Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire

["cloth, and spools. During the period when the imperial timar 561 navy mainly consisted of oared vessels, the emin was also obliged to provide the arsenal with sufficient numbers on the production of galleon-type ships, including the of oarsmen and hawsermen, a task of great importance. three-deck galleon of the 18th century, used by all con- He also needed to ensure the delivery of oarsmen who temporary sea powers. As a result of the improvement had been conscripted from numerous designated dis- in galleon construction, the Ottoman navy was able to tricts, and was responsible for the overall supply of the maintain supremacy over the eastern Mediterranean arsenal with manpower for its vessels. Staff of the arsenal until the disastrous defeat at \u00c7e\u015fme in Izmir in 1770. were also required to provide for the food and clothing This defeat accelerated the reform attempts of Grand requirements of crews and soldiers. Admiral K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck H\u00fcseyin Pasha, who introduced new galleon construction techniques with the help of French SHIPBUILDING AND SHIP TYPES naval engineer Jacque Balthasard Le Brun and his two assistants, Jean Baptiste Benoit and Toussauit Petit. They Ottoman shipbuilding in the Tersane may be under- built a great number of galleons and frigates both in the stood as having passed through three phases. From the Tersane and in provincial shipyards. mid-15th to the mid-17th century, efforts focused on the construction of oared vessels; until the middle of the In the era in which the Ottoman fleet consisted of 19th century, the arsenal was devoted to the construction oared vessels and sailing ships, the numbers of craft in of sailing ships; and from the mid-19th century until the the fleet at any given time fluctuated greatly. For instance, collapse of the empire, work was centered on the build- during the great naval wars of the 16th and 17th centu- ing of steam vessels. ries, Ottoman shipbuilding activities increased remark- ably: approximately 300 Ottoman ships operated in the There were numerous types of Ottoman oared ves- campaign of Rhodes (1522), 120 ships in the Battle of sels. Among the most significant were a variety of galleys Preveza (1538), 400 ships in the campaign of Cyprus including the kad\u0131rga (25 oar seats), mavna (26 oar seats), (1571), and 400 ships in the campaign of Crete. ba\u015ftarda (26\u201336 oar seats), kalyata (19\u201326 oar seats), per- gendes (18\u201319 oar seats), and firkates (10\u201317 oar seats). In peacetime, on the other hand, shipbuilding activi- Other Ottoman oared vessels included the karam\u00fcrsel, ties in the Tersane remained at a relatively limited scale. \u015fayka, \u00fcst\u00fc a\u00e7\u0131k, \u00e7ekeleve, kay\u0131k, kancaba\u015f, and similar The office of Grand Admiral Kemanke\u015f Kara Mustafa types, which were named according to the size of the ves- Pasha (1635\u20131638) ordinarily required the Tersane to sel and the number of oar seats. Ottoman shipbuilding maintain 40 galleys each year, an obligation extended was largely modeled on the successful engineering dem- in the Naval Regulation of 1701 to cover the number of onstrated by the Venetians, but Hayreddin Barbarossa galleons. During times of war, however, the arsenal was nevertheless initiated certain novelties that mark the Turk- capable of incredible output. In the winter succeeding the ish galley. Galleys continued to be in mainstream use and devastating defeat at Lepanto (1571), for instance, Otto- constituted the strike force among warships until the end man shipyards produced more than 200 galleys to make of the 17th century, for galleys had an exceptional maneu- up their severe losses. verability and could easily enter narrow bays and har- bors. Since the Mediterranean seas are typically calm and \u0130dris Bostan windless in summer, which is the naval campaign season, Further reading: Henry Kahane, Ren\u00e9e Kahane, and effective use of galleys was often a decisive factor in naval Andreas Tietze, The Lingua Franca in the Levant: Turkish superiority. Nautical Terms of Italian and Greek Origin (Urbana: Uni- versity of Illinois Press, 1958); \u0130dris Bostan, Osmanl\u0131 Bah- While not so diverse in type as oared vessels, there riye Te\u015fkil\u00e2t\u0131: XVII. Tersane-i Amire (Ankara: T\u0171rk Tarih was also a significant variety in the Ottoman inventory Kurumu Bas\u0131mevi, 1992); \u0130dris Bostan, K\u00fcrekli ve Yelkenli of sailing ships, which included the kalyon (galleon), Osmanl\u0131 Gemileri (Istanbul: Bilge, 2005); C. Imber, \u201cThe burtun, bar\u00e7a, a\u011fribar, firkateyn (frigate), kapaks, and Navy of S\u00fcleyman the Magnificent.\u201d Archivum Ottomani- \u015falope, among others. During the Cretan War (1645\u2013 cum VI (1980), 211\u2013282; E. Zachariadou, ed., The Kapudan 69) against the Venetian Republic, the Ottoman navy Pasha, His Office and His Domain (Rethymnon: Crete Uni- suffered from its lack of galleons, giving rise to a new versity Press, 2002). era in Ottoman maritime history in which the Ottoman navy reformed its shipbuilding technology and intro- Thessaloniki See Salonika. duced the construction of galleons. From this point for- ward, galleon construction prevailed, and by the end of Thousand and One Nights See literature, folk. the 17th century the construction of galleys had become extremely limited while the Tersane concentrated mainly timar See agriculture; economy.","562 Timur mies. Timur had H\u00fcseyin killed and enjoyed unlimited power in Ulus Chaghatay after 1370. As Timur was not of Timur (Amir Timur, Aqsaq Timur, Taimur, Tambur- Genghisid lineage, he could not assume the title of khan. laine, Tamerlane, Tem\u00fcr, Temur-e Lang, Timur bin However, because of his Genghisid wife, he was able to Taraghay Barlas, Timur Lang; Timur Leng, Timur take the title of g\u00fcregen, meaning \u201croyal son-in-law.\u201d As Lenk, Timur the Lame, Timur-i Leng) (b. 1336?\u2013d. a ruler, Timur set up his headquarters in Samarkand and 1405) founder of the Timurid dynasty Renowned as variously used the titles emir and sultan, ruling through a cruel but masterful military leader, Timur was the the Genghisid puppet khan Soyurgatmish (r. 1370\u20131388) founder of the Timurid dynasty (see Timurids), one of and his son Mahmud (r. 1388\u20131402). the great civilizations of Central Asia. Better known in the West as Timur the Lame, Tamerlane, or Tamburlaine, Timur conducted a successful foreign policy, legiti- Timur\u2019s name combines elements of strength and weak- mizing his conquests by claiming to restore the pax mon- ness: Timur, from tem\u00fcr, a Turkic word meaning \u201ciron,\u201d golica (Mongol Peace) originally established by Genghis and Lang (or other variations), meaning \u201clame.\u201d Timur Khan. In the name of this peace, Timur led a military was an extraordinarily successful warrior, strategist, campaign in the 1380s against the small Persian royal and political leader. Despite the destruction he caused families who had replaced the Mongol Ilkhanid dynasty. throughout Asia and the Middle East, he valued schol- However, he came into conflict over Khorazm, once part arship and culture, and did perhaps as much to preserve of Ulus Chaghatay, with his neighbors to the north, the and disseminate these as he did to destroy them. Timur\u2019s Blue Horde tribal confederation (which was the eastern reputed lameness was authoritatively confirmed in 1941 constituent part of the realm of Jochi, first son of Gheng- by a Russian medical team that examined his skeleton his Khan). In an effort to weaken them, Timur supported and reported that it showed signs of tuberculosis in the certain pretenders, such as Toqtamish (Tokhtamysh), bone. According to legend, however, Timur\u2019s disability who became the khan of the Blue Horde with Timur\u2019s arose from numerous wounds to his right hand and leg assistance. After 1380, Toqtamish extended his power in a succession of battles. west of the Ural River over the White Horde (or Golden Horde), which occupied the territories up to the Crimean Timur was born on April 8, 1336, in the Kish region peninsula, and reimposed the payment of tribute on (in Transoxania) of the empire, or ulus (nation), of Cha- Russia and Lithuania. After this, Toqtamish came into ghatay. Ulus Chaghatay was comprised of two parts: conflict with his former patron regarding control over Moghulistan in the north, occupied by Turkic and Mon- Derbent (in Dagestan on the Caspian Sea) and Tabriz gol nomadic tribes around Lake Balkhash (in present- (in Iran), the two major hubs along the north-to-south day Kazakhstan); and Transoxania in the south, between trade route through the Caucasus. Timur defeated the Syr Darya and Amu Darya rivers, settled by Turkic- Toqtamish in three battles: by the River Terek (1385\u201386), speaking, Persian-speaking (Tadjik), and Afghan-speak- by the River Kondurcha on the left bank of the Volga ing communities living in richly cultured oasis towns (1391), and again by the River Terek in 1395. Follow- (Samarkand, Bukhara, Khiva, and Kabul). During the ing this military campaign, Timur destroyed all the eco- first half of the 14th century, the descendents of the Cha- nomically significant towns in Toqtamish\u2019s empire from ghatayid khans lost control of the southern territories, the Crimean to Astrakhan, creating a power vacuum that where power was in the hands of local emirs, and it was would later be filled by the Russian state that evolved out from among these leaders that Timur emerged. of the Principality of Muscovy. Timur\u2019s father, Taraghai, was a member of the Barlas While waging war against Toqtamish, Timur also or Barulas tribe, one of the more powerful ruling tribes, fought both the Muzaffarid and the Jalayirid rulers in which was of Mongol origin but had been Turkicized western Persia. To escape Timur, Ahmed Jalayir went by the time of Timur. The tribe was headed by Timur\u2019s first to Baghdad and then to his ally, Sultan Barquq (r. uncle, Hajji Barlas. In the early 1360s, Tughluk Tem\u00fcr, 1382\u201389; 1390\u201399) of the Egyptian Mamluk Empire. In khan of Moghulistan (r. 1360\u201364), made an attempt to October 1393 Baghdad opened its gates to Timur\u2019s army. regain power over the southern territories. This attack In 1398 Timur departed eastward against India, present- made it possible for Timur to assume leadership of the ing himself as the defender of Islam against the Muslim Barlas tribe, succeeding his uncle, who had fled. From sultanate of Delhi, which was tolerant of the Hindu faith. then on, Timur gradually expanded his power with the support of his immediate relatives and his military Timur launched a new military campaign in 1399 in escort (n\u00f6ker). Timur also forged an alliance with Emir order to secure the western part of his empire against the H\u00fcseyin (Amir Husayn), a warlord from Transoxania. At danger posed by the newly emerging Ottoman dynasty. first, Timur and H\u00fcseyin extended their authority over First, however, he attacked Syria again. He had Bagh- the emirs in Transoxania and then, following the death dad, Damascus, and Aleppo destroyed, and then turned of Tughluk Tem\u00fcr, over some of the tribal aristocracy in against the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I (r. 1389\u20131402), Moghulistan. The two allies, however, soon became ene-","winning a decisive victory at the Battle of Ankara (July Timurids 563 28, 1402), in which Bayezid was captured. Timur offered Bayezid the option of surrender, but the sultan refused. most important commercial routes between Central Asia Timur divided the territory up among Bayezid\u2019s three sons, and Astrakhan (on the Volga River) and the fertile Fer- Isa, Musa, and Mehmed, who were willing to accept his gana Valley of western Central Asia. Timur established supremacy. The Ottoman territories in the Balkans were power in these conquered territories based on Genghisid given to the fourth son, S\u00fcleyman. The humiliated Sultan (Mongol) traditions, with the exception of Persia, where Bayezid died a year later, still in captivity. Timur\u2019s victory he employed a form of Muslim administration. Once it near Ankara caused a great stir in Europe. The Spanish had been centralized, the empire developed local admin- king, Henry III of Castile, sent his ambassador Ruy de istrative centers with Timurid rulers who kept a watchful Clavijo to offer Timur an alliance against the Ottomans. eye on the indigenous populations. During the final years of his life, Timur was prepar- While he was still alive, Timur divided his empire ing to conquer China, but on February 18, 1405, he died among his four sons, Umar Shaykh, Jahangir, Miranshah, at his camp in Otrar in present-day Kazakhstan. As two and Shah Rukh, and named Jahangir\u2019s son Pir Muham- of his four sons had already died, Timur had appointed mad as his successor. Nevertheless his commanders his grandson, Pir Muhammad, son of Jahangir, as his or emirs did not accept Timur\u2019s appointed successor, heir. However, the emirs of his army instead recognized instead supporting his son Shah Rukh (r. 1405\u201347), who his youngest son, Shah Rukh, as ruler. Shah Rukh (r. was then the governor of Khorasan. Shah Rukh reigned 1405\u201347) and his descendants no longer needed of the in Transoxania, Khorasan, and Persia, and made the Genghisid puppet khans. Their father had successfully city of Herat, in northwestern Afghanistan, his capital. built an empire that legitimized their dynastic rule. He managed to reassert control over certain far prov- inces that had successfully rebelled against Timurid Timur\u2019s character integrated seemingly contradictory rule\u2014Khorazm, eastern Anatolia, and Azerbaijan\u2014but elements. He was both a cruel conqueror and an art-loving he could not keep the young empire completely united ruler. He considered himself a faithful Muslim, but razed a within the borders formed by his father. In particular, number of cultural centers of the Muslim world. From the the Timurid supremacy over the Ottomans and the Delhi booty he collected in his campaigns, Timur created a flour- sultanate was purely nominal. While Shah Rukh con- ishing cultural and scholarly life in Central Asia. Through tinued to depend on Genghisid traditions in his army, the skills of craftsmen captured from all over the world, Timurid imperial power came increasingly to rely on the monumental masterpieces of architecture were erected in importance of Muslim institutions, especially sharia, or and around the Timurid capital of Samarkand; the schol- Islamic sacred law. With this shift, Transoxania gradu- ars whose lives Timur had spared in his campaigns became ally ceased to be the center of the Timurid empire and his servants and sources of Persian and Arabic learning for has never since regained the importance it had in Timur\u2019s the Turkic population of Central Asia. time. M\u00e1ria Ivanics One of the foremost figures of the Timurid Empire Further reading: Gonz\u00e1les de Clavijo, Ruy. Clavijo: was Shah Rukh\u2019s son. Commonly known as Ulugh Beg Embassy to Tamerlane, 1403-1406, transl. Guy Le Strange (r. 1447\u201349), a designation that may be translated as (London: G. Routledge, 1928); Beatrice Forbes Manz, The \u201cGreat Ruler,\u201d this talented leader was sent by his father Rise and Rule of Tamerlane (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer- to Samarkand in 1409, at the age of 16, to guard against sity Press, 1989). the ever-growing threat of Abul-Khayr (r. 1428\u201368), khan of the nomad Uzbeks. By 1411, Ulugh Beg\u2019s power Timurids The Timurids were a dynasty that ruled had grown substantially, but despite his political and Central Asia, north Afghanistan, and Persia between military responsibilities, he was a devoted scholar and, in 1370 and 1507, founded by Timur (r. 1370\u20131405), more particular, a gifted astronomer who made seminal contri- commonly known in the West as Tamerlane. In his many butions to this study. Ulugh Beg established Samarkand wars, Timur is reputed to have terrorized and massacred as a flourishing center of learning and culture. He was Muslims and Christians alike, leaving in his wake a trail enthroned in 1447 but Shah Rukh had died without for- of devastation and disaster, but he is credited with hav- mally nominating a successor and several Timurid lead- ing built up a huge empire with Samarkand (in eastern ers became victims during the uprisings that broke out Uzbekistan) as its capital. Among his numerous mili- after his death, among them Ulugh Beg, who was killed tary triumphs Timur conquered Iran and the border- by his own son in 1449. ing area of Azerbaijan (then inhabited by Turkic tribes), India, Syria, east Anatolia, and Khorazm (in present-day Taking advantage of the discord, Jihan Shah (r. Uzbekistan). In its entirety, this region encompassed the 1438\u201367), head of the Karakoyunlu Turkoman tribal confederation and a former Azerbaijan governor, seized Mesopotamia and the western Persian territories. At the same time, in the east, Abul-Khayr Khan again rose","564 tobacco (Washington, D.C.: The Smithsonian Institution, 1996). J. E. Woods, The Timurid Dynasty. Papers on Central Asia no. 14. to the fore, interfering in the escalating conflicts among (Bloomington: Indiana University, 1990). Timur\u2019s descendants. Abu Said (r. 1451\u201369), the grand- son of Timur\u2019s son Miranshah, succeeded in driving his tobacco The smoking of tobacco was widespread rival cousins, the descendents of Ulugh Beg, from Samar- among Ottoman consumers after 1600 although its early kand, and in occupying Herat, the capital. Abu Said also use in the empire was surrounded by controversy. By 1914 tried to retake Azerbaijan, but lost his life in the cam- tobacco was one of the Ottoman Empire\u2019s most important paign. His sons managed to keep Transoxania and Fer- exports, and to the world\u2019s smokers, the phrase \u201cTurkish gana, but Herat fell into the hands of another Timurid, tobacco\u201d had become synonymous with a high-quality Husayn Bayqara (r. 1470\u20131506), the great-grandson of product. After the Ottoman Empire declared bankruptcy Umar Shaykh. With the help of Uzbek subsidiary forces, in 1875, the value of tobacco was such that the empire\u2019s Husayn occupied huge territories, extending his power European creditors were granted a monopoly over its sale from Khorazm through Khorasan to Afghanistan. both within the empire and as an export. This shift trans- formed tobacco into a highly politicized commodity and Weakened in large part by this internecine fighting, it became a symbol for western European influence in the the Timurid dynasty entered into a period of decline, empire\u2019s internal affairs and a source of significant anger and by the beginning of the 16th century two rising pow- for the Ottoman public. ers came to share the former Timurid territories. Azer- baijan and Persia fell into the hands of the Safavids, and Tobacco most probably entered the Ottoman Empire Transoxania and Khorasan were conquered by an Uzbek, from either Iran or the Arabian peninsula some time Muhammad Shaybani Khan. When in 1510 the Safavid during the middle of the 16th century. There are reports shah Ismail I (r. 1501\u201324) defeated and killed Muham- by European travelers that tobacco was routinely smoked mad Shaybani, the last significant Timurid ruler, Zahir in pipes by the inhabitants of Syria and Egypt in the al-Din Babur (r.1526\u201330) briefly recovered Transoxania 1590s, and tobacco had certainly reached Istanbul by but found that he could not keep it. Settling in Kabul, 1600. It is thought that Portuguese sailors first introduced Zahir turned his attention to the east and in 1526 con- tobacco smoking in the Middle East, since they ini- quered India, thus founding the Mughal dynasty that tially enjoyed a monopoly over the distribution and sale ruled India for the next 300 years. of tobacco, shipping it from the Americas to those who lived along the shores of the Persian Gulf and Red Sea. The Timurid period is acknowledged as having Farmers in Iran were quick to adapt the new crop, how- brought about a golden age of science and culture in the ever, and were growing their own tobacco by the middle region. Splendid palaces, mosques, madrasas, and gar- of the 16th century. Iranian tobacco was most valued and dens were built in the capitals Samarkand and Herat. Art commanded the highest price among Ottoman consum- patronage was common, and Persian literature, historiog- ers through the end of the 19th century, even after farm- raphy, and illustrated manuscripts and miniature ers in the empire began to cultivate the crop. painting flourished in the later Timurid courts. Timu- rid rulers not only promoted but were also themselves Medical doctors in the Ottoman Empire extolled noted scientists and artists. While Ulugh Beg was an out- the medical value of tobacco in the 17th century, as did standing astronomer (his work was published in Latin in their contemporaries in western Europe. Ironically, given London in 1652), his brother Baysonghor demonstrated what we know today about its harmful effects, Otto- an equal interest in literature and is credited with hav- man doctors thought tobacco to be especially useful for ing published Shah-nama (Book of kings), the renowned the lungs and to calm smokers\u2019 nerves. But Muslim reli- epic poem of Firdawsi, lauded as the pearl of Persian lit- gious scholars were not certain that smoking tobacco erature. Husayn Bayqara wrote poetry. Also working in was legal according to the Sharia. It was, after all, an Husayn\u2019s court in Herat was Mir Ali Shir Navai, known as innovation in that it had not been known by the Prophet the prince of poets of Chaghatay (a language also known Muhammad or the early Muslims. Also, it was clearly an as Turki, the middle Asian Turkic literary language). import from Christian Europe and was therefore sus- Zahir al-Din Babur was another Chaghatay poet; he also pect. Finally, it was deemed to be foul and offensive to wrote memoirs, the Babur-name, which have become the non-smokers. Those arguments led Sultan Ahmed I (r. most valued historical source of this age. 1604\u201317) to ban the smoking of tobacco sometime after 1611. Sultan Murad IV (r. 1623\u201340) banned the growing M\u00e1ria Ivanics of tobacco in the empire in 1627. After a fire destroyed Further reading: Wilhelm Barthold, Four Studies on the much of Istanbul in 1633, his orders became more dra- History of Central Asia, trans. V. Minorsky and T. Minorsky conian, prescribing the death penalty for anyone caught (Leiden: Brill, 1956\u201362)\u037e David Morgan, Medieval Persia, 1040\u20131797 (London: Longman, 1988); David Morgan, The Mongols (Oxford: Blackwell, 1986); Wheeler M. Thackston, The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor","smoking tobacco. Despite the objections of sultans and tobacco 565 religious scholars, the smoking of tobacco in the empire continued, and later sultans made no attempt to ban the therefore likely to consume more coffee. The water pipe substance. did not completely replace the older-style stem pipes whose prototypes had originally been introduced by the The prominent Syrian religious scholar, Abd al- Portuguese. But stem pipes came to be associated with Ghani al-Nabulusi (d. 1731), wrote a treatise on tobacco peasants, the urban lower classes, and most especially the and its use in 1682 in which he extolled both the social janissaries, who by the end of the 18th century were in and medical benefits of smoking. He was not alone. By ill repute among the empire\u2019s elite. 1700, tobacco had became an empire-wide addiction, with men, women, and even children reported by European The glass bowls for water pipes became increasingly travelers to be avid smokers. Initially, and for many of the elaborate in their decoration and even spawned their own same reasons, coffee drinking had also been opposed by new industry. But those produced in Iran were consid- Muslim scholars in Istanbul, although not by those in the ered by Ottoman consumers to be of the highest quality, Arab provinces; it represented an innovation in what had and the Ottoman authorities sought to ban their import been the social customs of the Prophet Muhammad and to promote local production. This was viewed by the Ira- the early Muslims and it was also believed that it encour- nian authorities with alarm and it is significant that one aged users to engage in worse vices. By the end of the 17th of the clauses in the Ottoman-Iranian Treaty of 1823, century, faced with a wave of noncompliance by ordinary drawn up to resolve outstanding differences between the believers, most Muslim scholars in Istanbul dropped their two states, had a separate clause allowing Iranian mer- opposition to the consumption of coffee and tobacco. Use chants to sell glass waterpipes in Istanbul. of coffee and tobacco was seen as less harmful than that of alternative substances like wine and opium, which were The production and consumption of tobacco became clearly forbidden by sharia. The exceptions to this trend a highly charged political issue in the second half of toward legalization were the followers of Muhammad ibn the 19th century. One of the consequences of the Otto- Abd al-Wahhab, who continued to ban the smoking of man Empire\u2019s declaration of bankruptcy in 1875 was tobacco, although they did permit the consumption of that an international body known as the Ottoman Pub- coffee. lic Debt Administration (see debt and the Public Debt Administration) was created to find ways for With its popularity spreading in all levels of Otto- the empire to repay its debts. One of the measures was man society, tobacco production in the empire skyrock- to transfer the monopoly over the production and sale of eted in the 18th century. Realizing the economic boom tobacco in the empire, only established by the Ottoman this might present for the state\u2019s treasury, the Ottoman state in 1874, to a syndicate of three foreign-owned banks authorities introduced new taxes on the production and known by the French name Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 de la R\u00e9gie coint\u00e9res- sale of tobacco. From the registers of these tax receipts s\u00e9e des tabacs de l\u2019empire ottomane (Corporation for the we know that the major production areas of the empire collection of excise taxes on the tobacco of the Ottoman were in Macedonia and Thrace in Europe and in north- Empire) or simply the R\u00e9gie, which came into being in ern Syria, southeastern Anatolia, and the Black Sea coast 1884. The R\u00e9gie was given a monopoly over the purchase in the empire\u2019s Asian provinces. Unlike western Europe, of tobacco from Ottoman growers, which was then either where tobacco smoking was seen as a masculine vice, in made into cigarettes in factories owned and operated the Ottoman Empire women faced no opprobrium as a by the R\u00e9gie or sold to foreign companies for export by result of their smoking habits. Because social norms pre- R\u00e9gie representatives. The R\u00e9gie, in turn, paid a yearly vented women from entering the coffee shops where men fee to the Public Debt Administration and a fixed per- usually consumed tobacco, public bathhouses provided centage of its profits to both the Administration and the their female customers with both pipes and coffee. Ottoman government. A second wave in smoking\u2019s popularity came in the From the inception of the R\u00e9gie, both tobacco grow- second half of the 18th century when the water pipe ers and employees of the Ottoman government opposed (hookah) was introduced from Iran. Known as a nargile its broad powers, viewing it as a foreign intrusion into in Ottoman Turkish and arghile or shisha in Arabic, the the Ottoman Empire\u2019s sovereignty. Growers responded by water pipe was viewed by Muslim scholars as an improve- withholding part of their crop which they then smuggled ment over earlier pipes which consisted of a small bowl to buyers outside the empire; factory workers smuggled and a long stem because the waterpipe reduced both thousands of cigarettes from the R\u00e9gie-owned factories the smoke and the odor created by the burning tobacco. to sell on the black market; and Ottoman officials refused Water pipes were also viewed favorably by coffee-shop to enforce the monopoly. Muslim clerics again raised owners because the consumption of tobacco through the issue of whether smoking tobacco was legal under a water pipe required the smoker to be sedentary and the sharia and called for boycotts of tobacco by Otto- man consumers. By the mid-1880s, the R\u00e9gie managers had to hire their own private police force to try to stem","566 Topkap\u0131 Palace four main parts: a private living area, dominated by the harem or women\u2019s section; an area used for education, the losses they were suffering due to smuggling. But the known as the Enderun, or inner section; an administra- presence of these foreign officers on Ottoman soil only tive center where the Imperial Council (Divan-\u0131 h\u00fcma- increased the resentment of Ottoman subjects toward the yun) met; and an area for service and safety also known R\u00e9gie. as the Birun, or outer section. This standoff between the Ottoman government There are three monumental gates in the palace: the and the directors of the R\u00e9gie continued until the Young first or Imperial Gate (Bab-i H\u00fcmayun); the second or Turk Revolution in 1908. At the time of the revolution, Middle Gate, known also as the Gate of Salutation (Bab-\u00fcs the Ottoman Empire was beset by increased banditry in Selam ); and the third gate, known as the Gate of Felicity rural areas, and the government decided to join forces (Bab-\u00fcs Saadet). The ramparts (left from the time of Byz- with the R\u00e9gie\u2019s police to suppress the bandits who in antium) surrounding the palace, together with the main many cases were also tobacco smugglers. In November gates, were constructed in the early 15th century. The sea, 1914, with its entry into World War I, the Ottoman on some sides of the palace, provided extra protection. Empire unilaterally declared that the R\u00e9gie was abol- ished, disbanded its police, and sent its other foreign Between the first and second gates was a large open employees home. England and France did not recog- area to which the public had access. In this area were nize the end of the R\u00e9gie, however, until 1923, when the diverse facilities to meet the needs of the people including Treaty of Lausanne between the new Republic of Turkey a hospital and a bakery. During the enthronement and and the Western powers ended the capitulations and accession ceremony and on other holidays (bayram), the Public Debt Administration. military officials, as well as the public, gathered in this area. Bruce Masters Owing to their administrative duties, various officials, See also coffee\/coffeehouses. such as the head of the imperial kitchen and of the royal Further reading: James Grehan, \u201cSmoking and \u2018early stables, doctors (such as the head surgeon and the eye doc- modern\u2019 sociability: The great tobacco debate in the Otto- man Middle East (seventeenth to eighteenth centuries). American Historical Review 111\/5 (2006): 1352\u201377; Donald Quataert, Social Disintegration and Popular Resistance in the Ottoman Empire, 1881\u20131908 (New York: New York Univer- sity Press, 1983). Topkap\u0131 Palace (New Imperial Palace) Located in The Bab-i H\u00fcmayun, or \u201cImperial Gate,\u201d was the second gate Istanbul, the capital city of the Ottoman Empire from the of the Topkap\u0131 Palace, leading into the area that was the cen- mid-15th century until the end of the empire, the Topkap\u0131 ter of governance for the empire. (Photo by G\u00e1bor \u00c1goston) Palace was the most important royal palace of the Otto- man sultans. It is set on the Seraglio Point between the Golden Horn and the Sea of Marmara, its location offer- ing the dual benefit of defensibility and beautiful views. Started in approximately 1465 under Sultan Mehmed II (r. 1444\u201346; 1451\u201381), known as Fatih, or \u201cthe Conqueror,\u201d the main part of the palace was constructed over four or five years, including the outer walls and the Imperial Gate (Bab-\u0131 H\u00fcmayun). Over the next four centuries, Mehmed and his successors gradually added to the palace and its grounds, constructing a variety of chambers, kiosks, and other buildings, such as the Circumcision Chamber in the fourth courtyard, the Baghdad Pavilion, and the Mecidiye Pavilion. The Royal Gardens, which stretched down to the seaside, were planted with flowers and used as a place to relax and walk. One section in the garden was reserved for growing vegetables for the palace. ORGANIZATION The Topkap\u0131 Palace is constructed according to the con- ventions of other Ottoman palaces and thus consists of","Topkap\u0131 Palace 567 This photo, taken by the Abdullah brothers, shows the Topkap\u0131 Palace as seen from the Sarayburnu (Library of Congress) tor), and the sultan\u2019s tutor and adviser went to the palace the second gate on the right of the second court was the on a daily basis. The regular workers, however, in the impe- imperial kitchen, which was built in the 15th century. rial kitchen, the imperial stables, the arts and crafts studio However, its distinctive silhouette in the palace today (nakka\u015fhane), as well as tentmakers and the musicians of comes from later centuries. the imperial military band (mehterhane), were considered the people of the Birun, or outer section of the palace. INNER PALACE OR ENDERUN The Second Court (Alay Meydan\u0131, also known as Passing through the third or Middle Gate led to the Divan Meydan\u0131), between the second and the third Third Court called Enderun, or inner section. In the first gates, was the most important administrative center part of the entrance of this rectangular courtyard was the of the government. Meetings of the Imperial Council square Chamber of Petitions (Arz odas\u0131), which was built were held in the Divanhane or Council Hall, which was in the 15th century. In this chamber the sultan received built in the second court. The Council Hall was rebuilt state dignitaries and foreign ambassadors; it was the only in the reign of S\u00fcleyman I (r. 1520\u201366). At the time of place in the palace used for receiving outsiders. Mehmed II, the Imperial Council met every day of the week, but in ensuing years this changed and the coun- Another important building found in the third cil met only four times a week (see administration, courtyard was the Palace School, also known as Ende- central). Accession and holiday ceremonies were also run Mektebi. This was an imperial academy that edu- held here. At the time of these ceremonies a throne was cated both the Ottoman princes and the most promising placed in front of the third gate (Bab-\u00fcs Saadet) and, boys of the child levy (dev\u015firme) to prepare them to with the participation of state dignitaries, scholars, and serve as governors and in other positions of state bureau- representatives from the military, the ceremony of the cracy. Students attending Enderun Mektebi studied law, oath of allegiance to the new sultan took place. Through linguistics, religion, music, art, and fighting. In addition, one group of students, known as Falconers, were attached","568 trade some sultans had one or two wives while others had more than 10 wives. Typically, however, concubines needed to to a room called Do\u011fanc\u0131 Ko\u011fu\u015fu (\u015eahinciler Ko\u011fu\u015fu in prove their fertility before they could become wives. the 15th century) where they were responsible for the training and care of the wild birds that were symbols The head of the harem was responsible for the of heroism for the warrior- and hunter-rulers. During management of the harem, although the mother of the their education students were given some duties and at reigning sultan (valide sultan) was the harem\u2019s highest same time they became officers in the palace. The Palace authority. The number of people residing in the harem School educated numerous state dignitaries and impor- increased as the empire aged. This was partly because the tant artists from its inception in the 15th century until harem was a place unto itself, forbidden to most outsid- the palace ceased to be used by the ruling sultans in the ers, and thus needed to provide for its own needs: educa- second half of the 19th century. tion, entertainment, dressing, and eating. CHAMBERS IN THE INNER PALACE In 1853, after almost four centuries as the official residence of the Ottoman sultans, the Topkap\u0131 Palace was Within the Enderun, in addition to the Palace School, superseded by the newly constructed Dolmabah\u00e7e Pal- there were also a number of rooms with specialized uses. ace, the first Ottoman palace to be built in the European Among these, the Privy Chamber (Has oda) was the most style. Today the Topkap\u0131 Palace is one of Istanbul\u2019s most important section in the inner section of the palace and visited museums. those assigned to the Privy Chamber were closest to the sultan. In the 15th century the staff of the Privy Chamber Zeynep Tar\u0131m Ertu\u011f included 32 pages (i\u00e7 o\u011flan), the custodian of the sultan\u2019s Further reading: G\u00fclru Necipo\u011flu, Architecture, Cer- weapons, the sultan\u2019s stirrup-holder, the custodian of emonial, and Power: The Topkapi Palace in the Fifteenth and his outer garments, and the keeper of his linens. From Sixteenth Centuries (New York: Architectural History Foun- these modest beginnings, the number of staff steadily dation, 1991). increased. People working in the Treasury Chamber (Hazine odas\u0131) were responsible for the protection and trade The Ottoman Empire was established along what maintenance of both the inner and outer treasuries and were then the most significant trade routes of the world, they regularly went on expeditions with the sultan. The the silk and spice routes. By controlling first the east-west Chief of the Treasury occupied the most important posi- trade route, and later the north-south route, the empire tion here; when promoted, he became the head manager was able to maintain its trade supremacy for close to four of the Abode of Felicity. Those assigned to the Commis- hundred years. While maintaining the overland trade sary Chamber (Kilar odas\u0131) set the table for the sultan between Asia and Europe, the empire also built trade on and helped in the preparation of jams and sherbets in the the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea. Through its Imperial Kitchen. They also ensured the proper protec- success managing and supporting this expansive trading tion and preservation of foods. network, the Ottoman Empire established itself not only as an entity of great commercial significance but also as a HAREM power of enormous political consequence. The imperial harem, adjacent to the right side of the sec- COMMODITY TRADE ond and the third courts, was a separate place. The word harem derives from the Turkish haram, or \u201cforbidden,\u201d and Trade in the Ottoman Empire may be understood as falling refers to the private residence of the family. In the Topkap\u0131 into two categories\u2014internal and external. So-called inter- Palace, the harem, called the Abode of Felicity (Dar\u00fcssaade nal trade involved the transportation of goods from one agas\u0131), was the residence of the sultan\u2019s family, specifically city in the empire to another, whether over land or by sea, his mother (the valide sultan), his wife or wives and their and was subject to taxation, identified as internal custom young children, his sisters, and their servants and slave tax. Customs were named depending on location: shore girls (cariye). Like the favored boys from the dev\u015firme who customs, land customs, or border customs. The trade that were selected to become students in the Enderun School, took place between countries, cities, or towns was whole- female slaves brought from different parts of the empire sale trade and the merchants involved in this trade were were considered fortunate to become palace servants. foreigners, both Muslim and non-Muslim. Caravans and Many of them received an education in language, religion, seaports were important mechanisms in this wholesale music, embroidery, and art in the harem. Based on these trade and hans, or warehouses, in big cities were used to acquirements, some were then given duties in the palace store and distribute goods to retailers. Grain and meat con- while others might be married to state dignitaries or might stituted the two most basic consumer goods. Grain came become concubines or even wives of the sultan himself. primarily from the Balkans and the ports of Wallachia. Each sultan approached these relationships differently; The Danube River and the Anatolian and Rumelian sides","of the Black Sea were used to transport this grain. Meat trade 569 usually came from both Thrace and Anatolia and consisted mainly of lamb and mutton. Rice and coffee came by sea economic security but that naturally resulted in much from Egypt. Vegetables came from towns around the city, slower growth than in the West. This situation was only while fruits were supplied from the Aegean region. exacerbated in the 19th century with the advent of the Industrial Revolution in the West and the explosion of In cities, there were \u00e7ar\u015f\u0131 (bazaars) and bedestan European factory manufacturing. (permanent markets) while rural areas had weekly mar- kets and fairs. As the empire\u2019s capital city, Istanbul THE GROWTH OF FOREIGN TRADE played a special role within this commercial system. It was a major city as well as the center of government; To facilitate foreign trade, the Ottoman sultans had early besides providing for the city\u2019s large population, trade given privileges to the Genoese, the Venetians, and even in the capital had to meet the needs of the army and the to the Byzantines. But it is believed that the first such palace. Moreover, the Istanbul markets were a venue for trade privilege (ahdname) was granted by Sultan Murad artisans to procure raw material for their work. There- I (r. 1362\u201389) to the merchants of Raguza (present-day fore, meeting Istanbul\u2019s need for essential commodities Dubrovnik). These privileges were mostly legal, politi- was a significant undertaking. cal, and commercial privileges. Commercial privileges included the right to unrestricted trade, the use of Otto- A POLICY OF SELF-SUFFICIENCY man ports, and the exemption from various taxes in the import and export of goods within the empire. The During the 15th and 16th centuries, when the Ottomans primacy of Venetians and Genoese in Ottoman foreign emerged as a great power, the primary goal of trade was trade was overtaken by French merchants by the mid- the self-sufficiency of the empire. In keeping with this 16th century. By the early 19th century the majority of goal, the Ottoman Empire established three essential the Ottoman foreign trade was carried out by foreign trade policies: ensure adequate supplies of primary goods merchants who had expanded their commercial privi- within the empire; store primary goods in preparation leges into a broad and complex trading network. During for times of famine and scarcity; and, finally, avoid eco- the same time internal trade was in the hands of Otto- nomic scarcity during wartime. As a natural result of man subjects, both Muslims and non-Muslims. these policies, Ottoman trade focused on imports, and most exports were prohibited. As part of the conservative approach to trade, much commerce was held or managed primarily by the state. In the same period in Europe, a number of significant Trade was regulated through commodity provision (ia\u015fe), trade developments began to take place. The Portuguese, monopoly (yed-i vahid), and a system of internal trade for instance, developed sea routes to India and China, permits (tezkire); high customs fees and export prohibi- establishing their primacy in the sea trade. The Spanish tions discouraged foreign trade. Most of these obstacles reached the Americas and thus introduced a new world to foreign trade were ended by the Balta Liman\u0131 Treaty order in which sea trade would take an indispensable role; signed between the Ottoman Empire and Great Britain with this new order, the world\u2019s politics and power bal- in 1838 (see Anglo-Ottoman Convention), and the ances were also radically changed and conflicts between empire finally became an open market for Europe, a situ- nations shifted from rivalries on land to rivalries at sea. ation that put the Ottomans at a decided disadvantage, The new order also brought about a new trade policy in particularly in the case of manufactured goods. During western Europe, called mercantilism, in which imports the 19th century the majority of Ottoman exports were were discouraged while exports were encouraged. As a agricultural products. These included raw silk, angora, result of this policy, which was the opposite of the eco- tobacco, grapes, figs, hazelnuts, opium, bonito, cotton, nomic policy supported by the Ottomans, the axis of world and olive oil. On the other hand, manufactured products trade slowly shifted to the West. Although this did not constituted the bulk of imports. Among these, textile influence the Ottoman Empire right away, in the long run, products made of cotton and wool comprised the greater it resulted in the empire losing its primacy in world trade. part. Imported industrial goods included weapons and various machines. Sugar, tea, and coffee, which were not The history of trade in western Europe and in the produced in the empire, were also imported from abroad. Ottoman Empire during the 16th, 17th, and 18th cen- turies, while intimately interconnected, followed two Toward the middle of the 19th century it was found fundamentally different courses. While western Europe that traditional Ottoman industries could not compete expanded its export markets and built its manufactur- with the more productive European ones, and many Otto- ing and transportation technologies, the Ottomans man industries started to collapse. During the 19th cen- pursued a more conservative approach, continuing to tury, the empire\u2019s trade capacity increased 10 times, while rely heavily on agricultural foundations and a policy of it had only doubled during the 18th century; yet dur- self-sufficiency, an orientation that provided substantial ing this time the trade balance between the empire and Europe also clearly tipped in favor of European states.","570 Transylvania union with Romania, an announcement that Hungary was forced to accept at the Treaty of Trianon (1920). During In order to change these disadvantageous conditions, World War II (1939\u201345), Hungary briefly annexed north- to enhance and develop commerce, and most impor- ern Transylvania (1940), but it was returned to Romania tant, to have a unity and coherency in the organization after the war. Hungarian, German, and Romanian inhabit- of trade, the Ottoman Ministry of Commerce was estab- ants lived in medieval Transylvania, but Romanians are the lished in 1839. Furthermore, to support the organization most numerous ethnic group today. of these activities, several different committees pertain- ing to commerce were introduced. For the purpose of After the defeat of the medieval Hungarian king- developing and organizing commerce, the Code of Com- dom at the Battle of Moh\u00e1cs on August 29, 1526, merce was put into effect in 1850 and commercial courts the majority of the Hungarian nobility elected the royal were founded in 1860. Toward the end of the century, the governor (vajda or voievod) of Transylvania, J\u00e1nos Sza- Ottoman Chamber of Commerce was established (1880), polyai, king of Hungary (r. 1526\u201340). Another faction of and schools of commerce were launched in 1883. A free- the Hungarian nobility, however, elected Ferdinand of trade policy was introduced and the Ottoman economy Habsburg, archduke of Austria, as king of Hungary (r. was opened to the world, thus creating an enormous 1526\u201364). The Ottoman Empire intervened in the fight upsurge in the Ottoman import and export markets. between the two rival kings, supporting John Szapolyai Finally, in accordance with a new economic paradigm by force of arms. In 1529 Sultan S\u00fcleyman I (r. 1520\u2013 that was dominant in the beginning of the century called 66) captured Buda, the capital of Hungary, restored Sza- the National Economic Policy, the Ottomans developed a polyai to the Hungarian throne, and made him a vassal. national trade policy, which continued in effect when the At the same time the voievods Istv\u00e1n Majl\u00e1d and Imre Republic of Turkey rose out of the disintegrated Otto- Balassa of Transylvania, who had been appointed by man Empire in the early 1920s. King John, revolted against John. Majl\u00e1d turned to the Ottoman government, the Sublime Porte, asking the sul- Co\u015fkun \u00c7ak\u0131r tan to appoint him voievod when King John died, prom- See also caravansary; economy; Grand Bazaar; ising in return to pay a yearly tax of 25,000 gold florins money and monetary systems. and a present of 1,000 gold florins to each of the sultan\u2019s Further reading: Halil \u0130nalc\u0131k and Donald Qua- viziers. The Porte negotiated with him but ultimately taert, eds., An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman refused his offer when the Hungarian envoys protested. Empire, 1300\u20131914, (Cambridge: Cambridge University After the death of King John in 1540, the Hungarian Press, 1994); \u015eevket Pamuk, The Ottoman Empire and Euro- nobility elected as king his infant son, John Sigismund pean Capitalism, 1820\u20131913 (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- Szapolyai (J\u00e1nos Zsigmond Szapolyai, Istefan K\u0131ral in versity Press, 1987); Suraiya Faroghi, Towns and Townsmen Ottoman sources). Sultan S\u00fcleyman acknowledged the of Ottoman Anatolia: Trade, Crafts and Food Production in child\u2019s right of succession and confirmed him on the an Urban Setting, 1520\u20131650 (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- throne by means of an ahdname. The rival King Ferdi- versity Press, 1984); Bruce McGowan, Economic Life in the nand responded with an armed action. Ottoman Empire: Taxation, Trade and the Struggle for Land, 1600\u20131800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Ferdinand\u2019s military attack provided an opportunity Bruce Masters, The Origins of Western Economic Dominance for the Porte to intervene again in the conflict between in the Middle East: Mercantilism and the Islamic Economy in the two rivals to the Hungarian throne. On the grounds Aleppo, 1600\u20131750 (Cambridge, New York: Cambridge Uni- that John Sigismund Szapolyai, who was then a year old, versity Press, 1988). and his mother, Isabella of Jagiello, were unable to defend Hungary against Habsburg attacks, the Ottomans occu- Transylvania (Ger.: Siebenb\u00fcrgen; Hung.: Erd\u00e9ly; Rom.: pied Buda in 1541. The Porte allocated the part of the Ardeal, Transilvania; Turk.: Erdel) Transylvania is the country east of the River Tisza to the Szapolyai family. western part of present-day Romania, bordered by the This territory was referred to as Erdel (from Erd\u00e9ly, the Carpathian mountains in the east. Part of medieval Hun- Hungarian term for Transylvania) in Ottoman sources gary, Transylvania was a vassal principality of the Otto- although it was twice as big as historic Transylvania. The man Empire between 1541 and 1690, when the Habsburgs sultan divided this territory into three sancaks or sub- seized it from the Ottomans. Although it was ruled by the provinces under Christian rule. The region east of the Habsburg kings of Hungary, Transylvania was adminis- River Tisza was given to George Martinuzzi, the Bishop tered directly from Vienna and was again united with the of V\u00e1rad (Oradea), chancellor and administrator of John rest of Hungary in 1867 as part of the Austro-Hungarian Sigismund; the province of Temesv\u00e1r (Timi\u015foara) was Compromise. Following the dissolution of the Austro- given to P\u00e9ter Petrovics; and historic Transylvania was Hungarian Monarchy (1867\u20131918) at the end of World given to John Sigismund but it was governed by George War I, the Romanians of Transylvania declared their Martinuzzi until the child reached legal age.","The peace treaty between the Habsburgs and the Tripoli (Lebanon) 571 Ottomans in 1547 made it possible for King Ferdinand to peacefully take possession of the eastern parts of Hun- From this time on, the princes of Transylvania were not gary, including Transylvania. He promised to continue to given ahdnames as before but came into power through pay to Istanbul the tax of 10,000 gold florins, which had a formal written appointment (berat-i h\u00fcmayun) from been paid regularly from 1543, on behalf of the three san- the sultan, similar to the appointments given to officials caks. When the sultan refused this offer, the Habsburgs of the Ottoman Empire. invaded. The Ottomans retaliated with a counterattack in 1551 and again in 1552, resulting in the Ottoman capture After the death of Michael Apafi I (r. 1660\u201390), the of castles along the River Tisza, and by establishing a new last ruling prince of Transylvania, the Habsburg Empire Ottoman province around Temesv\u00e1r. The Szapolyai fam- prevented his successor, Michael Apafi II, from taking ily, which had taken shelter in Poland, returned in 1556. the throne. Imre Th\u00f6k\u00f6ly, the ruler of the Ottoman vas- John Sigismund reigned as elected king of Hungary until sal principality in northern Hungary (r. 1682\u201385), seized 1570. However, pursuant to an agreement concluded in power for a few months, but Habsburg military pressure 1571 with Maximillian II, the Holy Roman Emperor and forced him to leave 1690). From 1687, Habsburg military King of Hungary, John Sigismund relinquished the title occupation of the principality became permanent. As of king and started to use the title of prince of Transylva- a consequence, an agreement was reached between the nia for the first time in history. After his death, the estates three dominant Transylvanian political-ethnical groups in Transylvania and neighboring Partium (territory in (the Magyars or Hungarian nobility; the Sz\u00e9kelys or Hun- eastern Hungary not under Habsburg rule) elected Ste- garians of eastern Transylvania; and the German Saxons) phen B\u00e1thory as their voievod (r. 1571\u201376) and prince (r. and the Ottoman Porte about a temporary suspension 1576\u201386). He was later elected King of Poland. of tax payments. During the Hungarian anti-Habsburg revolt of Transylvanian monarch Ferenc R\u00e1k\u00f3czi II (r. At the beginning of the Long War of 1593\u20131606 1703\u201311), the Hungarians hoped for Ottoman support between the Habsburgs and Ottomans, Prince Sigismund and asked for an extension of the sultan\u2019s supremacy into B\u00e1thory broke off relations with Istanbul and entered into Transylvania and Hungary, but without success. an alliance with Rudolph II, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Hungary. At the end of the war, a revolt against S\u00e1ndor Papp the Habsburgs began in Hungary and Transylvania under Further reading: B\u00e9la K\u00f6peczy and Zolt\u00e1n Sz\u00e1sz, eds., the leadership of Stephan Bocskai, who was acknowl- History of Transylvania. 3 vols. (Boulder, Colo.: Social Science edged by Grand Vizier Lala Mehmed Pasha, on behalf of Monographs, 2002); S\u00e1ndor Papp, Die Verleihungs-, Bekr\u00e4f- Sultan Ahmed I (r. 1603\u201317), as prince of Transylvania tigungs- und Vertragsurkunden der Osmanen f\u00fcr Ungarn und and King of Hungary in November 1604. Siebenb\u00fcrgen: Eine quellenkritische Untersuchung (Wien: Verlag der \u00d6sterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, After the Treaty of Zsitvatorok in 1606, signed by 2003). the Habsburgs and the Ottoman Empire, the princes of Transylvania pursued an anti-Habsburg policy with Tripoli (Lebanon) (anc.: Tripolis; Ar.: Tarablus al- Ottoman help on several occasions but this did not lead Sham; Turk.: Trablus\u015fam) At the start of Ottoman to the termination of the treaty between the two great rule in Syria in 1516, Tripoli had the largest population powers. This period is considered the golden age of the of any city in the region. Located on the Mediterranean Transylvanian principality. During this time, the reigning Sea and close to the olive-producing region of Akkar, the princes, G\u00e1bor Bethlen (r. 1613\u201329) and Gy\u00f6rgy R\u00e1k\u00f3czi city was a major exporter of olive oil and olive oil based I (r. 1630\u201348), participated in the Thirty Years\u2019 War join- soap. The city was made the capital of a province with ing on the side of the Protestant nobility and countries the same name around 1570. The first governor of Trip- against the Catholic Habsburgs. oli was Yusuf Sayfa, who was the head of a Turkoman clan that had settled in the region. The Ottomans feared In 1657 the succeeding Transylvanian monarch, the possibility of rebellion by the Druze and Maronite Gy\u00f6rgy R\u00e1k\u00f3czi II (r. 1648\u201357), without the permission clans in the nearby mountains and felt that a Sunni Mus- of the Porte, started a military expedition in alliance lim outsider might serve the state\u2019s best interests, as their with Sweden in order to obtain the Polish throne. Sultan patronage would serve his. Yusuf thus took the field fol- Mehmed IV (r. 1648\u201387) sent the Crimean Tatars to lowing the orders of Sultan Ahmed I (r. 1603\u20131617) in fight him in Poland and later attacked Transylvania itself. campaigns against Fakhr al-Din al-Maani, the Druze In 1658 Grand Vizier K\u00f6pr\u00fcl\u00fc Mehmed (see K\u00f6pr\u00fcl\u00fc leader, and Janbulad Ali Pasha, the rebellious governor family) appointed \u00c1kos Barcsay, one of the noblemen in of Aleppo, but he fell out of favor with the government the peace delegation that arrived at the camp, as prince of in Istanbul by 1610 and was removed from his office. Transylvania. His formal appointment was drawn up as Other members of the clan held the office of governor off a h\u00fcccet issued by the chief military judge (kad\u0131asker). and on until the 1630s.","572 Tripoli (Libya) ouin tribes in the surrounding desert. But it was not until 1722 that he was officially appointed by Sultan Ahmed III Following the rule of Yusuf Sayfa and his family, no (r. 1703\u201330) to the position of governor of the province, other individual or clan would dominate the politics of with the title of pasha. His descendants ruled Tripoli with Tripoli and the city became subordinated to the ambitions only brief interruptions until 1835 when direct Ottoman of personalities elsewhere in Lebanon and Syria without a rule was restored. During the intervening years, the sultan local strongman to advance its interests. Although the city still reigned, in theory, in Tripoli, but he was only a titular had secure walls and a sizeable covered market, its port head whose orders went unheeded. facilities were meager. As a result, European merchants upon whom the trade of Ottoman port cities depended The restoration of Ottoman authority saw little sought to establish themselves elsewhere. After the devel- change in Tripoli, and the city remained a sleepy provin- opment of Alexandrette, they encouraged the cara- cial backwater. By the end of the 19th century, however, vans that had come from Aleppo to the Mediterranean to capitalists in Italy began to view the plain to the east of go its new port facilities. Tripoli was soon overshadowed the city as a prime location for investment and the settle- first by Sidon and then by Beirut as the leading port ment of European colonists. Increased tensions between of Lebanon. In 1911, the population of Tripoli was only the Ottomans and the Italian government generated by 32,000. While that was an increase over the 10,000 people Italian colonial ambitions led Italy to declare war on the who had lived there in the middle of the 19th century, it empire in 1911. The Italians occupied Tripoli in October was well below the population of Beirut. 1911 with little opposition. They then proclaimed it the capital of their newly formed colony of Libya. Bruce Masters Further reading: John Gulick, Tripoli: A Modern Arab Bruce Masters City (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1967). Further reading: Richard Parker, Uncle Sam in Barbary: A Diplomatic History (Gainesville: University of Florida Tripoli (Libya) (anc.: Oea; Ar.: Tarablus al-Gharb; Press, 2004). Turk.: Trablusgarp) The port city of Tripoli, today in Libya, was one of the great corsair strongholds of the tu\u011fra (alamet, ni\u015fan, tevki, tughra) The tu\u011fra was Ottoman Empire. The Spanish seized the city in 1510 but a monogram created for a specific individual of the rul- turned it over in 1539 to an anti-Muslim group of cor- ing dynasty. Unique to each ruler, the tu\u011fra was used to sairs and pirates of crusader origins, the Knights of St. mark documents, coins, buildings, stamps, and the state John, who had fled to the island of Malta after the Otto- insignia of the late Ottoman Empire. When it expressed a man conquest of their former headquarters on Rhodes religious formula it was used only as a calligraphic orna- in 1522. The Knights then used Tripoli to raid Muslim ment that carried no official implications. While the ety- shipping, provoking an Ottoman response. In 1551 the mology of the word is unclear, it is first mentioned by Ottomans dispatched a fleet to besiege the town, but its garrison capitulated without a frontal assault. Until 1911, The tug\u02c7ra, or sultanic monogram, of S\u00fcleyman I (r.1520\u201366). the city remained nominally Ottoman, despite frequent Such lavishly decorated and elaborated tug\u02c7ras were usually attacks upon the empire from renegades based in the city. used for copies of major international treaties or letters sent to foreign rulers. (The Metropolitan Museum of Art\/Art Resource) The sultans\u2019 control of Tripoli was problematic almost from the start, however. The absence of a routine Ottoman presence in the North African ports tended to engender anarchy. Profiting from this power vacuum, members of the Ottoman garrison in Tripoli created alli- ances with the local Muslim elite and soon began their own unofficial government. The military was largely Turkish in origin, either Janissaries or, more commonly, freebooters from Anatolia and the Balkans. One of these, Karamanl\u0131 Ahmed Bey, seized control of Tripoli in 1711. Not trusting the Janissaries posted to the city, he built up his own militia consisting of Albanians and Bedouins. He also relied on Europeans who had been enslaved in acts of piracy on the high sea or in raids on the European main- land. These were freed upon their conversion to Islam and many joined the corsair fleets that had enslaved them. Ahmed Bey was also astute enough to secure his position with the European merchants in the city and the Bed-","Mahmud al-Kashghari (11th century) as Oghuz tughragh Tunis 573 (seal, signature). Tu\u011fras of other empires and dynas- tic houses, such as those of the Mamluk Empire, differ man fleet, under the charge of Hayreddin (Khair ad Din) from the Seljuk type and those that developed in post- Barbarossa (see Barbarossa brothers) took the city of Seljuk Anatolian principalities around 1300. Tunis from its Muslim Hafsid ruler, Mawlay Husayn, who seemed incapable of resisting the Spanish. But in the fol- The first known Ottoman tu\u011fra is that of Orhan lowing year the forces of King Charles V (r. 1500\u201358) of Gazi (r. 1324\u20131362), which reads \u201cOrhan, son of Osman.\u201d Spain seized the city and handed it back to Husayn, who It already shows the basic shape of future tu\u011fras: the names served as his vassal. A back-and-forth struggle followed form the bottom (sere), \u201cson of \u201d is a rounded line to the during which the city changed hands several times until left (beyze, later elongated to the right, kol) and three 1577 when it definitively became an Ottoman province. upward shafts (tu\u011f). Gradually the tu\u011fra came to take a constant form and text: \u201cA son of B, Khan, always victori- Throughout the 17th century, Tunis had a governor ous.\u201d Sultans Mahmud II (r. 1808\u201339), Abd\u00fclhamid II (r. appointed from Istanbul. It enjoyed an economic boom 1876\u20131909), and Mehmed V (r. 1909\u201318) added individ- based on the produce of its agricultural hinterlands and ual epithets to the upper right of each of their tu\u011fras. On the wealth that was coming into the city from the multi- important decrees, tu\u011fras were richly ornamented from tude of corsairs and pirates who plied their trade just the mid-15th century onward. In addition to the sultan, off the coast. The population of Tunis grew quite sub- Ottoman princes, too, used individual tu\u011fras, especially stantially. Its Muslim population consisted largely of new- in the 15th and 16th centuries, whereas viziers and other comers: Turks and Albanians from the Ottoman Empire, officials put their own tu\u011fra-like shapes (pen\u00e7es) vertically Muslims expelled from Spain, and European converts to to the text on the right margin of their documents. Islam. The city also had a substantial Jewish population and resident European merchant colonies, leading Euro- The ni\u015fanci, a member of the Imperial divan, who pean visitors to remark on the cosmopolitan flavor of the was later assisted by viziers (tu\u011frake\u015f vezir), first verified city. At the start of the 18th century, military strongmen that the document conformed to the law. Then the tu\u011fra seized control in all the major North African ports nomi- was drawn by him onto the upper part of the document nally ruled by the sultan. In 1705 H\u00fcseyin Alio\u011flu, who as a means of corroboration. In the 16th and 17th centu- had previously served as the head of the Janissaries in ries the grand vizier, viziers, and beylerbeyis issued docu- the city, established his rule in Tunis. His descendants, ments in the sultan\u2019s name on sheets already bearing the known as the Husaynids in English, would rule as beys tu\u011fra, and after the Tanzimat reform period of the 19th until 1957, although after 1881 their authority was only century, tu\u011fras were drawn by officials called tu\u011frake\u015f. nominal because the country was a French protectorate. Late Ottoman decrees were written on printed forms bearing the tu\u011fra. Piracy remained the mainstay of the economy of Tunis throughout the 18th century. Increasingly, however, Claudia R\u00f6mer corsairs had to confine their raids to the Italian mainland Further reading: Jan Reychman and Ananiasz because central governments in the rest of Europe had the Zaj\u0105czkowski, Handbook of Ottoman-Turkish diplomatics means of effective retaliation. Piracy enjoyed an upsurge (The Hague: Mouton, 1968) 141\u201344; Jan Reychman and during the French Revolution (1789\u201399) and the subse- Ananiasz Zaj\u0105czkowski, \u201cDiplomatic,\u201d in Encyclopaedia of quent Napoleonic period when European navies were pre- Islam, 2nd ed., vol. 2, (Leiden: Brill, 1960\u2013), 301\u201316, esp. occupied. But after the French withdrawal from Egypt in 314; Jean Deny \u201cTughra,\u201d in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd ed., 1801, the British and American fleets threatened the beys vol. 10, (Leiden: Brill, 1960\u2013), 595\u201399. of Tunis and the other North African ports, insisting that they desist from raiding. The death knell of piracy was Tunis (Ar.: Tunus) The city of Tunis is located on sounded in pan-European agreements signed in 1815 and the Mediterranean Sea in western North Africa and is 1818 that outlawed piracy in the Mediterranean Sea and the capital of the Republic of Tunisia. The importance provided for military intervention to enforce the policy. No of Tunis for much of the Ottoman period lay not in the longer able to rely on piracy as a major source of income, fertile plain that borders the city but rather in the city\u2019s the rulers of Tunis had to turn instead to the exploita- central role in the ebb and flow of Mediterranean piracy. tion of their agricultural resources. To finance this, they With the expansion of Spanish naval activity in the west- invited European capitalists and settlers to transform the ern Mediterranean after the fall of Granada in 1492, traditional subsistence agriculture of the city\u2019s hinterlands Sultan S\u00fcleyman I (1520\u201366) became acutely aware of into a modern capitalist one, a transformation that led to the threat that the Spanish fleet posed to the Ottoman increased borrowing and, ultimately, defaults on loans. Empire and he sought to build a navy that could suc- Using the country\u2019s economic insolvency as an excuse, the cessfully counter the Spanish raids. In 1535 the Otto- French occupied Tunis in 1881, declaring a protectorate over a territory they named Tunisia. Bruce Masters","574 Turkey themselves \u201cOsmanl\u0131,\u201d that is \u201cbelonging to the House of Osman.\u201d See also Algiers; Napoleon Bonaparte; North Africa; Tripoli (Libya). In the 19th century, however, all of the various peo- ples of the Ottoman Empire began to adopt the relatively Further reading: Jamil Abun-Nasr, A History of the new European notion of nationalism, that peoples Maghrib (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975). should be distinguished by \u201cnations,\u201d by which the Euro- peans generally meant those sharing a common language Turkey (Turk.: T\u00fcrkiye) The peninsula that today and sense of history. This was a revolutionary way of makes up most of the Republic of Turkey was known thinking for peoples in the Ottoman Empire as hitherto as Anadolis, literally \u201cthe East,\u201d throughout the Greek- the primary social category had been groupings accord- speaking world, both in antiquity and in the centuries ing to religion (millet). Nationalist identities were first during which the Byzantine Empire (330\u20131453) flour- articulated among intellectuals representing the various ished. That name entered the various languages of west- Christian peoples of the Balkans in the late 18th century. ern Europe, including English, as Anatolia. With the When the empire started to fracture as various peoples victory of the Seljuk Turks over the Byzantines at the began to demand a political state that would correspond Battle of Manzikert in 1089, Turkish-speaking tribal to their newly found sense of nation, Muslim intellectuals peoples increasingly settled the region that had formerly began to rethink the question of their own political iden- been inhabited by Greek-speaking and Armenian-speak- tities. Those who spoke a form of Turkish as their mother ing Christians. The Seljuks quickly established political tongue initially tried to create a national identity based control over most of the region; over time, many of the on loyalty to the Ottoman dynasty. Historians identify indigenous people living there converted to Islam and this intellectual and political movement as Ottoman- adopted the Turkish language. ism. But because that ideology apparently failed to attract the loyalty of most non-Muslims, by the last decades of Western Europeans traveled through Anatolia during the 19th century, Turkish-speaking intellectuals replaced the First Crusade (1095\u201399) on their way to Jerusalem it with Turkish nationalism or Turkism. and those crusaders who wrote about their experience called the Muslims living in Anatolia \u201cTurks\u201d to distin- In this ideological construction, all those speaking guish them from Arabic-speaking Muslims, whom they a form of Turkish constituted a \u201cnation.\u201d With that shift called Saracens. By the end of the 12th century Europe- in orientation, Anadolu or Anatolia no longer seemed an ans had begun to call the region Turchia or Turkey, \u201cthe appropriate name for the country of the Turks. Initially, land of the Turks.\u201d The name stuck, and as the Otto- the Persian word \u201cT\u00fcrkistan,\u201d or \u201ccountry of the Turks\u201d man Empire began to emerge as a world power in the was suggested as an alternative; other authors suggested yet late 14th century, Europeans almost universally referred another alternative, \u201cT\u00fcrkeli,\u201d which is simply the \u201ccountry to it as Turkey and to all Ottoman Muslims as Turks, of the Turks\u201d in Ottoman Turkish. By the start of World whether or not they actually spoke Turkish. An indica- War I in 1914, however, Ottoman Turkish intellectuals had tion of the blending of the religious and ethnic meaning gravitated toward the name \u201cT\u00fcrkiye,\u201d which was ultimately of the word \u201cTurk\u201d by the Europeans was the phrase, \u201cto derived from the Italian name for the country first used turn Turk,\u201d meaning \u201cto convert to Islam,\u201d an expression at the end of the 13th century, \u201cTurchia.\u201d Mustafa Kemal used by English speakers from the 16th through the 19th Atat\u00fcrk popularized that name in his struggle to over- centuries. throw the conditions imposed on the defeated Ottoman Empire by the Allied forces who occupied the region in The Ottomans, however, retained the older Greek 1918. With the emergence of a new republic in place of the name for the peninsula, Anatolia, which they rendered as disintegrated Ottoman Empire, T\u00fcrkiye was enshrined as Anadolu. For them, the word \u201cT\u00fcrk\u201d was reserved for the the new country\u2019s official name in the constitution of 1924. Turcoman tribal people or the Turkish-speaking peasants of Anatolia. T\u00fcrk had a slightly negative connotation for Bruce Masters the Ottoman elite, as the expression \u201cT\u00fcrk kafa\u201d demon- See also Young Turks. strates; literally \u201cTurk-head,\u201d it meant \u201cblockhead.\u201d The Further reading: \u015eerif Mardin, The Genesis of Young Ottoman Arab subjects called the area we know today Ottoman Thought: A Study in the Modernization of Turkish as Turkey \u201cRum,\u201d or the Roman Empire. That is what Political Ideas (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, they had called the Byzantine Empire before the Otto- 1962); M. \u015e\u00fckr\u00fc Hanio\u011flu, The Young Turks in Opposition mans conquered the region and they simply extended the (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995); Eric Hobsbawm, name to the successors of the Byzantines. Ottoman Arabs Nations and Nationalism Since 1780 (Cambridge: Cam- also used the word \u201cRumi,\u201d literally, \u201cone coming from bridge University Press, 1990). Anatolia,\u201d to mean an Ottoman. The Ottomans called","U al-Ujaymi, Hindiyya (Hindiya the Nun) (b. 1720\u2013 Uniate Melkite and Syrian Catholic churches in that 98) Christian nun and mystic, founder of the Sisters of city as well as from the sheiks of the influential Khazin the Sacred Heart of Jesus religious order Hindiyya al- family, some of whose female relatives joined al-Ujaymi\u2019s Ujaymi was born into a wealthy Maronite Catholic mer- order. But controversy continued to surround al-Ujaymi chant family in Aleppo. Her brother, Niqula, became a both for her teachings and for her actions, including Jesuit, and Hindiyya was drawn to the religious life early, claims that she had performed miracles, including heal- reportedly reciting the prayers \u201cOur Father\u201d and the \u201cHail ing the blind and lepers, and the murder of one of her Mary\u201d precociously at the age of three. As an adolescent, nuns that occurred at her convent. There was no proof al-Ujaymi indulged in various acts of self-mortification that Hindiyya was directly involved in the crime but there and fasting. Then, sometime in her early twenties, she were accusations that she tried to dispose of the body in claimed to have experienced a mystical union with Christ. secret. In 1780 a council consisting of Maronite clergy From the start of her mystical journey, al-Ujaymi had the and laity and representatives of the pope met and abol- support of the Maronite metropolitan of Aleppo, Jarma- ished al-Ujaymi\u2019s order. From that point on, al-Ujaymi nus Saqr. When she was 28 she left Aleppo for the mon- lived a quiet, secluded life in virtual imprisonment until astery of Ayntura in Lebanon. Two years later, in 1750, her death in 1798. she started her own holy order, the Sisters of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, and established a convent in Bkirki in the Although al-Ujaymi\u2019s writings were proscribed by the mountains north of Beirut, where her open proclama- Vatican in 1780, a manuscript copy of her work, with her tions of her mystical experience soon became a matter seal, entitled The Disclosure of the Hidden Secrets That I of controversy. With al-Ujaymi\u2019s claim that Christ spoke Saw in the Secret Treasury and dated August 18, 1774, sur- directly through her and that she had been transformed vives in the Vatican Library. In this narration of her mys- by a shared physical presence with the Holy Trinity, her tical travels, al-Ujaymi describes how she became united Jesuit advisers began to distance themselves from her, with the eternal reality of Christ through the medium but she continued to receive strong support from the of the Sacred Heart. In that incarnation, she was able to Maronite patriarch. Pope Benedict XIV, in an attempt to travel back to the very creation of the universe, stopping defuse the situation, appointed a committee headed by an along the way at the Garden of Eden. In her union with Aleppine Franciscan monk in 1753. The committee found Christ, al-Ujaymi claims to have been able to share Jesus\u2019 al-Ujaymi blameless. Realizing that conciliation was bet- experiences as a fetus growing in Mary\u2019s womb as well as ter than an open break with the Maronites, Pope Benedict the agony of His death. It was her claim of absolute union recommended that al-Ujaymi\u2019s convent be constructed in with Christ and ultimately with God \u201cthe Father,\u201d that led the mountains, away from the distraction of the city. the Vatican to proscribe her work, although al-Ujaymi\u2019s writing remained popular in her native Aleppo for at least Al-Ujaymi remained popular in her absence from another generation after her death. Aleppo and received support from the hierarchies of the Bruce Masters 575","576 Ukraine sacks: the Zaporozhians, who were based in the islands, waterways, and marshes of the lower Dnieper, downriver Further reading: Nabil Matar, \u201cChristian Mysticism in from a series of unnavigable cataracts to the north and the Ottoman Empire: The Case of Hindiya the Nun, 1720\u2013 just south of the Nogay and Tatar-controlled steppe; and 1798.\u201d The Muslim World 95 (2005), 265\u201378. the so-called town Cossacks, who garrisoned crown-held forts just north and west of the frontier. Ukraine In geographic terms, Ukraina initially referred to the steppe borderland between the Grand Thanks to their use of firearms, particularly in infan- Duchy of Lithuania (after 1569, the Kingdom of Poland, try and naval warfare, the Cossacks altered the balance of as a consequence of the Union of Lublin when most power in the northern Black Sea region as well as on the Ukrainian territories were transferred from Lithu- sea itself. It was most of all the constant Cossack reprisals ania to Poland) and the steppes to the south controlled against Tatar activity and their own incursions deep into by the purely nomadic Nogays and the semi-nomadic Ottoman northern territories (including Moldavia and Crimean Tatars. Ethnically, Ukraine included a much virtually all coasts of the Black Sea) that led the Ottomans larger territory\u2014including the lands of Kiev, Volhynia, to depart from their traditional nonactive northern pol- Lviv, and Podolia, that is, the central and western lands icy and engage in northern military adventures; one such of old Kievan Rus\u2019. Although Ukraine had Polish, Jewish, northern expedition was the unsuccessful Hotin (Khotin) Armenian, and other ethnic groups, the majority were War of 1621 against the commonwealth, the outcome of Ruthenians, an early modern designation for Ukrainians. which contributed to the unseating and execution of Sultan Politically, Ukraine was dominated by the old Ruthenian Osman II (r. 1618\u201322). While it was usually in the mutual Orthodox and eventually by Lithuanian and Polish nobil- interests of the Porte and the Commonwealth to remain at ities although starting in the 16th century the Ukrainian peace, the Tatars and the Cossacks often strained and even Cossacks mounted a political and military challenge disrupted these relations; yet the Tatars and Cossacks also against these elites. Internationally, the fate of Ukraine played an important role in bolstering the defense of their was largely determined by three major powers: the Pol- respective suzerains. For example, without the Cossacks, ish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Muscovy, and the Otto- Poland-Lithuania would probably not have withstood man Empire. Osman II\u2019s onslaught at Khotin. In terms of Ottoman influence, two major play- Beginning with the 1648 uprising against the Polish- ers affected the development of Ukraine: the Sublime Lithuanian Commonwealth led by the Ukrainian Cossack Porte and its vassal, the Crimean Khanate. Subject to the Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky and continuing for much same set of political demands and strategic motivations of the second half of the 17th century, Ottoman-Cos- that governed Ottoman policy elsewhere in the region, sack relations took on a more positive nature. During his Ukraine was affected by the long term Ottoman policy uprising Khmelnytsky several times accepted Ottoman of attaining and then maintaining exclusive access to the suzerainty, which he maintained for a time even after his Black Sea. In the second half of the 15th century, with acceptance of Muscovite suzerainty in 1654 (Treaty of the Ottoman-Crimean axis well established and their sole Pereiaslav). It is uncertain whether Khmelnytsky courted access to the Black Sea secured, the Ottomans were able the Ottomans for tactical reasons or perhaps in pursuit to effectively lock the Commonwealth and Muscovy out of a more permanent arrangement for Ukraine, along the of the Black Sea region for the next three centuries. lines of the vassalages of Moldavia and Wallachia. The Ukrainian lands of the Polish-Lithuanian Com- The partition of Ukraine between the Polish-Lithu- monwealth were of importance for the Tatars and anian Commonwealth and Muscovy in 1667 along the Ottomans thanks to their relative proximity, ease of acces- Dnieper River (Treaty of Andrusovo) led to a strong sibility, and, in the 16th and 17th centuries, robust popu- reaction in Ukraine against these powers and prompted lation growth, which presented a ready resource for the the new acceptance of Ottoman suzerainty, now by Het- Ottoman slavery market. Ukrainian lands became the man Petro Doroshenko in 1668. In the following year, prime hunting grounds for Tatar and Nogay slavers, who Doroshenko was given a sultanic patent (berat or ni\u015fan) were in turn prime suppliers of the Ottoman slave market. and a horsetail and banner, making him an autonomous ruler akin to the voievods of Moldavia and Wallachia. The rise of militarized and independent frontiers- men known as Cossacks was due in large part to the dan- The acceptance of Ukraine under Ottoman overlord- gerous conditions on the steppe frontier. The Ukrainian ship led to wars with both the Polish-Lithuanian Com- Cossack phenomenon grew throughout the 16th and monwealth and Muscovy. In 1672 an Ottoman army early 17th centuries until by the second half of the 17th led by Sultan Mehmed IV (r. 1648\u201387) took the fortress century it matured into a new polity that was known as of Kamianets-Podilsk and established the province of the Hetmanate; dominated by the Cossacks it lasted until Kamani\u00e7e in Podolia, which the Ottomans held until 1775. There were two main types of Ukrainian Cos- 1699. In 1678, after an unsuccessful campaign in the","previous year, the Ottomans marched on south central ulema 577 Ukraine and captured the Muscovite-held fortress of Chy- hyryn (\u00c7ehrin). However, for a variety of reasons, includ- askeri class. Within the latter, they distinguished the \u201cmen ing the ongoing war over Crete with Venice, mistrust of of the sword\u201d (soldiers), the \u201cmen of the pen\u201d (bureaucrats), the Cossacks (once their most bitter foes in the region), and the \u201cmen of the ilm\u201d (religious sciences\/knowledge), and the difficulty of military operations at the frontier, the that is, members of the religious establishment. Ottomans effectively abandoned an active northern Black Sea policy when in 1683 they decided to return to their Religious sciences were taught in madrasas, or col- more traditional theatre of expansion in central Europe leges. Between the 14th and 16th centuries the Ottomans and besieged Vienna (see Vienna, sieges of). established some 350 madrasas, more than half of them (189) in the 16th century. In addition, especially in the In the 18th century the Cossacks of the Hetmanate, early period of the Ottoman state, the ulema of the empire by then an autonomous region of the Russian Empire, were trained in the major centers of Islamic learning. played an important role in the Russian Empire\u2019s wars Those who wanted to study Quranic exegesis (tafsir) or with the Ottomans. However, there were still periods of jurisprudence (fiqh), for example, went to Egypt or Iran. cooperation between groups of Ukrainian Cossacks and the Ottomans. For example, after the Battle of Poltava The most important part of Islamic education was (1709), in which Czar Peter I\u2019s Russian forces defeated the teacher (m\u00fcderris) and not the institution. It was his combined Swedish and Ukrainian forces, lead by Charles expertise that determined, in accordance with the found- XII and Hetman Ivan Mazepa respectively, the latter and er\u2019s intent (expressed in the foundation document of remnants of this army sought refuge in Ottoman Bender. the madrasa), the subjects and books that were taught in His successor, Pylyp Orlyk, became hetman under Otto- the madrasa. Nonetheless, there was a strict hierarchy of man protection and, from Ottoman territory, sought to madrasas, the highest-ranking being those in the capital, gain control of Right Bank Ukraine. Also worth noting Istanbul: the Fatih madrasas\u2014that is, the colleges built is that after the destruction of the Zaporozhian Cossacks\u2019 by Fatih (the Conqueror) Mehmed II (r. 1444\u201346; 1451\u2013 Dnieper stronghold (known as the Sich) by Russian forces 81), also known as the Sahn-i Seman (Eight Courtyards) returning from war with the Ottomans in 1775, many of or Semaniye madrasas\u2014and the S\u00fcleymaniye madrasas the Ukrainian Cossacks migrated to Ottoman territory (as established by S\u00fcleyman I (r. 1520\u201366). While Islamic had earlier Russian Don Cossacks, led by Ignat Nekrasov). religious sciences (tafsir, fiqh, or hadith, that is, the tradi- There they established the so-called Danubian Sich near tions of the Prophet Muhammad) dominated the cur- the mouth of the Danube River, which lasted until 1828. riculum, medicine and astronomy also were taught. Upon During this period they became Ottoman subjects and mastering a given subject or text, the student received an were required to serve in military campaigns. Although icazet (ijaza), or certificate, from his teacher. This both eventually many of them returned to the Russian Empire, confirmed the pupil\u2019s mastery of the specified text or sub- their descendants still live in the Danube delta. ject and authorized him to teach it to others. In addition to the necessary training in the religious sciences, the patron- Victor Ostapchuk age (intisab) of influential persons in and around the gov- See also Russia. ernment was also essential for a career within the ulema. Further reading: Mykhailo Hrushevsky, History of Ukraine-Rus\u2019, vol. 7\u20139 (Edmonton and Toronto: Canadian The graduates of the main Istanbul madrasas had Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press, 1999\u20132008); Orest Sub- two career choices. They either pursued a life as profes- telny, The Mazepists: Ukrainian Separatism in the Early Eigh- sors or became judges (kad\u0131) and jurisconsults (mufti), teenth Century (New York: East European Monographs, 1981). and thus members of the Ottoman administration. In the Ottoman Empire there was a firm hierarchy within ulak See menzilhane. the ulema and strict rules regulated promotion. Madrasa graduates seeking employment with the state either as ulema The plural of the Arabic word alim (\u201cman of teachers or as judges were registered in the government knowledge\u201d), in the Ottoman Empire the term ulema day-books of state appointees and waited until a posi- referred to those who were trained in the Islamic religious tion became available for which their education qualified sciences (such as the Quran, the traditions of the Prophet them. For instance, a m\u00fcderrises of lower-level madrasas Muhammad, and Islamic jurisprudence), and were mem- and graduates of the Semaniye madrasas were eligible for bers of the Ottoman religious establishment, the ilmiye hier- judgeships in smaller towns, earning between 50 to 150 archy. The Ottomans divided their society into two main ak\u00e7es per day in the mid-16th century. (The best paid groups: the taxpaying subjects or reaya, and the privileged m\u00fcderrises earned 50 to 60 ak\u00e7es per day, whereas the Janissaries earned 5 to 6 ak\u00e7es per day). Holders of senior judgeships earned 300 ak\u00e7es or more daily and could become defterdars (finance ministers) of the Imperial Council. The m\u00fcderrises of the Semaniye madrasas could also become judges in Istanbul and, later, kad\u0131askers","578 Uniates ate (March 1924) and the subsequent reforms introduced by the government of the Turkish Republic. (military or chief judges). This shows that the career paths to the secular bureaucracy were also open to the G\u00e1bor \u00c1goston ulema, many of whom became viziers or even grand See also education; kad\u0131asker; \u015feyh\u00fclislam. viziers, that is, the sultans\u2019 deputies and heads of the Further reading: Uriel Heyd, \u201cThe Ottoman Ulema government. and Westernization in the time of Selim III and Mahmud II,\u201d in Uriel Heyd, ed., Studies in Islamic History and Civi- The head of the Ottoman ulema was the \u015feyh\u00fclislam lization (Scripta Hierosolymitana IX) (Jerusalem: Magnes or chief mufti of the capital, appointed by the sultan from Press, Hebrew University, 1961); Halil \u0130nalc\u0131k, The Ottoman among the most distinguished scholars of the religious Empire: The Classical Age, 1300\u20131600 (London: Weidenfeld sciences. Unlike the kad\u0131askers, the \u015feyh\u00fclislam was not & Nicolson, 1973); Madeline C. Zilfi, The Politics of Piety: a member of the Imperial Council. However, when the The Ottoman Ulema in the Postclassical Age, 1600\u20131800 two kad\u0131askers of Anatolia and Rumelia, who represented (Minneapolis, Minn.: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1988). the ulema in the Imperial Council, disagreed or sought a religious opinion, it was the \u015feyh\u00fclislam\u2019s written legal Uniates The Uniates were the formerly Orthodox opinion (fatwa) that helped them decide the matter. His Christians of the Ottoman Empire whose churches relin- fatwas were also crucial in legitimizing disputed sultanic quished their communion with the Orthodox community decisions, such as campaigns against Muslim neighbors. and entered instead into communion with Rome when Since the \u015feyh\u00fclislam represented Islamic sacred law, the their leading clergy accepted the pope as their supreme sharia, in principle, he was not part of the government. spiritual authority, hence the term Uniate. Today their However when, under Sultan S\u00fcleyman I, he was given churches continue to have their own patriarchs who are the right and obligation to appoint judges, who were arms subordinate to the pope and are given the rank of cardi- of the executive branch of the government, the indepen- nal within the Roman Catholic hierarchy. Fear that the dence of the \u015feyh\u00fclislam ended. Indeed, the institution- Eastern Church was too weak both institutionally and alization of the Ottoman ulema and its close association spiritually to resist Protestantism spurred the movement with the government was unprecedented in other Islamic in the Roman Catholic Church for the unification of the polities. In the long run, this significantly reduced their Eastern-rite churches to Rome in the 17th century. Rather ability to act as mediators between the ruler and the ruled than seeking to convert individual Christians to Roman and as guardians of Islamic sacred law, functions that had Catholicism, Catholic missionaries from the West con- traditionally been associated with the ulema. centrated their efforts on bringing the hierarchy of the various churches into communion with Rome. They In history books on the Ottomans, the Ottoman were successful with the Maronites, the historically ulema from the mid-16th century on is often portrayed dominant Christian sect in Lebanon, who accepted full as a reactionary force that rejected the reforms needed to papal authority in the 18th century. They were less suc- strengthen the empire in the face of Western encroach- cessful with the other Eastern churches in the Ottoman ment. While it is true that the coalition of the ulema and Empire; in some, the missionaries succeeded only in cre- the Janissaries opposed the military reforms of Sultan ating schisms such as those that gave rise to the Melkite Selim III (r. 1789\u20131807) and led to the sultan\u2019s deposi- Catholics, the Chaldean Catholics, the Armenian Catholic tion, the ulema of the 18th century was not homoge- Church, and the Syrian Catholics, all of whom broke with neous, and several members of the ilmiye hierarchy in their traditional leadership in the 18th century. fact supported the sultan to legitimize the reforms. Bruce Masters The Tanzimat reforms (1839\u201376) seriously reduced See also Greek Orthodox Church; Jacobites; the role and influence of the ulema, who by that time Maronites; Melkites. had become a rather closed class. With the introduc- Further reading: Charles Frazee, Catholics and Sultans: tion of secular schools and secular courts as part of the The Church and the Ottoman Empire, 1453\u20131923 (London: overhauling of the educational and judicial systems, the Cambridge University Press, 1983). Ottoman ulema\u2019s traditional functions were substantially weakened. On the other hand, the \u015feyh\u00fclislam\u2019s right to United Kingdom See England. appoint and supervise judges was left untouched, and his office was substantially enlarged and developed into Urabi, Ahmad Pasha (b. 1841\u2013d. 1911) Egyptian mili- a ministry in all but name. However, the establishment tary officer and rebel Ahmad Urabi is one of the great of the Ministry of Religious Foundations and its merger heroes in the nationalist version of Egyptian history. He with the Imperial Mint considerably weakened the ulema\u2019s hold on these important assets. For the remainder of the 19th century the ulema coexisted, albeit somewhat uneasily, with these new structures, until their privileged existence was terminated with the abolition of the caliph-","was born into a peasant family in a village in the prov- Uskoks 579 ince of Zaqaziq in the Nile Delta and showed promise as a youth for religious education. He studied at al-Azhar, pressure, al-Barudi resigned, but Urabi refused to resign. the leading Muslim school in Egypt, but switched career In June 1882, anti-European riots broke out in Alexan- paths when Egypt\u2019s military academy opened its doors dria. The British fleet bombarded the city on July 11 in to native Egyptians in 1854. This was a radical depar- retaliation, and blamed Urabi\u2019s supporters for the unrest. ture from past practice in which the sons of peasants In a panic, Tawfiq sought refuge with the British fleet were conscripted into the ranks of the army but were not and declared Urabi a rebel. That gave the British the jus- allowed to rise above the rank of non-commissioned offi- tification they needed to move against Urabi, and a Brit- cers. Until this time, the officer class had been recruited ish expeditionary force landed in Alexandria in August. from the Turco-Circassian ruling class among men Urabi tried to rally the Egyptian people against the inva- whose origins lay outside Egypt and who were schooled sion, saying that Tawfiq had lost his mandate to rule in Ottoman rather than Arab culture. But even with this by joining the \u201cinfidels.\u201d But the British troops quickly opening of the ranks of the officer class to Egyptians, advanced on Cairo; on September 13 they defeated the there was still substantial discrimination against officers Egyptian army at Tell al-Kabir and entered Cairo. Urabi of Egyptian origin, and Urabi served as lieutenant colonel was tried, convicted, and sent into exile on the British for more than 20 years without any further promotion. colony of Ceylon (Sri Lanka). The British allowed him to return to Egypt in 1901. Taking no further part in his Obviously disgruntled with his personal situation, country\u2019s political life, Urabi died in 1911. Urabi caught the attention of the Egyptian authorities when he organized protests in the army against a pro- Urabi Pasha\u2019s revolt had given the British an excuse posal made by Khedive Tawfiq in 1880 to prohibit to occupy Egypt. Once British forces had secured the native Egyptians from becoming officers above the regi- country, they did not leave. Egypt remained officially a mental rank. The proposal was fueled by the need to province of the Ottoman Empire, with the khedive rec- reduce the size of the army because the Egyptian state, ognized by the Ottomans as an autonomous ruler; but in saddled with foreign debt, could no longer maintain its reality, Egypt was effectively ruled by Great Britain until former military strength. Rather than dismissing officers 1922, when that country granted Egypt its independence. of the Turco-Circassian military elite, Tawfiq proposed instead to dismiss Egyptian officers who did not have Bruce Masters influential friends. Faced with a potential mutiny, Tawfiq Further reading: Juan Cole, Colonialism and Revolu- backed down in January 1881 as the troops rallied behind tion in the Middle East: Social and Cultural Origins of Egypt\u2019s Urabi who had, quite unintentionally, become the focus \u2019Urabi Movement (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University of nationalist hopes and soon came to be regarded as the Press, 1993). man who might stand up to the Europeans. Uskoks (Uskoci; Uscocchi; Uskoki) The term uskok The disgruntled officers went on to press other comes from the Croatian word for \u201cjump in,\u201d meaning demands. In particular, they sought the reinstatement refugee. It refers to people who left their homes in Otto- of the popular Minister of War, Mahmud Sami Bey al- man territory in the Adriatic hinterland or in present- Barudi, who had been dismissed by Prime Minister Riyad day western Bosnia and settled in Habsburg Croatia, Pasha on August 13, 1881 for being overly sympathetic to becoming members of the Habsburg borderland militia. the complaints of the Egyptian officers. Urabi organized Of Orthodox Christian or Roman Catholic background, a large demonstration outside Tawfiq\u2019s Abdin Palace in they were largely from the Vlach population and came September, demanding that al-Barudi be reinstated. The both individually and in small groups. Especially from unrest continued until December 1881 when Riyad was 1537 on many became garrison members in Senj (Senia, dismissed and a new cabinet, with Urabi as Minister of Zengg) on the shores of the northern Adriatic. Living as War and al-Barudi as prime minister, was put in place. a peasant borderland militia and conducting highly effec- At that point, England and France, fearing a collapse tive small-scale raids, the Uskoks harried the Ottoman of the khedive\u2019s regime, issued a joint notice in his sup- territories and merchants trading there. Joined by for- port. The Egyptian nationalist press saw this European mer Venetian subjects (venturini) as well as Senj towns- support as yet another example of foreign meddling and men, Italians, and Albanians, the Uskok presence in Senj propelled Urabi to the forefront of the nationalist cause. made the Military Border captaincy there the strongest Urabi seemed to revel in the attention and made famous and the most aggressive part of the Habsburg defense the slogan that would become the byword for the nation- system. This was because most of the Uskoks, like most alist movement, \u201cEgypt for the Egyptians.\u201d militias along the Habsburg Military Border, were not paid, and the town and its vicinity lacked arable land and On May 25, 1882, the Europeans demanded that pastures. As a consequence, with Vienna\u2019s tacit approval, Khedive Tawfiz dismiss Urabi. Giving in to European the Uskoks plundered Ottoman lands in times of peace,","580 Uskoks Venice besieged key Habsburg strongholds in the area the Habsburg power itself was pushed into the conflict and even attacked the Venetians. They also collected pro- (the Uskok\/Gradisca War fought in Istria and Friuli, tection money from thousands of Ottoman subjects in 1615\u20131617). According to the stipulations of the Peace the hinterland, down to the Neretva River. of Madrid (1617), the Uskoks were transferred from Senj to several small fortified places near the border, from The Ottomans never found a proper response to where they continued with attacks on Ottoman territory, the constant and violent Uskok raids, which often left but with less serious consequences. their defensive systems, communication networks, and economy in disarray. Skillfully using light boats, Nenad Moa\u010danin the Uskoks also plagued Venetian, Ragusan, and Jew- Further reading: Catherine Wendy Bracewell, The ish merchants, capturing valuable wares of \u201cOttoman\u201d Uskoks of Senj (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992). origin. Venice used her military to try to stop or curb these Uskok raids, but with little or no success. When","V vakan\u00fcvis See court chronicles. Empire during the Ottoman siege of Constantinople. During conflicts from 1463\u201379 and 1499\u20131503, Otto- vak\u0131f See waqf. man ak\u0131nc\u0131, or raiding soldiers, attacked the Venetian land of Friuli, northeast of Italy. Five additional conflicts Venice Ottoman-Venetian relations date back to the between the Venetians and the Ottomans were fought in second half of the 14th century. The doge, the Venetian the subsequent centuries (1538\u201340, 1570\u201373, 1644\u201369, ruler, sent two ambassadors to congratulate Murad I (r. 1684\u201399, 1714\u201318). 1362\u201389) for his conquest of Adrianople (Edirne). In 1384 the first Ottoman envoy reached Venice to discuss DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS an improbable alliance against Genoa. A multitude of peace agreements followed; the earliest were concluded During their more than four centuries of contact, diplo- between the doge and Bayezid\u2019s sons, Prince S\u00fcleyman matic relations between the powers were often strained. \u00c7elebi (1403 and 1408), Prince Musa (1411), and in 1419 The Venetians had a residential diplomat (bailo) in Sultan Mehmed I (r. 1413\u201321). Agreements with subse- Istanbul and often sent ambassadors with particular quent sultans included treaties after the Salonika war in missions. During the 16th century, diplomatic activity 1430 and in 1454 after the conquest of Constanti- reached its peak, with almost one Ottoman envoy reach- nople (1453); the renewal of earlier Venetian privileges ing Venice each year. Between the first diplomatic con- in Egypt in 1517; agreements after the Cyprus war in tact in 1384 and the final year of the Venetian Republic 1573 and after the Cretan war in 1670; the Treaty in 1797 about two hundred Ottoman envoys were sent to of Karlowitz in 1699; and the treaty of Passarowitz Venice, both by the central government and by provin- in1718. The agreements were usually granted either at cial officials: some were ambassadors (el\u00e7i), others simple the enthronement and accession of a new sultan or envoys (\u00e7avu\u015f, ulak); some held the position of imperial after a war. interpreter. Some diplomatic missions were about the possibility of forming an alliance against common Chris- Despite this extensive history of Ottoman-Venetian tian foes. Most of these missions were not successful, but diplomacy, the two powers also had a history of military some resulted in meaningful alliances, as in the first half conflict. The first Ottoman-Venetian war was fought in of the 17th century when the sultan, who desired to fight 1416 at Gallipoli, where the Ottoman fleet was destroyed; the Spaniards wherever possible, encouraged Ottoman from 1424 to 1430 the two powers fought for control of volunteers to join the Venetian army. Salonika, and they came into conflict again in 1444 when the Venetians gave help to the crusader army. In 1453 the The Venetians and the Ottomans also came into con- Venetians fought on the side of the losing Byzantine tact in the Balkans. In the second half of the 15th century the two states agreed on the creation of common borders, which they marked by heaps of stones or other devices. In 1479, for instance, a border was created in Albania 581","582 Venice the sultan to serve as governor of Hungary (1530\u201334), where he was killed in 1534. and in the Morea (Peloponnese). Beginning late in the 17th century, three borders were created in Dalmatia: Although Gritti remained a Christian, other impor- the Nani in 1671; the Grimani in 1699\u20131700; and the tant Venetians in the Ottoman Empire converted Mocenigo in 1718\u20131720. With the Treaty of Karlow- to Islam. Among these were Venedikli Hasan Pasha itz, concluded in 1699 between the Habsburg Empire, (Andrea Celeste, d. 1591), governor or beylerbeyi of Poland, and the Republic of Venice on one side and the Algiers and kapudan pasha (grand admiral of the Otto- Ottoman Empire on the other, the Ottomans recognized man navy), who was also the master of the renowned Venetian suzerainty over most of Dalmatia and Morea. Spanish writer Miguel de Cervantes (1547\u20131616) when The place where Habsburg, Venice, and the Ottoman Cervantes was a slave. Another well-known convert Empire met was called Triplex Confinium. The point of was Gazanfer (d. 1603), of the Venetian Michiel family, contact was officially established on Debelo Brdo, a hill who served as an Ottoman kap\u0131a\u011fas\u0131, head of the ser- on Venetian land; however, the doge never accepted this vants of the inner palace, for about 30 years. The con- decision and an unofficial \u201dshepherds\u2019 border\u201d remained vert Mehmed Agha Frenkbeyo\u011flu (d. 1602), also known in effect some miles away. by his birth name, Marcantonio Querini, was the leader of the Ottoman sipahis (cavalry) during the 1600 rebel- TRADE RELATIONS lion; Gazanfer\u2019s nephew, Mehmed (Giacomo Bianchi), became one of the four favorite boon companions of While the Ottomans and Venetians were thoroughly Murad IV (r. 1623\u201340). engaged in both political and military terms, trade was nevertheless the most important link between Istanbul Sometimes, however, Venetian involvement in Otto- and Venice. Venetian merchants were present in the man affairs is apocryphal; while there are rumors that Levant, or the eastern Mediterranean, when it was still Nur Banu (d. 1583), the mother of Murad III (r. 1574\u2013 part of the Byzantine Empire. In the beginning, Vene- 95), was born a member of the Venetian nobility, this tian cloth dominated Venetian exports and spices its story has no definite historical basis. The story of her imports, but as trade grew, Venetian merchants began noble birth circulated widely during her lifetime and was to be more involved in the market for luxury goods. politically advantageous both for her and for the Vene- They exported falcons, dogs (large breeds at first, later tian Republic. However, Nur Banu Sultan was probably replaced by lapdogs of the Bolognese breed), glass of of Greek origin and only a Venetian subject. all kinds (including slabs, spectacles, even glass feath- ers for turbans at the end of the 16th century), maps Culturally, the Ottomans provided a rich source of and printed Ottoman spelling-books, theriaca and other material for Venice. Its diplomats wrote reports, relazioni, drugs, and gold and silver works. Likewise, Ottoman about their missions that ultimately became a literary genre merchants found a lucrative market in Venice beginning unto itself; a famous Venetian painter, Gentile Bellini, went largely at the start of the 16th century. In 1575 the Vene- to Istanbul to make an official portrait of Mehmed II (r. tian government built a warehouse and lodging for the 1444\u201346; 1451\u201381), and turbans and oriental dresses have Ottoman merchants, the Fondaco dei turchi; a larger always had a place in Venetian pictures. Books about the one was created in 1621. Most Ottoman merchants trad- Turks were often printed in Venice, for instance, Francesco ing in Venice came from the Balkans, but some, who Sansovino\u2019s Gl\u2019Annali Turcheschi in 1571, Giovanni Battista sold cloth of camel\u2019s hair and Angora wool, came from Don\u00e0\u2019s Della letteratura de Turchi in 1688, and Giovanni central Anatolia. Members of the Ottoman elite found Battista Toderini\u2019s Letteratura turchesca in 1787. Recently trade with Venice extraordinarily lucrative. Export of an anonymous poem in honor of Selim I (r. 1512\u201320) horses from the Ottoman Empire to Venice and export written in Veneto about 1518, has been discovered. Today of weapons from Venice to the empire were forbidden, Venetian place names serve as symbolic markers of these but smugglers enjoyed a flourishing trade in contra- past relations, as for instance the Venetian Calle delle tur- band nonetheless. chette, or street of little Turkish women. CULTURAL EXCHANGE The documents produced in the centuries of con- tact between these powers have been of great value to In addition to their formal political and military relation- scholars interested in Ottoman history. The 19th-cen- ship and their trade ties, the Ottomans and Venetians tury historian Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall, for exam- were also connected by a number of influential Venetian ple, in his History of the Ottoman Empire (Geschichte subjects who developed careers in the Ottoman Empire. des Osmanischen Reiches, Pest 1827\u201335) used Venetian The Venetian jewel dealer Alvise (Lodovico) Gritti, for sources at length. The greatest quantity of Ottoman doc- instance, was a friend of Sultan S\u00fcleyman I (r. 1520\u201366), uments in Europe is in the Venetian State Archives, and to whom he sold a famous crown-helmet, and of S\u00fcl- they remain an important source for historians. eyman\u2019s grand vizier, Ibrahim Pasha. Gritti was sent by Maria Pia Pedani","Further reading: Antonio Fabris, \u201cFrom Adrianople to Vienna, sieges of 583 Constantinople: Venetian-Ottoman Diplomatic Missions, 1360\u20131453.\u201d Mediterranean Historical Review 7 no. 2 (Dec. ritories that lay outside the Ottomans\u2019 main route of 1992): 154\u2013200; Suraiya Faroqhi, \u201cThe Venetian Presence conquest. Despite several wars between the Habsburgs in the Ottoman Empire (1600\u20131630).\u201d The Journal of Euro- and Ottomans in Hungary, the status quo changed little pean Economic History, 15, no. 2 (1986): 345\u2013384; Maria during the next 150 years until the early 1680s, when the Pia Pedani, \u201cThe Ottoman Venetian Frontier,\u201d in The Great Ottomans again decided to try to take Vienna. Ottoman-Turkish Civilization, vol. 1 (Ankara: Yeni T\u00fcrkiye, 2000), 171\u2013177; Hans Theunissen, \u201cOttoman-Venetian Dip- In 1683 the Ottomans were again in front of the lomatics: the \u2018Ahd-names.\u201d Electronic Journal of Oriental walls of the Habsburg capital. This represented a major Studies 1, no.2 (1998). change from the peaceful relations of the first half of the 17th century, which may be attributed to the Habsburg Vienna, sieges of (1529, 1683) When, at the Battle commitments in the Thirty Years\u2019 War (1618\u201348) and the of Moh\u00e1cs in 1526, the troops of Sultan S\u00fcleyman I protracted Ottoman-Venetian Cretan war from 1645 (r. 1520\u201366) wiped out the Hungarian army and killed to 1669. Hostilities broke out in the 1660s, a decade that King Louis II of Jagiello (r. 1516\u201326), they cleared the saw a series of Ottoman conquests in Hungary (1660 way to the Hungarian throne for their main rival, the and 1663), Crete (1669), and Poland-Lithuania (1672) Habsburgs. After S\u00fcleyman\u2019s prot\u00e9g\u00e9, John Szapolyai (r. under the remarkable leadership of K\u00f6pr\u00fcl\u00fc Mehmed 1526\u201340), was ousted from Hungary by his rival, Fer- Pasha (grand vizier 1656\u201361) and his son, K\u00f6pr\u00fcl\u00fczade dinand I of Habsburg, also elected king of Hungary (r. Fazil Ahmed Pasha (grand vizier 1661\u201376). Increased 1526\u201364), S\u00fcleyman was eager to redress the unintended Ottoman military activity and capability were linked to consequences of his victory at Moh\u00e1cs. The Ottoman the reforms introduced by the K\u00f6pr\u00fcl\u00fc grand viziers, army of 80,000 to 100,000 men retook Buda, Hungary\u2019s which strengthened Istanbul\u2019s authority and improved capital, from the Habsburgs in September 1529 and its administrative and financial capabilities. The recent gave it back to their ally, King J\u00e1nos. S\u00fcleyman, how- revival of Ottoman military fortunes and Vienna\u2019s con- ever, wanted to resolve the Habsburg-Ottoman rivalry in ciliatory policy toward the Ottomans, exemplified by the Central Europe by conquering Vienna, the capital of the Treaty of Vasv\u00e1r (August 10, 1664), which acknowledged Habsburgs\u2019 Danubian monarchy. the latest Ottoman conquests in Hungary (V\u00e1rad\/Oradea in present-day Romania and \u00c9rsek\u00fajv\u00e1r\/Nov\u00e9 Z\u00e1mky in Vienna was defended by some 18,000 to 25,000 present-day Slovakia), despite the decisive Habsburg vic- soldiers under the able leadership of Niklas Graf zu tory at Szentgotth\u00e1rd (August 1, 1664), were interpreted Salm and Wilhelm Freiherr von Roggendorf, who had in Istanbul as signs of Habsburg weakness. Emperor had the city\u2019s obsolete medieval defenses substantially Leopold\u2019s (r. 1658\u20131705) ineptness against Hungarian strengthened. The siege lasted for some two weeks from insurgents in the 1670s and, especially, Imre Th\u00f6k\u00f6ly\u2019s September 27 to October 15, 1529, but the Ottoman successful insurrection (1681\u201383), which resulted in bombardment was not effective because the attackers the establishment of yet another pro-Ottoman Hungar- had been forced to leave their siege artillery in Bulgaria ian client state, Th\u00f6k\u00f6ly\u2019s Middle Hungarian Principal- and Hungary as a result of unusually rainy weather and ity (1682\u201385) in Upper Hungary (present-day Slovakia) muddy roads. The defenders discovered or disarmed between the Habsburg-controlled Royal Hungary and most of the Ottoman mines, and when other Ottoman Transylvania, an Ottoman client state, reinforced the mines did succeed in opening large holes in the city\u2019s Ottomans\u2019 perceptions of Habsburg vulnerability. The walls, the attackers were successfully repulsed by pike- renewed Franco-Habsburg rivalry, caused by Louis men and arquebusiers. With winter approaching, and XIV\u2019s (r. 1643\u20131715) policy of \u201dreunions\u201d and perceived with it the traditional closing date of the campaign sea- Habsburg military weakness, persuaded Kara Mustafa son (October 26), the Ottomans ended the siege. Pasha (grand vizier 1676\u201383) that the time had come to challenge Vienna. As it turned out, his assessment of After another failed attempt in 1532, when troops international politics and of Ottoman and Habsburg posted at the small Hungarian castle of K\u0151szeg (G\u00fcns) capabilities proved wrong. in western Hungary stopped S\u00fcleyman\u2019s army, the sultan and Ferdinand accepted the status quo in Hungary. Cen- Rumors of a possible Ottoman campaign against the tral Hungary was soon conquered (1541) and annexed to Habsburgs circulated from the 1670s onward, but Kara the Ottoman Empire. The northern and western parts of Mustafa Pasha managed to secure the sultan\u2019s consent the country remained under Habsburg rule. By the 1570s for his planned campaign only in August 1682. Sultan the principality of Transylvania, a semi-independent Mehmed IV (r. 1648\u201387) and his army left Edirne, the Ottoman client state, had emerged from the eastern ter- former Ottoman capital, on April 1, 1683, and reached Belgrade in early May, where the Janissaries, artillery, and the bulk of the provincial cavalry from Asia Minor and the Arab provinces joined the army. Sultan Mehmed","584 Vienna, sieges of his army in front of the walls to force the surrender of the city. Had the grand vizier launched his final assault decided to stay in Belgrade and appointed Grand Vizier instead, he might have been able to take Vienna before Kara Mustafa Pasha commander in chief, who reached the arrival of the relief army in early September. Vienna on July 14 with an army of about 90,000 men. Of the Ottoman vassals, only the Crimean Tatars took part The decisive battle took place on September 12 near in the actual fighting. Kahlenberg, at the edge of the Vienna Woods. The relief army of 75,000\u201380,000 men and 160 cannons was gather- Emperor Leopold and his court left Vienna on July 7 ing northwest of Vienna. The troops from Bavaria, Sax- for Linz (in present-day Austria on the Danube River) ony, Franconia, and Swabia numbered 35,000\u201340,000 and and Passau (in present-day Germany, on the Danube). joined the imperial forces of 20,000 men under Lorraine. The defenders of Vienna under Count Ernst R\u00fcdiger von Arriving last, King Jan Sobieski\u2019s Polish troops numbered Starhemberg numbered some 16,000 men: 10,000 infan- approximately 20,000 men. try and 6,000 cuirassiers. They were strengthened by 8,000 citizens and 700 university students fit for military Underestimating the strength of the relief army, Kara service. The city\u2019s fortifications had been modernized in Mustafa Pasha left most of his Janissaries in the trenches the 1670s and had been reinforced before the siege. Due and planned to destroy the allied Christian troops with to the indefatigable diplomatic maneuvers of Pope Inno- a decisive cavalry charge. Although Ottoman chroniclers cent XI (1676\u201389), military assistance was also on its way put the number of the Ottoman forces at Kahlengerg at from Poland, Bavaria, and Saxony. 28,400 men, they must have reached some 50,000 men with the Tatar and other auxiliary troops. However, they After a failed preventive siege against \u00c9rsek\u00fajv\u00e1r, were carrying only 60 field guns. Due to flawed intel- the Habsburg forces, commanded by the talented Duke ligence, Kara Mustafa expected the Christian attack Charles of Lorraine (b. 1643\u2013d. 1690), tried to secure the on September 11 and ordered his soldiers to stay awake left bank of the Danube while waiting for the Polish allied throughout that night, a fatal error. troops. The latter were to join the relief army accord- ing to an \u201ceverlasting offensive and defensive alliance\u201d Instead, the battle started at dawn on September signed in Krak\u00f3w by the representatives of Emperor Leo- 12 between the Ottoman advance forces and the Chris- pold and Jan III Sobieski, king of Poland (r. 1674\u201396) tian left wing under Lorraine near Nussberg. Lorraine\u2019s on March 31, a day before the sultan left Edirne. The forces, strengthened by the Saxons, soon reached the Habsburg and papal diplomacy also secured the partici- Ottoman right wing. The Bavarians and Franconians also pation of some 10,000 Bavarian troops and a like number descended from the slopes further inland and joined the of Saxon soldiers, led by the Elector of Bavaria, Maximil- fight against the Ottoman right wing and the middle. ian II Emanuel (r. 1679\u201326) and the Elector of Saxony, Sobieski\u2019s Poles on the Christian right wing advanced Johann Georg III (r. 1680\u201391). slowly because of difficult terrain, but by early afternoon, the Polish vanguard had joined the fight. Although the By July 15, Vienna had been encircled and cut off. Ottomans fought bravely, an overall Christian attack at On that day the siege began in earnest with heavy bom- around three o\u2019clock decided the battle. The Ottoman left bardment that lasted for the next two months. Through- wing and the Tatars were unable to withstand the charge out the siege, the Ottomans concentrated their attacks of the Polish cavalry and dragoons, who were the first to against the walls between the Burg Bastion and the reach the Ottoman encampment from the west. By six in L\u00f6bl Bastion. However, as in 1529, the Ottomans lacked the evening, the Ottomans were defeated. Those who had heavy siege artillery; moreover, their 130 field guns and not been slaughtered fled the battlefield, leaving ample 19 medium-caliber cannons were insufficient against booty for the Christians. the defenders\u2019 260 cannons and mortars. The defend- ers, however, lacked sufficient ammunition, explaining Vienna was saved by a coalition of Central European why only one to two shots per weapon were fired daily countries whose army proved to be tactically superior during the siege. Ottoman trench and mine attacks, in and, for the first time in the history of Ottoman-Euro- which the sultan\u2019s soldiers were expert, proved more pean confrontations, matched the Ottomans in terms of effective than Ottoman bombardment. But the defenders deployed manpower and weaponry, as well as in logisti- stood firm, made frequent sorties, repaired the walls, and cal support. Kara Mustafa\u2019s defeat led to his downfall and stopped the besiegers with hastily erected fortifications execution, soon followed by the dethronement of his behind the breaches. It was not until September 2 that master, Sultan Mehmed IV. More importantly, the 1683 the besiegers were able take the Burg Ravelin, a defen- campaign and the siege of Vienna provoked the creation sive outwork in the moat. On September 6, another mine of an anti-Ottoman coalition, the Holy League, estab- exploded under the Burg Bastion and the defenders, who lished in the spring 1684 by Pope Innocent XI (pope had by this time lost about half their strength and were 1876\u201389) and made up of the papacy, Poland, Austria, weakened by dysentery and a food shortage, expected Venice, and (from 1686) Russia. In the ensuing Long a decisive final assault. Instead, Kara Mustafa paraded","War of 1684\u201399 between the Ottomans and the armies of Vlachs 585 the Holy League, the Ottomans lost Hungary, Sultan S\u00fcl- eyman\u2019s most prestigious conquest. Although the Otto- the martolos. The structure of the Vlach groups also mans were far from defeated, and the early 18th century helped shape the new systems of kapudanl\u0131ks, or cap- saw Ottoman military resurgence and success as well as taincies, and the institution of ocakl\u0131k timars in the 17th the limits of Habsburg military capabilities, the Treaty century. The kapudanl\u0131ks were military and administra- of Karlowitz, which ended the Long War in 1699, tive districts that emerged in Bosnia around 1630 and signaled a new era in the history of Ottoman-European gradually expanded in number until 1800. Ocakl\u0131k timars relations. were semi-hereditary tenures of the provincial cavalry in Bosnia. The Vlachs\u2019 culture was also a source of many G\u00e1bor \u00c1goston famous western Balkan epic songs. See also Austria; Hungary; Moh\u00e1cs, Battle of; S\u00fcleyman I. The Vlachs were linguistically Romanized, but Further reading: Thomas M. Barker, Double Eagle and retained a distinct culture. By the early 15th century, Crescent: Vienna\u2019s Second Turkish Siege and Its Historical the Vlachs appear to have set aside their indigenous lan- Setting (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, guage in favor of Slavic vernaculars and had started to 1967); Michael Hochedlinger, Austria\u2019s Wars of Emergence: merge with the south Slavic peoples. However, they held War, State and Society in the Habsburg Monarchy, 1683\u20131797 onto their own political traditions, elite groups, culture, (London: Longman, 2003); Ivan Parvev, Habsburgs and and church. This process of merging was quite extended, Ottomans between Vienna and Belgrade, 1683\u20131739 (Boul- depending on region, lasting from the 16th through the der, Colo.: East European Monographs, 1995); John Stoye, 19th century. The Vlach heritage has had a remarkable The Siege of Vienna, 2nd ed. (Edinburgh: Birlinn, 2000). impact on modern Serbs, Croats, and Bosnians, who came to share the so-called \u201cBalkan family pattern,\u201d a vilaye See administration, provincial. pattern visible in the wide area of the Vlach settlement, including the whole of present-day Bosnia, Montene- Vlachs (Eflak) The Vlach populations encountered gro, Albania, and Macedonia, most of Serbia, western by the Ottomans from about 1400 in the western Bal- Bulgaria, some parts of Croatia, and parts of north- kans were remnants of the inhabitants of the region from western Greece. pre-Roman times. They made up the majority of the population of the northwestern parts of Bosnia, having The transformation of the Vlachs was influenced migrated there between about 1530 and 1570 from pres- and accelerated by the establishment of Ottoman rule ent-day eastern Herzegovina, western Montenegro, and in the region. Although the Vlachs served in the Otto- southwestern Serbia. They were mainly transhumant man military, until the first quarter of the 16th century, livestock breeders, organized in large families, clans and they entered this service in groups as military auxilia- tribes. The Ottomans did not want the Vlachs to settle on ries in rotation, rather than as individuals. This engage- the borderland, but there were no ordinary peasant colo- ment en masse, in groups of about 30\u201340 called cemaats, nists at the Ottoman state\u2019s disposal, so the Vlachs\u2019 occu- or \u201ccombat units,\u201d has made it difficult to study the early pation of the land was recognized by Istanbul in return history of the Vlachs as ethnic groups in the Ottoman for militia service and an annual tax. Until the late 16th Empire because early records deal almost exclusively with century the Vlachs were mostly loyal to the Ottomans military units. Because such groups were bound to serve but later, when general conditions and their own status as auxiliaries or were still pure livestock breeders, and grew worse, many of them deserted to the Habsburs and because Ottoman record makers, interested only in data Venetians, became brigands, or converted to Islam. related to the fiscal realm, seldom recorded ethnic or reli- gious affiliations, only a small portion of the Vlach popu- A pastoral group with a patriarchal social structure, lation was identified by this name (Eflakan) in Ottoman the nomadic Vlachs had a strong influence on Ottoman tax records and other documents. By the 18th century the borderland society in the northwestern regions of the filori tax (filori comes from florin\/forint a gold coin used empire. They were extensively recruited into the Otto- in the region and Hungary) was replaced almost every- man military, typically in clan-like groups. Although where by agricultural taxes, and the official designation they gradually integrated into surrounding cultures, Eflak had nearly died out. The authorities energetically primarily that of the south Slavic peoples, Vlach cul- opposed autonomous decision-making on levels higher ture and family groupings gave rise to a number of other than the village. The bulk of the Vlach population was social and cultural groups within the empire, notably thus hidden under the bureaucratic heading \u201cone-ducat such auxiliary and military groups as the voynuks and payers\u201d (filoriciyan), their dues being mostly assigned to imperial domains. In addition to groups of \u201ctrue\u201d Vlach auxiliaries, many Vlach \u201cone-ducat payers\u201d joined in bor- derland warfare and raiding or in everyday plundering (cattle and captives were the main booty). Some moved to","586 Vlachs Vlachs are never mentioned as askeris, that is, those who belonged to the privileged Ottoman classes and who did the Habsburg or Venetian side in order to obtain almost not pay taxes, as groups with similar duties would usually total tax exemption for serving as militias. be categorized. It seems that they were simply too numer- ous to be included in the Ottoman askeri or military elite. Unlike their policy toward nomads in Anatolia, the Ottomans did not try to force the Vlachs to form perma- Nenad Moa\u010danin nent settlements, because the Vlachs were already engaged Further reading: Karl Kaser, Familie und Ver- in this process. Designations such as Eflak reayas\u0131 (Vlach wandtschaft auf dem Balkan: Analyse einer untergehenden taxpaying subjects) and Eflak keferesi (Vlach infidels) Kultur (Wien-K\u00f6ln-Weimar: B\u00f6hlau Verlag, 1995); Nenad appear after the early way of registration was abandoned, Moa\u010danin, \u201cThe Question of Vlach Autonomy Reconsid- probably after sipahi (Ottoman provincial cavalry and ered,\u201d Essays on Ottoman Civilization, Arch\u00edv Orient\u00e1ln\u00ed, landlord) pressure in the 1520s to prevent reayas from Supplementa VIII (1998), Praha 1998, 263\u2013269 (Proceed- entering the military class. Ottoman sources often call ings of the XIIth Congress of the CIEPO, Praha 1996). Vlachs in general Eflakan tayfas\u0131 (corps of Vlachs), which might convey the meaning of an order or corps. But","W wagon fortress (Ger.: Wagenburg; Ottoman tabur; Wahhabis (Muwahhidun) Wahhabis is the name that Hung.: szek\u00e9r t\u00e1bor) The wagon fortress or wagon outsiders give to followers of the radical Arabian Muslim camp was a defensive arrangement of war carts chained reformer Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, who began together, wheel to wheel, and protected by heavy wooden preaching in the Najd in the 1740s, urging Muslims to shielding. Manned with bowmen and hand-gunners, return to a strict and rigid practice of their faith. The these late medieval \u201carmored vehicles\u201d protected against strength of the movement came from the skillful blending cavalry assault. First used in the Bohemian civil war after of religious ideology and political aspirations represented 1419 by the Hussites (followers of the reforming theolo- by the union between the family of ibn Abd al-Wahhab gian Jan Hus, 1369?\u20131415), the wagon fortress tactic was and that of ibn Saud. When ibn Abd al-Wahhab incurred introduced to the Ottomans by the Hungarians during the wrath of tribal leaders for his brand of austere Islam, the 1443\u201344 Balkan campaign of the Hungarian national he found refuge with Muhammad ibn Saud in 1744 and, hero J\u00e1nos Hunyadi (1407?\u20131456). Hunyadi, then gover- together, they began to spread both a religious message nor of Transylvania (then a frontier province in eastern and the political power of ibn Saud. When Muhammad Hungary, now in Romania), employed some 600 wagons, ibn Saud died in 1765, the relationship between ibn Abd operated by Czech mercenaries, against the Ottoman al-Wahhab\u2019s radical Islam and Saudi political power con- Turks. By the end of the conflict, the Ottomans knew tinued, as ibn Saud was succeeded by his son Abd al-Aziz how to besiege the tabur, that is, the Christian wagon as the political head of the movement. camp, so called in Ottoman sources after the Hungar- ian usage, szek\u00e9r t\u00e1bor, or wagon camp. In the Battle of In 1775 Wahhabi forces took the oasis village of Varna (November 10, 1444), the Ottomans defeated the Riyadh, and most of the tribes of the Najd accepted the crusaders\u2019 army and captured the Christian war wagons House of Saud as the paramount chieftains of the region, and weapons. While the speed with which the Ottomans thereby establishing a tribal confederation under the adapted their way of fighting to the tactic of their Chris- political leadership of the ibn Saud clan. Fresh from that tian adversaries is remarkable, it should not surprise victory, they pressed on against the tribes of northern us, for the wagenburg tactic was not dissimilar from the Arabia and the al-Ahsa region, which borders the Persian Turks\u2019 own fighting traditions. Moreover, the Turks of Gulf. The campaigns were successful and by 1788 most western Anatolia also used fortified camps in the 14th of the tribes of northern and central Arabia had pledged century. In 1313, for instance, a Turkish raiding party, their fealty to Abd al-Aziz and to his son Saud after him, using the carts that transported the booty, erected such further enlarging the tribal confederation. a fortified camp against the Byzantines who had inter- cepted them. Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab died in 1793 and the spiritual leadership of the movement passed to his G\u00e1bor \u00c1goston sons. Emboldened by the success of the Wahhabi war- riors, Abd al-Aziz authorized raids against Basra in 587","588 Wallachia scend the tribal alliances that had formerly dominated the movement but had also kept it unstable. He took as 1798 and in 1802 against the Shii holy cities of Najaf his model the way that the Prophet Muhammad had used and Karbala, sending shock waves throughout Muslim Islam to unite disparate tribes in his time. Abd al-Aziz world and resulting in the 1803 Shii assassination of Abd imagined that the settlements would become the back- al-Aziz in revenge. The political leadership of the move- bone of a resurgent political movement that would sweep ment then passed to his son Saud. Seeking to turn a set- Arabia, and that what he regarded as a corrupted form back into victory, Saud ordered his men into the Hejaz, of Islam would be eliminated in the same way that the taking the city of Mecca in 1803. Medina fell soon after. Prophet had destroyed pagan Arabia. From this socio- The Wahhabi occupation of the Holy Cities lasted until religious base, Abd al-Aziz emerged after World War I 1812 when they were driven out by an Egyptian expedi- to drive the Hashimite clan from the Hejaz and establish tionary force led by Tosun Pasha. In 1814 Saud died and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. his son Abdallah succeeded him as the political leader of the movement. The Egyptian army, led by Ibrahim Although the term Wahhabi is typically used by out- Pasha, eventually pursued the Wahhabis into the Najd, siders to identify members of the group, those within the finally taking their headquarters in the village of Diri- movement refer to themselves simply as Muslims, as they yya in 1818. Abdallah was sent as prisoner to Istanbul believe that they are practicing Islam as it was meant to where he was executed. But the Egyptian forces then be. Furthermore, they consider the name Wahhabi an withdrew from the Najd, allowing the Wahhabi move- affront to their beliefs because it honors their founder ment to regroup and reassess its methods of proselytism. when they believe that all honor belongs solely to God and not to any mere mortal. Therefore the only accept- In 1823 Turki ibn Abdullah, the cousin of Saud able name for them, in their view, is Muwahhidun, or ibn Abd al-Aziz, assumed the leadership of the move- \u201cthose who insist on the unity and uniqueness of God.\u201d ment and was succeeded by his son Faysal on his death They believe that it was God who laid down the path in 1834; Faysal, in turn, headed the movement until his they follow through his Prophet Muhammad and that death in 1865. Together, father and son recast the Wah- ibn Abd al-Wahhab simply reminded Muslims of where habi movement as one that was more ideological than that true path lay. political. They wrote extensively to Muslim scholars outside Arabia, describing and elaborating on the inter- Bruce Masters pretations of Islam advanced by Muhammad ibn Abd al- See also ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad. Wahhab. They calculated that the first Wahhabi attempts Further reading: Madawi al-Rasheed, A History of Saudi at spreading their political control by force against those Arabia (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002). whom they considered to be apostate Muslims or infi- dels were unsuccessful in reforming Islam. Rather, they Wallachia (Walachia; Rom.: \u0162ara Romaneasc\u0103; Turk.: felt that it was time to articulate what they believed to be Eflak) Wallachia is a region in the southwestern part the correct interpretation of Islam and to convince other of present-day Romania, bordered by the Carpathian Muslims, through dialogue, to see the errors in their mountains to the north and the Danube River to the understanding of Islam\u2019s beliefs and practices. south. Wallachia was a vassal voievodship or principality of the Ottoman Empire from 1394 through 1878, ruled With Faysal\u2019s death, however, political infighting in first by voievods and later by princes. The inhabitants of the ruling clan left the movement with a weak leader, and Wallachia are Romanians. The formation of a Romanian Faysal\u2019s son Abdullah was not able to hold together the state in Wallachia is mentioned for the first time in the coalition of tribes that his predecessor had been able con- gift-deed of Hungarian king B\u00e9la IV (r. 1235\u201370) in 1247 trol. Faysal\u2019s grandson, Abd al-Aziz, was able to regain when he endowed the Knights of St. John with the some of his family\u2019s former prestige and in 1902 he rees- Banat of Sz\u00f6r\u00e9ny (Severin). The territory came under the tablished the family\u2019s control over Riyadh and the central control of the voievod, the territorial ruler, at the begin- Najd. Abd al-Aziz was aware of the political instability ning of the 14th century. It declared its independence inherent in relying on tribal warriors to advance political from Hungary in 1330 when the troops of Voievod and religious aims. He embarked on a policy of forcing Basarab (d. 1352), who was of Cumanian (Kipchak Tur- Bedouin tribesmen to settle in oases and become farm- kic) origin, defeated the troops of the Hungarian king, ers. Those whom he settled were known as the Ikhwan, Carol Robert of Anjou (r. 1307\u201342). Nevertheless, the or brotherhood. The former nomads were provided with vassal relationship with Hungary was soon reestablished scholars to teach them the movement\u2019s message, and and Wallachia itself confirmed Hungarian suzerainty their sheikhs were required to study at a religious insti- when it felt threatened by Ottoman conquests along the tute in Riyadh. At the same time, the tribes were given Danube River. agricultural tools to encourage settlement. Abd al-Aziz\u2019s vision was to create ties of loyalty to the movement based on religious faith which would tran-","EARLY OTTOMAN-WALLACHIAN CONTACTS Wallachia 589 The Wallachians first established contact with the Otto- The most outstanding voievod of Wallachia was mans around 1365, when Voievod Vladislav Valicu (r. Michael the Brave (Mihai Viteazul) (r. 1593\u20131601), who 1364\u2013ca. 1377) turned against the Hungarian king, Louis rose against Ottoman supremacy in alliance with a Chris- the Great of Anjou (r. 1342\u201382), and allied himself with a tian league. He rendered homage to Sigismund B\u00e1thory ruler of one of the principalities of Bulgaria, Sra\u0107imir, (1581\u20131601), prince of Transylvania (r. 1586\u201397, who fought against the Hungarians in alliance with the 1598\u201399, 1599\u20131061, 1601\u201302), and intruded into Otto- Ottomans. But the Ottoman advances in the Balkan man Rumelia south of the Danube. In an alliance with alarmed local rulers. A considerable amount of booty was B\u00e1thory he defeated Grand Vizier Koca Sinan Pasha at taken away by plundering Ottoman troops and the town Giurgiu (October 29, 1595). Because of this victory, Wal- of Silistra (present-day Bulgaria) was also lost. For a time, lachia avoided becoming an Ottoman province, although Wallachian Voievod Mircea cel B\u0103tr\u00een (r. 1386\u20131418) Saturc\u0131 Mehmed Pasha had already been appointed to the successfully fought back Ottoman attacks. It was a rival new province (vilayet) in April 1595 as governor-general. voievod, Vlad (r. 1394\u201397), who first acknowledged Otto- Michael the Brave occupied Transylvania and Moldavia man supremacy in 1394 and paid taxes to the Ottomans. in 1599 as the governor of the Habsburg emperor, Rudolf In the Ottoman civil war of 1402\u201313 that followed Sultan II. Alarmed by his growing power, Giorgio Basta, the Bayezid I\u2019s (r. 1389\u20131402) defeat at the hand of Timur general of the Habsburg emperor, drove him out of Tran- at the Battle of Ankara (1402), Voievod Mircea sup- sylvania; Michael was later pardoned by the emperor. ported Prince Musa. However, when Sultan Mehmed I Suspecting that he had offered his services to the Porte, (r. 1413\u201321) emerged victorious and rebuilt the Ottoman General Basta had Michael killed in 1601. polity, Mircea agreed to pay taxes again in 1415. Michael\u2019s pro-Habsburg policy was followed by WALLACHIA BETWEEN EMPIRES, Voievod Radu \u015eerban\u2019s (r. 1602\u20131611) similar policy. 15TH TO 17TH CENTURIES In the 17th century some voievods also made attempts to counteract the more powerful Ottoman influence, The policy of Wallachia in the 15th century was defined including Matei Basarab (r. 1633\u201354) and \u015eerban Canta- by the fact that it was situated at the point where the cusino (r. 1678\u201388). In 1658 Constantin \u015eerban (r. 1654\u2013 authority of two competing military powers, the Hungar- 58) joined forces with the prince of Transylvania, George ian Kingdom and the Ottoman Empire\u2014both of them II R\u00e1k\u00f3czi (r. 1648\u201360), and turned against the Ottoman bigger and militarily stronger than Wallachia\u2014clashed. army. Constantin Br\u00e2ncoveanu (r. 1688\u20131714) profited Peace treaties between the Hungarian Kingdom and the from the relative passivity of the Ottomans and entered Ottoman Empire from 1444 to 1519 mention both Wal- into relations with Vienna and later with the Russian lachia and Moldavia as vassal states, or areas under the czar, Peter I; for the latter relationship he was later exe- jurisdiction of the larger polities that pay taxes to both cuted in Istanbul. parties. Escalating conflicts between the Hungarians and Ottomans resulted in fights for the throne in Walla- To improve control over the two Romanian princi- chia, as both parties intended to put their candidates at palities, Wallachia and Moldavia, beginning in 1715 the the head of that country. Voievod Vlad Dracul (Devil) (r. Porte decided to appoint voievods from the Phanariots, 1436\u201346) fought against the Ottomans in the beginning wealthy Greek families living in Istanbul\u2019s Phanar district. but later recognized the sultan\u2019s authority. This in turn The Phanariots held influential positions in the Otto- led to a Hungarian attack and caused the voievod\u2019s death. man Empire, including that of rand dragoman (chief Vlad Tepe\u015f (r. 1456\u201357, 1476) was supported by the Hun- translator) of the court. Just as Muslim dignitaries at the garian king, Matthias I Hunyadi (Corvinus, r. 1458\u201390), Porte became heads of provinces and subprovinces as a in his fight against Mehmed II (r. 1444\u201346, 1451\u201381), reward for their services, Phanariots were appointed to but later the Hungarian king imprisoned him. After his the position of voievod in Romania for a couple of years. release, Vlad Tepe\u015f recaptured his throne with Hungar- Romanian historiographers have traditionally viewed the ian help, albeit only for a short time, as he was killed Phanariot regime in negative terms; however, the Greek by a Romanian nobleman. Voievod Mihnea Turcitul (r. voievods\u2014usually well educated at European universi- 1577\u201383, 1585\u201391) was replaced by another claimant to ties\u2014contributed significantly to the development of cul- the post, Petru Cercel, in 1583 and was forced to live in ture. The custom in Wallachia ended in 1821. exile first on the island of Rhodes and then in Tripoli; he regained his position by promising larger taxes to the In the 18th century Wallachia was occupied by Ottomans in 1585. In 1591 he converted to Islam and was Habsburg and Russian troops on several occasions and appointed head of the sancak (subprovince) of Ni\u011fbolu its western part, called Oltenia, was under Habsburg under the name Mehmed Bey. jurisdiction between 1716 and 1739. After the Russo- Ottoman Treaty of Edirne in 1829, Wallachia and Moldavia united under Russian control. Also stipulated in the agreement was that Wallachian merchants could","590 wall tiles or close relatives were held as hostages in Istanbul by the Porte. The voievods sent regular reports, written in Turk- now pursue their profession freely across the Balkans. In ish, to Istanbul about European affairs, some of which are 1848 Ottoman and Russian troops suppressed a revolu- still extant. Wallachia\u2019s status as a Christian vassal state of tion that had aimed to achieve general civil rights and the Ottoman Empire allowed it to play an important part protested against Russian occupation. The Treaty of Paris in the survival and development of the Orthodox religion in 1856 declared the union of the two Romanian states, and culture in southeastern Europe. the joint head of which became Alexandru Ioan Cuza in 1859. However, nominally it was still part of the Ottoman S\u00e1ndor Papp Empire. The last ties to the Ottoman Empire were cut by Further reading: Mihai Maxim, Romano-Ottomanica: the Treaty of San Stefano in 1878 and later that year by Essays and Documents from the Turkish Archives (Istanbul: the Treaty of Berlin, which declared Romania an inde- Isis, 2001); Andrei O\u0163etea, ed., The History of the Romanian pendent country. People (Bucharest: Scientific Publishing House, 1970); Peter Sugar, Southeastern Europe under Ottoman Rule, 1354\u20131804 WALLACHIA UNDER OTTOMAN RULE (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1977); S\u00e1ndor Papp, \u201cChristian Vassals on the Northwest Border of the Wallachia was designated a dar al-ahd (\u201chouse of the Ottoman Empire,\u201d in The Turcs, vol. 3, Ottomans. (Ankara: treaty,\u201d or territory whose population is protected by the Yeni T\u00fcrkiye, 2002) 719\u2013730. treaty) by the Ottomans and its subjects were dhimmi, non-Muslims who enjoyed the protection of the Porte. wall tiles See ceramics. Although archival sources are rather limited in this regard, it appears that until the beginning of the 16th waq f (Turk.: vak\u0131f ) A waqf is an endowment under century Wallachian voievods were given letters of con- Islamic law, or sharia, that benefits a pious cause by tract by the sultan (ahdnames), similar to the ones setting aside a personal source of revenue to finance given to the Moldavian voievods. Their vassal relation- the charitable cause in perpetuity. Within the Ottoman ship and their tax burden were established in these letters Empire, the institutions endowed by waqf contracts of contract. Later, the voievod was chosen by the boyars included religious structures such as mosques, madra- (high-ranking members of the feudal aristocracy) and sas, and Sufi hostels. Some of the complexes established the Orthodox clergy and then confirmed by the sultan, as waqf were quite extensive, such as the complex that who issued a formal written appointment (berat-i huma- Sultan S\u00fcleyman (r. 1520\u201366) endowed in Istanbul, yun). These documents specified the extent of the tax the S\u00fcleymaniye. Designed by the architect Sinan and to be paid to the Ottoman treasury and contained the built between 1550 and 1557, the complex included a allowances to be paid to dignitaries at the Porte and to large mosque, several madrasas, a hospital, and markets the grand vizier, without mentioning their amounts. The that supplied the income to support these institutions. berats also declared that Muslims in Wallachia were not Other large complexes were endowed by members of to be harassed and that in case of death their property the Ottoman royal family and by Ottoman governors in was to be turned over to their families or to the Ottoman various provincial centers. In addition to religious func- treasury, in case their family could not be located. tions, waqf endowments could support institutions that would benefit the community of Muslims at large, such The extent of the tax changed according to the deval- as soup kitchens for the poor, hospitals, insane asylums, uation of the Ottoman silver coinage, the ak\u00e7e (money and caravansaries for travelers. Typically, the source of and monetary systems). In 1480 it was 14,000 golden income that was alienated from the waqf donor\u2019s private coins; in 1564, 2,850,000 ak\u00e7e (47,500 golden coins); in property consisted of commercial properties: shops, fac- 1568\/69: 5,850,000 ak\u00e7e (83,500 golden coins); in 1574\/75: tories for the production of textiles or soap, bathhouses, 6,150,000 ak\u00e7e (94,600 golden coins); whereas in 1583\/84: even whole market complexes if the donor were rich and 7,000,000 ak\u00e7e (58,333 golden coins). The amount powerful. But private homes were also so designated by decreased gradually from the end of the 17th century. less wealthy Muslims, with their rent being used to help Besides their tax burden, the Wallachians were obliged in the ongoing upkeep of the institution. Revenues from to pay regular presents (pe\u015fke\u015f) and an unofficial bribery agricultural properties could also be alienated under fee (r\u00fc\u015fvet), the total sum of which was approximately as waqf contracts and, in the Ottoman period, whole classes much as their taxes. Furthermore, the Wallachian econ- of tax revenue, such as the jizya paid by the Christians omy was under complete Ottoman domination, depend- of Bethlehem, could also be designated to support the ing mainly on the market conditions of Istanbul, although upkeep of waqf properties some cattle and sheep dealers made big fortunes. The voievod himself was obliged to go to war along with the Ottoman troops if the sultan so ordered. Once every three years, the country\u2019s taxes were taken to the Porte by the voievod himself. Some of the voievods\u2019 sons","For the donor, the benefit of establishing a waqf warfare 591 was two-fold. First, he or she (in the Ottoman Empire wealthy women were prominent in the establishment of borhoods, and even to feed street cats. Non-Muslims waqfs) would gain merit from God and the prayers of the also established waqfs, although typically Muslim jurists believers who used the facilities that they had endowed. would not permit them to fund non-Islamic religious Second, the property would be exempted from taxation, institutions such as churches or synagogues. They could, confiscation, or division among potentially multiple heirs however, fund charities for the community\u2019s poor and at the time of the donor\u2019s death. In addition, each waqf needy, and Muslim judges even allowed Christian waqfs contract could designate an administrator who was enti- to support the upkeep of indigent monks who devoted tled to a salary. The administrator was often the endower their lives to prayer. or his or her descendants; a waqf could thus provide sub- stantial income for the donor as well as for the charitable Bruce Masters enterprise. See also charity. Further reading: Amy Singer, Constructing Ottoman Under the terms of sharia as it was practiced in the Beneficence: An Imperial Soup Kitchen in Jerusalem (Albany: Arab provinces, there were two acceptable forms of waqf. State University of New York Press, 2002); Richard van The first was the waqf khayri that established a pious Leeuwen, Waqfs and Urban Structures: The Case of Ottoman cause, such as those already mentioned, as the object of Damascus (Leiden: Brill, 1999). the endowment. The second was the waqf ahli which also ultimately had a pious cause, but not until the founder War Academy See education. and all his descendants had died. The latter type of waqf was the object of some controversy among legal schol- warfare Historians have often argued that warfare was ars as some saw it as simply serving as a tax shelter and a the Ottomans\u2019 raison d\u2019\u00eatre\u2014their justification for the way of cutting certain family members out of the inheri- empire\u2019s existence. They consider the Ottomans\u2019 hundred- tance schedule established by the Quran, which provided year-long expansion in the Balkans\u2014which had started in daughters with half the share of their father\u2019s inheritance 1352 with the establishment of the first Ottoman bridge- that their brothers received. Typically, for example, many head on the Gallipoli peninsula\u2014and the conquest of such contracts eliminated daughters as recipients of the Constantinople in 1453, their first major success, as income generated by the waqf. But there were also cases manifestations of Ottoman imperialism. of women endowing a waqf and then naming a female descendant as the endowment\u2019s supervisor. Another con- Before one goes too far with such claims, it is advis- troversy arose over the acceptability of establishing cash able to remember that the same years witnessed the Hun- waqfs. In these cases, the waqf would consist solely of a dred Years\u2019 War (1337\u20131453) in Europe, waged for very sum of money, the principal of which would be lent out similar goals\u2014land and glory\u2014between England and to creditors. The interest paid on the loans would go to France. More importantly, for most of the 600 years of support the charitable cause. Most Arab jurists saw this the existence of the Ottoman Empire (1300\u20131923), wars as allowing usury and rejected it as un-Islamic. Ottoman were common and a normal part of life in both the Otto- jurists in Istanbul, however, saw nothing wrong with the man Empire and Europe. The early modern age, roughly practice as long as the interest did not exceed 10 percent 1450\u20131800, was especially bellicose. Apart from 25 years a year and the recipients of the charity were truly needy. in the 16th century and seven years in the next century, European powers were constantly at war with each other Waqfs of all sizes were an extremely popular invest- in these two centuries. In the 17th century, Sweden and ment choice, for both spiritual and material gain. They the Austrian Habsburgs waged wars for two out of every funded the construction of new mosques and mar- three years, while Spain fought for three out of every four ketplaces that gave an Ottoman architectural stamp to years. almost every city in the empire, as Ottoman governors in provincial centers constructed mosques in the style of the Wars also dragged on for long periods and involved grand mosques built in the capital by the sultans. With- several, and often all, major European powers. The Eighty out the institution, it is hard to imagine that the incred- Years\u2019 War, also known as the Dutch Revolt (1568\u20131648), ible building boom that the empire enjoyed in the 16th the Thirty Years\u2019 War (1618\u201348), the War of the Span- century would have occurred. Furthermore, waqf-funded ish Succession (1701\u201314), the War of the Austrian Suc- charities provided support for the urban poor that the cession (1740\u201348), the Seven Years\u2019 War (1756\u201363), the central government was usually unwilling to provide. French Revolutionary Wars (1792\u20131802), and the Napo- Besides feeding the poor, there were waqfs to help bride- leonic Wars (1804\u201315) were especially notable with ever- grooms with the customary bride price (mahr), to fund growing war casualties. education for poor Muslims, to provide water to neigh- From about 1500 on, the impact of wars on the pop- ulation was felt more than ever before, due to protracted","592 warfare mans received a share of military booty and were granted the right to settle on conquered lands. In return, they conflicts and ever larger armies who not only had to be had to provide men-at-arms in proportion to the amount paid and fed, but who also habitually ravaged the coun- of benefice in their possession. Later they became the tryside. In the 16th and 17th centuries, 20\u201330 percent fief-based provincial cavalry (timar-holding or timariot death rates in armies were not uncommon. While esti- sipahi), whose remuneration was secured through mili- mates regarding the death toll of these European con- tary fiefs or prebends (timar). flicts vary greatly, when one includes civilian deaths from famine and disease, even the lowest figures exceed sev- Like the Seljuk iqta and the Byzantine pronoia fiefs, eral millions for such long conflicts as the Thirty Years\u2019 the main function of the Ottoman timar was to pay the War or the Napoleonic Wars. Against this background, troops and bureaucracy. The military fiefs were also used the Ottomans do not seem to have been particularly bel- by the Ottomans to incorporate conquered peoples into ligerent. The \u201cTurkish wars,\u201d as these wars were known the military-bureaucratic system of the empire. Ottoman in Europe, and the destruction caused were not unique revenue surveys (tahrir) from the 15th-century Balkans either. recorded large numbers of Christian timariots who, by accepting the new order and by performing military and From an Ottoman point of view, the 16th century bureaucratic services for the Ottoman state, managed to was an era of rivalry with Habsburg Spain and Austria preserve, at least partly, their former pronoias (military in the Mediterranean and in Hungary, and with Safa- fiefs) and bashtinas (small hereditary possessions) as vid Iran in eastern Asia Minor, Azerbaijan and Iraq. In well as their privileged status within the society. Many the 16th century the Ottomans usually proved militarily of these Balkan Christian timariots and their sons were superior to their rivals, at least on land, but the 17th cen- called voynuks (Slavic for \u201cfighting man\u201d or \u201csoldier\u201d). tury saw a change in Ottoman military fortunes and by These voynuks were former members of the pre-Otto- the end of that century the Ottomans lost Hungary to the man minor nobility who retained part of their bashtinas Habsburgs. The latter, however, were not strong enough as timars in exchange for military service. Established to push further with their conquests in the Balkans and perhaps in the 1370s or 1380s, voynuks were to be found a new border between the Austrian Habsburg Monar- in significant numbers in Bulgaria, Serbia, Macedo- chy and the Ottoman Empire was established along the nia, Thessaly, and Albania. In addition, large numbers Danube river. On their eastern front, the Ottomans of Christian nomads in the Balkans, called Vlachs, were consolidated their conquests against Safavid Iran. Their also incorporated into the ranks of the voynuks. common border, established in 1555 and modified in 1639, proved exceptionally stable until World War I. Since the salaried troops of kuls and the timariot The 18th century witnessed the emergence of a new rival, cavalry proved too few in number to fulfill the needs of Russia, which by the second half of the century humili- a growing state, young volunteer peasant boys were also ated the Ottoman military forces (Russo-Ottoman taken on. These youths later formed the infantry yaya war of 1768\u201374). The 19th century witnessed repeated (foot soldier) and cavalry m\u00fcsellem (exempt from taxes) Ottoman defeats at the hands of the Russians as well as units. During campaigns they were paid by the ruler, and Ottoman retreat from and Russian advance in the Bal- at the conclusion of the campaign season they returned kans. Of course, all these events reflected major changes to their villages. The numerous campaigns and predatory with regard to the military (and thus economic and raids soon required that this third component of the early administrative) capabilities of the Ottomans and their Ottoman army be made permanent; the voluntary nature rivals; prompted major Ottoman military, economic, and of the force was therefore abandoned and compulsory administrative reforms; and had significant consequences enlistment was introduced during campaigns. on the inhabitants of the empire. THE STANDING ARMY THE EARLY OTTOMAN MILITARY Sultan Murad I (r. 1362\u201389) introduced numerous In the early years of the Ottoman state, the main constit- changes in the organization of the salaried troops, which uent elements of the Ottoman army were the ruler\u2019s mili- did not affect the timar-holding sipahis. The m\u00fcsellems tary entourage or guard; the cavalry troops of Turkoman were slowly replaced by the palace horsemen, who were tribes who had joined forces with the Ottomans; and also called sipahis, and the yayas\u2019 place was taken by the those peasants who had been called up as soldiers for azabs\u2014a kind of peasant militia of originally unmarried military campaigns. The members of the military entou- (azab) lads serving as foot soldiers in campaigns\u2014and by rage, known as kul (slave) and n\u00f6ker (companion, client, the Janissaries. The infantry azabs received their mili- servant, retainer), were the forerunners of the sultans\u2019 tary gear from a certain number of tax-paying subjects salaried troops that by the 15th century had become the (reaya). As a result, by the mid-15th century the yayas pillar of the Ottoman military organization. The troops of and m\u00fcsellems, along with the voynuks, gradually became the Turkoman tribes that were in alliance with the Otto-","auxiliary forces, charged with the restoration of military warfare 593 roads and bridges and, after the spread of cannons, with the transportation of ordnance. While the m\u00fcsellems CONQUESTS AND IMPERIAL OVERSTRETCH were serving in both Anatolia and Rumelia, the yayas\u2019 task in Rumelia was carried out by the y\u00fcr\u00fcks, nomadic The 15th and 16th centuries were an era of spectacu- Turks originally from Anatolia. Their resettlement from lar conquests and territorial expansion. The area of the Anatolia into the Balkans was part of the Ottoman empire increased from 218,000 square miles in 1451 at method of deportation (s\u00fcrg\u00fcn) which aimed at increas- the death of Murad II (r. 1421\u201344, 1446\u201351) to 335,000 ing the numbers of both the available Turkish fighters square miles by the death of Mehmed II in 1481. On and of loyal subjects in the newly conquered peninsula. August 23, 1514, at the Battle of \u00c7ald\u0131ran (eastern Tur- key), Selim I\u2019s artillery and Janissary musketeers routed The most important change in the 14th-century the army of Safavid Iran. In 1516 the Ottomans annexed Ottoman military organization was the establishment of eastern Anatolia and annihilated the Mamluk army at the Janissary corps (from the Turkish term yeni \u00e7eri, or Marj Dabik, north of Aleppo. In 1517, at the Battle of \u201cnew army\u201d), the sultans\u2019 salaried elite infantry. It was the Ridaniyya near Cairo, Selim I defeated the last ruler of first standing army in Europe and stood under the direct the Mamluk Empire, Tumanbay (r. 1516\u201317), and pro- command of the sultan. The Janissaries and the sala- ceeded to establish his rule over Egypt and Syria. By the ried palace cavalrymen were known as the slaves of the end of his reign, Selim I ruled over an empire of 577,000 Sublime Porte (kap\u0131 kulu), that is, the standing army of square miles. S\u00fcleyman\u2019s conquests added Hungary, the ruler. The sultans thus could claim a monopoly over Kurdistan, Iraq, and the greater part of Armenia; with organized violence, in sharp contrast to their European these new conquests the area of the Ottoman Empire counterparts who had to rely upon and negotiate with reached almost 978,000 square miles. local power-holders when they wanted to deploy armies that were operationally effective. Although the standing These conquests would have been unthinkable army was important, until the beginning of the 16th cen- without the support of the Ottoman navy, whose size tury the leading force of the Ottoman military was the was already impressive under Mehmed II. He employed freelance light cavalry, the ak\u0131nc\u0131s (raiders), descendants some 280 galleys and other ships in his naval expeditions of early raiders who fought in return for their share of the against the Greek island of Euboea in the Aegean in 1470 war booty. (then known as Negroponte and in Venetian hands), and some 380 ships against the Genoese-administered Reliable estimates with regard to both resource Crimean port town of Caffa (Ukrainian Feodosiya) in potentials and actually deployed troops are hard to come 1475. The conquest of Egypt (1517) and the fact that it by. However, it is certain that until the end of the 17th thereafter provided about one-third of the empire\u2019s total century the Ottomans outnumbered their opponents revenues made it imperative that the Ottomans con- both in Europe and in the Middle East. With vassals, trolled the maritime lines of communication between Mehmed II (r. 1444\u201346, 1451\u201381), Selim I (r. 1512\u201320), Cairo and Istanbul and eliminated all hostile bases in and S\u00fcleyman I (r. 1520\u201366) could mobilize 70,000 to the eastern Mediterranean. The conquest of Rhodes 80,000 men or more, whereas their neighbors were capa- (1522), the base of the belligerent Knights of St. John, ble of mobilizing only a fraction of that force. and later Cyprus (1570, then in Venetian hands), were thus strategically necessary. Co-opting the corsairs of The Ottomans also showed genuine interest and the Barbary States of Algiers and Tunis was a smart great flexibility in adopting European weaponry and tac- and economically efficient way to further strengthen the tics. They not only adopted firearms at an early stage Ottoman navy. In 1533 S\u00fcleyman appointed Hayreddin of the development of their armed forces (in the lat- Barbarossa (see Barbarossa brothers), an experienced ter part of the 14th century) but were also successful in corsair and governor of Algiers, as his grand admiral integrating gunpowder weaponry into their military by (kapudan pasha); Hayreddin\u2019s successes helped the Otto- establishing a separate artillery corps as part of the sul- mans become masters of the eastern Mediterranean. tans\u2019 standing army in the early 15th century. In Europe, artillerymen remained a transitory category somewhere However, by the late 16th century the Ottoman army between soldiers and craftsmen well into the 17th cen- reached the limits of its reach. Power relations on all tury. When Ottoman technological receptivity was cou- fronts were more balanced, which made wars longer and pled with mass-production capabilities, self-sufficiency increasingly exhausting. Of these, the Long Hungarian in the manufacturing of weapons and ammunition, and War (1593\u20131606); the war in Transylvania (1658\u201360); superior Ottoman logistics, the sultans\u2019 armies gained the war against the Holy League (1683\u201399) on the Hun- superiority over their European opponents by the mid- garian frontier; the Iranian wars (1570\u201392, 1603\u201311, 15th century, which they were able to maintain until and 1623\u201339) on the eastern frontier; and the Cretan about the end of the 17th century. war (1645\u201369) in the Mediterranean required commit- ments in fighting men, weaponry, supplies, and money at scales previously unheard of. Since none of the fron-","594 warfare Ottoman power in Egypt was challenged by the Mam- luk emirs and by the invasion of the French (1789\u20131802). tier provinces were capable of defending themselves by Finally, in 1805, Mehmed Ali, an Albanian mercenary of using merely local revenues, the defense of the empire\u2019s the Sublime Porte, seized power in Egypt. Relying upon extended borders also became more and more costly. his European-style army, Mehmed Ali was to remain From 1592 on, the imperial treasury ended almost every in power for 40 years. Even in the Ottoman core prov- fiscal year with a deficit, which is hardly surprising in inces, the Balkans and Anatolia, Istanbul\u2019s rule was under light of the fact that the Ottomans waged wars continu- threat. The Serb uprising of 1804 marked the begin- ously from 1579 through 1611 (against Habsburg Aus- ning of a series of wars of national liberation. By the late tria, Safavid Iran, and the Anatolian rebels of the Celali 1820s, Serbia and Greece, as well as Egypt, had become revolts). effectively independent. The 17th century also saw the eclipse of the timar- The empire tried to respond to the situation by iot sipahi cavalry and the deterioration of the military experimenting with other forms of recruitments and skills of the once-formidable Janissaries. The dev\u015firme military systems ranging from militias to state contracted or child levy, once the main method of Janissary recruit- formations, leading to Sultan Selim III\u2019s (r. 1789\u20131807) ment, also lapsed. By the end of the 17th century, due to Nizam-i Cedid (New Order) army. Launched in the after- extensive military and related administrative and finan- math of the Russo-Ottoman War of 1787\u201392, the military cial reforms in Europe, the Ottomans\u2019 European oppo- (and associated financial and administrative) reforms of nents established their own standing armies that were Selim III resulted in a new, disciplined, European-style comparable in size to that of the Ottomans. In addition, army equipped with up-to-date weaponry and dressed in these European troops were of higher quality, enjoyed an modern uniforms. Financed from an independent trea- efficient supply system, better command, and a profes- sury (Irad-\u0131 Cedid, \u201cnew revenues\u201d), the new army was sional military bureaucracy. The loss of Hungary by 1699 23,000 strong by 1807, when opposition mounted by an was the first sign of major shifts in power. alliance of the Janissaries and the religious establishment (ulema) forced Selim III to disband it and abdicate. RETREAT AND REFORM However, the Russo-Ottoman wars in the 19th Ottoman military history in the 18th and 19th centuries century (1806\u20131812, 1828\u20131829, 1854\u20131856, and 1877\u2013 is dominated by the Russo-Ottoman wars, the slow but 1878), with which Russia tried to achieve its main geopo- continuous loss of territory until the late 19th century, litical goal to secure access to the Mediterranean through followed by the collapse of Ottoman rule in the Balkans the Black Sea and the Straits of the Bosporus and Darda- at the end of that century, as well as repeated efforts to nelles, proved time after time the inferiority of the Otto- modernize the Ottoman armed forces and government. man military. These military setbacks forced Istanbul to undertake more substantial military, governmental, and The wars fought against the traditional enemies of financial modernization, culminating in the Tanzimat the Ottomans (Venice, Austria, and Iran) in the first reforms (1839\u201376). half of the century brought mixed results, while the wars against the Russians in the second half of the century Mahmud II (r. 1808\u201339) continued his deposed ended in a series of devastating defeats. In the first half predecessor\u2019s reforms, and when he felt secure enough of the century, failure on the battlefield led to domes- he disbanded the unruly Janissaries in 1826. Their dis- tic political unrest; there were two rebellions, resulting mal performance against the Greek guerrillas in the in the dethroning of two Ottoman sultans (Mustafa II first phase (1821\u201326) of what later became known as the (r. 1695\u20131703) in 1703 and Ahmed III (r. 1703\u20131730) Greek War of Independence (1821\u201331) sealed the fate in 1730). In the second half of the century the price of of the Janissaries. On June 15, 1826, when the Janissaries failure was even higher: exploiting the absence of the rose in rebellion against the sultan\u2019s project that aimed at army\u2014which was weighed down on the Russian front\u2014 reforming their corps, Mahmud II ordered his modern- provincial notables (ayan), whose power rested in part ized artillery corps to bombard the Janissaries\u2019 Istanbul on their public function and in part on land ownership barracks. Most of the Janissaries were slaughtered (see (\u00e7iftlik), acted independently of the central government. Auspicious Incident), and the next day the corps was By the end of the century some of them, including Ali officially disbanded. The sultan announced the formation Pasha of Janina, Osman Pazvanto\u011flu of Vidin, and of his new, European-style army, the Trained Victorious the Karaosmano\u011flu family of western Anatolia, were in Troops of Muhammad (Muallem Asakir-i Mansure-i possession of their own private fiefdoms and armies and Muhammadiye). Recruited from volunteers and peasants had even begun to pursue their own foreign policy. At from the provinces, the new army was trained and orga- the beginning of the 19th century, the central adminis- nized along European lines, and grew quickly from 1,500 tration lost control of many of the empire\u2019s outer zones: to 27,000 men. Along with the Mansure army, Mahmud the Wahhabis, led by the Saudi emirs, took control of the Hejaz (Mecca and Medina, 1803\u201314). Meanwhile","established a modern imperial guard, known as the weights and measures 595 Hassa (Special) army, numbering some 11,000 by the end of his reign. In 1834 the sultan also created a reserve admired by their enemies as late as World War I\u2014that army, known as the Victorious Reserve Soldiers (Asa- were mainly responsible for the many defeats the Otto- kir-i Redife-i Mansure), or Redif, whose number grew mans suffered in the 19th century. to 100,000 men in 1836. Stationed in the provinces, they were responsible for maintaining law and order. G\u00e1bor \u00c1goston See also Crimean Tatars; Crimean War; ghaza; The next crucial step in overhauling the Otto- Lepanto, battle of; military acculturation; mili- man army was the introduction of universal conscrip- tary slavery; Tersane-i Amire. tion along European lines. The need to reform the old Further readings: G\u00e1bor \u00c1goston, Guns for the Sultan: recruitment methods was first expressed in the G\u00fclhane Military Power and the Weapons Industry in the Ottoman Imperial Edict (1839), the famous reform charter that Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005); introduced the wide-ranging Tanzimat reforms. This in Virginia H. Aksan, Ottoman Wars 1700\u20131870: An Empire turn led to the army regulations of 1843 that established Besieged (Harlow, England: Longman\/Pearson, 2007); the modern Nizamiye (Regular) army, using conscrip- Rhoads Murphey, Ottoman Warfare (New Brunswick, N.J.: tion. The first conscription took place in 1848. Because Rutgers University Press, 1999); Erik J. Z\u00fcrcher ,ed., Arming the army\u2019s strength was determined at 150,000 men and the State: Military Conscription in the Middle East and Cen- conscripts initially had to serve for five years, every year tral Asia, 1775\u20131925 (London: I.B. Tauris, 1999). some 30,000 men had to be conscripted. The empire\u2019s armed forces were divided into five territorial armies (the weights and measures Before the rise of the Otto- Guard, Istanbul, the European Provinces, Anatolia, and mans, a variety of weights and measures\u2014the Central the Arab provinces) each with its own Redif, or reserve. Asian Turkish, the Seljukid, the Byzantine, and the Ilkha- While there were further fine-tunings in the coming nid-Iranian\u2014were in use in Anatolia. The Ottoman impe- years, the structure of the Ottoman army remained basi- rial metrological system apparently owed its formation to cally the same until the Balkan Wars in 1912\u201313. a combination of Turkish, Islamic, and local traditions. Turks of Central Asia were already familiar with a mea- Most of the soldiers were Muslim peasants from suring system based on the ar\u015f\u0131n (a unit of length) and Anatolia, for non-Muslims were able to avoid military the batman (a unit of mass), a system they brought along service by paying an exemption tax (bedel-i askeri, or to Anatolia in the 11th century. The Divan-\u0131 Lugati\u2019t-T\u00fcrk military payment-in-lieu), despite the 1856 edict that (the 11th-century Turkish encyclopedic dictionary pre- gave equal rights to and demanded equal service from all pared by Mahmud of Ka\u015fgar) refers to measures such as the sultan\u2019s subjects, regardless of religion. This system the batman, kula\u00e7 (fathom), and kar\u0131\u015f (span), which were remained unchanged until the Young Turks introduced later used by the Ottomans. Seljukid and Italian sources universal conscription irrespective of religion in 1909. of the early 14th century indicate that the batman, lidre, okka, kantar and kile were the commonly used weights Due to lack of comprehensive censuses, adequate and measures in Seljukid Asia Minor before the rise of the administrative infrastructure, and privileges enjoyed not Ottomans. In fact, the Seljuk weights okka (ukiyya) and only by non-Muslims but also by Muslim town-dwellers dirhem were later reinstituted and used by the Ottomans. and members of certain professions (e.g., civil servants, the Byzantine measures were also introduced into Ottoman religious establishment), the size of the Ottoman army was metrology: the Ottoman lidre of 100 dirhems was iden- modest in comparison to that of its rivals. Its peacetime tical to the Byzantine litra or ratl Rumi. The Iranian- strength of 180,000\u2013200,000 men on the eve of World War Ilkhanid weights and measures used by the chanceries of I was only half the size of the Austrian army, and perhaps pre-Ottoman Anatolian states in keeping public records one-fifth the size of the Russian armed forces. also became part of Ottoman metrology. More importantly, the Ottomans, once self-suffi- COMMON WEIGHTS AND MEASURES cient in the production of weaponry and ammunition and masters of campaign logistics, struggled to pay and Together with the Islamic weights and measures, the supply their armies throughout the 19th century. Mobi- Ottomans inherited the duodecimal, or base 12, character lization was slow and desertion high. Soldiers suffered of the Islamic measuring system, meaning that weights from malnutrition, and more died of cholera or typhus and measures were generally divisible by 12. This offered than of wounds. The underdeveloped Ottoman industry the most efficient and practical means in accounting and and transportation infrastructure (railways, roads, and transactions since divisibility into fractions is highest in a waterways) could not support the mass army the Otto- duodecimal system, a structure also used extensively by mans managed to put together through modern means the Roman, Byzantine, and Perso-Arabic cultures. Within of conscription. It was these shortcomings\u2014 and not this structure, Ottoman imperial and local metrologies the fighting spirit and skills of the Ottomans, which was","596 weights and measures 1 bu\u011fday = 0.05 g = 0.77 grains 1 fitil = 0.0125 g = 0.19 grains followed a serial arrangement with 12 and its fractions or 1 nakir = 0.00625 g = 0.09 grains multiples established as follows: 1 kadem (foot) = 12 par- 1 k\u0131tmir = 0.003125 g = 0.048 grains mak (fingers) = 144 hatt. In addition, the zira (ar\u015f\u0131n) was 1 zerre = 0.00156 g = 0.024 grains the basic unit for length to measure land and in the con- struction of buildings. Imported textiles were measured INSPECTION AND INSPECTORS in \u00e7ar\u015f\u0131 ar\u015f\u0131n\u0131 while indigenous fabrics were measured in endaze. The measure of capacity, the kile (mudd), was Regulations required kile, ar\u015f\u0131n, and dirhem to be used for cereals. Heavy goods were weighed in \u00e7eki (espe- checked by the market inspector, or muhtesib, an offi- cially wood), kantar, batman, k\u0131yye, or lodra. Fine goods cial charged with touring the market places periodically such as silver, gold, and precious stones were weighed in to check the accuracy of weights and measures, to check miskal, dirhem, kirat, bu\u011fday, and denk. the scales in use, to inspect market prices, and to punish fraudulent practices. Under his supervision, weights and METRIC EQUIVALENTS OF 19TH-CENTURY measures in shops and markets were regularly checked OTTOMAN WEIGHTS AND MEASURES by a kileci (inspector of bushels) and a tamgac\u0131 (stamper). The kileci\u2019s job was to adjust the weights or measures Length according to the standards kept in the imperial treasury. 1 kadem = 37.9 cm = 14.92 inches The tamgac\u0131 would certify their accuracy and validity by 1 parmak \/ \u00fcsb\u00fc= 3.2 cm = 1.26 inches imprinting them with the official stamp (miri tamga). 1 hatt = 0.26 cm = 0.1 inches The kutucus (bushel makers) had to bring the measures 1 nokta = 0.02 cm = 0.01 inches they produced to the kileci and tamgac\u0131 for adjustment 1 zira \/ zira-\u0131 mimari \/ bina ar\u015f\u0131n\u0131 \/ mimar ar\u015f\u0131n\u0131 = and certification. 75.8 cm =2.46 feet = 0.82 yards UNIFICATION ATTEMPTS 1 \u00e7ar\u015f\u0131 ar\u015f\u0131n\u0131 = 68 cm = 2.2 feet = 0.74 yards 1 rub (of \u00e7ar\u015f\u0131 ar\u015f\u0131n\u0131) = 8.5 cm = 3.35 inches When new lands were acquired, the Ottomans avoided 1 kirah (of \u00e7ar\u015f\u0131 ar\u015f\u0131n\u0131) = 4.25 cm = 1.67 inches changing local laws and customs. As far as metrology 1 endaze = 45 cm = 1.46 feet = 0.49 yards was concerned, the pre-conquest terminology was gener- 1 rub (of endaze) = 8.125 cm = 3.2 inches ally replaced by Ottoman terms, but the measures them- 1 kirah (of endaze) = 4.0625 cm = 1.6 inches selves remained unchanged. as part of the timar system 1 merhale = 45.480 km = 28.26 miles however, in which taxes were paid in the form of com- 1 berid = 22.740 km = 14.13 miles modities, often grain, the central government used the 1 saat \/ fersah-\u0131 kadim \/ fersah-\u0131 adi = 5.685 km = Istanbul kile (kile-i istanbuli) and the Istanbul okka as standard measures. Unification of metrology within a 3.53 miles sancak (subprovince) was carried out by extending the 1 mil-i adi = 1.895 km = 1.18 miles use of a typical local measure to the whole sancak. A 1 kula\u00e7 \/ ba\u011f = 1.895 m = 6.217 feet revolutionary plan for unification was proposed follow- 1 \u00e7\u00f6rek parmak = 3.15 cm = 1.24 inches ing the Ottoman economic crisis around 1640, and the 1 d\u00f6n\u00fcm = 1600 square zira = 919. 3025 sq.m = government was advised to extend the use of Istanbul weights and measures to the provinces of the empire. The 1099.47 sq. yards proposal, however, was not favored. 1 evlek = 229.8 sq.m = 274.83 sq. yards THE STANDARD ZIRA OF 1840 Volume 1 kile-i istanbuli = 37 liter = 65 pints Under Sultan Selim III (r. 1789\u20131807), the standard for 1 \u015finik = 9.25 liter = 16.27 pints the zira-i mimari (or zira), made of ebony, was kept in 1 kutu = 4.625 liter = 8.14 pints the M\u00fchendishane, the Military Engineering School in 1 zarf = 2.3125 liter = 4.07 pints Istanbul. In the field, however, the zira measures used by architects, engineers, and craftsmen varied in length. In Weight the mid 19th century, the difficulties encountered in the 1 \u00e7eki = 225.8 kg = 497.79 pounds casting of cannons in the Tophane-i Amire, the Imperial 1 kantar = 56. 450 kg = 124.45 pounds Foundry, made it clear that a standard zira was needed. 1 batman = 7.697 kg = 16.97 pounds Although the calibers of cannonballs could be calcu- 1 k\u0131yye (okka) = 1.282 kg = 2.82 pounds lated theoretically, they could not be produced precisely 1 lodra = 0.564. kg = 1.24 pounds enough because the ziras used varied in length. To solve 1 miskal = 4.811 g = 2.71 drams this problem, the engineer Mehmed Emin Pasha created 1 dirhem = 3.207 g = 1.8 drams 1 denk = 0.801 g = 0.45 drams 1 kirat = 0.2 g = 3.08 grains","an \u201caverage zira\u201d (zira-i mimari) of brass in 1840 and weights and measures 597 had it compared in 1841 to the standard meter in Paris. The zira-i mimari was found to be equal to 0.757 738 the metric system. The kilogram measure was already m. The length of this zira became accepted by an impe- in use in ports such as Istanbul, Izmir, Mersin, Anta- rial rescript as the official unit of length of the Ottoman lya, Trabzon, and Samsun, especially for purchases from state. A similar standard for the okka was produced and abroad and wholesale trading. In Bafra and other towns kept for future comparisons. The metric equivalents of engaged in the tobacco trade, kilograms were commonly the zira (0.757 738 m) and okka (1.282 945 kg) were both used in transactions involving La R\u00e9gie du Tabac, while accepted as the official metric equivalents after the adop- in Bursa they were employed in the purchase of silk. The tion of the metric system by the Ottoman government in metric ton was used in highly developed commercial cen- 1869, and were subsequently used in conversion tables. ters including large business houses or mines. OTTOMAN ENGINEERS AND LAWS CONCERNING THE NEW WEIGHTS AND EUROPEAN MEASURES MEASURES The 18th-century attempts to transfer and adopt Euro- The official adoption of the decimal metric system seems pean science and technology paved the way for a com- to have been closely connected with a need to unify and parison between Ottoman and European measures. The standardize the weights and measures used throughout equivalence between them was first calculated by the engi- the Ottoman realms. According to 19th-century Otto- neers of the M\u00fchendishane. The collaboration between man documents, different weights and measures were Ottoman and European military experts in the M\u00fchendis- employed in different parts of the empire, and units had hane, and the translation of engineering textbooks into different values in different regions. Indeed, in some Ottoman Turkish, required that the relationship between cases, the same unit of weight differed in value accord- Ottoman, French, and English measures be established. ing to the material weighed. The steadily increasing vol- Thus comparisons and tables included in textbooks com- ume of trade with European countries made a universal piled by M\u00fchendishane director H\u00fcseyin R\u0131fk\u0131 Tamani at system of measures necessary. It was also hoped that the the end of the century set the standard for the relationship introduction of the new weights and measures would between European and Ottoman measures. Once the ratio put an end to fraudulent practices in the market; in fact, between the Ottoman \u00fcsb\u00fc (literally \u201cfinger,\u201d a measure of however, those practices intensified with the adoption of length equaling 3.2 cm) and the French pouce had been the metric system. The atmosphere of modernization in established (6 \u00fcsb\u00fc = 7 pouce), the Ottoman equivalents other aspects of social and political life at this time seems of various European measures of length were calculated. to have influenced Ottoman officials in deciding to adopt this new system. The law introducing the metric weights THE METRIC SYSTEM and measures was issued on 27 September 1869, and the meter, gram, and liter became the official imperial units Prior to their official adoption by the Ottomans in 1869, of length, weight, and volume. The law required that, as metric weights and measures were already being widely of March 1871, the new weights and measures must be used within the empire. As metric weights and measures used in all business transactions carried out in govern- came to be included in early 19th-century European ment offices and local administrations. The metric sys- textbooks, Ottoman mathematicians and engineers tem was to be applied throughout the Ottoman lands as became aware of this new system and introduced it in of March 1874. the textbooks they compiled from European sources. They also calculated the metric equivalents of Ottoman NEW MEASURES AND THE GENERAL PUBLIC weights and measures and prepared conversion tables. Ishak Efendi\u2019s 1834 book on fortification, Usul-i Istih- Following the promulgation of the 1869 law, work was kamat, and Ibrahim Edhem Pasha\u2019s 1836 translation of undertaken to facilitate the dissemination of the new Adrien-Marie Legendre\u2019s book on mathematics, Usul-i system. A regulation concerning the use and control of Hendese, are early examples. Tables of conversion were the new measures was issued the same year to specify intended to help M\u00fchendishane students easily put into the production , stamping, and control of metric weights practice the new technical knowledge coming from and measures. A booklet introducing the metric system Europe. was made compulsory reading in schools. Posters illus- trating the new weights and measures were ordered from A number of doctors, chemists, and pharmacists also Paris, and conversion tables were printed and distributed. used metric weights and measures in the analyses they Terms to denote the new units (zira-i a\u015fari for meter) carried out at the Mekteb-i T\u0131bbiye-i \u015eahane (The Military were coined and symbols for metric units were created School of Medicine) and at the hospitals in Istanbul. Some using Arabic letters. A decree issued in 1881 aimed to analysis reports sent to state offices were drawn up using facilitate the dissemination of the metric system. The ter- minology and conversion tables it introduced were less","598 Weizmann, Chaim land in 1904; he lived there until the establishment of Israel in 1948. Weizmann was ardently committed to the sophisticated. It abolished the use of traditional weights cause of Zionism and served as a delegate to the Second and measures beginning in 1882. Zionist Congress in 1898. He also firmly believed that the Jewish state had to be constituted in Palestine (Eretz However, the transition to the metric system was Yisrael) and opposed the compromise suggested by The- regularly postponed during the last 20 years of the 19th odor Herzl (d. 1904), founder of the World Zionist Con- century. The consecutive wars of the early 20th century gress, that it be established in Uganda. made the adoption of the metric system less of a prior- ity for the government. Although the general public and Chaim Weizmann labored for British support for the shopkeepers kept using the old system in the market, Zionist enterprise, and he is credited as having played a government offices favored the metric system from 1871 major role in the process that led up to the Balfour Dec- on, as required by the 1869 law. Wholesale merchants laration. In 1918 he went to Palestine to advise the British trading with Europe also supported the use of the met- army on implementation of its occupation and met with ric system. The delay in the switch was mostly due to Emir Faysal al-Hashimi, leader of the Arab Revolt the longstanding familiarity of the general public with and future king of Iraq, to discuss the Zionist plans for the traditional system. The fraudulent practices of shop- Palestine. They issued a joint statement on January 3, keepers also played a role in creating hostility toward the 1919 that stressed the \u201cracial kinship and ancient bonds\u201d new system. The decimal base of the new system, its new between Jews and Arabs and recognized that Palestine terminology with confusing prefixes such as u\u015fr-(deci-), would be separate from the Arab Kingdom that Faysal u\u015feyr-(deca-), and mi\u015far-(centi-), the various psychologi- wanted to establish in Damascus. Although Faysal later cal obstacles, and the astronomical basis of the metric repudiated that declaration, some historians have cited it system, which was seen as lacking any social, functional, as an indication that Arab leadership was not ideologi- or human dimension, also slowed its adoption. Ottoman cally opposed to the establishment of a Jewish homeland society seems to have experienced difficulties similar to in Palestine. After World War I ended, Weizmann went those of many other societies in moving from traditional to Paris where he lobbied delegates at the conference held to new systems of measurement. In France, the shift to to determine the fate of the territories controlled by the the new system took almost 50 years, and its adoption Central Powers for a British mandate in Palestine. Given was delayed for a number of reasons. The period begin- the fact that the British government had issued the Bal- ning in 1869 initiated the familiarization of Ottomans four Declaration in 1917, in which it said that it was sym- with the decimal metric system and can be regarded as pathetic to a creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine, the precursor to its final adoption by republican Turkey Weizmann felt that the British would best serve the Zion- in 1934. ist program for the territory, which included the eventual establishment of a Jewish state there. He was successful in Feza G\u00fcnergun his lobbying efforts and the Treaty of San Remo in 1920, Further reading: Halil Inalc\u0131k, \u201cIntroduction to Otto- promulgated by the League of Nations, established Great man Metrology,\u201d Turcica 15 (1983): 331\u2013348; Feza G\u00fcn- Britain as the mandatory power for Palestine. ergun, \u201cMetric System in Turkey: Transition Period (1881\u20131934),\u201d Vol. 6, Journal of the Japan-Netherlands Insti- Bruce Masters tute (Papers of the Third Conference on the Transfer of Sci- Further reading: Jehuda Reinharz, Chaim Weizmann, ence and Technology between Europe and Asia since Vasco da the Making of a Zionist Leader (New York: Oxford Univer- Gama, 1498\u20131998, edited by W. G. J. Remmelink) 6 (1996): sity Press, 1985). 243\u2013256; Feza G\u00fcnergun, \u201cStandardization in Ottoman Tur- key,\u201d in Introduction of Modern Science and Technology to World War I As is true for many of the powers Turkey and Japan, edited by F. G\u00fcnergun and S. Kuriyama engaged in World War I, the war fundamentally changed (Kyoto: International Research Center for Japanese Studies, the shape of the Ottoman Empire. Victorious states par- 1998), 205\u2013225. titioned the empire, thus causing its end. During the war, separatist nationalist movements, such as those of Weizmann, Chaim (b. 1874\u2013d. 1952) (r. 1948\u20131952) the Arabs and Armenians, intensified their activities. In Zionist leader, President of Israel Chaim Weizmann was reaction to the foreign occupation of Ottoman lands and one of the fathers of the Zionist movement and the first the burgeoning separatist movements, a Turkish national president of the state of Israel, serving from 1948 until his resistance movement emerged in 1919\u20131922 under the death in 1952. He was born in a village near the town of leadership of Mustafa Kemal Atat\u0171rk that drove the Pinsk, today in Belarus but then in the Russian Empire. occupation forces back, toppled the sultanate, and cre- He left Russia in 1895 to study in universities, first in ated the modern Turkish Republic. Germany and then in Switzerland where he earned a Ph.D. in chemistry in 1900. Weizmann moved to Eng-","OUTBREAK OF WORLD WAR I World War I 599 Following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand forces against the British and French one of the most of Austria-Hungary in June 1914 by a Serb nationalist in notable during the entire war, it also produced a local Sarajevo, Austria-Hungary demanded that Serbia stop hero who would subsequently become the founder of pro-Serbian separatist activity in Bosnia and Herzegov- modern Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Atat\u0171rk. ina. Serbia\u2019s refusal to cooperate ignited the war in which five major European powers were soon involved. As a In February and March 1915, the British and the result of their prewar commitments and collective defense French attacked Gallipoli, the gate to the Dardanelles, agreements, two sides were formed. On one side there with the goal of capturing Istanbul. The original plan were Germany and Austria-Hungary (Central Powers), was to engage the Ottomans and relieve Russia, which and on the other were Britain (see England), France, was being attacked by German-Austrian armies in the and Russia (Entente Powers\u2014the United States joined west and Ottoman armies in the east. The initial naval them in 1917). The Ottoman Empire initially stayed out of operation failed on March 18. On April 25, however, the the war. But on August 2, 1914, Enver Pasha (1881\u20131922), British and the ANZACS (Australia-New Zealand Army minister of war and perhaps the strongest personality in Corps) embarked upon an amphibious attack on the Gal- the Committee for Union and Progress (CUP) govern- lipoli peninsula that led to a relentless and wearisome ment in Istanbul, signed a secret agreement with Ger- trench war lasting nine months. Finally, in January 1916, many that pledged that the Ottoman Empire would enter the British and the ANZACS were forced to withdraw. the war alongside the Central Powers. MESOPOTAMIA The pretext needed for the Ottoman Empire to enter the war was given when two German warships, During the initial phases of the war, the British attacked Goeben and Breslau, entered Ottoman waters on August the Ottoman positions in Fao (present-day Al-Faw, Iraq) 11, 1914 to escape the British Mediterranean fleet. Brit- and Basra, which they captured in November 1914. They ish demands that the Ottomans either confiscate the then launched a major offensive on Kut-al-Amara, further ships and detain the crews or force them out of Otto- up the River Tigris on the way to Baghdad, simultane- man waters were rebuffed by the Ottoman government. ously with their attack on Gallipoli. General Townshend Istanbul announced that it had purchased the two ships captured the city in May 1915. He moved further north- and had renamed them Yavuz and Midilli. The crews ward in September, but was stopped eventually by the were dressed in Ottoman uniforms and Admiral Wil- Ottoman forces under the command of Nureddin Pasha helm Souchon was appointed commander in chief of the at Selmanpak. Townshend retreated to Kut in November, Ottoman navy in the Black Sea. When Souchon, under awaiting new reinforcements for another attack on Bagh- direct orders from Enver, bombarded Russian bases along dad. However, the Ottoman forces in Mesopotamia, now the Black Sea and sank Russian ships on October 29, the under the command of Field Marshall von der Goltz who Ottomans had officially entered the war. had replaced Nurettin Pasha, besieged Townshend\u2019s forces in January 1916. After a number of attempts by British The Ottomans were forced to fight on several fronts forces to break the siege, Townshend capitulated on April during the war. Their meager resources, further deci- 29, 1916. After the surrender of Townshend, the Brit- mated during the Balkan wars (1912\u201313), and poor ish appointed General Stanley Maude as the commander infrastructure hampered efficient troop transfer from one of the British forces in Mesopotamia. General Maude side of the empire to the other. The Ottomans also had to attacked Kut in December 1916 and captured the town on fight the Russians in Europe (Galicia between July 1916 February 23. He continued with his advance northward and August 1917, Romania between August 1916 and and on March 11 he entered Baghdad. Fortunately for the May 1918, and Macedonia between September 1916 and Ottomans, Maude did not march on Mosul. March 1917) on the side of the Germans, Austrians, and Bulgarians. Consequently, apart from victories in Galli- CAUCASUS AND EASTERN ANATOLIA poli and Kut al-Amara, the Ottoman armies had very lit- tle to show in the battlefields. They were overrun by the In the Caucasus, during the initial phases of the war, the Russian armies until a revolution broke out in Russia in Ottomans carried out an operation around the Ottoman 1917, and by the British forces until the end of the war. town of Kars, close to the Georgian border. The plan was to march toward the Caucasus and incite Russian Mus- GALLIPOLI lims to rise up against the czar. However, the operation failed badly around the small and strategic town of Sari- Even today the battle at Gallipoli is a great moment in kamish. The Ottoman forces were deployed in difficult Turkish popular memory and psychology. In Turkish his- terrain in the middle of winter, costing the lives of some toriography, it is considered the starting point of modern 70,000 soldiers in December 1914. After the military Turkish history. Not only was the victory of the Ottoman fiasco in Sarikamish, the entire eastern Anatolia was left open to Russian attacks.","600 World War I al-Hashimi, the Sharif of Mecca, had come to an agreement with the British to prepare an uprising in Turkish historians argue that the Ottomans had to June 1916. The Arab revolt continued until 1917. Even deal with an Armenian revolt in Van in April 1915, and though the Arabs did not inflict major casualties on that many Armenians in eastern Anatolia had been col- the Ottomans forces, they cut the communication and laborating with the Russians, either providing them with transportation lines, making the defense of Hejaz dif- intelligence or actually joining the ranks of the Russian ficult for the Ottomans. In February 1918 Allenby military and Ottoman authorities had started a system- marched on Jordan. On September 25 Allenby captured atic campaign of arresting Armenians suspected of col- Nazareth and a week later he took Damascus. Finally, laborating with the enemy. The Armenian uprising in on October 25, he conquered Aleppo, thus ending Van impelled the Ottoman government to take further his Syrian campaign. The Ottoman forces retreated to measures, and in May it ordered the relocation of the Adana and waited there until the Mudros Armistice was Armenians from the war zone to Syria and Lebanon. signed at the end of October. This proved to be a difficult task. The relocation was carried out at the height of the war, while the Ottomans END OF THE WAR AND THE were fighting the British, French, and the ANZACS in DEMISE OF THE EMPIRE Gallipoli; the British in Mesopotamia; and the Russians in eastern Anatolia. Therefore, the Ottomans could not Allenby\u2019s successes in Syria terrified the Ottoman gov- spare sufficient regular forces to supervise the reloca- ernment. However, it was British general Milne\u2019s march tion and provide the necessary security to the Arme- toward Istanbul following the defeat of Bulgaria that nians. Armenians were robbed, harassed, and killed by forced the Ottomans to seek an armistice. Finally, on bandits and army deserters. Many Armenians, like the October 30, the Ottomans and the Allies signed the Ottoman soldiers who accompanied them, perished due Mudros Armistice that effectively ended World War I. to bad weather conditions, poor transportation means, Until a final settlement could be reached, the Ottoman and starvation. The number of people who lost their territories, except for central Anatolia, were occupied by lives during this forced relocation is subject to heated the victorious powers. debate between Turkish and Armenian historians. Turk- ish historians put the number as low as 200,000, while World War I was the last war that the Otto- Armenian historians put it as high as 2,000,000. The mans fought. The war exhausted almost all imperial Tehcir, or deportation, as it is known in Turkish histori- resources. Even though the Ottoman forces were sup- ography, with its various aspects\u2014including the intent, plied with modern German military equipment and the figures, and the consequences\u2014is still in need of personnel, the lack of food, water, and clothing that unbiased scholarship. they experienced proved almost as fatal as the enemy\u2019s bullets. Moreover, the lack of sufficient communication The Russians continued their advance and took con- and transportation facilities hampered the Ottoman trol of eastern Anatolia by 1917, when they eventually war effort to a considerable extent. Finally, desertions withdrew, not because of Ottoman military successes from the army were another problem that the govern- but because of political turmoil in Russia. Once Russia\u2019s ment had to deal with. It not only decreased Ottoman participation in the war ended in March 1918, the Otto- manpower, it also caused social unrest in the country- mans were able to retake eastern Anatolia. The Otto- side because a considerable number of deserters turned mans abandoned their operations in the Caucasus only into bandits during the war. after the Mudros Armistice was signed in October 1918. After the war was lost, the CUP resigned and a new SINAI AND PALESTINE government was formed. The new government in Istan- bul started negotiations with the occupying powers for In January 1915 Cemal Pasha (1872\u20131922), one of the a final agreement. Meanwhile, Mustafa Kemal left Istan- three powerful leaders in the CUP government, carried bul and led a resistance against occupation in Anatolia. out an operation in the Sinai that was aimed at cutting Kemalist forces fought the occupying powers for three off the Suez Canal and taking Egypt from the Brit- years and in November 1922 a ceasefire between the ish. As on the eastern front, this operation failed, and warring parties was established. Eventually, an interna- the Ottoman forces retreated to Palestine in February tional conference was convened in Lausanne, and in July 1915. Cemal launched another offensive in Palestine 1923, at last, an understanding was reached between Tur- in July 1916, but Cemal\u2019s forces were again defeated in key (the sultanate was abolished by the Ankara govern- August. In 1917 the British attacked; General Allen- ment in November 1922) and the Entente powers (see by\u2019s forces captured Gaza in November and entered Lausanne, Treaty of). Accordingly, the Western pow- Jerusalem on December 8. In the meantime, Husayn","ers recognized the new Turkish state and withdrew all World War I 601 their forces from Turkey. In October 1923, a republic was proclaimed in Turkey and a new state emerged from the Further reading: Erik J. Z\u00fcrcher, Turkey: A Modern ashes of the Ottoman Empire. History (London: Tauris, 2004); Douglas A. Howard, History of Turkey (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 2001); Edward J. Bestami S. Bilgi\u00e7 Erickson, Ordered to Die: A History of the Ottoman Army in the First World War (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 2001).","Y Yazidis The Yazidis are a religious community found permitted by the Ottomans since Islamic scholars did not today in the Jabal Sinjar region in northern Iraq. In consider the Yazidis to be Muslims. Missionary activity the Ottoman period, Yazidis were more widely spread in the community led the Ottoman state, however, to throughout Kurdistan. Ethnically Kurds, the Yazidis reconsider its position. Starting in the 1880s, Ottoman claim that their faith predates either Christianity or Islam, officials began to impose the Hanafi legal school of Sunni although elements of both are found in their beliefs, with Islam on the Yazidis by building schools and mosques in both Muhammad and Jesus figuring prominently as their villages, as they concluded that if the Yazidis could moral and spiritual guides. Non-Yazidis have frequently be open to missionary activity by foreign Christians, spread the tale that the Yazidis worship the devil, but the they might as well be exposed to missionary activity Yazidis deny that charge, saying that they worship the conducted by Ottoman Muslims. This was accompanied same God as do Muslims, Christians, and Jews. Yazidis by violence, the confiscation of religious relics, and the also worship the seven angels of God, the most impor- forced conversion of the community\u2019s leaders to Islam. tant of which manifests itself as a peacock (melek-i taus). These measures were later rescinded, but relations This is most probably where the charge of devil worship between the community and the Ottoman state remained arises, as in many Middle Eastern traditions the peacock tense. is associated with Iblis, or Satan. Bruce Masters Dealings between the Yazidis and the Ottomans Further reading: Nelida Fuccaro, The Other Kurds: were usually tense and frequently erupted into violence. Yazidis in Colonial Iraq (London: I.B. Tauris, 1999). This was in part because relations between Yazidis and Muslims were generally poor and Yazidis avoided con- Yemen Yemen, with its capital at Sanaa, was at times a tact with Muslims whenever possible. As the Yazidis province of the Ottoman Empire, with boundaries more do not claim to be Muslims, they were liable to pay the or less corresponding to those of the present-day Repub- jizya, or the poll tax levied on non-Muslims in the Otto- lic of Yemen, without the region of the Hadhramawt man period. The reputation of the Yazidi community (formerly The People\u2019s Republic of Yemen). The Otto- among followers of Sunni Islam further suffered from mans came to Yemen to forestall Portuguese expansion the fact that the inhabitants of Jabal Sinjar in today\u2019s Iraq in the Red Sea and to control the valuable export of cof- often raided the caravans that passed along the nearby fee, the popularity of which was sweeping the empire. Euphrates River route. But nowhere in the empire was direct rule from Istan- bul more contested than it was in Yemen. This was due Isolated and despised by their neighbors, many Yazi- in part to Yemen\u2019s distance from the capital, and in part dis converted to either Islam or Christianity. In the late to its very rugged terrain. But more importantly, the dif- 19th century, both Protestant and Catholic missionar- ficulties the Ottomans experienced in Yemen arose from ies viewed the community as fertile ground for conver- sion, and this aggressive missionary activity was initially 602","the fact that they were not viewed as legitimate rulers. A Young Ottomans 603 majority of the inhabitants of the province were practi- tioners of the Zaydi school of Shia Islam who owed sultan sought to restore his sovereignty over Yemen, the allegiance to a family of imams who traced their lineage claim to which his ancestors had never relinquished. In back to the Prophet Muhammad through Imam Muham- 1872 the Ottoman army returned to Yemen and was able mad, son of Jaafar al-Sadiq, and through Husayn, the to conquer and garrison its major cities. But that did not son of Ali and Fatima, the prophet\u2019s daughter. Given the mean the end to Zaydi resistance. Al-Hadi Sharaf al-Din importance they placed on their own ancestry, the Zaydi claimed the title of imam in 1879 and led a jihad against viewed the Ottoman royal house as upstarts and usurp- the Ottomans until his death in 1890. Resistance con- ers without any legitimate claim to rule and represent the tinued under the leadership of al-Mansur Muhammad Islamic world. War against the sultan was, in their eyes, Hamid al-Din until his death in 1904, when it was car- holy war, as they viewed the Sunni Ottomans as heretics. ried on under his son Yahya. In 1905 the Ottomans were forced to concede Sanaa yet again to the imam. They The Ottomans became increasingly aware of Portu- were not to return until 1911 when, faced with wars in guese ambitions in the Red Sea after their conquest of Libya and the Balkans, the Ottomans finally sought Egypt in 1517, and indeed some scholars have suggested peace with the Zaydi imam. The result of these nego- that one of the motivations that pushed Sultan Selim I (r. tiations was the Treaty of Daan, which ceded the region 1512\u201320) to invade the Mamluk Empire that controlled to the north of the capital to the imam in return for his Egypt and Syria was his fear that the Mamluks were too entering into alliance with the Ottoman sultan. With the weak to forestall European expansion into Egypt. In 1526 surrender of the Ottomans to the Allies in 1918, Imam the Ottomans sent a fleet to secure the Red Sea; it seized Yahya entered Sanaa and claimed the entire country, the port city of Mocha. This was soon followed by the which he ruled until his death in 1948. His descendants fall of the inland city of Zabid to an Ottoman army that continued to rule Yemen until a military revolution had landed at Mocha. But within two years, squabbling toppled the dynasty in 1962 and established a socialist among the Ottoman commanders led them to withdraw, republic allied with Egypt. and the Zaydi imam, Sharaf al-Din, was able to reassert his control even over the coast. In 1538 the Ottomans Bruce Masters launched a land assault on the mountain strongholds of Further reading: Caesar Farah, The Sultan\u2019s Yemen the imam; in 1539 they succeeded in seizing the town of (London: I.B. Tauris, 2002). Taizz. Sanaa held out until 1547. Sharaf al-Din\u2019s son, al- Mutahhar, refused to concede defeat, however, and the Young Ottomans (Yeni Osmanl\u0131lar) The Young Ottomans faced a protracted guerrilla war that ebbed and Ottomans were a late 19th-century Ottoman political flowed according to which tribes were willing to commit group comprised of young intellectuals educated in the men to the fray. empire\u2019s newly established Western-style institutions and sent to Europe either as students or as commissioned The tribes of the highlands rose in rebellion against officials. Its membership was characterized by its dis- Ottoman rule in 1567, led by the Zaydi imam al-Mutah- satisfaction with the far-reaching Western-style changes har, and they again drove the Ottomans back to the undertaken as part of the empire\u2019s sweeping Tanzimat coast. The Ottomans were able to reestablish control over reform effort just prior to this period. The Young Otto- Sanaa, the highland capital of the region, in 1570, but mans were also unhappy with the policies of the Tanzimat the tribes remained restive in a campaign they viewed as bureaucrats. After 1860, when debates over the Tanzimat holy war. Under the imam al-Qasim, known in Yemeni reforms intensified with the rising power of newspapers chronicles as \u201cal-Kabir\u201d (the Great), the tribes\u2019 resistance and other media, public dissatisfaction focused on the grew stronger, and in 1629 the Zaydis retook Sanaa. By delay in implementing the social and economic policies 1636, the Zaydi tribesmen had driven the Ottomans that were to have started right after the Islahat Ferman out of the country completely. Two centuries of relative of 1856 (Imperial Rescript of Reform). Other factors also peace under the rule of the descendants of al-Qasim fol- contributed to this widespread dissatisfaction, especially lowed, during which the imams reaped considerable among the Ottoman intellectual class. Among these fac- wealth from the export of coffee. That prosperity came tors were the independence of the Romanian principali- to an end, however, toward the end of the 18th century, ties (Wallachia and Moldavia) and the empire\u2019s severe when coffee from the Americas, produced by slave labor, financial crisis, especially in light of the corruption and became much cheaper than that produced by tribesmen extravagant lifestyle among the governing elite. Spear- in Yemen. heading the reaction against these elites were the Yeni Osmanl\u0131lar, or Young Ottomans, the most serious and During the 19th century, several leading Zaydi fami- effective intellectual protest movement in the empire at lies and their tribal allies increasingly struggled for the the time. title of imam. In the chaos that ensued, the Ottoman","604 Young Turks target of their critiques was the Tanzimat and its bureau- crats. Another important target was foreign intervention. The Young Ottomans were formed in 1867 by exiled They also wrote and published articles criticizing Ottoman Ottoman intellectuals who gathered in Paris, brought financial policies, foreign debt, and extravagance. together by Prince Mustafa Fazil, a brother of the Egyp- tian Khedive Ismail and a grandson of Mehmed Ali of The Young Ottomans played a significant role in Egypt. The group initially called themselves T\u00fcrkistan\u0131n Turkish thought, both as role models for a new intellec- Erbab-\u0131 \u015eebab\u0131 (Turkistan Youth) and Ittifak-i Hamiyyet tual tradition and as pioneers of political dissent. The (Society of Zealots), later changing their name to The ways in which newspapers could be mobilized as a tool Young Ottomans. The prominent founders were Ali Suavi, for political criticism, the emergence of the press as a Nam\u0131k Kemal, and Ziya Pasha; Re\u015fat Bey, Mehmed Bey, political power, and its use as a political weapon against and Nuri Bey later joined the group. Mustafa Fazil kept rivals owes much to the energy and invention of the in contact with exiled Ottoman intellectuals in various Young Ottomans. European cities and invited those whose newspapers were under the ban of censorship by the Ottoman adminis- Co\u015fkun Cak\u0131r tration to publish their papers in Europe. Further reading: Serif Mardin, The Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought: A Study in the Modernization of Turkish The Young Ottomans founded, and disseminated Political Ideas (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, their thoughts through, various newspapers funded by 1962); \u015eerif Mardin, \u201cYoung Ottomans,\u201d in The Oxford Mustafa Faz\u0131l Pasha. The first of these, Muhbir (Herald), Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World, vol. 4 (New York: was established in London by Ali Suavi on August 18, Oxford University Press, 1995), 357. 1867. Roughly one year later, on June 29, 1868, Nam\u0131k Kemal and Ziya Pasha founded another newspaper, H\u00fcr- Young Turks There is some confusion regarding the riyet (Freedom), which consisted of a summary of Young use and meaning of the term Young Turks. In Ottoman Ottoman thought and published various articles related and Turkish historiography the term is used to refer to to the issues of government reform. Other Young Otto- the movement that opposed the regime of Abd\u00fclhamid man newspapers included Ulum (Science), launched by II between February 1878, when he suspended the par- Ali Suavi in Paris, and the Geneva-based \u0130nk\u0131lab (Revo- liament, and the Constitutional Revolution of July 1908. lution). Upon their return from exile, the voice of the Turkish historians (following the usage of Ottoman Young Ottomans was most clearly expressed in the news- sources dating from that period) refer to the regime that paper \u0130bret (Lesson). followed Abd\u00fclhamid II as the Committee of Union and Progress. Some European historians, however, call During their exile in Europe, the Young Ottomans it the Young Turk government. This usage is misleading, were organized around Mustafa Faz\u0131l Pasha. Although because in fact both regime and opposition after 1908 the Young Ottomans saw his return to Istanbul to accept stemmed from former Young Turks. a ministerial post under Sultan Abd\u00fclaziz (r. 1861\u201376) as a success for their cause, this return actually began the Terminological confusion does not end here. The breakup of the group, which never shared an established phrase young Turks was first used by British historian ideological consensus. Charles MacFarlane in 1828 to refer to the younger Otto- man generation. Later, in 1855, French publicist and his- Nam\u0131k Kemal was the first member to abandon the torian Jean-Henri-Abdolonyme Ubicini (1818\u201384) coined group and return to Istanbul in 1870. Ziya Pasha, who the phrases \u201cjeune Turquie de Mahmoud\u201d(young Turks of strongly disagreed with Namik Kemal, continued his Mahmoud) and \u201cjeune Turquie d\u2019Abdul Medjid\u201d (young publishing activities and moved to Geneva. Mehmed Turks of Abd\u00fclmecid) in an attempt to describe the Bey and H\u00fcseyin Vasfi Pasha, seen as extremist mem- reforming Ottoman statesmen under sultans Mahmud bers of the group, founded another newspaper, while Ali II (r. 1808\u201339) and Abd\u00fclmecid (r. 1839\u201361). Hippolyte Suavi and R\u0131fat Bey resigned from the group. The next Castile was the first author to use the expression \u201cYoung year, following the death of their opponent Grand Vizier Turks\u201d with the clear intention of grouping them together Mehmed Emin \u00c2l\u00ee Pasha in 1871, the other members of with Young Italy of Mazzini. In 1867 a number of lead- the group started to return. Most of them returned from ing Ottoman intellectuals, who had secretly formed the exile during the reign of Sultan Abd\u00fclaziz. Ali Suavi, Young Ottomans in 1865, fled the Ottoman capital to the last exile, returned to Istanbul during the reign of organize an opposition movement in Paris financed by the Abd\u00fclhamid II (r. 1876\u20131909). Egyptian prince Mustafa F\u00e2z\u0131l. The European press called them \u201cYoung Turks,\u201d a title that Mustafa F\u00e2z\u0131l himself The Young Ottomans developed highly effective politi- adopted. In a famous letter to the sultan inviting him to cal, financial, and administrative critiques. On the one carry out extensive reforms, Mustafa F\u00e2z\u0131l used the phrase hand, they presented theoretical discussions on the subjects of constitutional monarchy, equality, and the rule of law; on the other hand, they criticized political and economic applications conducted by Tanzimat bureaucrats. The main","\u201cgrand parti de la Jeune Turquie.\u201d When these dissidents Young Turks 605 called themselves \u201cJeune Turquie\u201d they were distinguish- ing themselves from conservative statesmen, whom they unsuccessfully proposed naming the group \u201cOrder and dubbed \u201cVieux Turcs\u201d (old Turks). In Turkish historiogra- Progress\u201d after Auguste Comte\u2019s famous aphorism. This phy this group (the first Ottoman opposition movement committee, which remained the most important Young abroad) is called the Young Ottoman movement. Later Turk organization until the end of the movement, was on, British and French diplomatic correspondence used a loose umbrella organization until 1902. While some the terms \u201cYoung Turk\u201d and \u201cthe Young Turkey party\u201d to branches supported the gradual reform program of the refer to those statesmen and bureaucrats who supported positivists (supporters of a theory that states that true the movement for a constitution. knowledge is based only on natural phenomena as verified by the empirical sciences), others advocated revolution, Following the end of the short-lived constitutional while still others were dominated by the ulema. regime in 1878, both Ottomans and Europeans referred in general to the opponents of Sultan Abd\u00fclhamid II\u2019s regime In 1902 a schism developed in Paris at the First Con- as \u201cthe Young Turks.\u201d It was the Ottoman Freemasons gress of Ottoman Opposition Groups. The majority party, who, in 1893, first formally named their political branch led by the sultan\u2019s brother-in-law Mahmud Celaleddin \u201cthe Committee of Young Turkey at Constantinople.\u201d Pasha and his two sons Sabahaddin Bey and Lutfullah Then, in 1895, the main opposition group, the Ottoman Bey, allied itself with members of Armenian and Alba- Committee of Union and Progress, advertised its French nian committees and Greek intellectuals. They promoted journal, Mechveret Suppl\u00e9ment Fran\u00e7ais, as \u201cOrgane de la the idea of a coup d\u2019\u00e9tat with British assistance. Their Jeune Turquie\u201d (Periodical of the Young Turks). willingness to work with foreign powers sparked the opposition of the minority party, under the leadership From this point on, the phrase \u201cYoung Turks\u201d was of Ahmed R\u0131za. It adopted a Turkist policy, demanding used among Ottoman subjects (of all religions) to denote a leadership role for the Turks, and categorically reject- opposition organizations dominated by specifically Mus- ing any foreign intervention in Ottoman politics. After lim dissidents. In Europe, however, no such distinction its failure to carry out a coup in 1902-3, the majority was made, and the term was loosely applied to include party reorganized itself in 1905 under Sabahaddin Bey\u2019s Armenian, Macedonian, and other committees formed leadership, and advocated decentralization and private against the regime. initiative. In that year Sabahaddin Bey also founded the League of Private Initiative and Decentralization, and he 1878\u20131908: IDEAS AND POLICIES worked toward creating a mutual understanding with the non-Muslim organizations. During the reign of Abd\u00fclhamid II the Young Turk move- ment was located in Europe and British-ruled Egypt. Also in 1905, the minority party, under the leadership Members of the movement founded a host of political of Dr. Bahaeddin \u015eakir, reorganized itself under the new parties, committees, and leagues seeking to topple the name of the Ottoman Committee of Progress and Union absolutist regime of Abd\u00fclhamid II and to replace it with (CPU). In 1907 this new organization merged with the a constitutional monarchy. Although their European Ottoman Freedom Society, which had been established in contemporaries and many scholars commonly labeled 1906 by army officers and bureaucrats in Salonika. From the Young Turks \u201cliberals\u201d and \u201cconstitutionalists,\u201d such this point on, the Young Turk movement spread among a program was promoted only by a small minority in the the Ottoman officer corps in European Turkey. In the movement. Members of the major Young Turk organi- meantime, the 1907 Congress of Ottoman Opposition, zations did not adopt liberal ideas, and viewed constitu- held in Paris in December, brought about an understand- tionalism merely as a device to stave off intervention in ing between the two major Young Turk organizations (the the Ottoman Empire by the Great Powers. CPU and the League of Private Initiative and Decentral- ization) and the Armenian Dashnaktsutiun committee. The initial activities of the Young Turks did not go But the alliance realized at the congress played almost no beyond the publication by dissidents of a few journals, role in the Young Turk Revolution of 1908. such as Gencine-i Hayal (The treasure of imagination, published in Geneva) and \u0130stikbal (Future, published Since all members of organizations dominated by the in Naples) and their clandestine distribution within the Muslim opponents of the sultan and their sympathizers empire. In 1889, what became the major Young Turk orga- in the Empire were called Young Turks, this phrase does nization was established in the Royal Medical Academy in not necessarily refer to individuals who shared simi- Istanbul, originally calling itself the Ottoman Union Com- lar ideas. Thus ulema and ardent positivists worked as mittee. After protracted negotiations between the founders members of various Young Turk organizations. In the and Ahmed R\u0131za, this name was changed to the Ottoman early stages of the movement, many Young Turks, includ- Committee of Union and Progress (CUP). This new title ing the original founders of the CUP, were adherents of reflected the staunch positivism of Ahmed R\u0131za, who had mid-19th-century German materialism and admirers of Ludwig B\u00fcchner, Ernst Haeckel, Jocob Moleschott, and","606 Young Turks especially in Macedonia, the CPU secured the support of Albanian notables, societies, and bands, together with the Karl Vogt. In addition, Social Darwinism deeply influ- left wing of the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Orga- enced many Young Turks. Positivism, too, was advanced nization (IMRO); organizations and bands of the Kutzo- by various Young Turk leaders, and the French organ of Vlach, an ethnic minority in Macedonia; and the leading the Ottoman Committee of Union and Progress used the figures of the Jewish community in Salonika. The CPU positivist calendar for a while. Interestingly enough, Gus- was also able to secure a promise of noninterference from tave Le Bon and his theories of crowd psychology made a the Greek and Serbian organizations and the right wing strong impact on almost all members of the movement. of IMRO and their military bands. In the meantime, the Le Bon\u2019s ideas shaped the elitism promoted by the Young sultan had ordered a thorough investigation of the CPU\u2019s Turks. But following the reorganization of the CPU these revolutionary activities in June 1908. The palace\u2019s attempt ideas receded to the background, and practical politi- to crush the movement, coupled with rumors of an agree- cal ideas and an activist agenda took their place. For ment for the partition of Macedonia reached between instance, a powerful proto-nationalism emerged. It called British king Edward VII (r. 1901\u201310) and Russian czar for a dominant role for ethnic Turks in the empire while Nicholas II (r. 1894\u20131917) in Reval (present-day Tallinn), resisting European economic penetration and political prompted the CPU to accelerate its revolutionary activity, intervention. By 1908 the CPU had adopted a Turkist which had been scheduled to start in fall. Military units and anti-imperialist stand with the dream of making the called CPU National Battalions headed to the mountains Ottoman empire \u201cthe Japan of the Near East.\u201d For their (the first such unit, the Resen National Battalion, did so part, Sabahaddin Bey and his followers were deeply on July 3, 1908); the so-called CPU Gendarme Force com- influenced by the Science sociale movement, particularly posed of young officers carried out assassinations of palace by Edmond Demolins. They maintained that private ini- spies and officers still loyal to the regime; and Albanian tiative and decentralization, the main reasons for Anglo- feudal lords put their armed militia at the service of the Saxon superiority, would save the empire from collapse. CPU. In the meantime, some 20,000 Albanian Gegs, who had gathered in Firzovik (present-day Ferizaj, Kosovo) THE YOUNG TURK REVOLUTION to protest a school picnic organized by a foreign railway company, were persuaded by CPU members to take a sol- In July 1908 the CPU carried out the Young Turk Revo- emn oath on the constitution; they requested the consti- lution, which marked the end of both Abd\u00fclhamid II\u2019s tution\u2019s reinstatement by sending telegrams to the capital. regime and the Young Turk movement. The so-called All major Ottoman divisions in the region, as well as first- Young Turk Revolution was the product of a single orga- class Anatolian reservists sent there to quell the revolution, nization; other Young Turk groups played almost no role now joined the movement, and the CPU threatened the in the momentous event. The revolution was not a popular palace with a march on the capital. The desperate sultan uprising of Young Turks throughout the empire, nor was attempted to thwart the revolution by creating a state of it a liberal reform movement, as was assumed by many at war with Bulgaria, ostensibly an Ottoman principality. the time. Rather, it was a well-planned military insurrec- Upon the Bulgarian prince\u2019s refusal to cooperate with the tion, conceived and executed in Macedonia by the CPU. plan, the sultan finally yielded on July 23\u201324. He issued an The aims of this organization were also very conserva- imperial decree ordering the reinstatement of the Ottoman tive: to seize control of the empire, save it from collapse, constitution, in abeyance since 1878, and the re-opening of and to put an end to the practice whereby foreign powers the chamber of deputies. intervened in Ottoman politics by demanding reforms on behalf of Christian Ottoman subjects. The ideology behind The Young Turk Revolution of July 1908 inaugurated the revolution was conservative activism, and not a revolu- the Second Constitutional Period, which lasted until the tionary agenda in any real sense of the word. 1918 Mudros Armistice that concluded Ottoman participa- tion in World War I. The revolution not only forced the Following the merger between the CPU and the Otto- sultan to restore the constitutional regime, but also made man Freedom Society, new internal regulations that mir- the CUP (the committee started using its old name after rored the bylaws of major Armenian and Macedonian the revolution) the supreme force in Ottoman politics. revolutionary organizations clearly demonstrated a marked shift to an activist program. This program created self- M. \u015e\u00fckr\u00fc Hanio\u011flu sacrificing volunteer (fedai) branches and literally autho- rized them to kill anybody they deemed \u201chazardous to the Further reading: M. \u015e\u00fckr\u00fc Hanio\u011flu, Preparation fatherland\u201d; it turned the organization into a paramilitary for a Revolution: The Young Turks, 1902-1908 (New York: committee. Many officers attracted by this program now Oxford University Press, 2001); M. \u015e\u00fckr\u00fc Hanio\u011flu, The joined the organization, which recruited some 2,000 mem- Young Turks in Opposition (New York: Oxford University bers in the European provinces. Early in 1908 the CPU Press, 1995); \u015eerif Mardin, The Genesis of Young Ottoman made detailed plans for initiating an uprising in the Euro- Thought: A Study in the Modernization of Turkish Political pean provinces of the empire. Following protracted nego- Ideas (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1962). tiations with organizations active in these provinces, and","Z Zahir al-Umar (d. 1775) Palestinian warlord Zahir Zahir occupied Sidon. But just when it looked as if Otto- al-Umar was a member of the large Zaydani clan, fol- man control of Syria might be at an end, Abu al-Dha- lowers of Sunni Islam who are presumed to have had hab turned against his former mentor and returned to Bedouin origins but who had settled in Galilee, in pres- Egypt with his army. ent-day Israel, by the end of the 17th century. His father and uncles had controlled tax farms in the region and This left Zahir al-Umar as a rebel against the sul- Zahir al-Umar used that base to build alliances with var- tan but with few remaining allies. He sought recon- ious local groups by offering peasant cultivators protec- ciliation with the sultan and in 1774 was surprisingly tion from Bedouin raids. Among these were the clans of named as governor of Sidon. But that seems to have Jabal Amil in Lebanon, practitioners of Shia Islam. By been simply a delaying tactic on the part of the new the middle of the 18th century, Zahir moved his base of sultan, Abd\u00fclhamid I (r. 1774\u201389), until he could power to the port city of Acre, which he fortified. With conclude a peace treaty with Russia and rebuild his most of northern Palestine and southern Lebanon forces to punish Zahir. Before he could do so, Abu al- effectively under his control, he entered into extensive Dhahab invaded Palestine again in 1775, taking the trade relations with the French for the export of cot- city of Jaffa by storm. This time Abu al-Dhahab falsely ton, produced in Palestine, which enriched his coffers claimed to be acting at the sultan\u2019s request to remove and allowed him to recruit mercenaries from North Zahir from office. Zahir was forced to flee his strong- Africa. hold at Acre, which was subsequently occupied by the Egyptian forces. The Egyptian invasion was stalled by Zahir al-Umar\u2019s political position was tenuous, Abu al-Dhahab\u2019s sudden death, however, and Zahir despite his growing wealth. His official status in the recovered his capital. But at 80 years of age, Zahir was provincial hierarchy of the empire was as a vassal of the no longer in a position of either physical or politi- governor of Sidon, and he held no higher authority from cal strength and he offered only token resistance to the sultan. Realizing that the sultan could, in fact, move an attack on Acre by the Ottoman navy which had against him at any time, Zahir opted to align himself finally been dispatched to remove him from office. with Bulutkapan Ali Bey of Egypt whose forces took During the brief siege of the city, he was killed. After Gaza and Jaffa in 1770 in act of rebellion against Sul- his death, Sultan Abd\u00fclhamid I appointed Cezzar tan Mustafa III (r. 1754\u201374), who was the legal sover- Ahmed Pasha as governor of Sidon. Cezzar Ahmed eign of both Zahir and Ali. In the following spring, Abu appropriated Acre, which was a much better fortified al-Dhahab, Ali\u2019s mamluk and lieutenant, arrived with a city than Sidon, as his base. second Egyptian force and defeated the troops raised by the governor of Damascus. Abu al-Dhahab then entered Bruce Masters Damascus supported by the Druze and Maronite Further reading: Amnon Cohen, Palestine in the 18th retainers of Yusuf al-Shihab (see Shihab family) while Century (Jerusalem: Hebrew University Press, 1973). 607","608 Zand, Karim Khan tral tenet is that the Jewish people constitute their own nation and need their own state. The word Zion refers lit- Zand, Karim Khan (d. 1779) (r. 1765\u20131779) Iranian erally to a hill in Jerusalem that, even in Biblical times, tribal leader and warlord After the 1747 murder of had come to represent for Jews all of the Land of Israel. Nadir Shah, who had seized the throne of Iran in 1736, The late 19th century was a time when many of the peo- Iran descended into anarchy with different factions fight- ples of Europe were beginning to define themselves col- ing for the throne in a very bloody contest. A chieftain lectively by their ethnicity and were forming nationalist of the Zand tribe, who may have been ethnically Luris (a movements to create new independent nation-states out people who speak an Indo-European language related to of dead or waning empires. A common language typi- Kurdish and who inhabit the Zagros Mountains of west- cally provided the basis for deciding who belonged to a ern Iran) emerged victorious in 1765. Eschewing the tra- nation and who did not, but ethnicity could also be based ditional title of shah, this chieftain, Karim Khan, declared on a shared religious identity and a sense of a common himself to be only the regent for a claimant to the throne history. It was the latter two that Zionists would use to of Iran from the Safavi line, the dynasty that had ruled claim that the Jewish people constituted a separate nation Iran from 1501 until 1722. Despite his diffident approach in need of its own political state. to the Iranian throne, Karim Khan is remembered by his chroniclers as a just ruler, in sharp contrast to his prede- Although many Jews lived in eastern Europe and cessor, Nadir Shah. This is probably due in no small part the Balkans, the emerging national identities there were to the fact that Karim Khan restored Shia Islam as the decidedly Christian and Jews were regarded as outsiders. state religion at his court, giving patronage in the form of Further isolating Jews from inclusion in these incipient gifts to the Shii clergy. nations, many eastern European Jews spoke their own distinct language, Yiddish. In addition, the Jewish people Karim Khan\u2019s relations with the Ottomans were never had a clear sense of being a group apart, but also one that good, and they worsened as a result of complaints by Shii was historically dispersed, or in diaspora. Jewish religious pilgrims of ill treatment by Ottoman officials at Najaf and tradition held that this people would not come together Karbala. In the early 1770s, dynastic struggles among to form a political state until the advent of the Messiah the Baban family for control of Shahrizor spilled across who would restore the Kingdom of Israel, a belief that the border into the affairs of the Kurdish mirs (princes) of had given rise to several messianic movements, including Ardalan in territories that were in theory loyal to Karim that of the Shabbatai Zvi, which had galvanized Jewish Khan. As a result, in 1774, Karim Khan dispatched his hopes for a political redemption in the mid-17th century. army into Kurdistan to restore to the house of Arda- lan a claimant who was his vassal. However, the Persian In the 19th century, many Jews in western Europe army was defeated by an alliance of Ottoman forces from had hoped that the rise of modern secular nation-states Baghdad and Kurdish tribesmen, and the war intensi- would eliminate much of the conventional anti-Jewish fied. Instead of moving toward Baghdad or Mosul as discrimination that they had faced for centuries. It was Nadir Shah had done in a similar situation, Karim Khan hoped that the rise of the secular state would promote moved to encircle Basra. After a long siege, the city fell the peaceful coexistence of those with different religious in 1776, and Karim Khan returned to his capital in Shi- faiths. That confidence in an evenhanded secular moder- raz. But he did not live long to enjoy his victory as he was nity was shaken in 1894 by the infamous Dreyfus Affair, already suffering from some illness, probably tuberculo- in which Alfred Dreyfus, a French army officer who also sis, and he died in 1778. With his death, Iran descended happened to be a Jew, was charged with treason. His trial into another prolonged period of political anarchy until produced a wave of anti-Semitic articles and cartoons. the rise of the Qajar dynasty in the 1790s. Dreyfus was found guilty, but was later proven to have been innocent of the charge. The fact that he was not Bruce Masters given a fair trial, and the anti-Semitic media coverage of Further reading: John Perry, Karim Khan Zand: A His- the trial, shocked many Jews out their complacency and tory of Iran, 1747\u20131779 (Chicago: The University of Chicago sent a strong signal that they would never be accepted Press, 1979). fully in a predominantly Christian Europe. Although Leo Pinsker, a Russian Jew, had earlier articulated this same Zaydis See Shia Islam; Yemen. conclusion in his pamphlet Auto-Emancipation, pub- lished anonymously in German in 1882, it had received zimmi See dhimmi. scant attention. Rather, it was the Austrian Jewish jour- nalist Theodor Herzl, writing in the aftermath of the Zionism Zionism is a Jewish nationalist ideology that Dreyfus Affair, to whom many turned with serious atten- emerged in Europe at the end of the 19th century. Its cen- tion. Herzl covered the Dreyfus trial as a correspondent in Paris and came to the conclusion that however much","the Jews of Europe might seek assimilation into Euro- Ziya Pasha 609 pean society, Christian Europe would not accept them. The solution, he argued in his Der Judenstaat (The Jew- first collective agricultural settlement (kibbutz) in Degania ish State), published in 1896, was to found a Jewish state in 1909 to promote its application. where Jews could exist as a modern nation alongside the other nations of the world. Approximately 40,000 Jewish immigrants arrived in Palestine before 1914, although many of these were Herzl did not seem to have any particular geo- driven less by hope for the new state than by the harsh graphical location in mind. Rather, he believed that the conditions they encountered in their homelands before movement for a Jewish state would require the help of the outbreak of World War I. The official Ottoman atti- European imperial powers and that they would decide tude toward the Zionist program was ambivalent. Sultan its location. But for the majority of those Jews in Europe Abd\u00fclhamid II (r. 1876\u20131909) felt that his empire would who agreed that such a state was necessary, there was no be strengthened by Jewish immigration into Palestine, question that it could be any place but Palestine, which which was then an Ottoman territory, but at the same they continued to call Eretz Yisrael, the Land of Israel. time, his advisers worried that the Zionist movement There already existed in Russia a movement known as might eventually seek the secession of Palestine. the Lovers of Zion which called for the revival of Hebrew as a spoken language and for the Jewish return to Zion Ottoman Jews were largely indifferent to the Zionist as the Biblical homeland. When Herzl called his first program, partly due to a reluctance to leave the places in international congress in 1897 in Basel, Switzerland, the which their ancestors had lived for centuries and partly movement he had helped start already called itself Zion- due to the fact they had not suffered the persecution that ism and proclaimed that its goal was create for the Jewish their coreligionists had experienced in Europe. When people a home in Palestine; to that end, it encouraged the Vladimir Jabotinsky (who would later found the Revision- immigration of Jews to Palestine (aliya). ist Zionist movement) visited the city of Salonika, Jewish leaders there told him they favored the establishment of Although Herzl still toyed with alternative possibili- Jewish colonies in the Ottoman Empire but they preferred ties for the location of the Jewish state, the World Zion- that they be in Macedonia rather than Palestine. The Arab ist Congress set out to acquire funds to realize a Jewish population of Palestine looked on with trepidation as homeland in Palestine. The Jewish National Fund was cre- Zionists began to acquire property and build settlements. ated in 1901 and the Palestine Land Development Com- They feared the Zionists might seek to detach the terri- pany in 1908. Not all of those who supported the Zionist tory they were settling from the Ottoman Empire, and cause, however, accepted Herzl\u2019s vision of this Jewish state their representatives in the Ottoman Parliament sought to as secular. Asher Ginsburg, for example, who wrote under limit Jewish settlement after 1908, with no success. the name of Ahad Ha-Am (One of the People), argued that the Jewish state could not jettison its faith in God and During World War I, Turkish authorities impris- the laws of Moses and still be Jewish. But both secular and oned some Zionists who had not acquired Ottoman citi- religious Zionists agreed that the goal of achieving the zenship, and many Zionist settlers left the country. The state was primary and urgent and that questions as to the Zionist hopes, however, received a major boost with the nature of the state could wait. It was that ability to focus Balfour Declaration of November 2, 1917, which stated on primary practical goals before ideological questions that the British looked with favor on the establishment that proved crucial in Zionism\u2019s success. in Palestine of a \u201cnational home for the Jewish people.\u201d Though not quite a commitment to a Jewish state, this Jews had been settling in Palestine for centuries, with support was an essential first step in the establishment of an escalation in immigration since the 1880s, but in 1904 a what would become, in 1948, the state of Israel. movement known as the Second Aliya began with the goal of creating an agricultural Palestine. The men and women Bruce Masters in this movement saw themselves as pioneers (Hebrew Further reading: Arthur Hertzberg, The Zionist Idea chalutzim) who would transform the land into an agricul- (New York: Jewish Publication Society, 1959); Neville Man- tural paradise by hard physical labor. They would also cul- del, The Arabs and Zionism before World War I (Berkeley: turally transform the Jewish people through the revival of University of California Press, 1976). Hebrew as a spoken language and the production of a Jew- ish culture free from the influences of what they deemed Ziya Pasha (Abd\u00fclhamid Ziyaeddin) (b. 1825\u2013d. \u201cghetto culture.\u201d Those who believed in this ideology were 1880) Ottoman poet, writer, and statesman of the Tanzi- known as Labor Zionists and included David Ben-Gurion, mat era A key figure in the Young Ottoman move- a future prime minister of Israel, and most of the founders ment of the mid-19th century, Ziya Pasha devoted much of the state of Israel. The Labor Zionists believed socialism of his life to the public critique of the late Ottoman must be at the core of this rebirth and they founded their Empire, focusing especially on government corruption and mismanagement. As an exile in Europe, the Istan- bul native founded several influential newspapers,","610 Ziya Pasha his intellect, but also by his long administrative experi- ence. He is best known for his writings, most of which including H\u00fcrriyet (Liberty), and gathered around him related to improving the empire\u2019s administration. In a a group of like-minded fellow exiles who together had series of articles published in H\u00fcrriyet, it is apparent that a profound effect on the public attitude toward political Ziya Pasha had a contradictory political theory vis-\u00e0-vis criticism in the Ottoman Empire. Although he was an the current administrative system. His ideas were some- ardent proponent of modern ideas, Ziya Pasha\u2019s familiar- times modern, but he sometimes seemed to be a cultural ity with the palace and his immersion in sultanic culture traditionalist. These articles clearly show the influence of left a deep impression on his mind and attitudes; due 18th-century French Enlightenment philosophers, espe- in part to these influences, he is also seen as having fre- cially Rousseau. Committed at once to innovation and quently embraced the ideas of a cultural traditionalist. tradition, Ziya Pasha\u2019s writing embraces the Young Otto- mans\u2019 notions of consultation and assembly, but rejects Ziya Pasha was born in 1825 in Istanbul and gradu- their idea of rebellion. The reason for this seemingly dual ated from Mekteb-i Edebiye (Literature School) in 1846. position was probably his close relationship with the Sub- That same year, with the support of Mustafa Re\u015fid lime Porte and his devotion to and respect for the sultan. Pasha, he received a civil service appointment. In 1862, In his booklet R\u00fcya (Dream, published after his death in following Resid\u2019s death, Grand Vizier Fuad Pasha dis- 1910), for instance, Ziya Pasha suggests the establishment missed Ziya Pasha from his service in the private apart- of a national assembly; however, he also claims that the ments of the palace (Mabeyn-i Humayun) and sent him sultan\u2019s \u201clegitimate independence\u201d should by no means be on various administrative assignments as a mutasarrif or restricted. Moreover, he advises that the emperor should tax collector in Cyprus, in Canik (a town in the Black engage more actively in state affairs, linking the decline Sea region of Turkey), and in Amasya (a city in the of the Ottoman Empire to the sultan\u2019s retreat from state Black Sea region of Turkey), and he was a member of the affairs. Supreme Council for Judicial Ordinances (Meclis-i Vala- y\u0131 Ahkam-\u0131 Adliye) in different terms. In 1867, when he Ziya Pasha was also an acclaimed poet. In 1859 he was mutasarrif of Amasya, Ziya Pasha left Turkey for wrote a traditional book of poetry titled Terci-i Bend (a Paris on the invitation of Mustafa Faz\u0131l Pasha, a brother poem in which each stanza ends with the same couplet). of the Egyptian khedive and a grandson of Mehmed Ali. The text is one of those mystical works often encountered In Paris, Ziya Pasha, Nam\u0131k Kemal, and other friends in classical Ottoman literature in which God is being established an opposition intellectual movement, the sought in works, life is envisaged as a process of prepara- Young Ottoman Society (see Young Ottomans), and tion for eternal life, and the human being is portrayed as with the financial backing of Mustafa Faz\u0131l Pasha, pub- a passing imagination. However, the poem is still mod- lished journals in Paris (Muhbir, or Reporter, in 1867) ern in the sense that it turns into a struggle between faith and in London (H\u00fcrriyet, or Liberty, in 1868). Although and reason. Published in 1870, Terkib-i Bend (a poem Mustafa Faz\u0131l Pasha compromised to guarantee his future the stanzas of which are connected by a refrain) illus- and bureaucratic status with Sultan Abd\u00fclaziz (r. 1861\u2013 trates Ziya Pasha\u2019s struggle against the Porte, not the sul- 76) in 1867 and returned to Istanbul, he continued to tan. Although he never gives up the main ideas of Terci-i finance these publications. In the following period, he Bend, the speaker is shown as having achieved peace of insisted that the Society should be less oppositional, and mind, saying \u201cthere is no way to understand the secret of when his demand was not taken into consideration he creation, therefore, let\u2019s look at our earth and, before all ceased financial support for Society activities. As a result, else, clear it from injustice.\u201d In Zafername (Book of Vic- Nam\u0131k Kemal ended his association with the paper, and tory, 1868), which is a fairly severe satire, he depicts a from the 64th issue (September 13, 1869), H\u00fcrriyet was man of struggle who bluntly makes fun of his enemy and published by Ziya Pasha alone. When \u00c2l\u00ee Pasha died in benefits from all possible means to beat him. This book 1871, other members of the Young Ottoman group also also includes poems about major political crises of the began to turn back to the empire. Ziya Pasha continued era such as Serbian castles, Romania, and Lebanon affairs to publish H\u00fcrriyet until its 100th issue in 1871, where- and especially gossips concerning Crete. Harabat (Ruins) upon he, too, returned to Istanbul. is a continuation of classical Ottoman poetry from one aspect, yet from another aspect it demonstrates com- Back in Istanbul, Ziya Pasha held some official posts pletely new characteristics. With this work a philosophi- (including mabeyn ba\u015fkatibli\u011fi, or chief scribe of the pri- cal uneasiness was introduced to literature. vate apartment of the palace; terceme cemiyeti reisli\u011fi, or chief of the translation society; and maarif m\u00fcste\u015farl\u0131\u011f\u0131, Ziya Pasha also prepared translations of Louis Viar- or under-secretary of education) for short periods. In dot\u2019s Histoire des Arabes et des Maures d\u2019Espagne (His- 1876, he was active with Midhat Pasha in an attempt to tory of the Moors of Spain), Joseph Lavall\u00e9e\u2019s Histoire dethrone Sultan Abd\u00fclaziz. des Inquisitions Religieuses d\u2019Italie, d\u2019Espagne et de Por- Familiar with Arabic, Persian, and French, Ziya Pasha was distinguished not only by his learning and"]