] If]qsf] sx] L sd cIff+zdf Gofgf] ;fdl' bs| l;dfgfdf ;Nnf w'kL h:tf g/d hftsf sf0] fwf/L jg:kltx¿ kfOG5 . To;n} ] oxfF sx] L Ifq] df sf7sf] Joj;fo klg ;~rfng ul/Psf 5g\\ . ?v sf6g\\ ], kNk, KnfOp8, sfuh, kmlgr{ / agfpg] pBfu] x¿ vn' s] f 5g\\ . o;n] ubf{ ToxfF la:tf/} cflys{ ultljlw lj:tf/ xbF' } uPsf] kfOG5 . ToxfF cToGt lr;f] x'g] xg' fn] hghLjg si6s/ 5 / kftnf] a:tL 5 . o; Ifq] df k|foM ufpF 5g\\ . kl5Nnf jif{x¿df o; If]qdf ko6{ g Joj;fo klg km:6fpg yfn]sf] 5 . oxfF vlgh kbfy{ pTvggsf sfo{x¿ klg ePsf xg' fn] o; Ifq] nfO{ kf| sl[ ts ;fwgsf bl[ i6n] wgL dflgG5 . Rainfall and temperature of Norwey Month J F MAM J J A S O N D Avg. Temp -11 -9.3 -3.3 4.6 11 16.6 19.5 18.1 13.2 7.5 -0.1 -7.7 (°C) Avg.Rainfall 33 26 47 62 82 91 85 93 93 66 54 42 (mm) 82 ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgfk] ofu] L lzIff , sIff !!

-u_ cToGt ;S' Vff xfjfkfgLsf] If]q ljZjdf k|To]s dxfb]zdf ;'Svf d?el\" dx¿ /x]sf 5g\\ . tL d?e\"ldx¿ s'g} cToGt udL{ :yfgdf / s'g} hf8f] :yfgdf 5g\\ . bj' } :yfgsf d?el\" dx¿df kfgL kfg{] jfos' f] k|efj sd x'G5 . clk|msfsf] ;xf/f / sfnfxf/L, Pl;ofsf] c/a tyf yf/sf] d?e\"ld, cd]l/sfsf] Soflnkmf]lg{ofsf] d?e\"ld, blIf0f cdl] /sfsf] c6fsfdf d?e\"ld / c:6l«] nofsf] s]GbL| o d?e\"ld o;sf pbfx/0f x'g\\ . oxfF kft gxg' ] sf8F ]bf/ xfr] f SofS6; hfltsf] jg:klt kfOG5 . oxfF p6F kfng ul/G5 . pF6 w]/} lbg;Dd kfgL / vfg]s/' f gvfO{ lxF8g\\ ;S5 . o;nfO{ ;fdfg cf];fg{ klg ko| fu] ul/G5 . p6F nfO{ d?e\"ldsf] hxfh klg elgG5 lsgls d?e\"lddf ;fdfg cf;] fg]{ of] Ps dfq ljsNk lyof] . d?el\" d If]qsf dflg;x¿sf] cfly{s cj:yf ;fdfGotof sdhf]/ /x]sf] xG' 5 . ToxfF kfgL pknAw ePsf] 7fpdF f dfq dfgj a:tL x'G5 . kfgLsf] cefj / afnj' fn] ag]sf] ;'Svf hldg ePsf sf/0f s[lifsf] ;Defjgf lgs} Gog\" x'G5 . klZrd Pl;ofsf s]xL dn' s' eg] k]6f« l] nod kbfy{ ar] ]/ ;DkGg ePsf 5g\\ . oxfF pRr :t/sf] hLjg 5 . ba' O,{ ;fpbL c/]laof stf/df eg] 7'nf 7n' f xf]6n] x¿ / ko{6sLo :ynx¿ ags] f sf/0f ko{6g Joj;fo klg km:6fpFb} uPsf] 5 . Annual rainfall and temperature of Sahara Desert region Month J F M AMJ JA S ON D Avg. 12.2 13.6 15.6 16.6 18 19.7 20.2 20 18.2 15 12.4 11.8 Temp (°C) Avg. 29 8 Rainfall 8 11 31 51 26 4 36 55 8 (mm) -3_ ljZjsf] cGgsf] e08f/ ;dzLtf]i0f xfjfkfgLs} Ifq] cGtu{t dxfb]zsf leqL efudf cToGt sd jiff{ xG' 5 . To;}n] ToxfF ljzfn 3f;F ] db} fgx¿ /xs] f 5g\\ . tL db} fgdf uxF' vt] L, ufOk{ fng / e8] fkfng ul/G5 . pQ/ cdl] /ssf] kl]| /h 3f;F ] db} fgdf Jofj;flos ¿kdf 7n' f] dfqfdf uxF' v]tL x'G5 . v]tLsf ;a} sfd d]l;gaf6 xG' 5 . oxfsF f] uxF' ljZje/ lgsf;L x'g] x'gfn] o;nfO{ ljZjs} cGgsf] e08f/ ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgfk] of]uL lzIff , sIff !! 83

elgG5 . c:6«]lnofsf] o:t} d}bfgnfO{ 8fpG; elgG5 hxfF Jofj;flos ¿kdf e8] f / ufOk{ fng x'G5 . bw' bx' 'g] / pg sf6\\g] sfd klg dl] ;gaf6 xG' 5 . oxfF 7n' f 7n' f bU' w pBfu] x¿ /x]sf 5g\\ . o'/fk] / Pl;ofdf o:t} 3f;F ] d}bfgnfO{ :6]K; elgG5 . oxfF klg uxF' vt] L / kzk' fng xG' 5 . blIf0f cdl] /sfdf o:t} ;dzLtf]i0f 3f;F ] d}bfgnfO{ kDkf; elgG5 h;sf] 7n' f] lx:;f ch{l] G6gfdf kb{5 . o; If]qdf lxpbF sf] ;dodf lgs} lr;f] x'G5 . Annual rainfall and temperature of temperate grassland Danver Month J F M A M J J A S ON D Avg. Temp -1 0.9 3.6 8.6 14 19.4 22.8 21.8 16.9 11 4 0.1 (°C) Avg. Rainfall 12 16 33 43 66 47 48 39 33 25 23 15 (mm) -ª_ ljZjsf] aur}“ f blIf0f o'/f]ksf] e\"dWo;fu/sf] jl/kl/sf] lsgf/L efudf lxpFbdf jiff{ / 7G8f tyf uL| iddf Gofgf] / ;'Svf xfjfkfgL kfOG5 . of] xfjfkfgL cldnf] hftsf kmnkm\"nsf nflu lgs} pko'St x'g] x'Fbf o; If]qdf k|z:t ;'Gtnf, h'gf/, cªu\\ /' h:tf kmnkm\"n pTkfbg ul/G5 . To;n} ] of] If]qnfO{ ljZjs} aurF} f elgPsf] xf] . ljZjsf $) l8u|L cIffz+ cf;kf;sf] klZrdL tyf blIf0fL lsgf/L Ifq] df of] xfkfgL kfOG5 . Annual rainfall and temperature of Grece Month JF MA MJ J A S O ND Avg. Temp 9.5 10.1 11.5 15.7 20 24.8 27.9 27.8 24.1 19 15 11.3 (°C) 59 68 52 43 45 27 20 8 55 13 52 Avg.Rainfall (mm) Annual rainfall and temperature of Savana Region Month J FM AM J 26.4 26.5 26.1 25 23 21.7 Avg. Temp 222 200 239 163 103 78 (°C) Avg.Rainfall (mm) 84 ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgfk] of]uL lzIff , sIff !!

-r_ pmi0f 3f“;] d}bfgL If]q sª\\uf] aF];Lsf] jl/kl/sf] If]qdf pmi0f 3f;F ] db} fg /x]sf] 5 . oxfF jiff{ sd xg' ] xb'F f ?v w/] } xF'bg} g\\ . cUnf 3fF;sf ljzfn kmfF6x¿ /x]sf 5g\\ . oxfF xfQL, u}F8f, lh/fkm, cgf{, af3, lrt'jfnufotsf k|z:t hª\\unL hgfj/x¿ /xg] xg' fn] ljZjsf] lrl8ofvfgf klg elgG5 . clk|msfsf] ;efgf eGg] 7fpF o;} Ifq] df kg]{ xg' fn] ljZjsf o:tf] xfjfkfgL kfOg] Ifq] nfO{ ;efgf ks| f/sf] xfjfkfgL elgG5 . o; If]qdf lgs} lk5l8Psf dfgj hfltx¿sf] a;f]af; 5 . lkm/Gt] hLjg latfpg] tL hfltx¿ kzk' fng ub5{ g\\ . lxhfc] fh ToxfF /fli6o« lgs~' hx¿ vn' s] f xg' fn] ko6{ g Joj;fo a9g\\ yfns] f] 5 . -5_ ljZjs} ;a}eGbf cUnf] / ;ae} Gbf xfr] f] ee\" fu ljZjsf] ;a}eGbf xf]rf] e\"efu d[t ;fu/ / o;sf] pkTosf (Dead Sea) xf] . of] ;d'b| ;txeGbf $!* ld6/ tn /x]sf] 5 . of] tfn cToGt g'lgnf] kfgLsf] tfn xf] . To;n} ] oxfF kf}8L vN] bf 8'labF g} . ljZjsf] ;ae} Gbf cUnf] rr' '/f] gk] fndf /xs] f] ;u/dfyf (Mount Everest) xf] . o;sf] prfO *,*$* ld6/ /x]sf] 5 . oL b'O{ :yfgsf lardf ;dy/ e\"efu, pRr ;d:ynL / kjt{ >]0fLx¿ ;a} dxfbz] df /xs] f 5g\\ . oL b'j} If]q ko{6sLo b[li6n] dxŒjk\"0f{ /xs] f 5g\\ . ;u/dfyf Ifq] cToGt lr;f] pRr kjt{ Lo Ifq] df /x]sf] 5 eg] dt[ pkTosf d?e\"ld If]qdf /x]sf] 5 . dt[ pkTosf cf;kf;df ;x/Ls/0f ePsf] 5 . -h_ kxf8L Ifq] ;fdfGotof kxf8L If]qdf hLjg:t/ si6s/ x'G5 . kxf8L If]qdf oftfoftsf] sl7gfOsf sf/0f pBf]u / Jofkf/sf] klg /fdf| ] ljsf; x'g ;s]sf] x'Fb}g . kxf8L Ifq] sf dflg;x¿ kf| oM s[lif k];fdf ;n+ Ug xG' 5g\\ t/ lgjfx{ dv' L vt] L xG' 5 . le/fnf] hldg / kfgL gcl8g] xbF' f vt] L /fdf| ] xbF' g} . kmnkmn\" , lrof / ds,} sfb] f,] hf} h:tf cGg afnL oxfsF f dV' o pTkfbg xg' \\ . 7G8f xfjfkfgL xg' ] xg' fn] dflg;x¿ hfFul/nf xG' 5g\\ . a:tLx¿ 5l/P/ /x]sf xg' fn] ljsf;sf k\"jfw{ f/x¿ k'¥ofpg klg sl7g x'G5 . ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgf]kof]uL lzIff , sIff !! 85

kxf8L Ifq] df em/gfx¿, ;G' b/ ew\" /ftn, ju] n] aUg] gbL, ulx/f uN5L, lxdfn ePsf] xg' fn] kbofqf, kjt{ f/fx] 0f, SofgfO] ª, /flkm6\\ ª, Kof/fUnfOl8ª, aGhL hlDkªnufotsf ;fxl;s ko6{ gsf] ;Defjgf x'G5 . kxf8L Ifq] df le/fnf]af6 aUg] gbLaf6 hn ljB't\\ lgsfNg ;lsG5 . kxf8L If]qdf kmnkmn\" / t/sf/Lsf] v]tL klg ug{ ;lsG5 . h8La6' L ;ª\\sng kxf8L Ifq] sf] Ps d'Vo Joj;fo xf] . pRr kjt{ Lo If]qdf e]8f, rf/}F L, nfdf, Rofªu\\ |f cflb hgfj/ kfNgx] ¿sf] klg a;f]af; 5 lsgls ToxfF kz| :t 3f;F kfOG5 . -em_ ljZjsf d}bfgL Ifq] x¿ ljZjsf clwsf+z a:tLx¿ gbL / ;d'b|sf] lsgf/df ljsf; ePsf] kfOG5 . k|frLg ;Eotfsf a:tLx¿ ld>, d];f]kf]6fldof, x\\jfª\\xf] / l;Gw' 3f6F Lsf ;Eotfx¿ gbL lsgf/df g} ljsf; ePsf lyP . cfwl' gs ;x/x¿ 7'nf gbLsf lsgf/df jf ;d'b|L lsgf/df ljsf; ePsf] kfOG5 . o;/L kfgLsf] glhs a:tL a:g'df kfgLsf] pknAwtf g} d'Vo sf/0f xf] . ;d'b| lsgf/fsf] xfjfkfgL /Do xg' ] xFb' f ;dzLtfi] 0f k|bz] df kg]{ ;d'bL| lsgf/df 7'nf ;x/x¿sf] ljsf; ePsf] 5 . cdl] /sfsf jfl;ª\\6g, Go\"of]s,{ hfkfgsf] 6f]lsof,] sf]l/ofsf] l;pn, rLgsf] a]Olhª, ;fª\\3fO{, a|flhnsf] l/of] l8 h]g]l/of], c:6«]lnofsf] l;8\\gL, o'/f]ksf nG8g, k]l/;, alng{ nufotsf clwsfz+ ;x/x¿ o;} Ifq] df kb5{ g\\ . oxfsF f] hghLjg lgs} ;DkGg 5 . o; Ifq] df kf| o M d}bfgL efu /x]sf] / d}bfgL efusf] hghLjg ;fdfGotof lgs} ;xh xg' ] xG' 5 . oftfoftsf] ;l' jwfn] oxfF pBf]u, Jofkf/ / ;]jf If]qsf] lgs} ljsf; ePsf] 5 . oxfsF f dflg;x¿ vt] L ug{, df5f dfg,{ kf8} L v]Ng / 8'ª\\uf rfnfpg l;kfn' x'G5g\\ . To;}n] ;db' L| lsgf/L Ifq] sf] Ps d'Vo Joj;fo dT:o Joj;fo klg xf] . kl5Nnf lbgdf oL If]qdf ko{6g Joj;fo klg km:6fPsf] kfOG5 . Annual rainfall and temperature of London Month J F MAM J J AS ON D 5.6 Avg. Temp 4.9 5 7.2 9.7 13 16.6 18.7 18.2 15.5 12 7.7 (°C) 58 Avg. 60 61 Rainfall 56 39 46 45 49 50 48 53 56 (mm) 86 ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgfk] ofu] L lzIff , sIff !!

lj|mofsnfk != ljZjsf] dfglrqdf kf7df pNnv] ul/Psf ljleGg :yfgx¿ klxrfg ug'x{ f;] ,\\ tL :yfgsf ljzi] ftf sIffdf k:| t't ugx{' f];\\ . @= k|:tt' s / v b'O{cf6] } lrqn] ;dzLtf]i0f 3f“;] If]qsf] xfjfkfgLnfO{ b]vfPsf] 5 . Ps} ks| f/sf] xfjfkfgLsf] If]q eP/ klg tfkj|md / jiff{sf] cj:yf l7s pN6f] b]lvG5 . lsg o:tf] ePsf] xf]nf < sf/0f vfh] L sIffdf k|:tt' ug'x{ f;] \\ . #= ljZjsf] vfnL gS;fdf 3gf a:tLx¿ b]vfO{ lsg Toxf“ 3gf a:tLx¿ ePsf] xfn] f, sf/0f vf]hL ug'x{ f];\\ . $= ef}uf]lns ljljwtfn] ;dfhdf kfg]{ c;/nfO{ rf6d{ f k:| t't ug'{xf];\\ . cEof; != sf/0f lbgx' f;] \\ M -s_ dn]l;ofdf w/] } udL{ / bl} gs jiff{ xG' 5 . -v_ d?e\"ld If]qdf p“6 kfng ul/G5 . -u_ ;d'b|L lsgf/df 7'nf ;x/x¿ /x]sf 5g\\ . -3_ O6nL / lu|;df kmnkm\"n v]tL ul/G5 . -ª_ lxdfnL / kxf8L Ifq] sf dflg;x¿ t/fO{ / a“;] Ltkm{ eml//xs] f 5g\\ . -r_ ufp“ / ;x/lar cGof]Gofl>t ;DaGw 5 . @= ljZjdf lsg Ps} k|sf/sf] hghLjg gePsf] xf]nf, sf/0fx¿sf] vfh] L ugx{' f];\\ . #= ljZjdf efu} fl] ns cj:yf km/s k/s] f sf/0f dfgjsf] cfly{s ljm| ofsnfk / hLjg zn} Ldf klg km/s k/s] f] s/' f kf7df hfgsf/L eof] . gk] fndf klg ljljw ef}uf]lns cj:yf / dfgjsf] hLjg zn} L tyf cfly{s lj|mofsnfkdf km/s bl] vG5 . s] o;df efu} fl] ns cj:yfsf] e\"ldsf 5, s;/L, pbfx/0f;lxt k'li6 ug{x' f];\\ . ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgf]kofu] L lzIff , sIff !! 87

$= tn lbOPsf rf6x{ ¿n] ljZjsf ljleGg :yfgsf jflif{s cf;} t tkjm| d / jiffs{ f] cj:yf b]vfPsf] 5 . afª\\uf] l6ª\\uf] /v] fn] k|Tos] dlxgfsf] tfkj|mdsf] cj:yf / :tDex¿n] jiff{sf] cj:yf b]vfPsf 5g\\ . lrqsf] bfof“tkms{ f] :s]nn] jiff{ ldlnld6/df / afof“tkms{ f] :sn] n] tfkjm| d ;l] G6u8|] df b]vfPsf] 5 . dflysf] kf7 cWoog u/]sf cfwf/df sg' :tDe lrq sg' kofj{ /0fLo Ifq] sf] xfn] f, kQf nufpgx' f];\\ / sf/0f klg lbgx' f];\\ . %= efu} fl] ns ljljwtfn] Ifq] Lo / kf| bl] zs cGt/;DaGw Pjd\\ kxr'“ / ;xhtfdf c;/ ub5{ , lsg < sf/0f lbgx' f];\\ . kl/of]hgf sfo{ != ljleGg ;|f]tx¿af6 hfgsf/L ;ª\\sng u/L ljZjsf] ef}ufl] ns ljljwtf emNsfpg] kf:] 6/ jf :nfO8 tof/ kf/L sIffdf k|:tt' ugx{' f;] \\ . @= tkfOFs{ f] ;db' fosf] cyt{ Gq tyf hLljsf]kfhg{ sf] cj:yf cjnf]sg u/L Tof] cj:yf x'g'df efu} fl] ns sf/0fx¿ s] s] lhDdj] f/ xfn] fg,\\ vf]hL u/L kl| tj]bg tof/ kfg{'xf];\\ . 88 ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgf]kofu] L lzIff , sIff !!

$kf7 M gk] fnsf kofj{ /0fLo Ifq] x¿ g]kfn cfoftfsf/ ¿kdf k\"j{ klZrd kml} nPsf] 5 . g]kfnsf] blIf0fdf xf]rf] t/fO{ k|bz] / pQ/df cUnf lxdfno kj{tx¿ /xs] f] lxdfnL kb| ]z /x]sf] 5 . lardf kxf8L k|b]z /x]sf] 5 . oL tLgcf]6} k|b]zx¿ kj\" b{ l] v klZrd;Dd km}lnPsf 5g\\ . gk] fnsf] w/ftn blIf0faf6 pQ/tkm{ cUnf] xFb' } uPsf] 5 . -s_ lxdfnL k|bz] gk] fnsf] pQ/df @,*)) ld6/eGbf dflysf] If]qdf lxdfnL kb| ]z /x]sf] 5 . lxdfnL k|bz] df $,%)) ld6/eGbf dflysf] Ifq] df k|foM a;{e} l/ lxpnF ] 9fls/xG5 . lxdfnL Ifq] sf] aF;] L / ;fgf pkTosfx¿df dfgj a;f]af; /x]sf] 5 . lxdfnL kb| ]zdf Hofb} le/fnf] hldg / kTyl/nf] df6f] ePsf sf/0f vt] LkftLsf] ;Defjgf Gog\" 5 . a;{e} l/ lr;f] xfjfkfgL, oftfoftsf] c;'ljwf / si6s/ hLjg k4lt ePsf sf/0f lxdfnL Ifq] df hg3gTj lgs} sd 5 . ka' L{ lxdfnL kb| z] df z]kf{ / cGo lxdfnL hfltsf] a;f]af; /x]sf] 5 . pgLx¿ kj{tf/f]x0fsf nflu lgs} k|l;4 5g\\ . pgLx¿n] ;u/dfyf cf/f]x0fdf ;d]t ljleGg sLltd{ fgx¿ sfod u/s] f 5g\\ . lxdfnL k|b]zdf Nxf;] f/, dlgl/Db', a4' hoGtL, b;,F} ltxf/nufotsf rf8kj{ dgfOG5g\\ . dWo tyf klZrdsf] lxdfnL kb| z] df u?' ª, ysfnL, 8f]Nkf], du' fnL, 7s'/Lnufotsf hfltx¿sf] a;f]af; /xs] f] 5 . lxdfnL If]qdf dl' Stgfy, kflye/f, uf;] fOsF 0' 8, rGbggfy, ljleGg u'Dafx¿ h:tf wfld{s :ynx¿ /x]sf 5g\\ . -v_ kxf8L kb| z] t/fO{ k|b]zb]lv pQ/ / lxdfno kj{t >0] fLbl] v blIf0fdf gk] fnsf] dWo efudf kxf8L kb| z] /x]sf] 5 . oxfF kxf8, pkTosf / a];F Lx¿ /xs] f 5g\\ . ;d'b| ;txaf6 ^)) ld6/b]lv @*)) ld6/;Ddsf] prfOdf of] k|bz] /x]sf] 5 . o;sf] larlardf gbLsf a;]F L, pkTosfx¿ /xs] f5g\\. o;kb| z] dfsf7df8f,F} kfv] /f,wgs6' f,;v' t{] ,lbkfon,88F N] w/' f,ufv] fn{ ufotsf;x/x¿/xs] f 5g\\ . oxfF pBfu] , Jofkf/ / ;j] f Ifq] sf] klg ljsf; ePsf] 5 . oxfF kj\" {df /fO,{ lnDa', dWo efudf tfdfª, gj] f/, u?' ª klZrddf du/ tyf kj\" b{ ]lv klZrd;Dd afxg' , If]qL / blntx¿ 5l/P/ /xs] f 5g\\ . kxf8L k|b]zdf b;F}, ltxf/, lzj/fqL, pwF f}nL, pFefn} L, Nxf];f/, ljleGg hfqfx¿, uf/} f kj{ cflb kjx{ ¿ dgfOG5g\\ . oxfF kz'kltgfy, af4} gfy, xn];L dxfbj] , ljGWojfl;gL dlGb/, :juå{ f/L, z}nLZj/Lnufotsf wfld{s :ynx¿ /xs] f 5g\\ . ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgf]kof]uL lzIff , sIff !! 89

-u_ t/fO{ kb| z] gk] fnsf] ;a}eGbf blIf0fdf t/fO{ kb| z] /xs] f] 5 . t/fO{sf] clwsf+z hldg ;dy/ 5 . ;db' | ;txaf6 %( ld6/sf] prfObl] v sl/a ^)) ld6/sf] prfO;Ddsf] Ifq] oxfF /x]sf] 5 . t/fOs{ f] d}bfg lxdfnoaf6 au]/ cfPsf sf];L, s0ffn{ L / u08sL h:tf gbLn] aufP/ NofO{ yk' f/]sf] dlnnf] kfuF f] df6faf6 ags] f] xf] . To;n} ] of] hldg lgs} pAhfpzLn 5 . oxfF kz| :t dfqfdf wfg pTkfbg x'g] x'gfn] of] g]kfnsf] cGgsf] e08f/ xf] . sl[ if, pBfu] , Jofkf/sf] /fdf| ] ;Defjgf ePsf] x'gfn] oxfF hg3gTj klg pRr /x]sf] 5 . t/fO{df cfn} f] pGd\"ng ePkl5 kxf8af6 t/fOd{ f a;fOF ;g]{ jm| d a9]sf] xFb' f oxfFsf] hg;ª\\Vof tLj| ultdf a9]sf] xf] . t/fOd{ f /fhj+zL, ofbj, d;' ndfg, yf?, dwz] L af| x\\d0f cflbsf] afx'No /x]sf] 5 . o;sf cnfjf kxf8L d\"nsf afx'g, If]qL, /fO{, u?' ª, tfdfª, du/ cflbsf] a;fa] f; klg pNn]Vo /xs] f] 5 . oxfF j/fx If]q, hfgsL dlGb/, u9LdfO,{ nl' DagL, afuZ] j/L dlGb/nufotsf wflds{ tyf ko{6sLo :ynx¿ /x]sf 5g\\ . oxfF xf]nL, 57, df3L, b;,F} ltxf/, Ob cflb kj{ dgfOG5g\\ . -u_ lxdfnL kxf8L / t/fO{ k|b]zlarsf] cGt/;DaGw gk] fnsf] w/ftnLo :j¿k, xfjfkfgL / kofj{ /0fLo cj:yfn] g]kfnnfO{ ljZjdf g} Ps ;G' b/ / ljljwtfo'St bz] sf ¿kdf lrgfPsf] 5 . oxfF tLgcf6] f k|b]zx¿ eP klg Pscsf{df cGt/lge/{ /xs] f 5g\\ h;nfO{ lgDglnlvt ab'F fdf k:| tt' ug{ ;lsG5 M -c_ lxdfno kj{taf6 c66' ¿kdf au]sf gbLx¿n] t/fO{sf] hldgnfO{ l;rF fO ;l' jwf pknAw u/fPsf 5g\\ . t/fOn{ ] ;f]xL l;FrfOsf] pkof]u u//] kz| :t cGg pTkfbg ub{5 . ;f]xL cGg lxdfnL / pRr kxf8L If]qdf nuL vfBfGgsf] cfkl\" t{ ul/G5 . -cf_ lxdfnL k|b]zaf6 c66' ¿kdf aus] f gbLx¿af6 kxf8L Ifq] df hnljB't\\ pTkfbg u/L / bz] }el/ ljBt' \\ ljt/0f ul/Psf] 5 . -O_ t/fO{df ePsf pBf]uaf6 pTkflbt cfB} f]lus j:t' bz] e/ pkof]u ul/G5 . -O{_ t/fO{sf dflg; udL{ 5Ng kxf8L kb| ]zdf / lxdfnL k|bz] df hfg ;S5g\\ eg] lxdfnL / kxf8L kb| z] df dflg;x¿ hf8f] 5Ng t/fO{ hfg ;S5g\\ . o;af6 cfGtl/s ko6{ gsf] ljsf; xG' 5 h;n] /fli6«o Pstf / ;b\\efjsf] jl[ å ub5{ . lj|mofsnfk != g]kfnsf] vfnL gS;fdf lxdfnL, kxf8L / t/fO{ kb| ]z bv] fO{ km/s km/s /ª egx{' f];\\ . 90 ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgfk] ofu] L lzIff , sIff !!

@= g]kfnsf] tLgcf6] f efu} f]lns k|b]zsf] ljzi] ftfx¿ bv] fpg] kf]:6/ tof/ kf/L sIffdf k|:t't ug'x{ f];\\ . cEof; != g]kfnsf] efu} fl] ns k|bz] cg;' f/sf ljz]iftfx¿ tnsf] tflnsfdf eg{x' f];\\ M kb| z] dV' o ljz]iftfx¿ lxdfnL efu} fl] ns hg;fª\\lVos cflys{ ;fdflhs tyf ;f:+ s[lts kxf8L t/fO{ @= …gk] fnsf] efu} f]lns cj:yfsf] pkofu] ug{ ;s] g]kfn ljZjs} ;DkGg bz] aGg ;S5 .Ú o; egfOnfO{ pbfx/0f lbP/ k'li6 ug'{xf];\\ . kl/of]hgf sfo{ cfkm\" a;]sf] efu} fl] ns Ifq] sf ljzi] ftfx¿ pNn]v ub}{ Ps nv] tof/ kfg{x' f;] \\ . ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgf]kofu] L lzIff , sIff !! 91

! kf7 M PsfO ^ ljZjsf] Oltxf; ljZj Oltxf;sf] n]vg / dn\" k|jl[ Q ljutsf] 36gfsf] j0fg{ nfO{ Oltxf; elgG5 . ljZj Oltxf; nv] gsf] ;?' cft kf| rLg o/' fk] af6 ePsf] dflgG5 . ;'?df Oltxf;sf] j0fg{ df}lvs ¿kdf xg' ] ub{Yof] . ljleGg syf, uLt / sljtfdfkmt{ Oltxf;sf 36gfx¿ ;g' fpg] ul/GYof] . kl5Nnf k:' tfdf o;/L g} Oltxf;sf] hfgsf/L xbF' } cfPsf] lyof] . -s_ x]/f8] f]6;sf] syf of] x]lnsflg{o;sf x]/f]8f6] ;n] u/s] f vf]hL (Enquiry) sf] kl/0ffd:j¿k lgl:sPsf] xf] . o;sf] p2Z] o ;dosf] k|jfxdf dflg;;uF ;DalGwt 36gfx¿ d]l6P/ ghfpg\\ eGg] k|d'v cfzosf ;fy} o'gfgL] Pjd\\ u/} o'gfgLn] u/s] f] dxŒjk0\" f{ / pknlAwnfO{ cfb/;fy ;/+ If0f ug'{ xf] . o;sf] ljifoj:t'n] vf; u//] o'gfgL / u/} o'gfgLsf lardf ePsf] emu8fsf] sf/0fnfO{ ;d6] ]sf] 5 . x/] f]8f]6; -$*$–$@% O= k=\" n] vfh] / cg';Gwfgsf cfwf/df klxnf] k6s Oltxf;sf] n]vg u/]sf lyP . logn] nv] ]sf] k:' tsnfO{ lx:6f]l/of elgof] . o'gfgdf lx:6f]l/ofsf] cy{ ;Tosf lglDt ul/g] vfh] xf] . logL hLjge/ ;Tosf] vf]hLdf nfu]sf lyP . x]/f]8f6] ;n] s'g} 36gf 36g\\ s'g} sf/0f x'g'kb5{ eGg] lgisif{ lgsfns] f lyP . To;}n] o'gfgsf Oltxf;sf/ x]/f]8f6] ;nfO{ ljZj Oltxf;sf lktf dflgG5 . x]/f]8f]6;n] e\"dWo;fu/b]lv ld>, kl;{of / o'gfgsf] ljleGg :yfgsf] e|d0f u/]/ $#) O=k\"= df k|frLg o'gfgL efiff cfof]lgsdf kl;{og jf/ -Persian War_ gfdsf] k':ts n]v]sf lyP . To;avt kl;{og -O/fg_ ;fd|fHo klZrddf o'gfg / k\"j{df l;Gw'3fF6L;Dd km}lnPsf] lyof] . ;f] k:' tsdf kl;{ofsf /fhf 8fl/o;n] o'gfgsf] Py]G; / 8f]l;of /fHonfO{ b08 lbg u/]sf] o4' sf] j0fg{ ul/Psf] lyof] . o'4df PyG] ;n] kl;o{ fnfO{ x/fPsf] lyof] . /fd] g /fhgLlt1 dfs{;] 6l' N6o; l;;/] f] (Marcus TultiusCicero) -!)^ –$# O=k' _ n] lognfO{ Oltxf;sf lktf gfdaf6 ;Ddflgt u/s] f lyP x/] f8] f6] ;sf ;dsIfL og' fgL Oltxf;sf/ Yol' ;8fO8; (Thucydides, $%% O=k'= –$)) O=k'_ n] Oltxf;df lgudgfTds k4ltnfO{ hGd lbPsf lyP . logn] $@! O{. k\"= df nv] ]sf] k:' ts lx:6L« ckm kn] f]kf]g]l;og jf/df sg' } 36gf 36\\g sf/0f xG' 5 / To;sf] kl/0ffd lg:sG5 (Cause and effect) egL kd| fl0ft u/s] f 5g\\ . $#! bl] v $)$ O. k=\" df ePsf] o'4 og' fgsf bO' { /fHo oyG] ; / :kf6fs{ f lardf ePsf] lyof] . o; o'4df :kf6f{ ljhoL ePsf] lyof] . $@) O. k=\" df og' fgL bfz{lgs tyf Kn]6fs] f u'? ;s' /ft -$^(–#(( 92 ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgf]kofu] L lzIff , sIff !!

O. k=\" ;dt] o; o'4df ;n+ Ug lyP . t/ oj' fx¿n] dg k/fpg] ePsfn] logL w/] h} ;f] PyG] ;df g} /xGy] . x/] f8] f]6;\\ sf ;dsIfL Yol' ;8fO8;;nfO{ j}1flgs Oltxf;sf lktf klg dflgG5 . -v_ Oltxf; nv] gsf d\"n k|j[lQ x]/f8] f6] ;n] Dffl} vs tyf syf jfrg k4ltnfO{ cg;' /0f u/]sf lyP eg] Yo'l;8fO8;n] tYo tyf kd| f0fx¿ vf]hL u/L ;f]sf cfwf/df Oltxf; n]vgsf kf| /De u/]sf lyP . To;}n] lognfO{ j}1flgs Oltxf;sf lktf elgGYof] . ;qfF} ztfAbLbl] v Oltxf;sf dn\" k|j[lQ 1fgsf] lj:tf/ -Enlightenment) cfB} f]lusLs/0f, ;fd|fHojfb, /fi6«jfb, /fhgLlts j|mflGt, ljZj o'4, zLt o'4, pklgj]zjfb / ljZjJofkLs/0ftkm{ pGd'v ePsf] kfOG5 . Oltxf; nv] gsf] k|j[lQnfO{ lgDgfg';f/ klg JofVof ug{] u/s] f] kfOG5 . -c_ kj\" {jtL{ 36gfx¿sf] ;ªu\\ x| sf ¿kdf Oltxf; n]Vg] k|jl[ t (Antecedents Trend) : of] k|j[lQdf ljutsf 36gfx¿sf] sfnqmdsf] ljj/0f dfq l6k]/ 36gfnfO{ h:tfsf] t:t} ;ª\\u|x u/L Oltxf; tof/ ul/G5 . o;df 36gf ljZn]if0f x'Fb}g . -cf_ ljZni] f0ffTds Oltxf; nv] g kj| l[ Q (Annalistic Trend) M ljZn]if0ffTds Oltxf; nv] g k|jl[ Qsf] ;'?cft /fd] g Oltxf;sf/ Ugfo; hl] no;n] u/s] f lyP . o; ks| f/sf] n]vgdf s'g} Pp6f 36gf jf tYo hlxn;] Dd / h;/L ljsl;t xb'F } hfG5 ta;Dd To;sf] cWoog / ljZni] f0f ub}{ To;sf af/d] f lj:tf/df Oltxf; n]Vg] j|md /xG5 . -O_ ka| GwfTds Oltxf; nv] g kj| [lQ (Monographic Trend) M Oltxf; n]vgsf] of] ljZje/ k|rlnt k/Dk/f xf] . o; k/Dk/fcg';f/ Oltxf; n]vg ubf{ P]ltxfl;s 36gf jf ljifoj:t'nfO{ ljzi] f nv] sf ¿kdf Oltxf;sf/sf] wf/0ff ld;fP/ k:| tt' ul/G5 . o;df Oltxf; k9\\g] kf7sn] n]vssf] wf/0ffcg';f/ g} cfkm\\ gf] wf/0ff ljsl;t ub5{ . -O{_ j}1flgs k|j[lQ (Scientific Trend) M o; k|j[ltdf tYo tyf k|df0fx¿ vf]hL u/L ;f]sf cfwf/df ljifoj:t'sf] JofVof ljZni] f0f ub}{ Oltxf; nV] g] sfd ul/G5 . ljm| ofsnfk != Oltxf; n]vgsf] Pp6f kj| [lQ dfl} vs n]vg kj| [lQ klg xf] . tkfOFn{ ] x]/f]8f6] ;n] h:tf] 3d' ]/ dfl} vs Oltxf; nV] gk' /d] f g]kfnsf] sg' s'g 7fpdF f hfgx' 'G5 < s;nfO{ sg' s'g dfWodaf6 e6] \\g'xG' 5 < tkfOsF{ f ck]Iffx¿ s] s] xg' 5] g\\ < sg' s'g ck]Iffx¿ k/\" f xg' ] cfzf ug{x' G' 5 < @= gk] fn / ljZjsf] Oltxf;df cg]s syfx¿ k|rlnt 5g\\ . lxhf], cfh / efl] n x'g ;Sg] 36gfnfO{ cfwf/ agfO{ syfsf ¿kdf k:| tt' ugx'{ f;] \\ . ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgf]kofu] L lzIff , sIff !! 93

cEof; != Oltxf; s;/L n]lvG5, pNn]v ugx{' f;] \\ . @= Oltxf; nv] gsf d\"n k|jl[ tx¿sf af/]df 5f6] s/Ldf pNnv] ug'{xf];\\ . kl/ofh] gf sfo{ != tkfO{Fsf] 3/, l5d]s, ;d'bfodf k|fKt ePsf w]/} klxn]sf k'/fgf sfuhkqx¿, lznfn]v, d'b|fnufot Pl] txfl;s j:t'x¿ ;f//] jf lrq sf/] ]/ jf kmf]6f] lvr/] h:tfsf] t:t} ptfg'{xf;] \\ . pSt j:t;' uF ;DalGwt /xL tnsf kZ| gsf] pQ/ vf]Hgx' f;] \\ M -s_ pSt ;fduL| sg' JolSt / :yfg;Fu ;DalGWft 5 < -v_ pSt ;fduL| df s'g efiff / lnlksf] k|ofu] ePsf 5g\\ < -u_ pSt ;fdu|Ldf ePsf jf nl] vPsf d'Vo ljifoj:t' s] s] x'g\\ < @= cfkm\\gf cu|hx¿;uF ;fw] vf]h u/L pxfxF ¿n] u/s] f sfd, hLjg efu] fO / ;ª\\3if{sf ufyfx¿ ;d6] L dfl} vs Oltxf; tof/ kfgx'{ f;] \\ . 94 ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgf]kof]uL lzIff , sIff !!

@ kf 7 M dWosfnLg Pl;ofsf] cfly{s pbo / ;ª\\s'rg dWosfnLg Pl;of klxnf] ztfAbLb]lv ;fx] f| }F ztfAbL;Dd dWosfnLg ef/t cflys{ ¿kdf ;DkGg lyof] . To;avtsf] ef/tsf] ;t' L sk8f ljZj k|l;4 lyof] . ef/tsf] pl8;fb]lv ka' L{ aªu\\ fn;Dd ;t' L sk8fsf] pBf]u dfq bl] vGYof] . To; avt 9fsfdf ags] f] ldxLg ;'tL sk8fnfO{ d';lng elgGYof] . O8jf8{ 6]/Ln] aª\\ufnsf] /ª pBf]u lgs} pGgt lyof] egL n]v]sf 5g\\ . oxfFsf] /ª / 5kfO slxn] wldlnbF g} egL nv] s] f lyP . dWosfndf tfdfsf ef8F fs8F' f, s:t'/Lsf] ljgf, afh, ;'xfu / ;f]8f h:tf j:tx' ¿ g]kfnaf6 ef/t xb'F } o'/fk] sf] ahf/df k'UbYof] . gk] fnsf] ;f8] f af?b agfpg ko| fu] x'GYof] . Oltxf;sf/ ca'n kmhnn] ef/tdf /;] d pBfu] ;d|f6\\ csa/n] vfn] s] f lyP egL nv] ]sf 5g\\ . /];d pTkfbgsf lglDt aªu\\ fn k|l;4 lyof] . dWosfnLg ef/tsf] nfxf]/, kmQ]k'/ l;s/L, cfu/f, u'h/ft, agf/;, efunk/' / sfl:d/ /];d pBf]usf] lglDt kl| ;4 lyof] . kf| rLg sfnb]lv g} Pl;of cfly{s ljsf;df ;dG' gt /xFb} cfPsf] lyof] . k|frLg sfn x'bF } dWosfn;Dd cfOk'Ubf blIf0fdf ef/t / dWo Pl;ofdf rLg Pjd\\ k'aL{ Pl;ofdf hfkfg h:tf b]zx¿ cflys{ ljsf;df w]/} cufl8 a9s] f lyP . ef/tdf pTkflbt ;t' L sk8f 8rx¿n] -xn]G8 jf g]b/NofG8_ o/' f]kdf k7fpyF ] . To;avt e\"dfua{ f6 o'/fk] ;uF Jofkf/ x'g] ubY{ of] . ef/tLo Jofkf/Lx¿n] ts' { jf c/l] aogx¿;Fusf] dfWodaf6 o'/fk] ;uF Jofkf/ ub{y] . logLx¿n] Jofkf/df emd]nf l;hg{ f ug{] ub{y] . !$(& O=df kt' {ufnsf ef:sfl] 8ufdf (Vasco de Gama) n] ef/t hfg] ;fdl' bs| af6f] kQf nufPkl5 ef/t;Fusf] o/' fk] sf] Jofkf/df jl[ 4 x'g uof] . rLgsf dWosfn xfg jz+ -@)^ O=k'=–@@) O=_ sf] ktgb]lv oj' fg j+zsf] pbo dflgG5 . xfg jz+ sf] ;dodf rLgn] DofUgl] 6s sDkf;, ;'tL wfuf,] sfuh, kfª\\u|f ePsf] dflg;n] tfGg] uf8f, tftf] an] g' , kmnfd, e\"sDk dfkg oGq, kfgL 38L / ;\"o{ 38L cfljisf/ u/s] f] lyof] . rLgnfO{ o/' f]k;Fu hf]8\\g] /;] d dfu{ -Silk Road_ o;} ;dobl] v ;'? ePsf] xf] . /];dnfO{ d'b|fsf ¿kdf klg ko| f]u ul/GYof] . ;/sf/n] g'g / kmnfd pBfu] nfO{ /fli6«os/0f u/s] f] lyof] . o;n] ubf{ pBfu] kltsf] clwsf/df s6ft} L eof] . o;sf] ;fy} pBfu] df nfu]sf ls;fgx¿ v]tLtkm{ nfu]sf lyP . o;n] ubf{ s[lifs/ cyft{ \\ dfnkft] df j[l4 ePsf] lyof] . rLgsf] 6fª\\u jf yfª jz+ sf] -Tang Dynasty_ -^!*–()& O=_ zf;gsfndf rLgsf] ;Ldfgf pQ/df ;fOal] /of, kj\" d{ f sfl] /of, blIf0fdf leotgfd;Dd ku' s] f] lyof] . o; sfndf rLgdf af?b / kfj} f lrqsf] cfljisf/ eof] . o; avtdf xfd|f] bz] df lnR5ljsfnLg zf;g Joj:yf lyof] . 6fª j+zfjnLdf gk] fn pGgt cj:yfdf lyof] egL nl] vPsf] 5 . g]kfnn] To; ;dodf ef/tsf /fhf xifj{ wg{ ;Fu Jofkf/ ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgf]kofu] L lzIff , sIff !! 95

;Demft} f u/]sf] lyof] . rLgsf o'jfg j+z (Yuan Dyna)tyf dWosfnLg rLgsf] cfljisf/ -!@&(–!#^* O=_ sf ;:+ yfks ;df| 6\\ sa' nfo vfF -Kublai Khan_ -!@^)–!@($ O=_ sf] lgdGq0ffdf g]kfnL snfsf/ c/ u|]6jfn lgsf] cfˆgf *) hgf ;xof]uLsf] ;fy sf]bf/Lsf] af6f] xbF' } s} /];d dfu{ of}F lbg nufP/ kl] rª k'us] f lyP . To;avt gk] fnsf /fhf sfuh -!)% O_ ceo dNn lyP . logn] k]lrªdf Zj]t kuf8] fsf] ;fy} cg]sfF} 5kfO -*^* O_ d\"lt{ / rT} o agfPsf lyP . logn] ;df| 6\\ s'anfo vfF / ;fd|f1L af?b rªu\\ f 5lj vfgsf] lrq agfO{ pkxf/ lbPsf lyP . 5ftf h8La'6L O6flnog cGj]ifs dfsf]{kfn] f] -Marco Polo_ -!@%$–!#@$_ sDkf; /];d dfu{af6 sa' nfo vfFsf] b/af/df cfPsf lyP . logn] nfdf] gx/ cfˆgf uG| ydf /;] d dfus{ f] aofg u/]sf 5g\\ t/ To;df cafs; -bO' { ztfAbL k\"j{_ /;] d dfu{ egL nl] vPsf] lyPg . !*&& O= df hdg{ eu\" fn] ljb\\ tyf ofqL kml8{gG] 8 efg] l/r6xfk] mg] (FerdinandVon Richthofen) n] o; af6fnfO{ l;Ns /f8] eGg] gfd lbPsf lyP . ;d|f6\\ sa' nfo vfnF ] sfuhsf] d'b|f -yfcf]_ k|rngdf NofPsf lyP . ;df| 6\\ s'anfo vfnF ] ofª\\;L gbL jf kx]Fnf] gbLsf] gx/nfO{ lj:tf/ u/L k]lrª;Dd k¥' ofPsf lyP . ldª j+zsf] ;dodf cfP/ rLgsf] afxo\\ Jofkf/ aGb eof] / ljb]zLx¿nfO{ rLg kj| z] df kl| taGw nufOPsf] lyof] . of] kl| taGw lgs} ;do;Dd sfod /xof] . hfkfgsf] dWosfnLg cyJ{ oj:yf o/' fk] sf] h:t} ;fdGtjfbL lyof] . afxf| bF} l] v pGgfO;fF} ztfAbL;Dd hfkfgdf ;ug' , 8fodf] / ;d/' fo zlStzfnL lyP . hfkfgsf ;d|f6\\ gfd dfqsf lyP . log} ;d'/fon] ;u'gsf] /Iff ub{y] . ;ug' gk] fnsf /f0ff h:t} lyP . /fHosf]if logå} f/f ;~rflnt lyP . 96 ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgf]kofu] L lzIff , sIff !!