Big Ideas Simply Explained - The Religions Book

["","250 INTRODUCTION The beginning of Muhammad dies The Umayyad Al-Mahdi, the Hidden the revelation in Medina at dynasty rules the One of Shi\u2018a Islam, of the Qur\u2019an the age of 63. growing Islamic to Muhammad. disappears, not to return Empire; Shi\u2019a until the end of the world. Islam emerges. 610 CE 632 CE 661\u2013750 872 11TH CENTURY 629\u201330 CE 7TH CENTURY 750 Muhammad makes a The sayings (hadith) The Abbasid Ibn Sina attempts pilgrimage to Mecca, of Muhammad are dynasty rises and to reconcile rational begins an Islamic followed by the passed down by word philosophy with conquest of the of mouth. These are Golden Age. Islamic theology. later gathered into holy city. large collections. F ounded in the 7th century, and the way a person lives their life interpretation. From the judgments Islam is nevertheless will be assessed on the Day of of theologians on the holy books regarded by its followers Judgment. The central professions and an examination of the life as an ancient faith\u2014one that has of the faith are summed up in the of the Prophet Muhammad, has always existed as God\u2019s intended Five Pillars of Islam. Religious life emerged a system of religious law religion. Along with Judaism and revolves round the mosque, which, and moral codes known as shari\u2018a, Christianity, it is an Abrahamic as well as being a center of worship which informs the civil law of many religion, tracing its roots back to and teaching, acts as a focus for Islamic countries. Ibrahim (Abraham), the \ufb01rst of a the social life of the community. line of prophets sent to reveal the From its origins, Islam has been faith\u2014a line that also includes The last prophet entwined with civil and political Musa (Moses) and Isa (Jesus). The revelation to Muhammad is life. Muhammad himself was as Muslims believe the last in this line considered the \ufb01nal and complete much a political as a religious is the Prophet Muhammad, who revelation from God. Memorized by leader and thinker. Because of his received the revelations contained Muhammad\u2019s immediate followers, preaching of monotheism, he and his in the Qur\u2019an and established it was written in the form of the followers were forced to \ufb02ee Mecca Islam as it is known today. Qur\u2019an\u2014Islam\u2019s holy scripture and (an event known to Muslims as the the ultimate and unquestionable Hijra, commemorated annually) for Islam is a strongly monotheistic word of God. Beyond the Qur\u2019an, Medina, where he established the religion, emphasizing the oneness there also exist sayings attributed \ufb01rst Islamic city-state, with himself of an incomparable God, Allah to Muhammad, collectively known as spiritual, political, and military (Arabic for \u201cthe God\u201d), and people\u2019s as the hadith. The scriptures have leader. He then led his people back duty to serve him. Islam teaches inspired a rich tradition of scholarly to Mecca, conquering the city and that human life is a gift from God, establishing the beginnings of an","ISLAM 251 Muhammad ibn Mongol invasions The Islamic The Iranian Tumart founds the led by Genghis Mughal Empire Revolution replaces Al-Muwahhidun Khan end the Iran\u2019s Westernizing movement (\u201cthose who is established emphasize unity\u201d). Abbasid era. in India. government. 1082\u20131130 13TH CENTURY 1526 1979 1095\u20131291 1453 1948 2011 Islam comes under Mehmed II The State of Israel is The Arab Spring: attack in a series of of Turkey conquers established, leading democracy is Crusades, blessed by the Catholic Church, to regain Constantinople to the start of the established, allowing Christian control of and founds the Arab\u2013Israeli con\ufb02ict, the election of Ottoman Empire. the Holy Land. which continues to Islamist parties in the present. several countries. empire to unite the disparate tribes and Damascus became centers populations. Indonesia is the of Arabia. Within a century of his of scienti\ufb01c inquiry and learning. country with the largest number death in 632, the Islamic Empire Islamic writing and poetry also of Muslims, followed by Pakistan, had expanded across northern \ufb02ourished, along with decorative India, and Bangladesh. Africa and into Asia. Despite arts, including calligraphy. disputes over who should succeed Approximately 25 percent of Muhammad, which led to the The Islamic Empire eventually Muslims live in the Middle East division between Sunni and Shi\u2018a fragmented, but Islam remains and North Africa, and there are Islam, the Islamic Caliphate\u2014the one of the largest of all religions, now Muslim communities in almost Muslim political and religious state practiced by some 25 percent every other country in the world. ruled by a caliph\u2014wielded great of the world population. About political unity and power. three-quarters of adherents Islam has come into con\ufb02ict, are Sunni, and 10 to 20 percent, both ideologically and politically, The Islamic Golden Age Shi\u2018a. Around 50 countries have with the Christian world since the Soon, the Islamic Empire extended a Muslim majority: of these, a Crusades, and following colonial over a wider area than Christian handful, including Saudi Arabia, domination by the West. Recent Europe. However, in contrast to Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iran tensions have given rise to a radical Christianity, which saw scienti\ufb01c are considered Islamic states, interpretation of jihad (struggle) by thought to be a threat to its dogma, based on religious law; a large some fundamentalist Muslims as a Islam saw no incompatibility number of other countries, mainly religious duty to defend their faith between its theology and the in the Middle East, have Islam as through con\ufb02ict. However, Islam is disciplines of philosophy and their of\ufb01cial state religion; others essentially a peaceable religion, and science. Cities such as Baghdad still have secular governments, most Muslims identify more closely but predominantly Islamic with the compassionate principles of their faith. \u25a0","252 MUHAMMAD IS GOD\u2019S FINAL MESSENGER THE PROPHET AND THE ORIGINS OF ISLAM IN CONTEXT God revealed His Word According to Islamic to Moses and Jesus. tradition, in around 582 CE KEY FIGURE a Christian hermit, Muhammad Humanity misinterpreted Bahira, was living in the Syrian and corrupted the message desert when, one day, a boy passing WHEN AND WHERE by with a camel train caught his 570\u2013632 CE, Arabia of the revelations. attention. After talking with him, Bahira concluded that the sign of BEFORE God now transmits His Word prophecy was upon the boy. He c.2000\u20131500 BCE In the directly to Muhammad. was destined for greatness, Bahira Hebrew Bible, God makes a foretold, and should be cared for well. covenant with the patriarch The pure message of Islam Abraham; Islam will recognize is His \ufb01nal message The young boy was Muhammad this \ufb01gure (in Arabic, Ibrahim) to humanity. ibn \u2018Abdallah, who became the as one of the \ufb01rst prophets. prophet of Islam and, according Muhammad is to Muslims, God\u2019s \ufb01nal messenger. c.14th\u201313th century BCE God\u2019s \ufb01nal messenger. This implies, of course, that there In Jewish, Christian, and were messengers sent by God (in Muslim tradition, Moses, Arabic, Allah) before Muhammad; leading the Israelites, receives these include notable \ufb01gures commandments from God such as Musa (Moses) and Isa on Mount Sinai. (Jesus). To Musa, God revealed the Tawrat, or Torah, to guide the 1st century CE Jesus, later Jews. To Isa, God gave the Injil, recognized by Muslims a lost scripture with a name that as a prophet, foretells the translates as Gospel, although it did coming of a \ufb01nal prophet not resemble in its form the four or messenger of God. canonical Gospels of Christianity. AFTER Muslims consider Jews and 19th century In India, Mirza Christians to be People of the Book, Ghulam Ahmad claims to because, like Muslims, they are also be a prophet bringing a new monotheists with a holy scripture message that will reform Islam. that was revealed to them by God. Muslims honor, in some ways, the revelations God gave to messengers","ISLAM 253 See also: God\u2019s covenant with Israel 168\u201375 \u25a0 Jesus\u2019s message to the world 204\u2013207 \u25a0 The origins of Ahmaddiya 284\u201385 Muhammad is\u2026the Moreover, it marks an end to further Muhammad ibn Messenger of God and revelation. Muhammad is the Seal \u2019Abdallah the Seal of the Prophets. (last) of the Prophets: he marks a close in God\u2019s revelation and is the Born near Mecca around 570, Surah 33:40 last of God\u2019s special messengers. Muhammad ibn \u2018Abdallah was raised by his uncle, Abu before Muhammad, but they also By the early 7th century, Talib. The young Muhammad believe that these revelations Muhammad claimed the authority accompanied his uncle on became corrupt. Jews introduced of a prophet, whose mission was many of his journeys as a elements to the Torah that did not to preach the worship of the one, camel-train merchant, meeting come directly from God. Likewise, true God. Many Jews, Christians, travelers from a wide variety of Jesus\u2019s followers mishandled his and polytheists in his native cultures and religions. He message and distorted the Gospels, Mecca believed his message. This gained a reputation for being misrepresenting God\u2019s original \ufb02edgling community of Muslims wise and trustworthy. intentions. Therefore, Islam teaches was persecuted for its beliefs, that the Jewish and Christian and so Muhammad left Mecca for When in his early 20s, scriptures in their current form are nearby Medina, where the Muslim Muhammad was employed by no longer God\u2019s pure revelations, community expanded. a wealthy widow, Khadija, to but corrupted by human error. manage her business. She, too, Given Muhammad\u2019s eminent was a camel-train merchant. status in Islam, Muslims have Khadija later proposed to always looked to his life and words him and they were married. as a model for Islamic living. Many After her death, Muhammad of the things he said and did are remarried and is said to have recorded in the Sunna, which had 13 wives or concubines. comprises authoritative collections of Muhammad\u2019s sayings (hadith) Muhammad would often and actions (sunna). These serve as retreat from business and examples to Muslims seeking family life to a cave in the guidance on how to live their lives. \u25a0 desert, where he would meditate. In 610, during a God\u2019s word uncorrupted moonless night of meditation, In order to overcome this corruption, the angel Jibrail (Gabriel) God sent down his unde\ufb01led word appeared in a bright light to one \ufb01nal time, in the form of the Muhammad, offering to him Qur\u2019an, through Muhammad\u2014his the \ufb01rst of many revelations \ufb01nal messenger. Thus, Islam is not that would eventually make up seen by Muslims as a new religion the Qur\u2019an, Islam\u2019s holy book. with a new holy book. Instead, Muhammad\u2019s career as a Islam is considered the original, prophet lasted for 22 years. pure, and unique revelation of God. He died in 632 in Medina. It supersedes those revelations that were given to Moses and Jesus and mishandled by their followers. Now in Saudi Arabia, Mecca is the holiest city of the Islamic faith since it is the birthplace of Muhammad. This is the Grand Mosque, the heart of the city.","THE QUR\u2019AN WAS SENT DOWN FROM HEAVEN GOD REVEALS HIS WORD AND HIS WILL","","256 GOD REVEALS HIS WORD AND HIS WILL IN CONTEXT According to the Islamic Recite! In the name faith, God has revealed of your Lord who KEY TEXT his will to humankind The Qur\u2019an through nature, history, and, most created, created man importantly, his word. Nature, or from a blood clot. Recite! WHEN AND WHERE God\u2019s creation, is a sign pointing 610\u2013632 CE, Arabia to God\u2019s existence. In history, Sura 96:1\u20135 the rise and fall of empires are BEFORE signs of God\u2019s sovereignty over for Gabriel) appeared to him in c.2000\u20131500 BCE Muslims humankind. But of greatest the cave, summoning Muhammad believe Moses is given the signi\ufb01cance is that God\u2019s will to prophethood and demanding Torah on Mount Sinai. is revealed through his word and that he \u201cRecite!\u201d (p.253). What conveyed by his messengers. followed was the \ufb01rst revelation of 10th\u20139th century BCE Dawud the Qur\u2019an. The whole of the Qur\u2019an (King David of Israel) receives In Islam, God\u2019s ultimate word was revealed to Muhammad at the Zabur, a second holy book, and will are contained in the intervals over a prolonged period from God; this may be the Qur\u2019an, the book that was revealed of time so that he could gradually biblical book of Psalms. to the Prophet Muhammad, chosen recite it (the Arabic word qur\u2019an by God as His \ufb01nal messenger means recitation) to others. 1st century CE In Islamic (pp.252\u201353). Within it are ayat\u2014 The revelations, many of which tradition, God bestows a book verses, or signs, that reveal to the Muhammad was to receive in a of revelation and truth on Jesus. world what God desires and trancelike state, began in commands. Another name for the 610 CE and continued over the AFTER Qur\u2019an is al-Tanzil, the Downsent. next 22 years. At \ufb01rst, Muhammad c.7th century CE The For Muslims, the Qur\u2019an is God\u2019s memorized the revelations and companions of the Prophet literal word that has been sent produce the \ufb01rst Qur\u2019anic text. down to humankind from heaven. 8th\u20139th century CE The The recitation scholar al-Sha\ufb01\u2018i enshrines According to Islamic tradition, the Qur\u2019an as the primary Muhammad spent many days reference for shari\u2019a, or meditating in a cave on Mount Islamic law. Hira overlooking Mecca. One night the angel Jibrail (the Arabic name \u2026 is transmitted by \u2026 and transcribed God\u2019s angel Jibrail by his followers in book form as... to Muhammad\u2026 The Noble Qur\u2019an The Word of God \u2026 which retains its \u2026 and therefore miraculous connection remains the perfect to its heavenly prototype\u2026 expression of\u2026","ISLAM 257 See also: God\u2019s covenant with Israel 168\u201375 \u25a0 The Prophet and the origins of Islam 252\u201353 \u25a0 The central professions of faith 262\u201369 \u25a0 The pathway to harmonious living 272\u201375 The angel Jibrail appears to Muhammad and delivers the \ufb01rst revelation. Here, in accordance with Islamic tradition, a faceless \ufb01gure represents the Prophet. speaking, by length. The longer chapters are found at the beginning of the Qur\u2019an, with shorter chapters arranged toward the end. As a whole, the chapters cover a wide range of topics, providing guidance on worship, politics, marriage and family life, care for the disadvantaged, and even matters of hygiene, community affairs, and economics. In an attempt to classify and date the chapters of the Qur\u2019an, modern scholars have created a system for identifying them. In this method of classi\ufb01cation, revelations that appear to have been given to Muhammad early in his prophetic career, when he resided in Mecca, are known as the Meccan chapters. The earliest of these Meccan revelations are often very rhythmic and full of imagery. Many begin with oaths. \u276f\u276f passed them on orally. His followers Many sections of the Qur\u2019an [It is] a Qur\u2019an which we memorized them in turn, but the contain material that matches, have divided [into parts], revelations were eventually written or at least corresponds closely in order that you might recite down, sometimes by Muhammad\u2019s to, portions of the Hebrew Bible and it to the people at intervals. secretaries, at other times by his Christian New Testament. However, followers. Portions of the Qur\u2019an according to the Muslim view, And we have sent it have been found written on pieces these holy books are corrupted down progressively. of animal bone, leather, stones, (pp.252\u201353): the Qur\u2019an is therefore palm leaves, and parchment. believed to function both as a Sura 17:106 corrective to, and a progression A standardized version of beyond, previous revelations. the Qur\u2019an in book form was compiled in the mid-7th century, The ordering of the suras soon after Muhammad\u2019s death. The chapters (suras) and verses Muslims believe that this that make up the Qur\u2019an are compilation, and the ordering of the not arranged chronologically or 114 chapters and 6,000 verses that according to topic but, broadly resulted, were divinely inspired.","258 GOD REVEALS HIS WORD AND HIS WILL For example, chapter 95 of the group of followers, but had become This Qur\u2019an is Qur\u2019an is introduced with, \u201cBy the head of a large, independent not such as could the \ufb01g and the olive and by Mount community of Muslims. ever be produced by Sinai and by this city of security!\u201d other than God. As a result, the Medinan Later Meccan chapters are chapters are characterized less Sura 10:37 more serene and contain frequent by themes of doctrine and the illustrations of the truth of God\u2019s proofs of God\u2019s signs. Instead, cause for suspicion. The testimony message drawn from nature and more time is spent in discussion of of those who do not provide the history. They are more formal legal and social matters and how necessary witnesses should be than other chapters and often such rulings should be applied rejected and such persons dealt discuss matters of doctrine. God in order to regulate life within with harshly according to this is frequently referred to in these the growing Muslim community. Medinan chapter of the Qur\u2019an. chapters as the Merciful. For example, in chapter 24 Rote and recitation Revelations accorded to of the Qur\u2019an, Muslims are told Western scholarship has added Muhammad when he was living to bring four witnesses in order numbers to the chapters and verses in the city of Medina are classi\ufb01ed to corroborate an accusation of of the Qur\u2019an for ease of reference. by scholars as the Medinan adultery. This was an important For Muslims, however, chapters chapters. These chapters are quite safeguard for women in a society are referred to by speci\ufb01c, different from the Meccan ones in which even the sight of an distinguishing words that appear because, by this time, Muhammad unrelated man and woman within each chapter. For example, was no longer leading a \ufb02edgling together might be considered the Qur\u2019an\u2019s second and longest chapter is known as The Cow. The Qur\u2019an is not arranged in any narrative or chronological This chapter is named after a order. Opened at any point, it will offer reassurance of God\u2019s will story it contains about a heifer to the reader through suras (chapters) that often take their name that is reluctantly sacri\ufb01ced by the from a story, theme, or truth that they contain. Israelites. In the account, the \ufb02esh of the sacri\ufb01ced animal is used to The Letter \u201cQaf\u201d bring a slain man to life again in order to identify his murderer. The Cow The Sun Muslims also rarely refer The Constellations The Mountain to individual verses by number, instead preferring to quote the The Pen The Elephant The Moon beginning of a passage under discussion. This form of referencing of course requires not only great familiarity with the text of the Qu\u2019ran but also considerable memorization skills. Nonetheless, many Muslims memorize large","ISLAM 259 Reading, learning, and reciting portions of the Qur\u2019an are central to Islamic education, and remain an everyday activity for Muslims thoughout their adult lives. portions of the Qur\u2019an, and some This means that, even though the text in particular, should never be are even able to commit the entire Qur\u2019an was given to Muhammad in left on the \ufb02oor or in any unclean book to memory. the form of oral recitations and only place. When displayed among later written down, the physical a pile of books, it should always To learn the entire Qur\u2019an by book itself is regarded as sacred. be positioned on top; and when heart brings great prestige and placed on a bookshelf, it should blessing, and a Muslim who has Respect for the Qur\u2019an rest on the highest shelf, with achieved this is known as a ha\ufb01z The Muslim belief that the Islamic nothing else beside or above it. or a guardian of the Qur\u2019an. A ha\ufb01z holy scripture exists in heaven keeps God\u2019s holy book alive, and is makes the handling of its earthly In addition, before handling often called shaykh, a mark of representations a matter of great the Qur\u2019an, Muslims should make great respect. Such Muslims often care and delicacy, and there are certain that they are ritually clean become reciters of the Qur\u2019an, a several guidelines regarding how by washing themselves, just as role that is undertaken during daily Muslims should treat their sacred they would before worshipping prayers and other important rituals book. The Qur\u2019an, and the Arabic God. The Qur\u2019an should also be and ceremonies. This skill carried with care, and for this \u276f\u276f is so highly prized that auditoriums are often \ufb01lled to capacity for recitation contests. The Qur\u2019an has a preeminent place both in Islam and within God\u2019s plan for the world. It is considered the divine miracle brought by the Prophet Muhammad \u2014the only miracle, in fact, as Muhammad himself did not perform them. Muslims believe that the Qur\u2019an is based on a heavenly prototype, a book written in Arabic and existing with God in heaven. The Qur\u2019an and the Bible being sent from paradise, ...recite the Qur\u2019an because they begged for His in slow, measured Readers of the Qur\u2019an and mercy, rather than cast out and rhythmic tones. both the Hebrew Bible and cursed as in the Bible. Jesus the Christian Bible will \ufb01nd (as prophet, rather than divine Sura 73:4 many characters and stories \ufb01gure) appears several times, in common. The words of the but nowhere near as often as his Qur\u2019an appear to assume some mother Mary, spoken of in the familiarity with Jewish and Qur\u2019an with a special fondness. Christian texts, while offering In a miracle unreported in the some gentle correctives in Bible, the infant Jesus speaks certain details. In the Qur\u2019an, up from the crib to defend his for example, Adam and Hawwa mother\u2019s honor when ill-wishers (Eve) are forgiven by God before accuse her of fornication.","260 GOD REVEALS HIS WORD AND HIS WILL Printed and bound copies of the Many of these rules of respect endeavor. Everything about it, from Qur\u2019an are checked meticulously for apply not only to the written text the grammatical constructions accuracy before being distributed\u2014here of the Qur\u2019an, but also to its oral of the Qur\u2019an\u2019s Arabic, to the by a 600-strong team of readers at the recitation. Since the Qur\u2019an is sound of it when it is read and King Fahd printworks in Saudi Arabia. perceived as God\u2019s literal word, it chanted, and the prophecies it is thought to come alive when it is foretells, is considered miraculous reason it is frequently carried recited. As a result, many Muslims and matchless. According to in a bag to avoid damage. If it cover their heads when it is read Muslims, any attempt to equal or should accidentally fall, then it is aloud and sometimes even during surpass the Qur\u2019an will surely fail. honored, sometimes with a kiss, their personal study of the Qur\u2019an. and returned to safety. Some Another aspect of the Qur\u2019an\u2019s Muslims will make a charitable The role of language miraculous nature is its unique donation in cases where they have The belief that the heavenly repetition of basic themes. handled the Qur\u2019an carelessly. prototype of the Qur\u2019an is written Opening the Qur\u2019an at any section in Arabic makes Qur\u2019anic Arabic will often yield a treatment of the The sacred respect shown not only the sacred language of book\u2019s essential message. This towards the Qur\u2019an is maintained Islam, but the language of God as formulaic, and almost abbreviated, for old and worn-out copies as well, well. For Muslims there is therefore style is challenging for non-Muslims, which may not be thrown away, a very real sense that the Qur\u2019an or those familiar with the narrative but instead should be disposed of loses its status as divine revelation structure of other holy scriptures. through a respectful burial. This when it is translated into other For Muslims, however, this style can be done in any appropriate languages. Due to this belief, is a mysterious testament to the place for a burial, including at sea. translations of the Qur\u2019an are Qur\u2019an\u2019s unparalleled beauty. Some Muslims will also allow a frequently accompanied by the disposal by \ufb01re. Arabic text, and even then The Qur\u2019an is not only the these texts are considered mere most sacred book of Islam, but is Stipulations for the disposal interpretations or translations of also considered by Muslims, and of the sacred text are also meant the meaning of the original Arabic. even many non-Muslims, as the to apply to any paper, jewelry, They are in no way substitutes or crowning achievement of Arabic decoration, or other material on equivalents of the Arabic Qur\u2019an. literature. As such, the Qur\u2019an which verses of the Qur\u2019an have is studied for its poetic prose as been written. For this reason, some Since Qur\u2019anic Arabic is much as it is read for its divine Muslim-majority regions provide considered a divine language, other guidance. But the respect, special disposal bins so that such aspects of Muslim life and thought material can be collected and are further shaped around the Falsehood cannot come disposed of properly. language. For example, Muslims to it from any direction, throughout the world memorize the it is preserved by God Qur\u2019an and their prayers in Arabic, Who said: \u201cVerily, We, it is regardless of whether or not they We who have sent down the understand the language. Qur\u2019an and surely, We will guard it from corruption. Perhaps most importantly, the text of the Arabic Qur\u2019an, since it is Sura 15:9 holy, shares certain characteristics with God, its author. Thus, it is perfect, eternal, uncreated, and unchangeable. Known as i\u2018jaz al-Qur\u2019an (the miraculousness or inimitability of the Qur\u2019an), this doctrine means that the language, literary style, and ideas revealed in the Qur\u2019an are irreproducible and cannot be matched by any human","\u2026a guidance for However, abstract images, such ISLAM 261 the people and clear as patterns, were permitted, and proofs of guidance and the Arabic script itself developed The transcribers of the criterion [of right into an elevated art form: beautiful the Qur\u2019an Arabic calligraphy was used to and wrong]. write out the Qur\u2019an, often in In order to safeguard the Sura 2:185 spectacular colored inks and integrity of the Qur\u2019an, precious gold leaf. Zayd ibn Thabit, one of the appreciation, and matchlessness Prophet\u2019s close companions, accorded to the Qur\u2019an are not As a result of the prohibition formed a group of scribes limited by Muslims to its message on portraying animals or human responsible for writing down or its recitation. Even the Arabic \ufb01gures, artists also developed revelations as they came to script within the holy book has the Islamic arabesque style. This Muhammad. Eventually, Zayd signi\ufb01cant visual value and plays is a form of artistic decoration and his scholars produced a central role in Islamic art. that consists of rhythmic lines, a full-length manuscript of elaborate scrolling and interlacing the Qur\u2019an, which was cross- foliage, and repeated geometric checked with those who had motifs. These artworks\u2014which memorized the revelations appear on mosaics, in the Qur\u2019an, to ensure that there were no and inside mosques\u2014also have an errors. The \ufb01nished manuscript important spiritual message: the was presented to Hafsah, one endlessly intertwining shapes and of Muhammad\u2019s wives. patterns, in which there appears to be no beginning or end, are Since Arabic is written intended to prompt re\ufb02ection without vowels, a correct on the in\ufb01nity of Allah. \u25a0 reading and pronunciation of the text depends upon the The art of Islam Islam does not allow representation reader\u2019s familiarity with the Motivated by a desire to avoid in religious imagery; instead, beautiful language. When discrepancies idolatry in all its forms, Muslim calligraphy and patterning are used. cropped up, the dialect of tradition forbade representational The geometric designs re\ufb02ect the the Quraysh, Muhammad\u2019s illustration within the Qur\u2019an. order and harmony that Allah brings. tribe, was given precedence. Even so, variations of the written Qur\u2019anic text arose. Consequently, Uthman ibn Affan, one of Muhammad\u2019s companions, oversaw the production of an authorized version in the mid-7th century. The book of the Qur\u2019an as it is known today is largely a result of this compilation.","THE FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM THE CENTRAL PROFESSIONS OF FAITH","","264 THE CENTRAL PROFESSIONS OF FAITH IN CONTEXT Shahada By which we af\ufb01rm that Profession of faith there is no god but God KEY SOURCE and Muhammad is the Hadith (sayings) Salat of Muhammad Prayer messenger of God. WHEN AND WHERE Zakat By which we offer worship to Early 7th century, Arabia Almsgiving God, proclaiming His greatness. BEFORE Sawm By which we offer worship From 1000BCE The Torah, then Fasting to God, acknowledging His the Talmud, set down the rules for Jewish life that form part of Hajj sovereignty and caring God\u2019s covenants with Israel. Pilgrimage to Mecca for those in need. 1st century CE Christianity By which we purify ourselves incorporates the Judaic before God in His great mercy. covenants, in particular the Ten Commandments. By which we embrace the unity of the Muslim community 610 CE The Prophet and draw close to God. Muhammad starts to receive the revelation of the Qur\u2019an. AFTER 680 CE Shi\u2018a Islam introduces additional pillars that guide faith and observance. 8th century CE Schools of Islamic law develop, offering further interpretations that guide Islamic life and practice. A ccording to a tradition these \ufb01ve practices lie at the core the \ufb01rst pillar, and central creed of narrated by Abdallah ibn of the faith, and all branches of Islam, is a simple acknowledgment \u2018Umar ibn al-Khattab, one Islam accept and perform them. of the distinctiveness of the one, of Muhammad\u2019s companions, the true God and the unique place of Prophet summarized Islam by The profession of faith his messenger, Muhammad. This saying that the religion is based While not summarizing the whole profession of faith, known as the on \ufb01ve principles: \u201cTo testify that of Islam as a religion, the pillars shahada (witness), is the only there is no god but God and serve as a kind of outline of means by which a person may Muhammad is God\u2019s messenger; minimal obligations for Muslims become a Muslim. The shahada to offer the prayers dutifully and to abide by. Their simplicity and is whispered in a Muslim\u2019s ear at perfectly; to pay the obligatory straightforwardness are intentional, birth and at death. It is also offered alms; to perform the pilgrimage for Muslims are intended to follow as a testimony throughout the day to Mecca; and to observe the fast God unencumbered by the heavy when Muslims are called to prayer. during the month of Ramadan.\u201d burden of religious stipulations. Although succinct, the shahada is As the Qur\u2019an con\ufb01rms, \u201c[God] made up of two signi\ufb01cant parts. Known as \u2018ibadat (acts of has not laid upon you in religion In the \ufb01rst part, Muslims bear worship) to Muslims, and often any hardship.\u201d With this in mind, witness to the absolute oneness referred to as the pillars of Islam,","ISLAM 265 See also: The burden of observance 50 \u25a0 Self-denial leads to spiritual liberation 68\u201371 \u25a0 From monolatry to monotheism 176\u201377 \u25a0 Writing the Oral Law 182\u201383 \u25a0 The emergence of Shi\u2018a Islam 270\u201371 Each Muslim baby has the shahada, the profession of faith, whispered in his or her ear at birth; an earlier Arabic tradition still practiced by many is to dab honey on the baby\u2019s lips. of God. This af\ufb01rms one of the core and evening. In earlier times, and Abdallah ibn \u2018Umar beliefs of Islam (tawhid, or God\u2019s in some cases even today, a prayer unity), but it also functions as a leader, or muezzin, would ascend Abdallah ibn \u2018Umar ibn reminder that polytheism (belief in a minaret, a tall tower outside the al-Khattab was the oldest son more than one god) and the worship mosque, and call local Muslims of \u2018Umar I, the second leader of any being or thing alongside, or to prayer by chanting the shahada of the Muslim community after in association with, God is the and urging them to come to the Muhammad\u2019s death. He was ultimate sin in Islam. mosque. Today, muezzins often born in the early 7th century chant into a microphone, which and converted to Islam along The second part of the shahada projects the summons into the with his father. As a close recalls that Muhammad is not just community via loudspeakers. companion of Muhammad, Ibn God\u2019s prophet, but his special Sometimes a prerecorded call Umar stood by the Prophet\u2019s messenger, surpassing other may be played. Often, Muslims side in several battles and prophets before him. He is also gather for prayers at a mosque, was esteemed for his nobility honored as the \ufb01nal prophet. but when this is not possible, and sel\ufb02essness. prayers can be performed alone Commitment to prayer or in groups in any location. Most importantly, Ibn The second pillar of Islam is salat \u2018Umar is known as one of the (prayer). While Muslims may offer Prayers are preceded by most trustworthy authorities informal, personal prayers or puri\ufb01cation, an act so important that on the early history of Islam. requests to God as they wish, Muhammad is thought to have said Given his close relationship the main prayers of Islam are it was \u201chalf the faith.\u201d For the \ufb01ve with Muhammad and other prescribed, quite formal and prayers, Muslims begin by washing important \ufb01gures in early regulated, and are a designated their hands, mouth, and nostrils Islam, he had extensive opportunity to worship God. with water. They wash their entire knowledge of the period. face and clean their forearms, also He also served as a credible Muslims are summoned to passing a wet hand over their heads, source for many Hadith prayer \ufb01ve times every day: at and cleaning their feet and ankles. (sayings) of Muhammad. dawn, noon, midafternoon, dusk, The number of times each body When he was approximately part is cleansed varies in different 84 years old, Ibn \u2018Umar made There is no god but God schools of Islam. Having ritually a pilgrimage to Mecca and and Muhammad is the cleansed themselves, Muslims \u276f\u276f died there in 693. messenger of God. The shahada","266 THE CENTRAL PROFESSIONS OF FAITH stand facing the direction of and an offering of peace to others God is most great. I testify Mecca, the holiest city of Islam, is offered with the words: \u201cMay the that there is no god but God. and recite their prayers. In mosques, peace, mercy, and blessings of God this direction is marked by a be upon you.\u201d These prayers are I testify that Muhammad decorated niche known as a mihrab. offered in Arabic and worshippers is the messenger of God. Outside mosques, Muslims may accompany them with prostrations Hurry to prayer. Hurry to \ufb01nd the exact direction of Mecca and bows, together with raising success. God is most great. using specially marked compasses and lowering their hands. and even web-based applications. Call to prayer Those praying outside the mosque To non-Muslim observers, the will usually perform their prayers Islamic prayer rituals may appear through acts of charity, which are on a special prayer mat, signifying complex and overly regulated. For encouraged, but also by paying an that the act of prayer is performed Muslims, however, participating alms tax. All adult Muslims who in a clean place. in the habits of ritual puri\ufb01cation are able to do so offer a percentage, and prescribed prayer allows not just of their monetary income, Prayer is begun with the them to worship God freely, but of their entire assets for this declaration, \u201cGod is most great.\u201d unencumbered by the burden of tax. This percentage is traditionally Then Muslims recite a set of \ufb01xed their own agendas. As they join in set at 2.5 percent, a \ufb01gure arrived prayers that include, among other unison with other Muslims to pray, at by scholarly agreement, and passages, the opening chapter they are also reminded of God\u2019s drawn from references in the Sunna, of the Qur\u2019an: \u201cIn the name of greatness, knowing that fellow for instance \u201cone-quarter of one- God, the Most Gracious, the believers all over the world are tenth\u201d of silver. In some cases, the Most Merciful. All praises and worshipping God in the same way. offering may be up to 20 percent of thanks be to God, the Lord of the farming or industrial assets. Universe, the Most Gracious, the The importance of charity Most Merciful, the Ruler on the Day The third pillar of Islam is zakat Often, almsgiving is voluntary, of Judgment. You do we worship (almsgiving). A central concern but in some countries it has been and You we ask for help. Guide us in the Qur\u2019an is the treatment regulated by governments. In such along the Straight Path, the way of of the poor, marginalized, and cases, stamps made speci\ufb01cally those on whom You have bestowed disadvantaged. Consequently, for sending alms are distributed. Your grace, not of those who earned Muslims are enjoined to care for Otherwise, offerings can be placed Your anger or who are lost.\u201d The the social and economic well-being in distribution boxes in mosques profession of faith is then repeated of their communities, not simply and at other locations. Not only is the giving of alms considered an act of worship to God, but it is also thought to be something that is owed. If what The call to prayer is made from the top of the mosque\u2019s minaret or tower by a chosen individual known as a muezzin, who may also indicate the prayer schedule to be followed.","ISLAM 267 Righteous are those The direction of Mecca from any location is who\u2026give the zakat. determined using the Great Circle method\u2014in other words, the shortest route (over one of the Poles Sura 2:177 if necessary). Calculating this was a preoccupation of Muslim scientists during the Golden Age of Islamic scholarship, from the 8th to the 13th centuries. Muslims receive comes to them condition, considering any wrong prayer said only during the month from God\u2019s sovereign blessing, committed, remembering God\u2019s of fasting. Likewise, some Muslims then it is only right for them to great mercy, and contemplating the use Ramadan for acts of piety, such give to those who have received needs of their communities. as reciting the entire Qur\u2019an. less. With this in mind, almsgiving is not considered an act of charity Each morning before daybreak, Ramadan ends with a special for Muslims, but a duty they families gather for a small meal feast, known as \u2018Id al-Fitr, which perform on behalf of those who that must sustain them throughout breaks the month of fasting. The require and deserve assistance. the day. In the evening, after dark, feast is obligatory and is an \u276f\u276f According to the Qur\u2019an, worthy families visit one another and take recipients of alms are the poor, part in a larger meal that often orphans, and widows, as well includes special foods, such as as causes that aim to eliminate dates, which Muhammad is slavery, to help those who are in believed to have eaten in order debt, and to spread Islam. to break his fast. Observance of Ramadan Many Muslims go to their local The fourth pillar of Islam is mosque for evening prayer during sawm (fasting), and in particular, Ramadan and recite a special the fast of Ramadan. This is the name for the ninth month in the The direction of Mecca, or Qibla, is Islamic lunar calendar. The commonly shown in public buildings in penultimate night of this the Muslim world for purposes of prayer. monthlong fast commemorates the time when Muhammad received the \ufb01rst revelation of the Qur\u2019an from the angel Jibrail. Pious Muslims may pray for the entire evening, hoping that their prayers will be answered. In general during Ramadan, all Muslims who are physically able abstain from food, drink, and sexual relations during daylight hours. Instead, they use this time for purifying themselves by re\ufb02ecting upon their spiritual","268 THE CENTRAL PROFESSIONS OF FAITH The hilal or crescent moon that appears after the new moon announces the beginning and the end of the fasting month of Ramadan, although this period may also be calculated. enormously joyous occasion. built by Ibrahim (Arabic for Muhammad\u2019s guidance, it was Families visit one another to share Abraham) and his son Ismail cleansed of these shrines and in special meals and to exchange (Arabic for Ishmael) in order to restored as a symbol of worship gifts and sweets. Businesses often house a black stone given to of the one God, Allah. close for part of the celebrations, Ibrahim by the angel Jibrail which can sometimes continue (Gabriel). The stone was meant Before arriving at the Kaaba, for several days. to symbolize God\u2019s covenant Muslim pilgrims must purify with Ismail. In pre-Islamic times, themselves. To do so, men wear Pilgrimage to Mecca the Kaaba was also a pilgrimage seamless white robes and cut their The \ufb01fth pillar of Islam is hajj: site for followers of polytheistic hair, and some even shave their making a pilgrimage to the holy religions. At that time, the heads. Similarly, some women city of Mecca in Saudi Arabia, Kaaba was \ufb01lled with shrines to wear white robes, but many others which begins after the month of various tribal gods. But under choose to wear simple clothing that Ramadan. Every adult Muslim is traditional to their country of who is physically able, and has the \u2026eat and drink until origin. In this state of purity, both \ufb01nancial means to make the trip, the white thread of dawn men and women refrain from sexual should perform the pilgrimage at appears to you distinct activity, and from wearing jewelry least once in his or her lifetime. To or perfume. They also refrain from do so, Muslims travel by whatever from the black thread, bathing, arguing, or anything that means possible to Mecca. Many then complete your fast might taint their purity. In essence, Muslim travel agencies even offer everyone in their white robes special hajj packages to groups until the nightfall. represents not only purity, but unity and individuals to help ensure Sura 2:187 and equality as well. On the one a memorable and problem-free hand, the hajj is meant to be free experience. As pilgrims near the of hierarchy and disunity, placing city, they often shout, \u201cI am here, emphasis on total devotion to God oh Lord, I am here!\u201d The main and Muslims\u2019 special worship focus of the pilgrimage is the Kaaba, the cube-shaped structure Whoever performs hajj for sitting at the center of Mecca\u2019s the sake of pleasing God\u2026 Grand Mosque. According to shall return from it as free tradition, the Kaaba was originally from sin as the day on which his mother gave birth to him. Hadith Sahih Bukhari 26:596","ISLAM 269 I am here, oh Lord, Permissible pilgrimage discouraged, because it might I am here! lead to worship of things other Only Muslims may enter the than God\u2014the sin of idolatry, or Pilgrim\u2019s prayer upon holy city of Mecca and, in shirk. Since there is no concept of reaching Mecca the very conservative form of a sacred site or shrine, therefore, Sunni Islam that is practiced in many old buildings in Mecca Saudi Arabia, the Kaaba is the have been demolished to make only permissible destination way for new development, giving for pilgrimage. Under this the city an almost entirely modern orthodox form of Islam, known appearance. Not all forms of as Wahhabism, veneration of Islam follow this interpretation historical sites, graves, and of shirk\u2014Su\ufb01sm, for example, buildings associated with holds the tombs of its saints Islamic history is strongly and scholars in deep reverence. during the pilgrimage. On the other God, asking for forgiveness for What if the direction of prayer hand, the great variety shown in the sins of the entire Muslim cannot be established? What if a female pilgrims\u2019 clothing re\ufb02ects community. From here, pilgrims Muslim is unable to fast on one of the diverse character of the global return to Mecca, to the Grand the days of Ramadan? God offers Muslim community coming Mosque, where they circle the a simple solution to such obstacles: together in spiritual unison at Kaaba again in a farewell tawaf. \u201cAnd to God belong the east and the Grand Mosque. the west, so wherever you turn The pilgrimage ends with there is the face of God. Surely God Rites of Mecca a feast commemorating Ibrahim is All-Suf\ufb01cient for his creatures\u2019 Once pilgrims enter the Grand and his obedience to God. Even needs, All-Knowing.\u201d Mosque they perform the tawaf, Muslims who have not made the walking around the Kaaba in an pilgrimage celebrate this feast, The essential point for Muslims conterclockwise direction seven which lasts for three days. Much is to turn toward God in worship in times. They will try to get as close food is eaten, with the leftovers the best way that they know how, as they can to the structure, and, distributed to the poor and needy. until such a point in time when if possible, will kiss or touch the they may worship him just black stone exposed in one of Those who have made the as their fellow believers. \u25a0 the Kaaba\u2019s corners. During the journey to Mecca honor the following seven days, pilgrims faithfulness shown by Ibrahim The Kaaba in Mecca is a square, pray in the Grand Mosque and by symbolically stoning the devil: stone building that predates Islam take part in other ceremonies. they throw stones at three pillars by many centuries. The Grand For example, pilgrims drink water representing evil. Finally, many Mosque was built around it. drawn from the Zamzam well pilgrims end their pilgrimage inside the mosque. According to by visiting the city of Medina and Muslim tradition, this well was the mosque in which the Prophet miraculously created by God in Muhammad is buried. order to sustain Ismail as a baby when he was stranded in the Lightening the burden desert with his mother, Hajar The \ufb01ve pillars of Islam may be (Arabic for Hagar). Some pilgrims seen to be representative of the run between two hills, Safa and faith as a whole, and to re\ufb02ect the Marwa, to commemorate Hajar\u2019s light burden that God places on his search for water. They may also followers. However, although they travel beyond Mecca, to Mina and show the simplicity of Islam, any Mount Arafat, where they pray to number of practical dif\ufb01culties may be encountered in attempting to follow the necessary stipulations.","270 THE IMAM IS GOD\u2019S CHOSEN LEADER THE EMERGENCE OF SHI\u2018A ISLAM IN CONTEXT W hen the Prophet Muhammad was considered to Muhammad, founder of have a divine right to rule, but KEY FIGURE Islam, died in 632, he this prerogative ended with him. \u2018Ali ibn Abi Talib had established Islamic authority The majority of Muslims believed over the entire Arabian peninsula that the small group known as the WHEN AND WHERE through a campaign of warfare and Companions of the Prophet were c.632\u2013661, Arabia conquest. However, Muhammad best suited to leadership, since had no sons who survived him, they were the people most closely BEFORE and on his death the Muslim guided by Muhammad and they From 1500 BCE The Hebrew community was divided over who were also the compilers of the Bible identi\ufb01es Abraham was to succeed him as their leader. Qur\u2019an. One of Muhammad\u2019s and his successors as having been chosen by God to Who should succeed the Prophet Muhammad? lead the Israelites. Many followers believe The Shi\u2018a \u2018Ali party believe 1st century CE After his that electing a leader is in that God has indicated death, Jesus is known as accordance with the Sunna\u2014 a line of rightful Jesus Christ, the Messiah the teachings and sayings succession within the or anointed one. His mother Family of the Prophet. Mary becomes a major of Muhammad. devotional \ufb01gure. Sunni Islam is therefore Shi\u2018a Islam is therefore c.610 CE In Islam, Muhammad headed by a leader headed by an imam who is chosen by God to receive the revelation of the Qur\u2019an. chosen by consensus. is chosen by God. AFTER c.1500 The Persian Safavid dynasty converts from Sunni to Shi\u2018a Islam, and Iran develops as the major bastion of Shi\u2018ism, while Arabia remains mainly Sunni.","See also: God reveals his word and his will 262\u201369 \u25a0 Striving in the way ISLAM 271 of God 278 \u25a0 The origins of Ahmaddiya 284\u201385 Further divisions in The \ufb01rst imam, \u2018Ali ibn Abi Talib, Shi\u2018a Islam and his sons were members of the Household of the Prophet, so were The succession from \u2018Ali, \ufb01rst seen to have divine knowledge, here imam of Shi\u2018a Islam, has been depicted as shining down from heaven. marked by further divisions caused by disagreement over closest companions, Abu Bakr, was son-in-law and cousin \u2018Ali ibn succession. Disputes after the adopted as his successor. Abu Bakr Abi Talib, because Muhammad deaths of the fourth and sixth was to be succeeded in turn by two had publicly honored \u2018Ali\u2019s ability imams led to the formation of, more of the Companions, Umar and to lead the community. Shi\u2018a respectively, the Five-Imam Uthman, as caliph, or ruler, of the Muslims take their name from \u2018Ali, Shi\u2018as, or \u201cFivers,\u201d and Seven- Islamic territories. These caliphs whom they see as the Prophet\u2019s Imam Shi\u2018as, or \u201cSeveners.\u201d were recognized as wise leaders rightful heir\u2014they are known as and the best of Muslims. Their the Shi\u2018a \u2018Ali (Party of \u2018Ali). The Seveners, also known followers believed that choosing a as Ismaelite Shi\u2018as, divided leader by community consensus \u2018Ali was eventually appointed to yet again over the question of best accorded with the ideas in the lead the whole Muslim community which Family member was the Sunna, Muhammad\u2019s teachings in 656, after the death of Uthman, rightful successor in the eyes and sayings. These early caliphs but when \u2018Ali died, Muslims were of God; their largest branch were therefore appointed or elected, again divided; Shi\u2018as supported is known as Nizari Ismailism, and the supporters of Abu Bakr and \u2018Ali\u2019s son as successor, while currently led by the Aga Khan. his two successors became known Sunnis supported the election of as Sunni Muslims. Muawiyah I, a powerful governor of Twelve-Imam Shi\u2018as, or Syria. To this day, Shi\u2018as remain a \u201cTwelvers,\u201d are by far the An alternative choice minority group within the Muslim largest group within Shi\u2018a A minority group of believers community, dedicated to \u2018Ali and Islam. They believe that their disagreed with Abu Bakr\u2019s original his successors. These descendants last imam, the six-year-old appointment; they believed that the of Muhammad, known as imams, Muhammad al-Qa\u2019im, did not rightful leader should have been a have absolute religious authority\u2014 actually die but went into a close relative of Muhammad, and, their knowledge is considered to be hidden existence in 874, and in particular, a member of a special divine and infallible. The largest will eventually return as group known in the Qur\u2019an as the branch of Shi\u2018a Islam, whose imam the messianic \ufb01gure known Household (family) of the Prophet. is currently absent (see right), is led as the Imam al-Mahdi. His This group claimed that Muhammad by proxy \ufb01gures, or marjas\u2014for reappearance will signal the had suggested a successor: his example, Iran\u2019s Ayatollah Khomeini. beginning of the ultimate struggle for good that, in Islam, Since the dispute concerns marks the end of the world. the issue of leadership, Shi\u2018a Islam is considered a movement within God intends only to remove Islam, not a separate belief system. from you the impurity [of sin], However, it does have its own Oh People of the [Prophet\u2019s] emphases. To the Five Pillars of Islam Shi\u2018as add another \ufb01ve: Household, and to purify making offerings for the bene\ufb01t of you with puri\ufb01cation. the community, commanding good, Sura 33:33 forbidding evil (all beliefs shared by many non-Shi\u2018as), plus two unique to Shi\u2018a Islam\u2014loving the Household of the Prophet, and turning away from those who do not. \u25a0","272 IN CONTEXT GOD GUIDES KEY FIGURE US WITH Abu \u2018Abdallah Muhammad SHARI\u2018A ibn Idris al-Sha\ufb01\u2018i THE PATHWAY TO HARMONIOUS LIVING WHEN AND WHERE 767\u2013820 CE, Arabia BEFORE 1500 BCE The Torah records the Ten Commandments: religious and ethical laws given to Moses by God. 7th century CE The Prophet Muhammad receives the revelation of the Qur\u2019an; his sayings and actions are passed down by his followers. AFTER c.14th century Ibn Taymiyyah, an Islamic scholar, issues a fatwa against the Mongols for not basing their laws on shari\u2018a. 1997 The European Council for Fatwa and Research is founded to assist European Muslims in interpreting shari\u2018a. I n Islamic thought, to submit oneself to God\u2019s guidance (islam means submission) is the mark of a true Muslim. To help followers navigate life in ways that are pleasing to him, God has offered a pathway known as shari\u2018a, meaning literally \u201cthe road to the watering hole.\u201d In the context of Arabia\u2019s deserts, a road to water is a great treasure and, similarly, shari\u2018a is the pathway, by God\u2019s law, to harmonious living. It is a system of ethics and a science of law (\ufb01qh) that is meant to govern humankind and guide everything people do. This system required sources to refer to, and, early on, Muslims relied on Muhammad\u2019s revelations (the","ISLAM 273 See also: Living in harmony 38 \u25a0 Wisdom lies with the superior man 72\u201377 \u25a0 The personal quest for truth 144 \u25a0 Writing the Oral Law 182\u201383 \u25a0 God reveals his word and his will 254\u201361 How do we live a life By looking for We can consult the that pleases God? his guidance in Qur\u2019an for his word. every matter. We can use the We can ask for We can look to the mind God gave us to the opinion of our Prophet for example. fellow believers. reason his will. All of these things All of these things God guides us form shari\u2018a, the path come from God. with shari\u2018a. to good living. Qur\u2019an) and his example (Sunna) for By the 8th century, Muslims differed \u201cThe road to the watering hole\u201d\u2014 direction. With his death, however, widely on the application of shari\u2018a. the literal translation of shari\u2019a\u2014 this guidance ceased. As it was, the Scholar Abu \u2018Abdallah Muhammad is a concept that has considerable question of how to apply existing ibn Idris al-Sha\ufb01\u2018i, seen by many as resonance for believers who came revelations to everyday life, across the father of Islamic jurisprudence, from an unforgiving desert climate. the various cultures of the growing came to the fore to offer unifying Muslim community, was a delicate thought on the legal concerns of matter. Despite the emergence of the day. According to al-Sha\ufb01\u2018i, Islamic judges who could rule on there were four sources of law: the public and private concerns, there Qur\u2019an, the Sunna, the consensus was a call for more uniform and of the community (ijma), and clearly de\ufb01ned shari\u2018a. analogical reasoning (qiyas). De\ufb01ning Islamic law Believed to be the literal word Scholars keen to standardize Islamic of God, the Qur\u2019an is the primary jurisprudence emerged in many source for Islamic principles and Muslim communities, leading to values. In many passages, it directly disagreement over how to apply the addresses matters such as murder, law. Should its scope be restricted to exploitation of the poor, usury, theft, the teachings of the Qur\u2019an and the and adultery, clearly condemning Sunna, or could jurists incorporate them. In other instances, the Qur\u2019an their own analysis and reason? works to curb certain behavior over time. For example, early \u276f\u276f","274 THE PATHWAY TO HARMONIOUS LIVING revelations on alcohol suggest that authority to the traditions of the There has come to while some good may be found Prophet. However, collections of you from God a light and in it, it may also have a connection Muhmmad\u2019s sayings, actions, and to sin (2:219). Later revelations what he prohibited and allowed a clear book by which prohibit Muslims from praying while grew in number, requiring the God guides those who drinking (4:43), and the latest plainly application of a strict process of condemn the use of alcohol (5:93). validation. As a result of this, pursue his pleasure The Qur\u2019an also guides Muslims legitimate traditions of Muhammad to the ways of peace\u2026 in personal and community affairs. \u2014that is, those with a proper chain For instance, while it does not of authority and not contradicting Sura 5:15\u201316 expressly prohibit slavery, it does the Qur\u2019an\u2014can be brought to bear offer guidance on how to treat on legal matters. behalf of wider Muslim society. slaves. Marriage concerns such as There remained some situations polygamy, dowry, and inheritance Legal interpretation where no authoritative text existed, rights for women are also governed. Even with al-Sha\ufb01\u2018i\u2019s de\ufb01nitions, and when consensus could not be situations could arise that are not reached. Initially, jurists used their Stipulations such as these are speci\ufb01cally addressed in either the own judgment to arbitrate new legal explicit in the Qur\u2019an and offer Qur\u2019an or Sunna. With Muhammad concerns. This was known as clear guidance. However, while no longer alive to offer guidance ijtihad, or striving intellectually, the Qur\u2019an treats other matters of on such legal matters, the role and incorporated a judge\u2019s personal morality and civic duty in a similar of interpretation became crucial. opinion or reasoning. Al-Sha\ufb01\u2018i fashion, much of its treatment of Al-Sha\ufb01\u2018i therefore sought to give restricted the role of personal legal concerns tends to be generic. authority to legal interpretations reasoning in ijtihad to the use In these cases, the example of reached by consensus among of deductive reasoning to \ufb01nd Muhammad given in the Sunna the Muslim community. Early analogous situations in the Qur\u2019an supplements the Qur\u2019anic material. on, this was a practical way for or Sunna from which new legal While the Sunna cannot replace the solving problems on which the rulings could be derived. For Qur\u2019an\u2019s authority, the belief that Qur\u2019an and the Sunna were silent; example, the Qur\u2019an prohibits Muhammad was inspired by God majority opinion would help in making a sale or a purchase led to the acceptance of his example reaching decisions. Over time, during the call to Friday prayers: as authoritative. Al-Sha\ufb01\u2018i re\ufb01ned however, \u201cthe community\u201d came Muslims are instead urged to cease the use of the Sunna in legal to be de\ufb01ned in legal terms as a trading so that they may gather matters by restricting the use of the collective body of legal scholars for worship (62:9\u201310). What about term Sunna to Muhammad. Doing and religious authorities whose other contracts that might be made so eliminated any confusion with decisions would be made on during the call to prayer? Should a local customs, and added greater marriage, for example, be arranged during this time? The Qur\u2019an is silent on the matter, but analogical Muslim scholars and religious leaders are relied upon to interpret original sources where guidance on certain matters is not explicit.","Analogical reasoning can be used to ISLAM 275 determine acceptable behavior. The Qur\u2019an makes no mention of drugs, but Abu \u2018Abdallah does forbid alcohol. So we can infer Muhammad ibn Idris that other intoxicants are forbidden too. al-Sha\ufb01\u2018i reasoning can be used to derive a Further schools of law developed Much legend has grown up legal opinion. If the aim of the in Shi\u2018a Islam. Given the key role of around the life of al-Sha\ufb01\u2018i. Qur\u2019an is to discourage actions the imam for Shi\u2018a Muslims, these As a result, the details of his preventing Muslims from worship, schools emphasize the traditions of early years remain uncertain, then, likewise, restriction on \u2018Ali and the imams. Muhammad\u2019s but according to the oldest business can be applied to other cousin \u2018Ali is seen by Shi\u2018as as the surviving accounts he was contracts, actions, or services such \ufb01rst imam\u2014a point on which Sunnis born in Gaza in 767. When he as a marriage. Instead of scholars and Shi\u2018as disagree. Shi\u2018as often was young, his family moved merely offering a personal opinion favor the rulings of the imam, their to Mecca, where he studied on matters such as these, al-Sha\ufb01\u2018i supreme leader and highest authority Hadith (the words and deeds helped to ground creative thinking on law, over analogical reasoning of Muhammad) and law. He in the authoritative sources of and community consensus. is said to have memorized Islam, the Qur\u2019an and the Sunna. the Qur\u2019an by the age of 10. The schools of law remain in He then moved to Medina, Schools of law Muslim society today. In regions studying law under Malik ibn Although al-Sha\ufb01\u2018i\u2019s summation of where Muslims are predominant, Anas, founder of the Maliki the four sources of law\u2014the Qur\u2019an, scholars rule on legal matters in School of Islamic law. He the Sunna, community consensus, courts of law and issue fatwas taught in Baghdad, \ufb01nally and analogical reasoning\u2014did much (rulings). In turn, judges enforce and settling in Egypt. Through to unify shari\u2018a, different schools of uphold the law. Muslims facing more his work as a teacher and law use these sources in different mundane questions as to the best scholar, he became known ways. From the 13th century, four way to live a Muslim life may also as the father of Islamic schools have predominated in ask for authoritative advice. In non- jurisprudence, helping to Sunni Islam, the largest branch of Muslim societies, local scholars offer shape Islamic legal thought. the faith. Each school is named for guidance to their communities and, He died in 820 and was the individual who framed its main in a modern twist, Muslims can also buried in al-Fustat (Cairo). concerns: Sha\ufb01\u2018i, Hanbali, Hana\ufb01, consult web-based helplines run and Maliki. The Sha\ufb01\u2018i and Hanbali by international centers devoted Key works schools rely on evidence from the to Islamic law. While there is still sources in interpreting law, while debate about how best to derive 9th century Treatise on the Hana\ufb01 and Maliki encourage legal rulings, shari\u2018a remains for the Foundations of Islamic analagous reasoning as well. many a straight path to the best Jurisprudence; The Exemplar life God can give to his followers. \u25a0 My community will never agree on an error. Hadith of Muhammad","276 WE CAN THINK ABOUT GOD, BUT WE CANNOT COMPREHEND HIM THEOLOGICAL SPECULATION IN ISLAM IN CONTEXT We are told that We do not know how, all bounty is in or in what sense, KEY FIGURE the hand of God. this is true. Abu al-Hasan al-Ash\u2018ari Questioning it would We must just believe WHEN AND WHERE lead to innovation, and accept it. 10th century, Arabia which is forbidden. BEFORE We can think about God, but c.990 CE Syrian philosopher we cannot comprehend him. Abu al-\u2018Ala al-Ma\u2018arri uses rationalism to reject religious I slam teaches that God is actions. This was the conclusion dogma, denouncing its transcendent, or beyond reached by Abu al-Hasan al-Ash\u2019ari claims as \u201cimpossible.\u201d human comprehension. While in the 10th century, when Islam this does not prevent Muslims from entered a controversy stirred up AFTER thinking about God, and re\ufb02ecting by philosophical speculation about 11th century Ibn Sina on aspects of who he is and what the nature of God. (known in the West as he does, they must never do so Avicenna) attempts to in the expectation of being able In the 8th century, caliphs (civil reconcile rational philosophy to understand his nature or his and religious heads of the Muslim with Islamic theology. state) of the Abbasid dynasty 11th century Al-Ghazali writes The Inconsistency of the Philosophers on the use of philosophy in Islamic theology. 12th century Ibn Rushd (known in the West as Averroes) publishes a response to al-Ghazali\u2019s work: The Inconsistency of the \u201cInconsistency.\u201d","ISLAM 277 See also: De\ufb01ning the inde\ufb01nable 184\u201385 \u25a0 The pathway to harmonious living 272\u201375 \u25a0 The unity of divinity is necessary 280\u201381 God\u2026is unlike whatever which was the greatest sin. The he asserted that God might be occurs to the mind or is Mu\u2018tazilites proposed that such described as having hands without pictured in the imagination\u2026 references are metaphorical. So, for Muslims knowing how this might example, a reference to God\u2019s hand be possible. Al-Ash\u2018ari and his \u2018Ali al-Ash\u2018ari could be interpreted as indicating group of fellow-thinkers, known his power. They then applied Greek as the Ash\u2018arites, left the words had encouraged the development logic to other theological issues, of the Qur\u2019an intact, but also kept of scholarship and the arts in such as free will, predestination, theological thinking about God the Islamic world, and Arabic and determining the nature of pure, by refraining from speaking translations of works by Greek the Qur\u2019an itself\u2014whether it had about him in human terms, since philosophers, such as Aristotle, existed eternally, or had been God is beyond comprehension. \u25a0 became available to Muslim created by God at some point. theologians. Some of these scholars Islamic scholars are free to think applied the new Greek ways Before long, however, the about God and re\ufb02ect on aspects of of thinking to the content of the wide-ranging speculation of who he is and what he does, but they Qur\u2019an. They formed a group called the Mu\u2018tazilites began to attract must never expect to understand his the Mu\u2018tazilites, which became censure and turn public opinion nature or his actions. a prominent force in Islamic against them. Theological and theology in the 9th century. philosophical speculation about Mu\u2018tazilite theologian until the God is permissible and indeed age of 40, when he abandoned Radical thinkers important to Islamic thought, but much of Mu\u2018tazilite thought. The Mu\u2018tazilites were inspired by seeking answers to questions not Some say this followed a the idea that Greek philosophical speci\ufb01cally addressed by the Qur\u2019an theological dispute with his methods could be used to resolve or Muhammad is, according to teacher, others that he realized apparent contradictions in the Islam, not only unnecessary, but also there were contradictions Qur\u2019an. The Qur\u2019an stresses the a sin\u2014bid\u2018ah, the sin of innovation. between Islam and Mu\u2018tazilite unity of God\u2014he is indivisible, theology. He died in 935. and so cannot have any kind of One Mu\u2018tazilite thinker, body, made up of parts, as humans al-Ash\u2018ari, refused to reduce the Key works have. Yet there are passages in Qur\u2019an\u2019s descriptions of God to the Qur\u2019an that speci\ufb01cally refer, metaphors, but he also refused 9th\u201310th century Theological for example, to God\u2019s hands and to anthropomorphize God. Instead, Opinions of the Muslims; The eyes. To take descriptions such Clari\ufb01cation of the Bases of as these literally would lead to Abu al-Hasan the Religion anthropomorphism (attributing al-Ash\u2018ari human characteristics to God) and might be seen as comparing Abu al-Hasan al-Ash\u2018ari God with the beings he created, was born in around 873 CE in Basra, in present-day Iraq. He is credited with much of the development of kalam (the science of discourse on divine topics), and taught many of Islam\u2019s greatest scholars. Through his thinking and the work of his pupils, Ash\u2018arite theology became the dominant school of theology for orthodox Muslims. He remained a","278 JIHAD IS OUR RELIGIOUS DUTY STRIVING IN THE WAY OF GOD IN CONTEXT D espite the guidance given Even the youngest students learn by the Qur\u2019an, Muhammad, the importance of striving to be a good KEY FIGURE and shari\u2018a, maintaining a Muslim by upholding the faith, seeking Shams al-A\u2019imma al-Sarakhsi focus on God and a disciplined life God\u2019s mercy, avoiding temptation, and remains a challenge for Muslims. pursuing justice for others. WHEN AND WHERE Disobedience is always a temptation 11th century, Persia and evil is a constant presence. stage, Islam should be defended Muslims, therefore, must constantly with peaceful argument. The third BEFORE strive to stay close to God and stage allowed for followers to defend 7th century CE Muhammad\u2019s struggle against evil. This striving the Muslim community against armies conquer and unite or struggling is known as jihad. injustice. In the fourth stage, much of Arabia under the Muslims are called on to engage in banner of Islam. For most Muslims, jihad is used armed con\ufb02ict, within speci\ufb01c legal in two different ways. The \u201cgreater and Qu\u2019ranic guidelines, when the 8th century Islamic expansion jihad\u201d is the most common. This Islamic faith is under threat. \u25a0 continues into Spain in the is the constant struggle against west and Persia in the east. personal sin, involving repentance and seeking God\u2019s mercy, avoiding 8th century Legal scholar temptation, and pursuing justice for Abu Hanifa argues that Islam others. The \u201clesser jihad\u201d, although only permits defensive war. less common for Muslims, is the more widely known. It involves the AFTER legitimate use of force, sometimes 12th century Ibn Rushd militarily, against those who do evil. (Averroes), an Islamic philosopher, divides jihad In the 11th century, one of Islam\u2019s into four types: jihad by the most noted legal scholars, Shams heart, by the tongue, by the al-A\u2019imma al-Sarakhsi, discussed hand, and by the sword. lesser jihad as a four-stage process. He argued that in the \ufb01rst stage, 1964 Egyptian author Sayyid jihad toward others should be Qutb argues for jihad as peaceful and passive. In the second the mission to make Islam dominant in all the world. See also: Augustine and free will 220\u201321 \u25a0 The pathway to harmonious living 272\u201375 \u25a0 The rise of Islamic revivalism 286\u201390","ISLAM 279 THE WORLD IS ONE STAGE OF THE JOURNEY TO GOD THE ULTIMATE REWARD FOR THE RIGHTEOUS IN CONTEXT A ccording to the Qur\u2019an, paradise in a treatise entitled the end of the world will The Book of Fear and Hope. He KEY FIGURE be accompanied by the argued that those who truly fear Abu Hamid Muhammad Day of Judgment, when the fate of God will run toward him, longing al-Ghazali every person will be determined by for his mercy. Al-Ghazali likens the scales of justice. Those whose the desire for a meeting with WHEN AND WHERE good deeds on earth outweigh their God to a farmer who sows seed 1058\u20131111, Persia bad deeds will proceed to jannah in tilled ground, faithfully waters (paradise), depicted in Islam as a the seed, weeds the ground BEFORE luxurious garden; while those regularly, and rightly hopes for 500 BCE The Hebrew Bible whose bad deeds outweigh their a harvest. Similarly, the Muslim describes humankind\u2019s \ufb01rst good deeds will be relegated to the who believes in God, obeys his existence in a heavenly garden. \ufb01ery torments of jahannam, or hell. commands, and pursues morality can expect both compassion from 1st century CE Jesus This idea of divine judgment is God and the rewards of paradise. \u25a0 announces the inauguration set against the Qur\u2019an\u2019s pervasive of God\u2019s kingdom on earth. descriptions of God\u2019s mercy and And nothing but the forgiveness. Indeed, Muslims are reins of hope will lead to From 874 Shi\u2018a Muslims distinguished clearly from non- the vicinity of the Merciful believe that the hidden imam Muslims as those who hope for and the joy of the Gardens. will return in the future to God\u2019s mercy. They also hope usher in the end of days. for a meeting with God (the Day Al-Ghazali of Judgment is often referred 1014\u201315 Muslim philosopher to as this in the Qur\u2019an), when Ibn Sina (Avicenna) writes they will receive his clemency. his most important work on eschatology, Al-Adhawiyya. Hope and paradise The Muslim scholar Abu Hamid AFTER Muhammad al-Ghazali focused 1190 Muslim philosopher on the relationship between the Ibn Rushd (Averroes) discusses Muslim concepts of hope and the Day of Judgment in his On the Harmony of Religions See also: Preparing for the afterlife 58\u201359 \u25a0 The promise of a new age 178\u201381 and Philosophy. \u25a0 Jesus\u2019s message to the world 204\u2013207","280 GOD IS UNEQUALED THE UNITY OF DIVINITY IS NECESSARY IN CONTEXT I slam is a monotheistic religion of tawhid features widely in the and one of its central tenets Qur\u2019an and forms the \ufb01rst part KEY FIGURE is tawhid (literally \u201coneness\u201d) of Islam\u2019s central creed, the Muhammad ibn Tumart \u2014the doctrine of divine unity. shahada: \u201cThere is no god but According to Muslim thought, there God.\u201d Conversely, the doctrine WHEN AND WHERE is only one God, and he is single of divine unity also forms the 1082\u20131130, North Africa in nature; he is not a trinity, as basis for the greatest sin in Christians believe. The notion Islam, and one that is unforgivable: BEFORE c.800\u2013950 CE Aristotle\u2019s works Reason tells us that things However, at the beginning are translated into Arabic. in the world (including of all events and beings, there humans) are changing, must be something that was 10th century Muslim impermanent, and were scholar al-Farabi discusses created by something not itself caused by the First Cause (God). that preceded them. any other thing. 1027 Persian philosopher Ibn The unique creator did not This is God, the Sina (known in the West as \u201cbegin\u201d and will not end\u2014 unique creator. Avicenna) argues that reason requires God\u2019s existence. God has existed and will exist forever. AFTER c.1238 Ibn \u2018Arabi, a prominent The absolute creator God is one being, that has Su\ufb01 teacher, re\ufb02ects on the is the only being that no partners or equals. \u201cOneness of Being.\u201d is unchanging, eternal, and the First Cause of everything. 1982 The Palestinian thinker Ismail al-Faruqi writes Tawhid: Its Implications for Thought and Life. 1990 Ozay Mehmet argues that tawhid is the basis for Muslim religious and secular identity.","See also: De\ufb01ning the inde\ufb01nable 184\u201385 \u25a0 A divine trinity 212\u201319 \u25a0 The ISLAM 281 central professions of faith 262\u201369 \u25a0 Theological speculation in Islam 276\u201377 Muhammad High in the Atlas Mountains of ibn Tumart Morocco, the Tin mal Mosque became the spiritual center of the Almohad Muhammad ibn Tumart creed in the 12th century. was a Berber born in the Atlas Mountains of modern- just to scholars, but to a wide day Morocco in around 1082. audience that would be able to test He traveled to the East to its assertions against their own study Islamic theology and, logic and personal experience. growing in religious fervor, he formed a movement based shirk, which is the violation of Cause and effect on a desire to reform Islam tawhid. Literally meaning \u201cto share,\u201d The Almohad creed begins with along the lines of his vision the sin of shirk is committed when certain sayings of Muhammad that of the oneness of God. a partner is attributed to God. suggest the notion of divine unity This is because it suggests either was, to him, the most signi\ufb01cant Ibn Tumart returned to a belief in many gods, or a belief part of Islam. The creed then Morocco around 1118; here his that God is less than perfect and offers the unique assertion, movement grew in strength therefore requires a partner. largely derived from Aristotelian and numbers. In 1121, he philosophy: that reason and logic\u2014 proclaimed himself the Mahdi A creed of unity rather than faith\u2014demand the (Guided One, or redeemer) Throughout the history of Islam, truth of God\u2019s existence. As a who would restore purity to Muslims have re\ufb02ected on the result, those with reason can Islam. He died in around 1130, notion of divine unity. In the deduce whether or not God exists. before his followers came to 12th century, this gave rise to a reign over large portions of movement whose followers were The Almohad creed uses northwestern Africa and known as Al-Muwahhidun (\u201cthose deductive reasoning to argue for parts of Spain. who emphasize unity\u201d), or the God\u2019s unity, building each of its Almohads. Founded by Muhammad assertions on the one before it. It Ibn Tumart\u2019s movement ibn Tumart, this movement was argues that everything has a maker receded in the 13th century. based on its conception of divine \u2014something has caused each None of his texts survive, unity, which came to be expressed thing in the world to be made although writings about him in the Almohad \u2018aqida, or creed. (whether that was a human making and his followers (including a tool, or an acorn growing into a those of the Almohad creed) The Almohad creed combined tree). Humans themselves are are preserved in Le livre de elements of kalam\u2014theological creations of extraordinary Mohammed ibn Toumert speculation on God\u2019s nature\u2014with complexity. And if everything in (The Life of Muhammad direct interpretation of the Qur\u2019an the world was made by something, ibn Tumart). and the Sunna (the sayings and there must be a being at the actions of Muhammad). One of its beginning of that chain of cause It is by the necessity most signi\ufb01cant characteristics is and effect that was not brought of reason that the that it was meant to appeal not about by something before it\u2014 existence of God, the initial cause of everything else. This being is God\u2014who is unique Praise to Him, is known. and absolute (without a beginning Almohad \u2018aqida or an end). If we acknowledge his absolute existence, then we must also acknowledge that no other god can share his power, and therefore, God alone is one and unequaled. \u25a0","282 ARAB, WATER POT, AND ANGELS ARE ALL OURSELVES SUFISM AND THE MYSTIC TRADITION IN CONTEXT If shari\u2018a law is, for Muslims, an Muslim elite as they gained in exterior pathway leading to the power, disenchanted Muslims KEY FIGURE true worship of God, then Su\ufb01 wished to return to what they felt Jalal al-Din Rumi mysticism is an interior path helping was the purity and simplicity of its practitioners not only to follow Islam during the time of Prophet WHEN AND WHERE God, but to be closer to him. In the Muhammad. They pursued an 13th century, Persia early stages of Islam\u2019s development, ascetic lifestyle by removing simple obedience to the will of God themselves from the material world BEFORE was not a strict enough doctrine for and seeking a direct, personal 8th century An early Su\ufb01 some Muslims. In response to the experience of God. Some Su\ufb01 poet, Rabi\u2018a al-\u2018Adawiyya, growing indulgence of the ruling Muslims even declared that God from Basra, Iraq, fuses was within them. asceticism and devotion in Revered for his ascetism and her development of Su\ufb01sm. kindness, Su\ufb01 saint Nizamuddin As Su\ufb01sm developed, groups, Awlia\u2019s tomb is visited by thousands or orders, were founded, in which 10th century Persian master of Muslims and non-Muslims each day, religious masters taught the doctrine al-Hallaj declares in a trance where they light incense and pray. to students. At the heart of many of \u201cI am the Truth\u201d; his words are these orders lay the belief that the interpreted as a claim to be self must be renounced in order to God, for which he is executed. fully abide in God. Accordingly, Jalal al-Din Rumi, a 13th-century Su\ufb01 AFTER master, wrote of an impoverished 13th century Some Su\ufb01 Arab and his greedy wife who live practices, such as reciting in the desert. The woman urges her God\u2019s names, are incorporated husband to offer their \ufb01lled water pot into Jewish worship. to God, hoping they might receive something in return. Although 19th century Emir \u2018Abd reluctant, the husband succumbs al-Qadir, a Su\ufb01 scholar, leads to his wife\u2019s urgings and offers the the struggle against the pot\u2014and, in return, it is \ufb01lled with French invasion of Algeria. gold. This treasure is, however, of little use to them in the desert and 21st century More than a therefore acts as a reminder that the hundred Su\ufb01 orders exist. pursuit of wealth and self-interest detracts from the correct focus on","ISLAM 283 See also: The performance of ritual and repetition 158\u201359 \u25a0 Zen insights that go beyond words 160\u201363 \u25a0 Mystical experience in Christianity 238 God cannot \ufb01ll a vessel that is already \ufb01lled. We must empty We must cleanse We must free our lives of our minds of our hearts of earthly desires. material concerns. sel\ufb01sh distractions. We must let ourselves be \ufb01lled by nothing but God. Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi Thus we will \ufb01nd God within ourselves. Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi God. In the same parable, Rumi God the merciful, God the great) was born in 1207 in Balkh recounts the heavenly angels\u2019 or meditative breathing exercises. (in modern-day Afghanistan). jealousy of Adam. They, too, forsake Becoming absorbed in these His family claimed descent their focus on God. The parable, for exercises helps the Su\ufb01 practitioner from Abu Bakr, the Prophet Rumi, describes humanity in general to forget worldly attachments and Muhammad\u2019s companion and and the temptation to pursue the focus more fully on God. successor. After traveling self. For Su\ufb01s, an individual\u2019s focus with his father throughout should be the denial of the self in Rumi placed particular emphasis Persia and Arabia, he settled the pursuit of an experience of God. on using both music and dance to in Konya (in modern-day pursue a direct experience of God\u2019s central Turkey). Renouncing the worldy presence. The Whirling Dervishes, In Su\ufb01sm, achieving a personal the Su\ufb01 order founded by his In Konya, Rumi met the experience of God involves moving followers, use singing or chanting Su\ufb01 master Shams-i Tabrizi (of through successive stages of and bodily movements to enter Tabriz). At the time, Rumi was renunciation, puri\ufb01cation, and ecstatic states to experience union a professor of Islamic sciences, insight. As a result, not only are with God. Their rhythmic spinning but the Su\ufb01 master had such Su\ufb01s ascetic\u2014breaking ties to the dance is said to symbolize the solar a deep impact upon him that material world through poverty, system, which they mimic by he abandoned his studies in fasting, silence, or celibacy\u2014but turning in circles around their leader. order to devote himself to they also place great emphasis mysticism. His followers on devotional love of God, often In the view of many Muslims, founded the Mawlawi order through religious experiences or some Su\ufb01s pressed the boundaries of Su\ufb01s, known to many as psychological states. This is often of Islamic orthodoxy, and Su\ufb01sm the Whirling Dervishes. achieved through the repetition was suppressed from the 17th of God\u2019s names (for example, century onward. However, orders Though known for his are still found worldwide, attracting philosophy and scholarship, both Muslims and non-Muslims. \u25a0 Rumi is best remembered for his mystic poetry. He died in Konya in 1273. Key works 1258\u20131273 Spiritual Couplets 13th century The Works of Shams of Tabriz 13th century What is Within is Within","284 THE LATTER DAYS HAVE BROUGHT FORTH A NEW PROPHET THE ORIGINS OF AHMADIYYA IN CONTEXT There can be no prophet I n 1882, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad after Muhammad. declared himself to be a minor KEY FIGURE prophet, or divinely appointed Mirza Ghulam Ahmad But Islam\u2019s followers have reformer, of Islam. He had come, so lost the pure message he claimed, to rejuvenate Islam and WHEN AND WHERE from God that he brought. to return it to its pure foundations. Late 19th century, India The movement that formed around A new message is needed him came to be called Ahmadiyya. BEFORE to steer Muslims back to the 632 The Prophet Muhammad, In orthodox Muslim thinking, the \ufb01nal prophet of Islam, pure path of the faith. the Prophet Muhammad is the dies in Medina. \ufb01nal prophet of Islam, and anyone Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, as else claiming the status of prophet 872 The Mahdi, the Hidden renewer and minor prophet, should therefore be denounced. But One of Shi\u2018a Islam, disappears, Ghulam Ahmad did not claim to supposedly not to return until brings that message. bring a new revelation beyond the the end of the world. Qur\u2019an. Rather, he simply offered a new interpretation, with the aim of 19th century The anti- bringing the Muslim community British Indian independence back to its roots. As such he was movement grows in strength, comparable with other, minor with some militant elements. prophets who did not bring the law, but restored it: Aaron, for example, AFTER who is thought by Muslims to 1908 Hakim Noor-ud-Din have been sent by God to revitalize assumes Ahmadiyya leadership. the message given to Musa (Moses). 1973 Ahmadiyya splits into Ghulam Ahmad had previously Qadiani and Lahori groups. developed some unorthodox teachings. Part of his message was 1983 A Qadiani Ahmadiyya that Isa (Jesus) did not die on the conference attracts 200,000 cross, nor was he\u2014as Muslims participants; the following traditionally believed\u2014saved from year, restrictions are placed death on the cross by being raised on the group in Pakistan. up to heaven by God. Ghulam Ahmad claimed that Jesus merely","ISLAM 285 See also: The Prophet and the origins of Islam 252\u201353 \u25a0 The emergence of Shi\u2018a Islam 270\u201371 \u25a0 Striving in the way of God 278 \u25a0 The rise of Islamic revivalism 286\u201390 The Qadiani belief in Ghulam Ahmad\u2019s prophethood continues to incite strong feeling in orthodox Islam, even leading to occasional public protests against the movement. swooned, subsequently recovered, given to him. For these reasons, as they were willing to go. They, and went to Afghanistan and Ghulam Ahmad and his followers too, rejected his claim that he Kashmir in search of the lost were rejected by many Muslims. was a minor prophet. tribes of Israel. Ghulam Ahmad also challenged Islamic thinking Even within his own movement, In Pakistan in 1973, Qadiani concerning jihad, claiming that the Ghulam Ahmad\u2019s assertions Ahmadiyyas were legally declared only acceptable form was a spiritual caused controversy. After his death non-Muslims, and, in 1984, an jihad designed to peacefully spread in 1908, the Ahmadiyyas split into ordinance was drafted allowing for the message of Islam. This was a two factions: Qadiani Ahmadiyyas, punishment of any Qadiani who particularly signi\ufb01cant idea in the who maintained Ghulam Ahmad\u2019s claimed to be a Muslim, used context of 19th-century India, where teachings, and a new branch Islamic terminology, or referred to anti-British unrest was growing. known as Lahori Ahmadiyya. his or her faith as Islam. The Qadiani The Lahori branch accepted Ahmadiyyas have since moved their Controversial claims Ghulam Ahmad as a renewer of international headquarters from the Ahmad\u2019s claims evolved as his the Islam faith, but this was as far Indian subcontinent to London. \u25a0 followers grew in number, and he declared himself not just to be Islam\u2019s prophetic reformer, but its redeemer \u2014a messianic \ufb01gure known to Muslims as the Mahdi\u2014and the spiritual successor of Jesus. For many Muslims, these claims went too far and challenged the place of Muhammad and the revelation Mirza Ghulam Ahmad Mirza Ghulam Ahmad was born a set of rules to guide all who in 1835 in Qadian, a village near joined his movement. Ghulam Lahore in India. His twin sister Ahmad traveled widely across died shortly after their birth. In northern India, spreading his a society where the majority was message and debating with illiterate, Ghulam Ahmad studied Islamic leaders. He died in 1908, Arabic and Persian, and learned leaving the leadership of the aspects of medicine from his Ahmadiyya movement to a father, a physician. As a young companion, who eventually man, he took a position with the passed it to Ahmad\u2019s eldest son. government, while continuing his religious studies. Key works He announced his divine 1880\u201384 The Arguments mission in 1882, and in 1888 he of the Ahmadiyya asked his followers to formally 1891 Victory of Islam pledge allegiance to him. Some 1898 The Star of Guidance 40 did so, and in 1889 he published","ISLAM MUST SHED THE INFLUENCE OF THE WEST THE RISE OF ISLAMIC REVIVALISM","","288 THE RISE OF ISLAMIC REVIVALISM IN CONTEXT Islam grows weak Islam must be strong to under the in\ufb02uence of offer itself as the best KEY FIGURE Western powers and system of living for Sayyid Qutb ideas. the world. WHEN AND WHERE 20th century, Egypt Muslim countries We must return to the and communities example of Muhammad BEFORE must be governed 1839\u201397 Activist and writer well, according to and the Qur\u2019an to Jamal al-Din al-Afghani Islamic principles. regain Islam\u2019s criticizes the colonial presence in Islamic countries. Such governance will purity. guide Muslims back 1849\u20131905 Egyptian Islam must shed scholar, jurist, and reformer to the message of the in\ufb02uence of Muhammad \u2018Abduh decries the Qur\u2019an. Western in\ufb02uence. the West. 1882 British forces occupy Egypt. The British presence and in\ufb02uence grow with time. AFTER 1903\u201379 Abul A\u2019la Mawdudi, a revivalist thinker, becomes one of the most widely read Muslim writers. 1951 Ayman al-Zawahiri, a friend of Sayyid Qutb, plays a major role in the militant group al-Qaeda. By the end of the 18th century, that science and technology, each had their own contexts and the world\u2019s great Muslim Western politics and economics, emphases, they were all aware of powers were in decline. and even fashion had in their lives. the weakness of the global Islamic The Ottoman and Mughal empires Some wished simply to protect community at the time, and felt had lost political in\ufb02uence, and Islam against the secularization that Muslims straying from Islam Western powers were colonizing that came with modernization; under Western in\ufb02uence were the predominantly Muslim areas others were more militant and responsible. As a result, they sought of northern Africa and parts of anti-Western, seeking to overthrow to revive the role of Islam as the Asia\u2014French North Africa, British imperialist governments; others dominant in\ufb02uence in their societies. India and the Middle East, and still were prepared to accept a Dutch Indonesia. Some Muslims degree of Western in\ufb02uence, but Many Muslim revivalists felt welcomed the changes and sought clear dictinctions between that the best way forward was to modernizations that came with what was Islamic and un-Islamic. restore Islam by not only shedding the Western presence. For others, the in\ufb02uence of the West, but by however, the in\ufb02uence of the West Out of this context emerged a emphasizing the superiority of forced them to consider the place number of very in\ufb02uential Islamic Islam as well. To do this, they thinkers and reformers. Although argued for the central role of jihad","See also: God reveals his word and his will 254\u201361 \u25a0 The pathway to ISLAM 289 harmonious living 272\u201375 \u25a0 Striving in the way of God 278 Sayyid Qutb and corrupt under British colonial rule. Having become disillusioned Born in 1906 in Qaha, a by his experience of the West and farming town just north of its cultural in\ufb02uence, Qutb sought to Cairo, Sayyid Qutb attended lead fellow Muslims out from under a local school, where he foreign control and back to Islam. He memorized the Qu\u2019ran by wrote extensively on the Qur\u2019an and the age of 10. He went on to a its interpretation, as well as matters British-style education in Cairo of religion and the state, and joined and began work as a teacher. the Muslim Brotherhood, a group At \ufb01rst enamored with formed in Egypt in the 1920s, Western culture, he developed which aimed to use the Islamic an interest in English literature faith as a means of \u201cordering the and studied educational life of the Muslim family, individual, administration in the US. community\u2026and state.\u201d However, his experience Egyptian workers are searched by Ages of ignorance of what he considered the British soldiers during the Suez Crisis Qutb\u2019s interpretation of jihad was irreligious culture of the US, in 1956. Religious insensitivity and consistent with the perception of along with his view of British poor treatment by the British troops Islam as a religion that provides the policies during World War II, fed Islamic revivalism. perfect model for living. He believed soured his vision of the West. that Muslims had an obligation to Back in Egypt, he joined the (p.278) in religious and political life. establish their moral standards on Muslim Brotherhood, began Taken in this sense, jihad became earth so that everyone could bene\ufb01t writing on Islamic topics, and a revolutionary struggle against from them. Jihad, then, became a advocated an Islamic ideology un-Islamic forces, eliminating continual struggle against unbelief in place of Western in\ufb02uences. perceived evil in pursuit of what and injustice, or what Qutb called revivalists believed was justice jahiliyya. This term was traditionally In 1954, Qutb was arrested and righteousness. Likewise, the used to describe the age of ignorance along with other Muslim revivalists thought that immoral \u2014the period before the revelation of Brotherhood members for governments should be replaced the Qur\u2019an\u2014but it was applied by conspiring to assassinate by Islamic systems established Qutb to everything he considered \u276f\u276f Egypt\u2019s president, Gamal according to divine principles. In Abdel Nasser. After serving many Muslim revivalists\u2019 minds, a I went to the West and saw a 10-year sentence, he was government based upon the Qur\u2019an Islam, but no Muslims; I got released, only to write his and Islam would provide the perfect most controversial work, social system, and the best way back to the East and saw Milestones, in which he called to achieve it was by a jihad that Muslims, but not Islam. for a re-creation of the Muslim expressed itself through militant Muhammad \u2018Abduh world based on Qur\u2019anic action, resistance, and revolution. principles. In so doing, he rejected forms of government Egyptian activism that were not truly Islamic. He Sayyid Qutb, a Muslim activist in was arrested and sentenced to 20th-century Egypt, became one death for plotting to overthrow of the most in\ufb02uential revivalist the Egyptian state. In August thinkers. From Qutb\u2019s perspective, 1966, he was executed and Egypt had grown increasingly weak buried in an unmarked grave. Key Works 1949 Social Justice in Islam 1954 In the Shade of the Qur\u2019an 1964 Milestones","290 THE RISE OF ISLAMIC REVIVALISM We\u2026believed once in English He strongly opposed any system \u2026Islam possesses or is liberalism and English of government in which people capable of solving our basic were in \u201cservitude to others,\u201d problems\u2026without doubt sympathy; but we believe considering this to be a violation it will be more capable than no longer, for facts are of God\u2019s sovereignty. This included any other system we may communist nations (because of seek to borrow or imitate, stronger than words. Your their state-imposed atheism) as liberalness we see plainly well as polytheist nations such as to work in our nation. India, and Christian and Jewish Sayyid Qutb is only for yourselves\u2026 states. Qutb also argued that Sayyid Qutb many Muslim countries lived in exerted their in\ufb02uence. This a state of jahiliyya because they meant that Muslim scholars alien to Islam. For him, jahiliyya accepted alien\u2014and in particular who interpreted the Qur\u2019an in was not just a period of time, but Western\u2014ideas and tried to such ways as to suggest that its a state of being that was repeated incorporate them into their discussions of jihad were no longer every time a society strayed from governments, laws, and cultures. applicable in the modern world the path of Islam. For Qutb, the only effective way were misled. Qutb argued that to rid society of jahiliyya was by jihad was meant to be enforced Islamic governance implementing an Islamic way of in his day in the same way it was Qutb applied the concept of life with its superior strategies and when the Qur\u2019an was revealed; this jahiliyya to governments that he beliefs for governing humanity. might not mean eliminating every did not consider properly Islamic. non-Muslim from power, but it did Renewed jihad mean shedding the in\ufb02uence the This line of thinking about West had upon the world. Muslims jahiliyya led Qutb and his followers should do what was necessary to advocate the implementation of to ensure that a pure Islam as jihad. Understood this way, jihad a system of governance could might be necessary for each new \ufb02ourish uninhibited by un-Islamic generation of Muslims, at least as pressures. In this way, Qutb helped long as foreign, un-Islamic forces to shape not only how future Islamic revivalists would see the world but how the people in the West would come to perceive Islam in the late 20th century. \u25a0 Supporters of Mohamed Morsi, a prominent member of the Muslim Brotherhood, celebrate his election as President of Egypt in 2012. The Muslim Brotherhood remains a major force in Egyptian social and political life.","ISLAM 291 ISLAM CAN BE A MODERN RELIGION THE COMPATIBILITY OF FAITH IN CONTEXT O ne of the most signi\ufb01cant Tariq Ramadan advises European questions faced by governments on Muslim relations; KEY FIGURE Muslims today is how he is a prominent communicator Tariq Ramadan to relate Islamic faith to secular, and advocate of Muslim integration. modern life. This question becomes WHEN AND WHERE more pressing when people from take the traditional sources referred 1960s, Switzerland Muslim countries move to the to by Islamic scholars\u2014the Qur\u2019an West, bringing with them not just and Sunna\u2014and to interpret them BEFORE their religion, but their religion as in the context of their own cultural 711 CE Muslims begin raids practiced in a speci\ufb01c cultural background, taking responsibility on the Iberian Peninsula. context. As a result, many Muslims for their faith in the environment face a disconnection between what they inhabit. Ramadan\u2019s goal is to 827 Muslims begin conquest is Islamic and what is modern, help Muslims contextualize many of Sicily and establish an secular, or Western. modern issues facing Islam, so that Emirate in 965. they are able to become Western The idea developed by Tariq Muslims whose culture and religion 15th century Islamic Ramadan\u2014an Islamic scholar, are compatible. \u25a0 Ottoman Empire expands whose family went into exile from in the Balkans. Egypt to Switzerland because of his father\u2019s membership of the AFTER Muslim Brotherhood (p.289)\u2014is that 1960s Large-scale Muslim it is possible to be at once a Muslim emigration begins from and an American or a European: Turkey and northern Africa religion and national culture are to Europe. separate concepts, and it is the duty of a Muslim not only to respect 1979 The Iranian Revolution the laws of the host country\u2019 but to leads to the overthrow of Iran\u2019s \u201ccontribute, wherever they are, to Westernizing government. promoting good and equity within and through human brotherhood.\u201d 2008 Rowan Williams, the Ramadan encourages Muslims to Archbishop of Canterbury, states that the adoption of See also: Faith and the state 189 \u25a0 Progressive Judaism 190\u201395 aspects of shari\u2018a law is \u25a0 The central professions of faith 262\u201369 inevitable in the UK.","MODERN RELIGIO FROM 15TH CENTURY","NS","294 INTRODUCTION Guru Nanak founds Claiming guidance Mirza Husayn \u2018Ali Western trade in Sikhism in the Punjab from God and the angel Nuri proclaims the Paci\ufb01c region region of India during Moroni, Joseph Smith, leads to the rise of Jr. translates the Book of himself a messenger the so-called cargo a time of tension Mormon and founds the of God, adopts the cults in Melanesia between Hindus Church of Jesus Christ of title Baha\u2019u\u2019llah, and and New Guinea. and the Muslim Latter-day Saints, US. founds the Baha\u2019i Mughal Empire. Faith in Persia. 1499 1830 1863 1885 18TH\u201319TH CENTURY 19TH CENTURY 1880S 1926 Creole religions evolve A number of new The Watch Tower Tract After a revelation within communities of religions emerge Society, part of the Bible from the Supreme African slaves in the in Japan, including Student Movement in the Tenrikyo, Oomoto, US, lays the foundations Being, Ng\u00f4 Van Caribbean. and Kurozumikyo. for what becomes known as Chi\u00eau founds the the Jehovah\u2019s Witnesses. Cao \u00d0\u00e0i religion in Vietnam. M ost of the world\u2019s major in Europe, and the exploration and Their status as new religions religions evolved out of colonization of new lands\u2014gave depends greatly on how much the ancient civilizations, rise to a number of new religious they are accepted or rejected with their foundations in the folk movements fueled by reluctance to by the parent religions. traditions that preceded them. compromise in the face of change. The Abrahamic religions (Islam, In some cases, syncretic Judaism, and Christianity), for New faiths religions\u2014amalgams of two example, trace themselves back to It is often dif\ufb01cult to determine very different faiths\u2014have evolved, the stories of Noah and the Flood, whether a breakaway group is especially among displaced or long before any Middle Eastern a branch of an older religion, or a oppressed people. For example, civilizations, and, similarly, the completely new faith. Mormons while Africans taken to the various branches of Hinduism and Jehovah\u2019s Witnesses, for Caribbean as slaves were forced to are based on beliefs that predate example, both believe in the adopt their masters\u2019 Christianity, Indian civilization. divinity of Jesus, but many of their they used it as a framework for other beliefs separate them from practicing the religions of their As philosophical and scienti\ufb01c mainstream Christianity. Similarly, homelands, resulting in creole thinking became increasingly Tenrikyo and other new Japanese faiths, such as Santeria (also sophisticated over the millennia, religious movements bear many known as Regla de Ocha or these faiths faced a choice: to similarities to both Buddhism Lukum\u00ed), Candombl\u00e9, Orisha- adapt with the times and embrace and Shinto, and both the Hare Shango, and Vodun (or Voodoo), change, or denounce anything Krishna and Transcendental depending on the tribe they had new as heretical. Breakaway sects Meditation movements are come from. In the 20th century, a emerged, and\u2014driven by events obviously derived from Hinduism. Jamaican religion, the Rastafari such as the Industrial Revolution movement, grew out of the Black","MODERN RELIGIONS 295 The Rastafari Based on L. Ron Maharishi Mahesh A.C. Bhaktivedanta movement begins Hubbard\u2019s theories of Yogi founds the Swami Prabhupada in Jamaica, after Dianetics, Scientology Transcendental Ras Tafari becomes takes the Hindu is developed as a Meditation movement, tradition of chanting Emperor Haile religion in the US. using traditional Hindu to the US, where he Selassie I of Ethiopia. meditation techniques. founds ISKCON, the Hare Krishna movement. 1930 1952 1957 1965 1950S 1954 1961 1992 One of a number of Sun Myung Moon The \u201cnon-creedal, In China, Li Hongzhi neopagan religions, establishes the non-doctrinal\u201d Unitarian combines meditative Wicca is founded in Universalist Association qigong practices with Britain after the repeal Uni\ufb01cation Church Daoist and Buddhist of the Witchcraft Act. in Korea. is founded in the US. ideas in Falun Dafa, also called Falun Gong. Consciousness movement, building the indigenous American people. such as ISKCON, Transcendental a mythology around the Emperor Other modern religions have been Meditation, and Falun Gong; while Haile Selassie of Ethiopia, a country established with the aim of uniting others, notably Scientology and that Rastafarians consider to be all faiths, or at least recognizing some modern Japanese religions, Judah. Western in\ufb02uence in the the validity of other beliefs and have grown out of loosely science- Paci\ufb01c region also led to new embracing them in their own faith: based beliefs. Many of these varieties of traditional folk religions, these, which include Baha\u2019i, Cao \u00d0\u00e0i, new religions were founded by a known as the cargo cults. and Unitarian Universalism, have charismatic leader or prophet who arisen in various areas of the world claimed divine revelation, and have Many other new religions have where a variety of major faiths have been dismissed as cults designed emerged as speci\ufb01c to a particular historically coexisted. for the glori\ufb01cation of their leaders. location. Sikhism, for example, is Some such faiths have declined in associated with the Punjab region Search for the spiritual popularity, but others have gained of Pakistan and India; the religion A quest for mystical enlightenment a strong following and an eventual was founded as a reaction to the produced the Hasidic movement in acceptance as new religious hostility between Hindus and Judaism, and Su\ufb01sm in Islam, and movements in their own right. Muslims in the area, and was some Christian denominations Before dismissing them, it is as based on a peaceful, democratic have become more charismatic in well to remember that Christianity social foundation. The Church of recent years. Others in the West was initially considered a cult Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints have drifted away from religious by the Romans and Jews, and in its Book of Mormon provided a tradition: some to the past and that Muhammad was driven out speci\ufb01cally US addition to the neopagan religions such as Wicca; of Mecca with his small group of Christian Bible, with a mythology others to movements from the East followers for his heretical beliefs. \u25a0 of saints and angels among","WE MUST LIVE AS SAINT-SOLDIERS THE SIKH CODE OF CONDUCT","","298 THE SIKH CODE OF CONDUCT IN CONTEXT The Sikh religion was the \ufb01rst of a succession of 10 founded by Guru Nanak, Sikh gurus, whose teachings are KEY FIGURE a devoutly spiritual man collected in the Sikh holy book, Guru Nanak who became disillusioned with the Adi Granth. This book came the Hinduism that had surrounded to be considered as the 11th and WHEN AND WHERE him when he was growing up in \ufb01nal guru of Sikhism, and is known 15th\u201316th century, India a village near Lahore (in modern as the Guru Granth Sahib (p.303). Pakistan) in the 15th century. Nanak\u2019s followers became known BEFORE Islam had also in\ufb02uenced this as Sikhs, from the Sanskrit word for 6th century BCE Jainism and area since the 10th century, learner or disciple, guided in their Buddhism reject the Hindu and its importance grew as the way of life by God and the gurus. concept of a just war, arguing Mughal empire in India expanded. for absolute nonviolence. Finding God in a good life Guru Nanak viewed the Hindu Like Hindus, Sikhs believe in the 7th century CE The Qur\u2019an emphasis on ritual, pilgrimage, cycle of death and rebirth. However, contains verses that suggest and reverence for prophets and they take a different view of the war in the defense of the faith holy men as a hindrance to what purpose of human life. For the Sikh, and the faithful is righteous. he considered most important\u2014our the aim is not to attain a place in relationship with God. Although paradise, since there is no \ufb01nal AFTER he used many different names destination of heaven or hell. 1699 The Sikh Khalsa order for God, he recognized him as Instead, Sikhism teaches that sets out the conditions and one omnipresent, transcendent being born human is a God-given principles justifying con\ufb02ict. divinity, similar to the concept of opportunity to take the path to Brahman in Hinduism. Following salvation, which follows \ufb01ve stages, 18th century Sikh armies a revelation from God when he from sinning to achieving freedom engage in war with the was around 30 years old, Nanak from the cycle of death and rebirth. Mughal and Afghan empires. devoted his life to preaching the The \ufb01ve stages are: wrongdoing; path to salvation. He argued that devotion to God; spiritual union 1799 The Sikh kingdom the way in which believers conduct with God; attainment of eternal of Punjab is established. their lives is an integral part of bliss; and freedom from rebirth. achieving unity with God and 1947 The partition of India \ufb01nding salvation. After accepting To make the most of this and Pakistan splits Punjab and the title of guru, or teacher, from his opportunity, Sikhs follow a strict sparks religious tension. followers, he went on to become code of conduct and conventions, A good Sikh should: Conquer the Wear the \ufb01ve Keep God in Defend the \ufb01ve vices. articles of faith. mind at all times. faith and protect the weak and oppressed. We must live as saint-soldiers."]