Heritage preservation and interdisciplinary approach through Fine Art and Science Education

Teaching and Learning modules At the conservation and restoration workshop, a selection of fine art works was made and substantive guidelines for addressing them in Science and Fine Art Education terms (subject to the curricula). Their works of art served as the basic starting points for addressing three modules with students of three periods of education (pigments and dyes, adhesives and binders and paper). PIGMENTS AND DYES - Modules for addressing the Fine Art and Science Education context of issues associated with cultural heritage preservation education in elementary school Giovanni Battista Salvi, Virgin Mary, 1640- Natural powdered ultramarine pigment 1650, National Gallery, London, Mary’s blue (photograph by: Wikipedia). robe is painted in ultramarine (photograph by: Wikipedia). 51

Abstract The detection of colours provides a completely unique view of the world. People are beings which distinguish between three distinct colours, subject to which seven distinct hues are sensed. These hues can evoke various feelings. Why do humans see colours, what are colours, can be explained through physical, chemical and biological findings, however, the concept of colours as associated with feelings also touches upon fine arts and psychology. This module shall serve to establish or create a dye, for which knowledge of physics and chemistry comes in handy, which shall be followed by the use of the created dye, where knowledge of fine arts and psychology comes to prominence. Through the concept of dyes, students are encouraged to independently examine both natural and social science content simultaneously. During the workshop, students develop foundations of safe laboratory work, an experimental-research approach, acquire new fine art skills (painting on various materials) and develop an attitude towards cultural heritage. Cultural heritage preservation education In the past, the development of dyes went hand in hand with the development of art. The first use of natural dyes can be observed in the French cave Lascaux containing various ground bones, ochre (ground soil), charcoal and ground rocks, used by prehistoric people for cave paintings, although, most likely to a greater extent for painting their bodies during spiritual rituals. During that time in history, colours varying on the colour palette from brown, red to yellow tones can be identified. Prehistoric times were followed by Antiquity which facilitated the use of various dyes later also used by other artists throughout history. This is confirmed by the fact that only a few paintings have been preserved. For surfaces, the Ancient Greeks used ceramics, terracotta boards, leather, linen, sometimes also wood. Frescoes became a popular painting technique starting in the seventh century (Encyclopedia of fine arts, 2019). Fresco derives from the Italian word “al fresco” meaning “fresh”. Frescoes are a type of mural painting using natural dyes (such as from natural crystals and lime wash as a pigment) and pigments on freshly applied plaster. The process is started by applying rough plaster to the wall, composed of quicklime and silica sand. This step is followed by the application of fine plaster which shall be moistened during 52

the dyeing process. For this reason, dyes are applied extremely quickly to ensure premium quality of the work. The plaster is also not applied to the entire wall at the same time but in parts. As such, both the fresco and its foundation are created step- by-step. Frescoes are problematic in a way that they do not allow for any subsequent corrections, therefore painters must be masters of their work and paint with extreme precision (Jenko, 2014). One of the most famous frescoes in Slovenia is the elongated fresco depicting the interwoven nature of life and death entitled “Danse Macabre” ( Jenko, 2014). Johannes de Castua, Danse Macabre (Dance of Death), 1490, fresco, Holy Trinity Church, Hrastovlje, Slovenia (photo by: Ivo Frbezar). In the Middle Ages, two important paint technologies from Asia were developed. Between the late eighth century and ninth century, traders brought with them an improved version of vermilion (before, red dye was made from Roman red lead, lead oxide Pb3O4), also known as “Chinese Red”. In the twelfth century, another dye was introduced: ultramarine blue derived from the gemstone lapis lazuli. The introduction of oil-based paints around 1500 also played an important role. Oil-based paints were 53

created by mixing powdered pigment and flax oil into a thick paste. Turpentine was used for thinning purposes. This technique allowed for the application of paint in several layers and corrections if required ( Jenko, 2014). Difference between dyes and pigments Colouration of all chemical compounds is subject to their composition. Molecules of coloured substances thus contain several double and triple bonds at a small distance from one another. However, it needs to be understood that not all coloured substances can be used as colouring matter. Colouring matter may colour other objects and is classified into dyes and pigments. Dyes are soluble, are securely fixed to the foundation through adsorption, a chemical reaction or diffusion and cannot be subsequently rinsed off. Pigments are non-soluble powders distributed in the paint formulation. For this reason, binders are added to pigment paints (Hudoklin,1955). Graphic presentation of the conceptual network of colouring matter. Dyes are water-soluble substances fixed to the foundation through adsorption, a chemical reaction or diffusion. Subject to their origin, there are two types of dyes: natural and synthetic. Natural dyes are colouring matter produced by cells of living organisms. Natural dyes vary considerably in terms of their chemical composition. They are divided into various derivatives of pyrimidine, pyran, quinone, isoprene and pyrrole. Their primary role is to maintain key biological processes in cells (such as 54

maintaining the photosynthesis process through the chlorophyll dye). Synthetic dyes are produced artificially. There are more than a half million synthetic dyes, therefore development has been focusing predominantly on improving existing dyes instead of synthesising completely new ones (Hudoklin,1955). Prior to the discovery and introduction of first synthetic dyes in the 19th century, all works of art and functional goods were painted only with natural dyes and natural source-based inorganic pigments. Dyes were very expensive and played an important role in commodity and monetary trading. Natural dyes are colouring matter produced by cells of organisms. Nowadays, natural dyes have been replaced by much cheaper, more accessible and durable synthetic dyes. Since increasingly negative effects on the organism have been indicated (mutagenicity, teratogenicity), more environmentally aware people have returned to natural dyes (Hudoklin,1955). Pigments are solid compounds which reflect only some wavelengths of visible light. For this reason, each pigment is subject to a specific reflection of a specific wavelength of light also of a specific colour. This is a result of a selective absorption of light. Pigments as compounds absorb specific wavelengths of light and reflect other wavelengths. Reflected colours merge and compose a colour seen by our eyes. Lighter pigments reflect the majority of incident light (irrespective of its colour) and absorb only a small amount. Darker pigments absorb the majority of incident light and reflect only a small amount. A pigment becomes useful for art only when you are able to fix it to the desired foundation. An appropriate binder needs to be used to ensure durability of a pigment on a specific foundation. Pigments can be natural (of an organic or inorganic nature) or synthetic (chemically synthesised). Pigments vary in colour, completely different compounds may create a similar hue (Hudoklin, 1955). Organic pigments consist of carbon compounds. Prior to synthetic production, most of them were of animal or plant origin. Examples of synthetic organic pigments are: alizarin, azo pigments (subject to the colour gamut, these vary from yellow to orange and red hues), phthalocyanines (ranging from blue to green hues) and quinacridone (photosynthesis-decomposable pigments of red and violet hues). Inorganic pigments can be of natural origin or derived artificially. They are less common than organic pigments. Inorganic pigments of natural origin are derived from soil and have been used since prehistoric times. They include chalk, barite, ochre, terra di siena, Persian 55

red, Pompeii black, umber, etc.. Artificially derived inorganic pigments, so-called mineral pigments, are metal compounds (such as oxides, chromate, sulphides). These are synthetically derived and can be found under the following trade names: Cadmium Yellow, Orange or Red, Cobalt Blue and Titanium White. Nowadays, inorganic pigments are cheaper than organic (Hudoklin,1955). The importance of primers (Matijević, Zelić, 2016): Blue: Dark blue (indigo) was extremely popular and widespread in history. The Mayan culture attests to the use of blue, Egyptians were also known for their “Egyptian Blue”, derived by boiling grey-green leaves and stalks of more than thirty related plants, including healing indigo bushes. Blue pigment can also be derived from azurite powder, lapiz powder, duck excrements and a specific type of clay. Red: Red pigment is regarded as one of the oldest pigments used in Egypt, Ancient Greece and East. Red pigments date back to the beginning of human civilisation. Cave art contains red ochre. In Antiquity, artificially derived reddish lead and vermilion (natural mineral cinnabar and mercury (II) sulphide) were used for red. The artificially derived vermilion was renowned as the most famous red pigment until 1907 when the production of Cadmium Red commenced. Deep red, crimson, is also made from the body of the female insect Kermes vermilio. The pigment made from this insect continues to be used as a food colourant since it constitutes one of the few red pigments sufficiently safe to be used in the food industry. Red is also derived from rattan resin which is used as a varnish dye in particular. Another, even more known plant whose root contains red pigments, is Ruia tinctorum. Its pigments are called alizrain. Green: Green pigment is derived from several types of grass. In the past, leather was dyed by curling up fresh grass into a ball and pressing it directly thereon. Green hues vary in line with the type and water content of the grass. In addition, battered leaves of chlorophyll-containing plants release green dye. Green dye can also be obtained from algae powder. In any case, green dye sourced from chlorophyll is less durable. Yellow: In Ancient Rome, yellow or green pigments were derived from juice produced from parsley, plants and various berries. Pigment derived from dried buckthorn berries was particularly popular in the 18th century. A green-yellow dye 56

was also derived from cow urine. Cows were fed exclusively with honeydew leaves. Urine was vaporised and the remaining sediment manually formed into small balls that were processed into pigment. This kind of pigment was available in England until 1921. A light yellow pigment is derived also from resin of various types of a tree called Garcinia. Resin is collected by cutting furrows into the bark, the juice is released, is dried into dark brown lumps which are powdered and treated with a solvent for deriving pigment from resin. In addition to the options listed above, yellow is derived also from sorrel and sumac roots and yellow clay. Brown: Brown which is the most natural dye and also the most frequently obtained hue through mixing various dyes has been used in various ways throughout history. In the past, it used to be derived from the central bark of oak, Quercus tinctoria. Brown derived in that way became popular in the 18th and 19th century. Cuttlefish ink was key for dark brown. Brown is also derived from charcoal powder which is a low-quality class charcoal. It is frequently mixed with water and honey, the latter supposedly preserves softness of the dye. As a result, the dye is easier to mix and is more securely fixed to the surface. Another source of brown are shells hiding walnuts. Cooked shells are used to create a concentrated tincture-like dye. Light brown is derived from pecan nut shells. Black: Black pigments were mostly derived from burnt wood carbon, however, more recently, black dye has been derived predominantly by burning coal or tar. Black is also derived from slow ashing of bones. That process creates a different hue. White: White is derived from clay, plaster and bones or horns that release a slightly white-yellowish hue. All pigments need a binder for application purposes. Throughout history, artists have used various pigments and extremely varied binders. Combining binder and pigment allowed for the creation of the following: tempera, oil-based paints and acrylics (Punda, 2001): Tempera: referred to also as “egg-based tempera” is a durable, fast-drying paint consisting of coloured pigments, mixed in a water-soluble binding medium. Most mediums consist of a glutinous (protein) material, for example egg white. Nowadays, various adhesives are used as binders in tempera paints. After drying is completed, the tempera has a matte finish effect. Originally, tempera (“egg-based tempera”) derives from the word temperare which means “create the proper ratio”. Tempera paints 57

are known for their durability, there are works of art dating back to the first century which were painted using tempera. That painting method was traditional until 1500 when oil-based paints became massively popular. Created tempera paints are applied by artists on various surfaces that had been previously coated with so-called gesso or gypsum. The white gypsum makes sure that the selected dye truly manifests itself. Italian artists used gypsum or gesso as a filler. Gypsum is created by baking sadra. Calcium sulphate CaSO4 is generated at a temperature between 130 and 180 degrees Celsius. Calcium sulphate absorbs water and transforms into calcium dihydrate CaSO4 · 2 H2O. This leads to binding and solidification of the gypsum. On the market, this kind of gypsum is known as alabaster. In the 15th century, painters mixed gypsum with water at a 1:4 to 1:10 ratio. Oil-based paints: these consist of suspended colour pigment in an oil medium. They are diluted with a mixture of flax oil, turpentine or varnish. They rose to prominence after 1500. After drying is completed, oil-based paints are shinier than tempera paints. The advantage of oil-based paints lies in their slow drying process which allows for additional corrections, thicker applications of pain and less breaking of paint at a later point in line with a greater spreadability of the paint. Usually, oil- based paints are used for painting on canvas, cardboard or paperboard. Oil-based paints can be made from simple pigments through an ion-exchange chemical reaction. Examples of this are lead chromate, cadmium sulphide, barium sulphate and Prussian blue (iron (III) hexacyanoferrate(II)) pigments. These pigments are then bound with various binders. When various oils are added, the final product, an oil-based paint, is created. Acrylics: these are a group of artificially derived dyes that need to be mixed with water before application. They dry quickly. After drying, they become water- resistant. Acrylics can be applied in several applications. These paints became popular after 1950. Indian ink: these are pigments primarily deriving from charcoal or animal adhesives. If Indian ink is applied to a drawing foundation by being continuously diluted with water, that technique is called ink lavee. That technique creates lines and surfaces of various levels of lightness and darkness. Indian ink can be applied to a dry or wet (water-covered) foundation. Gouache: this word derives from French and Italian (gouache is a French corruption of the original Italian word guazzo which means water paint); gouache is of 58

a similar consistency than tempera: it consists of a pigment and binder; it differs from tempera paints only in the type of binder - tempera paints use egg yolks and whites, whereas gouache paints use the remaining parts of the egg. Gouache is thus, similarly to tempera and water-colour, a water-paint painting technique. Learning objectives Science Education (Grade 7) BLENDS AND PURE SUBSTANCES Concepts: Blend, Pure Substance, Element, Compound - Students are able to differentiate between pure substances and blends - Students learn that pure substances are chemical elements and compounds - Students learn that chemical elements consist of one type of atoms and that chemical compounds consist of several chemical elements SOLUTIONS: Concepts: Solution, solvent, solute, solubility - Students learn about solutions as types of blends and are able to distinguish between a solvent and solute - Students learn about the substance solubility and solution dilution level con- cepts WAVE: Concept: Light - Students learn that light is a wave and establish similarities with waves on the water surface. - Students learn that waves transmit information and that the speed of infor- mation transmission of a light signal is much faster than the speed of a sound signal 59

Fine Art Education (Grade 4, 5 and 6) DESIGNING ON A SURFACE Concepts: Warm and cold colours, colour wheel, colour contrast, complementary contrast - When designing on a surface, students use foundations of various sizes, co- lours, shapes and qualities - Students develop a sense of relationships between various colours (colour contrasts) - Students gain experience in various paint mixing methods DESIGNING IN A THREE-DIMENSIONAL SPACE (SCULPTING, ARCHITECTURE) Concepts: Paint, sculpture paint and texture - Students gain experience in including paints in sculpting - Student learn about important works of fine art of various designs which form part of local and international cultural heritage. 60

Proposed activities for students 1 MAKING GESSO (PAINT FOUNDATION) You are going to need: - 6 g low-fat cottage cheese - 1 g Ca(OH)2 - 7 g ZnO - 7 g TiO2 - 7 mL of distilled water - a 100 mL beaker and a 250 mL beaker - a paintbrush Method: 1 Put 6 g of low-fat cottage cheese into the 100 mL beaker. 2 Weigh 1 g Ca(OH)2. 3 In the 100 mL beaker, mix 7 g ZnO with 7 g TiO2. 4 Mix all solid substances prepared in Steps 1, 2 and 3 and add a sufficient quantity of distilled water (about 7 mL) to create a thick paste. 5 Strain the mixture through the low-fat cottage cheese. Keep the strained mixture in a covered 250 mL beaker in the fridge. Because the mixture gels, heat the obtained gesso before every application. 6 Apply the gesso in several layers. Do not apply the next layer without waiting a few hours. 61

2 MAKING THE VERDIGRIS PIGMENT You are going to need: - any number of copper plates - a sufficient quantity of spirit vinegar to fully cover all copper tiles - abrasive paper of finer quality (180) - any container - a scraper Method: 1 Scrape the surface of copper plates to remove the oxide coating and obtain a sur- face of pure copper; scrape until the surface turns into shiny red-brown copper. 2 Pour spirit vinegar into any container. The vinegar should be a solution with a high concentration of dissolved acetic acid. 3 Submerge the copper plates into the vinegar and cover the container. 4 Wait for 2 weeks for a sufficient quantity of copper acetate (verdigris) to appear on the surface of the copper plates. 5 Remove the copper plates from the solution and scrape the created copper acetate (blue) from the surface with the scraper. 6 Conserve the scraped pigment into prepared containers. When you want to use it, mix it with a few drops of water. Copper plates in vinegar. 62

3 MAKING RED CAROTENOID DYE FROM GROUND RED PEPPER Carotenoid dyes can be extracted from ground red pepper. You are going to need: - a 100 mL beaker - 40 mL water - 10 g ground red pepper - hotplate/ceramic plate stand + ceramic plate + Bunsen burner - aluminium foil - boiling stones Method: 1 Pour 40 mL water into a 100 mL beaker and add 10 g ground red pepper. Cover with aluminium foil and add a boiling stone. 2 Put the beaker on the hotplate and boil the blend. Boil at a moderate temperature for 5 to 10 minutes. 3 Turn off the hotplate and carefully remove the beaker from it. Red pepper dye. 63

4 MAKE YOUR OWN TEMPERA In this activity, students make their own egg-based tempera paints and examine them. The activity requires at least two days for making the dye. All paints are composed of two parts: the pigment (the substance which provides the colour) and binder (the substance that fixes the pigment to the desired foundation). One of the oldest bind- ers is egg yolk (an emulsion of fat and protein) which is still used in some places today. You are going to need: - a glue-chalk foundation or Bologna chalk (ital. gesso; primer composed of chalk, gypsum and glue; made in Step 1) - water - egg yolks - desired pigments (VERDIGRIS) - newspaper - paper - a piece of cotton or flax clothing, stretched over a frame - a pestle and a mortar - a dropper - a palette - a toothpick - paper towels - a paintbrush Process: 1 Prepare the verdigris pigment (to be prepared by the teacher in advance) - Submerge copper plates which had been thoroughly scraped with fine scraping pa- per into hot spirit vinegar and leave them in the vinegar for about two weeks. - After two weeks, remove the copper plates from spirit vinegar. During this time, a redox reaction had taken place and the copper plates are now covered in copper (II) acetate. Copper (II) acetate is the desired deep blue-green-coloured pigment. 64

- Scrape the pigment off the copper plates with the scraper. Mix the pigment with the pestle in the mortar with minimum water (about 5 drops of water, depending on the quantity of the pigment) and remove any lumps. - You can use the pigment in liquid form or wait for the water to evaporate and you can store it in powder form. 2 Preparation - Cover your work surface with the newspaper. Prepare several surfaces on which to apply the paint - appropriate are various types of paper, the cotton textile, stretched over a wooden frame and wood. Apply the white paint (gesso) over one half of each selected surface and leave to dry overnight. Some of the area on the surface, painted with gesso, is intended to test pigmented paints. - You are going to need a teaspoon of each pigment. Finely ground each pigment with the pestle in the mortar. Transfer the ground pigment into a well-enclosed jar. 3 Making of the egg-based tempera (repeat the following steps for each pigment) - Put one teaspoon of the desired pigment into a clean mortar. Add a few drops of water and start mixing them with the pestle. Gradually add drops of water until you create a thick paste. Mix with the pestle until you create a uniformly smooth homo- geneous pigment blend without any adhering substances. - Break the eggshell and separate the egg yolk and white. Put the egg yolk on a paper towel and separate the remaining white. Then use a toothpick to penetrate the yolk sac and put the content of the yolk into a small container. - Put one half of a teaspoon of the pigment water solution on the palette. Submerge the tip of a clean toothbrush into egg yolk and put on a similar amount of yolk than the previously added quantity of the pigment water solution. Then mix the pigment and yolk with the toothbrush. If the mixture is not spreadable, add a few drops of water. 4 Testing the paint - Use the paintbrush. Apply the paint on the surface, covered in gesso. The paint can also be tested in other ways: apply it in several layers, mix it with another paint, dilute with water, etc. - After paint is applied, observe it every ten minutes and find out how long it takes for the paint to dry. 65

Proposed activities for facilitators Before the activity: prepare all the required materials and review the required literature to become familiar with the content. Then review all the discussion questions that serve as support points. During the activity: guide the students through discussion questions. Facilitate an unimpeded activity. Questions: - Why is the world around us “coloured”? - Why do we see colours, who/what has caused that we see the world in colours? Do you know anyone who only sees black and white? - Which colours do you know? Would you be able to list all colours of the rainbow (even when they are in the right sequence)? What is a rainbow? - What is a hue? (Sub-question: what is the colour gamut and what is it used for?) How can you specify the luminance of an object (sub-question: many of you know Word/ Powerpoint, how did you edit images in them? What happened if you increased the luminance or darkness?) What is saturation of a colour (sub-question: how can you establish what saturation means from the word itself? Analogously - saturation usually means fullness (for example someone who is full after eating), the same applies to colours, saturated colours are full, bright). - How do we distinguish between colouring matter? - How would you try to create your paint from natural ingredients in the role of a Renaissance artist? What would you use? New concepts: PIGMENTS: Pigments are solid compounds, non-soluble powders that can be fixed to a surface through a binder. Pigments possess distinct hues as they reflect only specific wavelengths of visible light. Pigments as compounds which absorb specific wavelengths of light and reflect other wavelengths. DYE - soluble substance, fixed to the foundation through adsorption/chemical reac- tion/diffusion 66

ADHESIVES (GLUES) AND BINDERS - Modules for addressing the Fine Art and Science Education context of issues associated with cultural heritage preservation education in elementary school Bone and skin glue. Demonstration of the gilding process. 67

Abstract Adhesives are macromolecular substances whose surface and internal forces and an appropriate pressure fix two surfaces together. Historical discoveries have demonstrated that the oldest civilisations were familiar with them. Raw materials could be used as the first binders: clay, wax, resin, etc. Later on, people learned how to use adhesives from blood, eggs, fish, milk, skin and bones. Adhesives made from synthetic resins started to be used in 1929. Nowadays, their production is extremely developed and adapted to special requirements of users. Their main properties are resistance to water, humidity, elevated temperature and ageing (Čermak, 2001). Cultural heritage preservation education Byusingnaturalmaterialsforadhesives,youminimisepollutionof theenvironment. The content of volatile organic compounds is low or non-existent, materials are recyclable, available in large quantities and cheap in their basic form. Their binding abilities were known by ancient civilisations, such as the ancient Egyptian, Greeks and Babylonians who successfully used natural materials for making furniture-adhesion adhesives. These adhesives were made from blood, bone, skin, vegetable, egg and milk proteins. Proteins are the basic ingredient of these adhesives. Several centuries ago, people discovered the adhesive properties of casein in cottage cheese following coagulation of milk. In combination with a simple alkaline substance, such as lime, casein became an important adhesive for furniture and a binder for colour pigments of paintings. The advantage of casein lies in its water-resistance which has remained its most important feature to this day. In addition to casein, other adhesives of animal origin were used in the past in the wood adhesive bonding industry, in the adhesive tape industry, in paper production, bookbinding and as a binder for match heads. Until WWII, large quantities of ‘natural adhesives’ were present on the market before being supplanted by new synthetic adhesives. At present, natural adhesive-making materials have been becoming popular again. Why? Environmentally controversial components which form part of some synthetic adhesives (formaldehyde), rising oil prices and reduced quantities of their basic raw material, petroleum products. However, synthetic adhesives continue to dominate the market due to their quality, resistance to temperature changes, durability and low price (Ugovšek, Šernek, 2010). 68

Using natural material-based adhesives in the practice of curators and restorers. Animal glue is derived from bones, skin and tendons. Shops sell thin reddish translucent plates which must be immersed in lukewarm water for 24 hours for them to soften, swell and become jelly-like. This jelly-like substance is heated (put the container with glue into a pot with hot water since glue must not be brought into contact with heat). Make sure that water does not boil since that could rob it of its adhesive strength. Cook the mixture for several hours and mix continuously. Glue shall be stored in a dry area since humidity creates mould. There is bone glue which contains protein-like substances, fat, humidity and various impurities and minerals. If they want to derive glue from bones, protein-like substances must be released. How? By crumbling bones and drying them in a drying room. Fat is extracted in degreasing boilers by using various solvents. Degreasing substances are cleaned. Cleaned bones are then cooked to ensure dissolution of protein-like substances. The obtained glue solution is evaporated in vacuum containers. After that, the glue substance is poured into shallow concrete basins where glue solidifies to a sufficient extent that it can be cut with a wire or knife into small plates, put on meshes and dried in drying rooms. To facilitate sales, glue is produced in the form of fine grains. Bone glue is used for adhesive bonding of wood, paper, paperboard, it is also added to dyes for thickening purposes thus ensuring a better fixation on the foundation (Dremel, Grudnik, Herlah, 2007). Skin glue is made by putting raw materials into milk of lime for softening purposes. The softened substance is rinsed with water and a weak solution of sulphuric acid which also has a bleaching effect. This is followed by cooking and the following steps resemble the production of bone glue. The lighter the colour, the higher quality the glue and better than bone glue. Glue is prepared by using two containers or kettles to ensure that glue does not overheat. Put the glue into cold water in the inner container. As soon as it swells to a sufficient extent (after 24 hours), put it into the external container, filled with water, and heat until the glue completely dissolves. These binders are used for gliding of statues and other materials. Firstly, prepare the surface (clean and apply diluted skin glue). This is followed by priming or pore sealing and the preparation of a smooth surface. Excessively primer areas are corrected with carving chisels and grinding. This is followed by poliment-gliding and application of golden leaves (Dremel, Grudnik, Herlah, 2007). 69

Numerous synthetic glues are used in various industries. Their development promoted the development of petrochemical industry and synthetic material production. A synthetic glue was used for the first time in the shoe industry in 1910. In the second half of the 20th century, these glues also replaced all natural-sourced traditional adhesives in the timber industry. Synthetic glues are most frequently systematised subject to the derivation method of the basic resin which provides the glue with its basic features (Čermak, 2001). Learning objectives: Chemistry, Grade 9 Theme: Organic compounds of oxygen Students: - are familiar with condensation polymers of organic compounds of oxygen (polyes- ters), their properties, uses and their impact on the environment; - are able to define fats as fatty-acid and glycerol esters, are familiar with their basic properties and sources; - are able to recognise carbohydrates subject to their structure as polyfunctional compounds and learn about their importance for our lives and economies; - are able to define polysaccharides as natural polymers. Theme: Organic compounds of nitrogen, students: - learn about protein as a type of amino-acid-consisting natural polymers, bound by a peptide bond; - are familiar with the basic properties and function of protein in organisms. Fine Art Education, Grade 7, 8 and 9 Theme: Designing in a three-dimensional space (sculpting, architecture) Students: - develop their expression abilities associated with designing space and nurture their individual fine art expression; - learn about fine art concepts associated with designing space when faced with fine art works of other students and examples from nature and the environment. 70

Proposed activities for students Science Education A laboratory activity appropriate for elementary school Grades 7, 8 and 9 is prepared. Students make adhesives from natural materials found in our everyday lives: an adhesive from milk of animal origin and an adhesive from corn starch. A white adhesive containing polyvinyl acetate (PVA or PVAc) can also be made. When heated with starch and acetic acid, polymer molecules are bound into a grid structure. This is called cross-linking of a linear polymer that the adhesives consist of into a densely interconnected grid structure of the product. The product has elastic properties and can be moulded as desired. GROUP 1: Preparing an adhesive from corn starch 1 Pour 180 mL water into a skillet and heat moderately. 2 Add 30 g of corn starch and 2 teaspoons of vinegar. Mix continuously. 3 Mix until the mixture thickens. Remove any corn starch residue. 4 Leave the mixture to stand until it cools down to a room temperature. Use the adhesive within 24 hours. GROUP 2: Making an adhesive from milk, sodium bicarbonate and vinegar 1 Heat 240 mL of milk (of animal origin, recommended skimmed) in a skillet at a moderate temperature. 2 Add 15 mL of vinegar and continuously mix. 3 At a low heat, continuously mix for about 3 minutes until you notice cottage cheese lumps. 4 Strain the mixture through a sieve to separate the cottage cheese from the remaining liquid. Dispose of the liquid. 5 Add a 10% sodium bicarbonate dilution to the cottage cheese (dilute 5 g sodium bicarbonate in 50 mL water). 6 At a moderate heat, mix the mixture in the skillet for about 2 minutes until bubbles appear. 7 Let the mixture stand until it cools down to a room temperature. 8 Apply the adhesive with a paintbrush and use it within 24 hours. 71

GROUP 3: Making an adhesive from milk and jelly 1. Pour 30 mL of water into a glass. Add 2 packets (14 g) of powdered jelly (with no added sugar) and let it stand for about 1 hour. 2 At a moderate heat, cook 45 mL of skimmed milk (of animal origin) in a skillet and pour into the glass containing jelly. 3 Mix thoroughly in the glass to fully dissolve the jelly. 4 Use the adhesive within 24 hours. It can be used on glass, metal, ceramics and china. When it dries, it becomes water-resistant, but it is not temperature-resistant. This laboratory is appropriate for independent work in groups according to pre- prepared instructions. The second part of the laboratory activity includes testing of the created adhesives by gluing various materials and their water-resistance. This is done by using a table and materials that students seek to glue to one another and enter the results in the table below: GLUE OF VARIOUS PAPER WOOD PLASTIC CERAMICS GLASS GROUPS Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Key: 0 it does not stick together 1 it loosely sticks together but quickly breaks down 2 it sticks together, but breaks down when little force is applied 3 it sticks well together, but breaks down when a lot of force is applied 4 it sticks very well together and cannot be removed Water resistance Students stick together two wooden flat splinters. They wait long enough for the adhesive to dry properly. They submerged the glued wooden splinters into water and check if they continue to remain stuck together when in touch with water. 72

Adhesives of plant origin (corn starch) and animal origin (milk) made according to the instructions above. Fine art activity Presentation of the “Textile in the past and present” fine art motif Students are guided towards illustrating their message: how do students view today’s textile production (clothing, objects, origin, quality, consumption). The motif includes also the fine art variable size. Students make an assemblage from various waste textile objects but using previously made adhesives from natural materials. The teacher tells students in advance to bring waste textile from home. Students can work individually or in a group. After finishing their work, they present their work and reflect on textile industry-related issues. Proposed activities for facilitators Students are guided towards the Science Education activity. They are divided into 3 groups of 3 or 4. They receive prepared instructions for making the adhesives and are provide with the required materials on trays. It is explained that, in the past, ancient civilisations used natural source-adhesives which can be of plant or animal origin. As an example of natural plant origin, students use corn starch, and, as an 73

example of natural animal origin, students use milk. The instructions are reviewed. Then students continue with their individual laboratory activity. After completing their work, they pour the adhesives into separate jars and cover them with a lid. While waiting for the adhesives to dry, the origin thereof is discussed. Adhesive from corn starch. Adhesive from corn starch. Students are asked to explain what adhesives are in their own words. They are asked which adhesives they use and if they have already made any at home. They are also asked which items were stuck together therewith. Students are told that adhesives are macromolecular substances whose surface and internal forces (adhesion and cohesion) and an appropriate pressure fix two surfaces together. Historical discoveries have demonstrated that the oldest civilisations were familiar with them. Raw materials could be used as the first binders: clay, wax, resin, etc. Later on, people learned how to use adhesives from blood, eggs, fish, milk, skin and bones. Synthetic (initially) phenolic-resin-adhesives were launched in 1929. Nowadays, their production has developed considerably and adapted to specific requirements of users (they are humidity-, water-, high temperature- and ageing-resistant) (Čermak, 2001). Students are told that adhesives are divided into natural (plant or animal based) and synthetic adhesives. They are asked which natural plant materials can be used for making adhesives. 74

Two examples of plant-based material sources for adhesives are presented. These presentations focus on the properties that students already know. Ongoing questions are posed. Printed pictures of a cellulose molecule model are used as aids. Cellulose is presented: cellulose is the basic building material of all cellular walls in plants. It is also found in algae, bacteria and animals. Since hydrogen bonds between cellulose molecules are hard to be broken down, cellulose is not soluble in the majority of known solvents. As a result, cellulose in its own right cannot be used as an adhesive and is processed into many derivatives used in adhesive mixtures. Cellulose can be modified through esterification and etherification. These two processes are used to produce derivatives which can be more or less used in adhesive mixtures: cellulose nitrate, cellulose acetate, cellulose acetate butyrate, methyl cellulose, ethyl cellulose, carboxy methyl cellulose and hydroxy ethyl cellulose. The latter is used for gluing billboards, paperboard, plywood and wallpaper (Ugovšek, Šernek, 2010). A cellulose molecule model as a visual aid of structures for students. 75

Students are asked what they already know about starch. They are guided through ongoing questions. Printed pictures of a starch molecule model are used as aids. Particular attention is paid to its properties that students are already familiar with: starch is found in seeds, fruit, tubers, piths of plants, corn, wheat and potatoes. Similarly to cellulose, starch as a separate material cannot be used for making adhesives and requires modifications. The easiest modification methods are the heating method and treatment with alkali, acids and oxidation. The most frequently added substances to starch-based adhesives are borax (sodium tetraborate), plasticisers (urea, nitrogen nitrate, salicylic acid and formaldehyde), water-resistance additives (formaldehyde), viscosity stabilisers (NaOH), fillers and other additives (Ugovšek, Šernek, 2010). HO CH2 O HO CH2 O ... HO CH2 HO HO O HO HO O O HO HO O A model of an amylase molecule as a visual aid for students (amylase is a linear component of a starch molecule). ... HO CH2 HO O HO CH2 O HO ... O HO HO CH2 O O HO HO HO CH2 O O HO HO ... O A model of an amylopectin molecule as a visual aid for students (amylase is a linear component of a starch molecule). 76

A presentation on animal-based adhesives (of bone and skin glue and casein or milk- based adhesives) is made. Bone glue is shown to students in its physical form. This glue is a sticky substance created through thoroughly cooking animal-based protein (glutein). Traditional carpenters continue to use the once universal-used animal glue or casein-based glue. Animal glue is derived from bones, skin and tendons. Shops sell thin reddish translucent plates which must be immersed in lukewarm water for 24 hours for them to soften, swell and become jelly-like. This jelly-like substance is heated (put the container with glue into a pot with hot water since glue must not be brought into contact with heat). Make sure that water does not boil since that could rob it of its adhesive strength. Cook the mixture for several hours and mix continuously. To facilitate sales, glue is produced in the form of fine grains. Bone glue is used for adhesive bonding of wood, paper, paperboard, it is also added to dyes for thickening purposes thus ensuring a better fixation on the foundation (Dremel, Grudnik, Herlah, 2007). Rabbit (bone) glue in a plastic container, intended for sale as a material for conservation- restoration of works of art. Students are guided towards the use of adhesives and binders in restoring parts of statues and altars in churches. A picture of separate steps of the process is displayed. 77

Display of separate gliding steps for parts of an altar at the Kavčič Restoration Company in Šentjošt above Horjul in Slovenia. Students are told that they have to start by preparing the surface (cleaning and applying diluted skin glue). This is followed by priming or pore sealing and the preparation of a smooth surface. Excessive primer-containing areas are corrected with carving chisels and grinding. This is followed by poliment-gliding and application of golden leaves. Students learn about the past function of casein (milk)-based adhesives. Adhesive properties of casein in cottage cheese after milk curdling are focused on. In combination with a simple alkaline substance, such as lime, casein became an important adhesive for furniture, a binder for colour pigments and glue for Renaissance painting canvases. The advantage of casein lies in its water-resistance which has remained its most important feature to this day (Ugovšek, Šernek, 2011). As soon as the adhesives are cold enough, their testing begins. Students are asked to create their own tables and keys subject to which they are going to record their results and observations. Students test water resistance and the adhesive strength of various objects. 78

PAPER - Module for addressing the Fine Art and Science Education context of issues associated with cultural heritage preservation education in elementary school Kurt Schwitters, Last Birds and Hand-made paper (photograph by: Wikipedia). Flowers, 1946, collage, paper (photograph by: Wikipedia). Abstract Paper is an indispensable material in our everyday lives in various areas, education, industry, economy, agriculture, etc. Students become familiar with a short history of paper (papyrus, parchment), its production and manufacturing process. It is sought to present to the students that hand-made paper is nowadays an extremely renowned final product or material that can be reshaped further. This is learnt through manual creation of their own paper picture. Paper can be produced through recycling. Wastepaper shall be cleaned or its ink removed, however, recycling conserves forests. If you ensure that paper circulates or is recycled to the highest possible extent, you 79

get closer to preserving the planet for future generations. Paper is a very popular material in paintings, one of the most frequently used in addition to canvas and wood. In graphics, it is the main imprint medium (Hudoklin, 1955). In light with cultural heritage preservation education, students are made familiar with experts, curators in charge of objects whose medium is paper (archives, paintings, drawings, statues, etc.). Students need to understand that paper is not a cheap product, accessible to everyone which can be taken for granted. They need to be taught how to use paper wisely. Didactic recommendations of the Fine Art Education curriculum also include recommendations to teachers to focus on protecting the environment, environmental protection issues, chemical safety, etc. Particular attention shall be paid to proper and responsible handling of fine art materials and tools by students. Cultural heritage preservation education Students learn that hand-making of paper has also been included in intangible cultural heritage. Paper hand-making forms part of art and craft know-how. It has a long tradition in Slovenia and has been preserved to this day. Paper hand-making is subject to knowledge of properties of materials, production methods and equipment uses from the past. Papermaking dates back to the Reformation period, 1579, in Slovenia. This is when a paper mill on the right bank of the Ljubljanica River started operating. Later on, similar mills operated in Vipava, on the left bank of the Krka River in Žužemberk, close to the town of Radeče, Ajdovščina, etc. Archives preservation should also be mentioned. Archives constitute that part of documentary materials of a permanent importance for history, other sciences and culture. They are a cultural monument. Experts on cultural heritage preservation education The Institute for the Protection of Cultural Heritage of Slovenia is in charge of conserving and protecting immovable cultural heritage in Slovenia. The Institute employs about 200 experts in various fields (architects, archaeologists, art historians, historians, ethnologists, structural technicians, restorers - sculptors, restorers - painters, etc.) who take care of various types of heritage. In addition to saving concrete cultural heritage, documenting, examining and publishing the performed studies and 80

interventions shall be of importance. This allows us to develop expertise, spread knowledge in the ranks of specialised and general public and to preserve recorded findings to be available to subsequent experts experiencing similar issues (Potočnik, 2018). Learning objectives Science Education (Grade 4), students: - prove that paper waste can be used as raw materials, - make useful objects from various paper materials by using various methods of merging materials, - use the basic treatment methods for paper materials, - are able to justify the importance of separate collection of waste, - review the suitability of the final product. Fine Art Education, students: - develop a sense of distributing shapes on a surface, - students learn about important works of fine art of various designs which form part of local and international cultural heritage, - as part of the evaluation process, they provide feedback on their work with the material and experience with the content associated with cultural heri- tage preservation education, - create a fine art work from paper (collage, a spatial structure, etc.) Science Education concepts: - recycling - raw materials, etc. 81

Fine Art Education concepts: - recycling - uneven distribution of shapes - high/low dense threading of lines - symmetry/asymmetry, etc. Proposed activities for students Science Education activity: introductory motivation and activity: origami (make a selected origami product in front of the students). During the creation process, they are encouraged to observe carefully. Questions: - What was created? - What did we need for it? - Which fine art technique was used or what was used to reshape paper (fold- ing, refolding)? - In what other ways can paper also be reshaped? (Crushing, tearing, cutting, punching, gluing, coupling, snap-fitting, etc.) Paper quiz: The paper quiz is used to establish existing knowledge of students. Students are divided into 2 (or 4 groups for larger classes) groups. Each group consults each other and, after the required time has passed, gives its answer. Statements associated with paper are read to the students. Their answers are written on a small board. Answers are discussed promptly. 82

1 The first writing foundation similar to paper was called _________________ (papyrus). Later on, parchment was made. Parchment was made from: - silk - plants - animal skin Explanation: Parchment was made from skin of antelopes, donkeys, sheep, goats, calves, etc. Skin was then submerged into lime wash, hair was removed and the skin air-dried (Horvat, 2014). 2 Which nation is said to have invented papermaking? - the Chinese - the Americans - the Italians Explanation: a Chinese minister is said to have invented papermaking. Paper was made from mulberry bark, bamboo fibres, old cloths. Water was added. Sheets were created by using a bamboo stick frame which contained a textile-like mate- rial (Horvat, 2014). Before using paper, messages had been written on rocks, clay, wood, metal, papyrus, parchment, cloths, bark or ‘paper’ made from rice stem piths. 3 In the past, the main raw materials for papermaking were: - newspaper - textile waste Explanation: textile waste - ground flax cloths, to be exact. 4 Which paper material is the most solid? - paperboard - paper - cardboard Explanation: paperboard is composed of several equal layers and is thicker and more solid than carboard and paper. Paperboard is used for hard covers of books and notebooks, office folders, puzzles, various boxes, bag and luggage bases, solid folders. 83

Simple experiment A bridge is composed of two pieces of wood. The selected paper material is placed on them. Question: - Which paper material is going to withstand the biggest weight? Students are advised to organise the materials in a row. Fine art activity Making fine art material: a paper that can be used to design a fine art work Method: Tear wastepaper to as small pieces as possible. Throw them into a small tub with water. Prepare a thick mass. When there is enough material, tear the paper in the small tub to loosen the fibres. Dilute the mass to a semi-liquid state. Let the paper pulp stand for a few days until it completely dissolves. Make sure not to wait for too long. Before continuing, you can add some starch which has a fibre gluing effect. Scoop the mass with a glass and pour on a cloth with a high absorption capacity. Add another cloth and pour the paper pulp on it. Repeat for as long as there are any cloths left. Apply slight pressure to the water. Put everything into a press (book-binding press, herbarium press or two sufficiently large plates) and squeeze. Pay attention also to the water. A large amount of water is drained during the pressing process. As such, it is highly recommended to put the press into a large container, or, if you are doing this at home, in a bath. When you disassemble the press, collect the cloths containing paper. Carefully separate the paper from the cloth and put it on a smooth and flat foundation (glass, melamine plate, linoleum, etc.). In a few hours, the paper is dry. Guidelines: This activity may also include several fine art concepts listed in the Fine Art Education curriculum. The teacher shall decide which fine art concepts to address through this fine art activity. Examples of curriculum concepts: uneven distribution of 84

shapes, high/low dense threading of lines, symmetry/asymmetry. Dried paper can be used for fine art tasks, such as collages, spatial design, sculpting, etc. Sculptures by students aged 9. Collage by a student aged 8. Thinner paper may also be made in a similar way. Paper can also be bleached or coloured. Thinner paper can be obtained by shortening the fibres (with a blender). The mass (paper pulp) poured on the cloth shall be thinner and the cloth slightly damp. Paper pulp is distributed more evenly on a damp cloth. Distribute the paper pulp slightly with your hand. Paper can also be ironed out by an iron. 85

Questions: - What needs to be added to colour the paper? - What needs to be done to obtain smooth paper? - What needs to be done to obtain thin paper? - How can the paper drying process be accelerated? A paper recycling method (photograph by: Wikipedia). 86

Proposed activities for facilitators How to carry out the Fine Art activity: the Fine Art Education teacher shall guide students towards creating their own fine art solution which includes meaningful fine art concepts presented prior to the activity, they shall provide clear instructions on the selected fine art activity, review the task prior to the activity and, in the final part of the lesson, create evaluation criteria with the students. The material shall be presented through the lens of cultural heritage preservation education. Definition of concepts. Where does paper as a term originate? Paper owes its designation to ‘papyrus’: sheets resembling today’s paper made by the Ancient Egyptians from papyrus plant stalks with a simple method. Initially, the stalk was cut into thin and narrow strips. Then the strips were placed on top of each other on a flat rock surface. The second layer was placed perpendicularly to the first layer. The entire structure was covered by a rock plate and weighted down. Under pressure, the strips were strongly pressed together and thinned. The plant contains a natural binder which glued and combined all strips. When the pressed sheet was dry, it was ground until it became smooth, thin and flat. The first type of paper as it is known today was invented in China. It was made from the husk of a tree of the mulberry family. Cotton fibre-based paper was invented in the 8th century (Hudoklin, 1955). Binders of office and other types of smooth and light papers are either natural glue or starch and are filled with chalk, kaolin (China clay), zinc white, etc. Coloured papers are made by adding a dye to the paper mass. The paper quality is subject to the purity of cellulose and length of cellulose fibres. Raw materials for premium papers are flax, hemp and cotton fibres (Punda, 2001). Papermaking processes vary considerably. All require paper pulp (a thick mixture of cellulose fibres, water and papermaking chemicals) which is most easily made from old newspapers. 87

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Study presentation Research problem and questions Organisations, such as UNESCO, ICCROM, etc., use their programs to raise awareness among youth on the importance of cultural heritage preservation and protection. Understanding specific features of fine art materials used also for conserving and restoring fine art heritage requires prior understanding of Fine Art and Science Education concepts (subject to the appropriate age category of students, curriculum of Fine Art Education and various science subjects in elementary school both in lower and higher grades). For research purposes, it was sought to understand how complex concepts can be explained by using Fine Art and Science Education concepts (curricula) and through experiences (observing works of art, learning about various materials these consist of, learning about various fine art techniques – how they are made, understanding chemical processes used for preserving and restoring works of art, carrying out experiments, designing fine art works, etc.) aimed at raising awareness on cultural heritage preservation education and developing a responsible attitude towards its preservation. Understanding criteria: what a student of a specific age category is able to understand or what knowledge of Fine Art and Science Education content they already have are subject to current curricula of both Fine Art Education and other science subjects both in lower and higher elementary school grades. The study includes also views of various experts (various curators) on the possibilities of including cultural preservation education in the teaching and learning process in elementary school. Various research methods (analysing materials on selected works of fine art, analysing literature on issues associated with conservation and restoration interventions, interviewing expert curators-restorers, interviewing students and carrying out didactic activities) were used to examine possibilities of a cross-curricular approach to Fine Art and Science Education content and of including issues associated in cultural heritage preservation education in the existing elementary school education system. For this reason, the following research questions were posed: - What is the attitude of students of the first, second and third period of educa- tion towards learning about specific features of works of art through discuss- 89

ing Science and Fine Art Education problems and raising awareness on cultural preservation education? - What is the attitude of curators - restorers and other heritage preservation experts towards including cultural heritage preservation education in both curricular and extra-curricular activities and what kind of solutions are pro- posed? Method A qualitative research approach based on interviews carried out with students after the fine art activity was applied. In addition, interviews with various experts - curators were carried out. This type of research focuses primarily on the diversity within the research range among representatives of the population sample instead of the frequency of individual similar elements between them (Mesec, 1998). A quantitative processing of such data cannot be carried out since they lack numerical values. Variable value data are attributional and have been presented in a descriptive manner (Mesec, 1997). Sample The sample are students of the first, second and third period of education of a elementary school in central Slovenia and purposefully selected curators - experts of various types of expertise. A non-random sample was used (Cencič, 2009), since the research involved students who wished to participate therein and whose parents had consented thereto in writing and experts. The study involved 36 students, out of which 15 students of the first, 10 students of the second and 11 students of the third period of education or educational period, aged 7 to 14. Interviews involved 7 experts in various conservation areas: two curators-restorers with a relevant undergraduate degree, two curators-restorers- technicians, one curator-art historian, one curator- architect and one curator-landscape architect. Measuring instrument and data sources The main source of data were semi-structured interviews carried out with the involved students of the first, second and third period of education after fine art activities through pre-prepared questions: 90

- Did you know that there are experts (curators) who take care of statues, paintings, altars, manuscripts? - Where did you hear about them? - Why do you think we take care of objects (statues, paintings, altars, manu- scripts, etc.)? - What do you think would happen to these objects (paintings, statues, manu- scripts, etc.) if we wouldn’t take care of them? - How did you like making your own fine art material and illustrating a motif? - What have your learnt new today? The main source of information on the study part involving experts - curators are also answers to pre-prepared questions posed in interviews. Experts were asked the following: - How do you see/regard elementary school teachers (lower grades, Fine Art Education teachers and others) with regards to including cultural her- itage preservation education content? - Which areas of cultural heritage preservation education content should definitely be included in curricula, in particular in Fine Art Education? - Which concepts of various fields of cultural heritage education should be reasonably included in curricula, in particular of Fine Art and Science Education? - What should students understand about these fields: architectural, cultur- al landscape, sculpting, drawing, painting and graphic and other visual art (such as films, etc.) heritage preservation education? - To what extent (level of complexity) should they understand a specific concept (term, definition)? - Which are the most obvious cases or issues that you have identified in your work (such as vandalism, theft, incorrect restoration, the failure to take into account the identity of a specific landscape, etc.) that you feel students should be taught about in order to promote a positive and re- sponsible attitude towards cultural heritage preservation? 91

- Have you come across any good practices that heritage experts use for various didactic activities (in Slovenia and abroad)? - Would you be willing to collaborate with schools in order to develop di- dactic approaches to promoting a more positive and responsible attitude towards cultural heritage preservation? Data collection and processing In 2019, contact was established with an elementary school in central Slovenia. Its management was given a presentation of the study and its various activities. After each teaching and learning activity, interviews were carried out. Expert interviews were carried out by contacting various members of the Institute for the Protection of Cultural Heritage of Slovenia and carrying out interviews in their offices. Interviews with students and experts-curators were analysed through a qualitative approach to data analysis by specifying codes and categories (Mesec, 1998). Results Results are presented by theme subject to the research questions. Attitude of students of the first, second and third period of education or educational period towards learning about specific features of works of art through discussing Science and Fine Art Education problems and raising awareness on cultural preservation education We wanted to know if students had already heard of curators-restorers, experts in charge of taking care of preserving statues, paintings, altars, manuscripts and other cultural heritage objects prior to their visit of the conservation and restoration studio. It was found that 53% students included in the study had heard of them before. Answers varied between various periods of education. In the first period of education, 40% of students had heard of these experts before, whereas the majority of students of the third period of education, 73% to be exact, had heard of them prior to the visit. The students who replied that they had already heard of these experts were asked where. One part (37%) responded that at home. The second most frequent answer was at school or kindergarten (26% to be exact). The remaining students had heard of them online, on TV, radio or at the company itself that they had known before. 92

Subsequently, they were asked about their opinion regarding the reasons behind the preservation of cultural heritage objects. Some answers were rather similar. It was foreseen that students of the third period of education would give more complex and justified answers than students of the first period of education. The majority of students of all three periods of education (58% to be exact) answered that objects were preserved to ensure that they are not destroyed, decayed, in order to maintain them and similar. The majority of students of the first period of education answered that objects were preserved to make sure they are not ugly, remain beautiful and similar. Three students of the first period of education answered that objects were preserved because they are expensive and we wouldn’t need to spend too much money on new ones. A slightly lower number of students directly mentioned an association with cultural heritage preservation, namely 20% students of the second and 55% students of the third educational period. They mentioned the preservation of objects that someone had created so that they do not pass into oblivion (to remember what used to be done in the past). Only two students of the first period of education answered the question that they didn’t know. We wanted to know what happens to objects if they are not taken care of. The most frequent answer was that the objects would break down, collapse or that wood vermin would create holes in them. This answer was given by 66% students. A much larger number of students of the second and third periods of education also mentioned cultural heritage as a concept, namely that the preservation of objects also constitutes the preservation of cultural heritage. Only one student of the first period of education also mentioned cultural heritage preservation. Attitude of curators - restorers and other heritage preservation experts towards including cultural heritage preservation education in both curricular and extra-curricular activities and what kind of solutions are proposed Most experts replied that they did not observe any implementation of preservation of cultural heritage content at school and that they felt that cultural heritage was too infrequently included in the teaching and learning process. According to experts, a sense of initiative of the teacher and their attitude towards cultural heritage preservation are essential. Experts agreed that teachers most likely include cultural heritage content in extra-curricular activities, after-school classes and at 93

cultural events at schools. In addition, students learn about various cultural heritage aspects by visiting museums and art galleries. Experts feel that students should learn about cultural heritage preservation examples in general and learn about them in an experiential way. They feel that it would not be feasible to focus solely on one field but that it would be better to learn about cultural heritage preservation in general. Two experts also highlighted the importance of learning about local cultural heritage as they believe that students are more familiar with global than local cultural heritage. According to most experts, students should be taught about cultural heritage examples in an experiential way and supported by theory. In their opinion, the theoretic part of learning about cultural heritage should include concepts at a complexity level in line with the age of the students, should be connected to their own know-how and not be too challenging to comprehend. According to all experts, concepts correlated with our surroundings/environment should be selected (e.g. each Slovenian region uses a distinct material, Upper Carniola uses wood, the Littoral rocks, etc.), therefore they would recommend a regional approach to discussing cultural heritage. All experts also agreed that students needn’t become familiar with a specific concept in detail or learn about it through complex definitions. Cultural heritage preservation needs to be experienced and seen. Experts feel that there is a need to present students why something is worth preserving and how to make an expert intervention which ensures that objects are not destroyed or that they are made in a high-quality manner. Experts also understand that parents set an example for their children, therefore their attitude towards cultural heritage is relevant. Parents should also form part of cultural heritage preservation education which may involve cultural heritage experts through lectures for parents aimed at learning about, evaluating and raising awareness on cultural heritage-associated topics. Experts drew attention to the fact that cases of vandalism, theft and inappropriate restoration interventions occur in light of insufficient and inappropriate knowledge of cultural heritage objects or property. Therefore, students should learn about cases of good and of bad interventions. One of the experts expressed concern over the lack of knowledge among students on the work of curators-restorers. Students do not know what these experts do and why their work is important. For these reasons, Fine Art Education and cross- curricular approaches should include conservation-restoration concepts and learning about materials and techniques used. According to experts, students should be set an 94

example of a respectful and positive attitude towards cultural heritage in all fields and helped to understand why heritage is of high quality and why it needs to be preserved. Experts believe that students should develop a positive attitude towards cultural heritage by including raising awareness on cultural heritage preservation education in schools for which there are already guidelines in place (Roca, 1972). At the same time, experts pointed out various examples of good practices both in Slovenia and abroad. They mentioned several museums and art galleries which frequently organise cultural heritage preservation education workshops for children. They have also observed examples of good cases at cultural events and special projects at schools. One of the experts also highlighted the importance of promoting the development of craftsmanship as part of preserving traditional arts and crafts which also form part of our cultural heritage in elementary, secondary and higher education schools which has proven a good practice in Scandinavia (Kokko, Räisänen, 2019). All experts answered that they would be willing to collaborate with schools and that many are already engaged therein: they visit schools and kindergartens where they present their work, workshops are carried out at conservation and restoration studios, they participate in various projects and other events. 95

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Conclusion The scientific monograph was designed by primarily keeping in mind the possibility of a cross-curricular approach to addressing Fine Art and Science Education content in relation to cultural heritage and provide possibilities of including issues associated with cultural heritage in the existing education system. Three didactic activities were carried out per period of education, in which various research methods were used to illustrate the possibility of addressing Fine Art and Science Education content. The study carried out among students showed that more than a half of students had already heard of issues associated with cultural heritage preservation education, out of which the majority in the third period of education which is understandable. However, we were surprised by the fact that the majority of students had heard of these issues at home or through the media and not at school. Results of our study indicate that cultural heritage preservation education is too infrequently included in the lessons of various school subjects, in particular in Fine Art Education or cross-curricular approaches. In the study, curators with varied types of expertise or cultural heritage experts highlight that students should be brought closer to cultural heritage preservation education in relation to their local environments, objects they are familiar with and as such are worthy of respect and a reflection of an appropriate (professional) preservation. They feel that students could be very easily shown (in situ, through the media, etc.) examples of good and bad practices and thus spread awareness on appropriate care, experts, and, indirectly, on concepts associated with cultural heritage preservation education (in a non-intrusive manner). Experts also believe that various professional fields and school subjects in all levels of education should pursue an interdisciplinary approach to draw up meaningful connections, facilitate concrete learning of content associated with cultural heritage preservation education. This scientific monograph thus includes three teaching and learning modules providing an insight into the wide range of opportunities for using issues associated with cultural heritage preservation education both at elementary and secondary schools. These issues shall be also included into existing study programmes intended to develop national identity and cultural awareness. The materials obtained as part of the research will thus facilitate the development of guidelines for a meaningful integration of these issues in curricula of specific higher education subjects. 97

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