Big Ideas Simply Explained - The Religions Book

["MODERN RELIGIONS 299 See also: Living in harmony 38 \u25a0 The battle between good and evil 60\u201365 \u25a0 Sel\ufb02ess action 110\u201311 \u25a0 Physical and mental discipline 112\u201313 \u25a0 Striving in the way of God 278 \u25a0 Class systems and faith 302\u2013303 The Khalsa belongs to God, and Victory belongs to Him. Traditional Sikh greeting The Khalsa order was founded in response to persecution of Sikhs under the Mughal empire, when Guru Gobind Singh called for Sikhs willing to lay down their lives in defense of the faith. which was formally laid down by sipahi, or saint-soldier, who \ufb01rst opposite: they were asked to play the 10th guru, Guru Gobind Singh, and foremost led the life of a saint an active part in it by commitment when he created the order of the in his devotion to God, but would to family and community, and by Khalsa, the community of all Sikhs act as a warrior to defend his faith demonstrating a social conscience, baptized into the faith, in 1699. or prevent injustice, if necessary. which is considered one of the highest of all the Sikh virtues. Virtue and courage The Khalsa would protect the The idea of social justice lies at the weak, and dedicate themselves to Guru Gobind Singh stressed heart of the Khalsa order (the name a virtuous lifestyle of chastity and that a Sikh should act like a means \u201cthe pure\u201d or \u201cthe free\u201d). temperance, ridding themselves of warrior only out of necessity in Members are encouraged not only the \ufb01ve vices\u2014lust (kaam), anger leading a saintly life: he should to share with others, but also to (krodh), greed (lobh), emotional be a soldierlike saint rather than protect the poor, the weak, and attachment (moh), and egotism a saintlike soldier, and all Sikhs the oppressed. This was a crucial (ahankar)\u2014and keeping God in should act on the principle of \u201cfear part of Guru Nanak\u2019s original mind at all times. Guru Gobind not, frighten not.\u201d Singh likened philosophy, and it was reinforced Singh codi\ufb01ed a lifestyle that the courage needed to behave during the period of the Ten Gurus, was appropriate to all Sikhs when in this way to that of the lion, when Sikhs were persecuted both he established the Khalsa order: and suggested that Sikhs being by their Muslim rulers and by not only did he prohibit rituals, baptized in the Khalsa order Hindus, who regarded the Sikh pilgrimages, and superstitious should adopt the surname faith as heretical. Guru Gobind practices, but he also outlined Singh (\u201clion\u201d) or Kaur (\u201clioness\u201d). Singh\u2019s intention in forming the the virtues necessary to a life Khalsa was to establish an order devoted to God, such as honesty, Five articles of faith of Sikhs that embodied the twofold simplicity, monogamy, and After they are baptized in the virtues of bhakti (spirituality, or avoidance of alcohol and drugs. Khalsa order, Sikhs are expected devotion) and shakti (powerfulness). to wear the \ufb01ve articles of faith, He envisioned an ideal of the sant- The Khalsa were not asked commonly known as the \u201c\ufb01ve Ks\u201d, to renounce the world in their as an outward expression of \u276f\u276f devotion to God, in fact quite the","300 THE SIKH CODE OF CONDUCT their status as saint-soldiers. Each articles of faith. Nevertheless, God approves not the of these\u2014kesh (uncut hair), kangha it has become an essential item distinction of high (comb), kara (bracelet), kachera of Sikh clothing and has helped caste and low caste. (undergarment), and kirpan (sword) to give its wearers a strong sense None has he made \u2014has a deep symbolic meaning, of identity and social cohesion. higher than others. as well as distinctively identifying The turban was adopted at the the wearer as a Sikh. suggestion of Guru Gobind Singh, Sri Guru Granth Sahib who pointed out that all the gurus Hair is considered by Sikhs had worn a turban, and that doing any action. Similarly, the kachera, to be a gift from God, and kesh likewise would help the wearer a cotton undergarment\u2014worn (the practice of leaving the hair to concentrate on following their by both men and women\u2014that and beard uncut) is seen, in example. The primary purpose resembles loose-\ufb01tting shorts, part, as the avoidance of vanity. of the turban, however, is to pull ostensibly acts as a warning to However, it is also a symbolic back and protect the uncut hair control sexual passion and desire, representation of the ideal of of male Sikhs. but is also a symbolic reminder that leading a life in a way that God Sikhs should strive to overcome intended, without interference, Proofs against temptation desires of all kinds and lead a and in harmony with his will, and Just as important as the positive faithful life in a broader sense. as such is an important outward virtues is the avoidance of vice. sign of the Khalsa code of conduct. The steel bracelet known as Defending the faith the kara is a symbol of the vows The soldierly aspect of Sikhism Sikhs are expected to keep taken by a Sikh during baptism to is encapsulated in the kirpan, their hair clean and well-groomed, refrain from the \ufb01ve vices. Because the ceremonial sword, which combing it twice daily with the it is worn on the wrist it is often symbolizes courage and dignity. kanga, a special comb that is also visible to the wearer, and therefore It encourages its wearer to be used to hold it in place under a acts as a frequent reminder to constantly determined to defend turban. This regular grooming is consider carefully whether his the Sikh faith and its moral values, a constant reminder of the Sikh\u2019s or her actions will lead to evil or and protect the downtrodden duty to lead a virtuous life devoted wrongdoing. The Jain faith uses from tyranny. to God, which is why the kanga a very similar device, in the form is also considered one of the \ufb01ve of its emblem of the raised palm Sikhism has at various times articles of faith. (p.70): a reminder to stop and been associated with nationalist consider the intention behind political movements in the Punjab, The most easily identi\ufb01able where it originated. The region aspect of a male Sikh, his turban, has often suffered from religious is not actually one of the \ufb01ve con\ufb02icts, which Sikhs have The Sikh turban is an important symbol of faith and dignity. By keeping the hair well groomed, it distinguishes the Sikh man\u2019s appearance from the matted locks worn by Hindu ascetics.","inevitably been drawn into. ceremonies and worship. However, MODERN RELIGIONS 301 There was even a short-lived as Guru Nanak originally preached, Sikh Empire formed in 1799 but devotion to God and a socially Guru Nanak dissolved by the British in 1849. responsible lifestyle are more After the formation of the Akali, important in Sikhism than rituals The founder of the Sikh a Sikh reform movement, in the and reverence. This is re\ufb02ected religion, Guru Nanak, was 1920s, and the Akali Dal political in the institution of the gurdwara, born in 1469 into a Hindu party in 1966, there were calls for which, as well as being a temple family in Talwandi, in the an autonomous Sikh state in the for worship, is also the hub of the Punjab region of India (now Punjab, where violent incidents Sikh community. Sikh worship known as Nankana Sahib, between Sikhs and Hindus, along is generally not prescribed by the Pakistan). Tension was with tensions between Muslim gurus, other than the early morning running high between Pakistan and Hindu India, have prayer, which uses the Mul Mantra the Hindus and Muslims continued into modern times. composed by Guru Nanak as a there as the Mughal Empire Outside the Punjab, however, meditation on God\u2019s Name. This spread south into the Indian the Sikh diaspora has generally can be practiced anywhere, not subcontinent. As a young integrated into society. just in the gurdwara, and because man, Nanak worked as an there is no priesthood in Sikhism, accountant, but was always An updated code of conduct for this, alongside readings and hymns fascinated by spiritual contemporary Sikhism is offered in from the Guru Granth Sahib, can, matters. According to Sikh the Sikh Rehat Maryada, published in the spirit of Sikh egalitarianism, tradition, after receiving in 1950, which gives guidance on be performed by anyone. \u25a0 a revelation, in which God personal and public life, including gave him a cup of nectar and told him of his vocation The \u201c\ufb01ve Ks\u201d of the Sikh religion to spread the message of his here surround the Sikh symbol of Name, Nanak embarked on a crossed swords. The sword or 25-year mission, traveling and kirpan is one of the \u201cKs,\u201d or preaching with his companion, articles of faith. The others the Muslim minstrel Bhai are uncut hair and beard, Mardana. In \ufb01ve long trips, comb, bracelet, and he visited the major cities cotton shorts. and religious centers of India and Arabia, where he kesh set up dharamshalas, centers of worship. He was given kirpan kangha the title guru, or teacher, by his followers. After his kachera kara \ufb01nal journey, to Baghdad and Mecca, he returned to Punjab, where he remained until his death in 1539.","302 ALL MAY ENTER OUR GATEWAY TO GOD CLASS SYSTEMS AND FAITH IN CONTEXT S ikhism is one of the most Guru Gobind Singh, established egalitarian of all religions, the Khalsa order, into which most KEY FIGURE quite free of division or Sikhs are initiated (p.299), he Guru Nanak discrimination by race, class, or made the order open to everyone. sex. All are welcome in gurdwaras Controversially, for the time, he WHEN AND WHERE (Sikh temples) regardless of faith; denounced the caste system and From 15th century, India there are no priests\u2014decisions are gender discrimination. He also made by the community\u2014and abolished the priesthood in BEFORE both men and women may read Sikhism, which he felt had become From 1700 BCE The Vedic from the Sikh holy book. This corrupt and self-serving\u2014guilty of scriptures divide society into inclusiveness can be traced to the very vices the faith seeks to four varnas, or classes, with Sikhism\u2019s origins, when Guru overcome. Instead, he appointed brahmins (priests) at the top; Nanak (p.301) received a revelation custodians of the holy book, the this rigid social hierarchy from God, and announced: \u201cThere Guru Granth Sahib, at each temple, pervades Indian society to is no Hindu or Muslim, so whose while also permitting all Sikhs, the present day. path shall I follow? I shall follow male or female, to read from it in the path of God.\u201d worship at the gurdwara or at home. AFTER c.1870 Indian sage Sri Disillusioned about the existing Ramakrishna advocates religions of India at that time, and religious tolerance, stating by the social divisiveness he saw in that all religions may lead to all religions, Guru Nanak considered God via a heightened state that, from the divine perspective, of consciousness. religious labels\u2014such as Hindu or Muslim\u2014were irrelevant. In their 1936 Indian philosopher and place, Guru Nanak offered an political leader Mahatma alternative, all-embracing faith Gandhi propagates the notion based on devotion to God rather of sarvadharma samabhava, than the observance of ritual and the equality of all religions, reverence for individual holy men. and speaks out against the Indian caste system. A legacy of equality Both Sikhs and non-Sikh visitors Guru Nanak\u2019s teachings were are welcome to join in communal meals consolidated by subsequent Sikh at Sikh temples. Everyone, whatever gurus, and when the 10th guru, their race, class, or sex, sits on the \ufb02oor to eat, to emphasize the equality of all.","See also: God-consciousness 122\u201323 \u25a0 Gender and the covenant 199 \u25a0 The Sikh MODERN RELIGIONS 303 code of conduct 296\u2013301 \u25a0 Cao \u00d0\u00e0i aims to unify all faiths 316 The Guru Granth Guru Gobind Singh Sahib abolished all social divisions The central religious text in the order of Khalsa, so that of Sikhism is a collection of Sikhism is open to\u2026 hymns and verses compiled and written by the succession \u2026people of all castes \u2026both men of 10 Sikh gurus, the leaders of and nationalities. and women equally. the faith, who lived between 1469 and 1708. This collection Sikhs believe that all religions consists of some 1,430 pages, that worship one God are valid... or angs, of their teachings. The \ufb01rst version of the book, \u2026and that the salvation shown known as the Adi Granth, in the Guru Granth Sahib was compiled by the \ufb01fth is available to all. guru, Guru Arjan Dev, from the sayings and writings of All may enter our gateway to God. his predecessors, and was added to by subsequent gurus. Guru Gobind Singh, the 10th guru, completed the text and nominated it, rather than another human leader, as his successor, calling it \u201cthe embodiment of the gurus,\u201d and giving it the title Guru Granth Sahib. Unlike its predecessors, this \u201c11th guru\u201d is available for all to consult, and a copy takes a place of pride in every gurdwara, or Sikh temple. Originally written in a specially devised script, Gurmukhi, in a mixture of dialects collectively known as Sant Bhasha, it has since been translated into several modern languages. Sikhs do not need to perform any follows the same path as Sikhism, All beings and creatures particular rituals or undertake and their faith deserves respect. are His; He belongs to all. pilgrimages, but they are expected Sikhs regard an individual\u2019s to show their devotion to God in religion to be largely the result Guru Granth Sahib their everyday lives. It is not even of the culture in which he or a requirement to worship at the she was brought up: Hindus, gurdwara. These temples serve as Muslims, Christians, and Sikhs social centers and exemplify the have a common inspiration, but notion of community spirit that is the particular form this takes is such an important component of determined by society. For this Sikhism. For Sikhs, anyone who reason, Sikhs do not attempt to believes in and worships one God convert people of other faiths. \u25a0","304 MESSAGES TO AND FROM HOME THE AFRICAN ROOTS OF SANTERIA IN CONTEXT S anteria is a religion that that were established following combines traditional the Spanish colonization of the KEY BELIEVERS western African religion islands. The Yoruba people of Displaced Yoruba people with Catholicism. This blended, present-day Nigeria and Benin from western Africa or syncretic, religion developed in formed the majority of those taken Cuba between the 16th and 18th to the Cuban sugar plantations. WHEN AND WHERE centuries. During this period, huge These slaves came from the well- From 16th century, Cuba numbers of people from western established Oyo Empire, which had Africa were enslaved and taken to a sophisticated religious tradition. BEFORE work on the Caribbean plantations This was outlawed by the Spanish. From prehistory African tribal mythologies incorporate Slaves taken from western Africa to the Caribbean strong links to the land and to the ancestors. \u2026took their religion with them and incorporated it into the Christianity of their owners, initially to conceal its 9th\u20136th centuries BCE The nature from them. people of the kingdom of Judah maintain their faith However, they retained the elements of communication while in exile in Assyria, with their gods, spirits, and ancestors in Africa through Babylon, and Egypt. trances and possession. 15th\u201319th centuries In this way, believers continued to transmit European colonial conquests messages to and from home. are accompanied by forcible conversions to Christianity. AFTER 19th century The slave trade is abolished; Creole religions are practiced more openly in the Caribbean and Brazil. 1970s Santeria becomes established in the US.","See also: The power of the shaman 26\u201331 \u25a0 The spirits of the dead live on 36\u201337 MODERN RELIGIONS 305 \u25a0 Living the Way of the Gods 82\u201385 \u25a0 Ras Tafari is our Savior 314\u201315 Hybrid religions A Santeria altar often blends imagery from both Catholicism Santeria is just one of many and western African beliefs, with Creole religions\u2014hybrids particular saints identi\ufb01ed with of African and European faiths particular African deities, or orishas. \u2014that had their origins in slavery. Yoruba (the dominant However, the Yoruba slaves soon saint, the Yoruba slaves would culture of the area plundered learned to conceal the worship of communicate with an orisha with by slave traders in western their African gods by appearing similar characteristics. This hybrid Africa) \ufb01gures largely in many to practice Catholicism. Unaware religion allowed the Yoruba to Creole religions: Candombl\u00e9 in of this, the Spanish slave-owners maintain contact with their culture Brazil, Santeria in Cuba, and dismissed the religious practices and a link with their homeland, and, Orisha-Shango in Trinidad of their slaves as merely a simplistic they believed, to communicate with and Tobago. However, other form of Christian worship, and their ancestors through the spirits. African peoples, including sarcastically dubbed it Santeria, the Igbo from Nigeria, added the \u201cway of the saints\u201d (a term now Hybrid elements of the religion their cultures to the mix, in viewed as pejorative by some). include the adoption of numerous religions such as Umbanda Spanish words and the addition of and Obeah. Perhaps the The Rule of Osha images of Catholic saints alongside best-known African-European The Yoruba religion, known as the traditional portrayals of orishas, faith emerged in Haiti, where Regla de Ocha or \u201cRule of Osha\u201d and in some cases, the retention French, rather than Spanish, (Regla Lucum\u00ed, in the Yoruba of the traditional framework of a Catholicism was incorporated language), already had similarities Catholic service. Rituals are presided into African vodun beliefs as to Catholicism. The Yoruba believe over by a priest or santeros. Hymns voodoo. This also made its in one God, Olorun (or Olodumare), are replaced with drumming and way into the southern United the source of all spiritual energy\u2014 chanting, with the aim of inducing States. The religions of the analogous to Catholic worship of a trance state. While in a trance, African diaspora gained some the one God. They also believe in the believer may become possessed political signi\ufb01cance after the a lesser pantheon of spirits known by spirits conveying messages from abolition of slavery, especially as orishas, each with an area of their ancestral home. The drums as Pan-African and black civil responsibility\u2014akin to Catholic convey messages to the orisha. rights movements grew in the reverence of the saints. So, while 20th century, giving rise ostensibly praying to a Catholic Although there is a strong to another hybrid religion element of the supernatural and in Jamaica: the Rastafari magic in Santeria, and some movement (pp.314\u201315). ceremonies call for ritual sacri\ufb01ce (usually of a chicken), believers I humble myself before the are insistent that black magic mysteries of Eshu-Elegba. is not involved. They maintain that their beliefs are distinct from You are the messenger other syncretic religions of the of Olodumare and Orisha Caribbean, such as Haitian voodoo. and the Ancestors. The relationship between Prayer to the orisha Eshu Santeria and Catholicism still exists today, although the need for secrecy no longer remains. Adherents of Santeria are often baptized in the Catholic faith and practice separate ceremonies for the saints and orishas. \u25a0","306 ASK YOURSELF: \u201cWHAT WOULD JESUS DO?\u201d FOLLOWING THE EXAMPLE OF CHRIST IN CONTEXT After the ascension of \u2026the original Church Jesus and the martyrdom turned away from KEY FIGURES the Gospel in the Joseph Smith, Jr., of the apostles\u2026 Brigham Young Great Apostasy. WHEN AND WHERE \u2026who take as their In a series of revelations, 1830, US model Jesus himself, priesthood authority rather than the dogma was restored to Joseph BEFORE of any existing church. Smith, Jr. and his successors, 1790\u2013mid-19th century The the Latter-day Saints\u2026 Second Great Awakening, a Protestant revival movement Ask yourself: \u201cWhat would Jesus do?\u201d in the United States, leads to the formation of several In reaction to the rationalism of of the established church and Adventist churches, based the Enlightenment that spread incorporated charismatic elements of on belief in the imminent from Europe to the American the faith\u2014\u201cgifts of the spirit,\u201d such as Second Coming of Christ. colonies in the 18th century, a prophecy and visions. There was also Christian revival occurred in the a move to restore Christianity to the AFTER United States at the beginning of principles of the New Testament. Late 19th century In the 19th century. Many breakaway the US, the Bible Student Christian groups were formed at this It was against this background Movement advocates a return time. They rejected the traditions that Joseph Smith, Jr. had the \ufb01rst to the earliest teachings of of a series of visions, in which God the Christian Church. This movement will become the Jehovah\u2019s Witnesses. 1926 Following what is claimed to be a new phase of revelations from God, the Cao \u00d0\u00e0i religion is founded, with Jesus as one of its saints.","MODERN RELIGIONS 307 See also: Jesus\u2019s message to the world 204\u2013207 \u25a0 Jesus\u2019s divine identity 208 \u25a0 A divine trinity 212\u201319 \u25a0 God reveals his word and his will 254\u201361 \u25a0 Awaiting the Day of Judgment 312\u201313 when the original Christian Church became corrupted and diluted. God conferred on Smith the authority to reestablish the Christian Church. Mormonism is the pure Modern-day prophets A Mormon family prays together doctrine of Jesus Christ, Smith, and his successors, are in their living room during their family considered by their followers to be home evening. These evenings are of which I myself modern-day prophets, seers, and a Mormon tradition intended to am not ashamed. revelators, who received guidance reinforce and solidify family ties. Joseph Smith from God in the form of revelations from Jesus Christ. Church members up a Mormon community in Utah. and Jesus Christ came to tell him believe that, rather than following They hold to a strict moral code, that he had been chosen to restore the doctrine of any existing Church, The Word of Wisdom, avoiding the true Church. How the Church of they are living as Christ has taught alcohol, tobacco, coffee, tea, and Christ would differ from the other them, as \u201clatter-day saints\u201d\u2014a extramarital sexual activity. restorationist groups was explained term adopted by Smith when he Marriage is among the rituals they when Smith said an angel had established the Church of Jesus believe necessary for salvation, guided him to \ufb01nd and translate Christ of Latter-day Saints, although as are baptism and con\ufb01rmation. a text, the Book of Mormon, which the movement is more commonly Early Mormons practiced polygamy, described how God had led his called Mormonism. In addition to but this was renounced by the followers to the New World. He was taking their lead from revelations, mainstream movement in 1890. \u25a0 told of the Great Apostasy that Latter-day Saints believe they should followed the ascension of Christ follow Jesus\u2019s example. The most and the martyrdom of the Apostles, important consideration for them is, \u201cWhat would Jesus do?\u201d After Joseph Smith\u2019s death, the movement divided into several branches, with the majority following Brigham Young (1801\u20131877), who set Joseph Smith, Jr. The son of tenant farmers, Joseph by ancient inhabitants of Smith, Jr. was born in 1805 in America. With divine guidance, Vermont, but in 1820 moved with Smith supposedly located and his family to western New York, a translated the scriptures, the center of the Protestant revival Book of Mormon, and published movement known as the Second it in 1830, the year that he also Great Awakening. Confused as founded his Church. to which of the numerous denominations he should follow, Persecuted for his heretical he prayed for guidance and had a beliefs, he moved around vision in which God the Father frequently, establishing Latter- and Jesus appeared to tell him all day Saint communities in Ohio the Churches had \u201cturned aside and Missouri before \ufb01nally from the gospel.\u201d He later said he settling in Nauvoo, Illinois. He had been visited by the angel was arrested for inciting a riot Moroni, who told him of scriptures in Carthage, Illinois, in 1844, inscribed on golden plates, written but was killed by an angry mob before he could stand trial.","308 WE SHALL KNOW HIM THROUGH HIS MESSENGERS THE REVELATION OF BAHA\u2019I IN CONTEXT Different religions have been established in various places and at various times in history. KEY FIGURE Baha\u2019u\u2019llah (Mirza Husayn- These religions were founded by divine messengers \u2018Ali Nuri) such as Moses, Buddha, Jesus, and Muhammad. WHEN AND WHERE Each of these divine \u2026and prophesied From 1863, Persia messengers revealed God messengers yet to come. BEFORE in a way that suited the 7th century Muhammad is time and place\u2026 hailed as God\u2019s \ufb01nal prophet, bearing the message of Islam. \u2026but will be followed by Baha\u2019u\u2019llah is the After his death, leadership other divine messengers most recent of these disputes cause a split between messengers, revealing Shi\u2018a and Sunni Muslims. in a continuing and religious truth for progressive revelation. modern society\u2026 1501 Shah Ismail I establishes the Safavid dynasty, ruling We shall know him over a united Persia whose through his messengers. state religion is Shi\u2018a Islam. 1844 Siyyid \u2018Ali Muhammad Shirazi claims he is the Mahdi, the redeemer predicted in Shi\u2018a Islam. He adopts the title Bab (Gate), and founds a new religion to succeed Islam. AFTER 1921 In Lahore (modern Pakistan), Mirza Ghulam Ahmad claims to bring a new message from God for Islam.","MODERN RELIGIONS 309 See also: The promise of a new age 178\u201381 \u25a0 The Prophet and the origins of Islam 252\u201353 \u25a0 The emergence of Shi\u2018a Islam 270\u201371 \u25a0 Cao \u00d0\u00e0i aims to unify all faiths 316 \u25a0 A faith open to all beliefs 321 I n Shi\u2018a Islam, most followers messengers including Moses, All peoples and believe that the Mahdi, the Buddha, Jesus, and Muhammad. nations are of one descendant of Muhammad Throughout history, he explained, family, the children of who will come to restore the religion religions have been established by one Father, and should of God, is Muhammad al-Mahdi, these messengers, with each one in be to one another as the Twelfth Imam, who lived on turn bringing the religious truth brothers and sisters earth until 941. His return to bring in a manner that was well-suited peace and justice to the world is a to the time and place. Each Baha\u2019u\u2019llah cornerstone of the branch of Shi\u2018a messenger has also prophesied the known as the Twelvers (p.271). This coming of another messenger, in a peace, unity, and justice. Central belief was especially prevalent in progressive revelation, a continual to his message was the concept 19th-century Persia, where Shi\u2018a unfolding of the message of God. of unity of religion, acceptance of Islam had for centuries been the the validity of all the world\u2019s major state religion. It was here, in 1844, The nature of the message religions, and respect for their that Siyyid \u2018Ali Muhammad Shirazi In his writings, Baha\u2019u\u2019llah explains prophets as messengers of God. (1819\u201350) declared that he was that God has two reasons for With this teaching he hoped to the Bab (Gate), and had come sending these prophets to the avoid what had before now become to establish a faith in readiness world: \u201cThe \ufb01rst is to liberate the a source of religious con\ufb02ict, while for the coming of \u201cHe whom God children of men from the darkness promoting the unity of humankind shall make manifest.\u201d of ignorance, and guide them to and rejecting inequality, prejudice, the light of true understanding. and oppression. \u25a0 The Islamic authorities The second is to ensure the peace persecuted his followers, known and tranquillity of mankind, and as Babis, for their beliefs. Among provide all the means by which them was Mirza Husayn \u2018Ali Nuri, they can be established.\u201d who came to believe he was the one whose coming had been predicted Baha\u2019u\u2019llah\u2019s own mission, by the Bab. He adopted the title as the messenger prophesied by Baha\u2019u\u2019llah (Glory of God) in 1863, previous prophets, was to bring a proclaiming that he was a messenger message that was relevant to the of God, the latest in a line of such modern world, one of worldwide Baha\u2019u\u2019llah The founder of the Baha\u2019i faith Most of the Babis believed his was born Mirza Husayn \u2018Ali Nuri claims, and, as his followers, in Tehran, Persia, in 1817, but is became known as Baha\u2019is. In better known by his adopted title 1868, Baha\u2019u\u2019llah again fell foul of Baha\u2019u\u2019llah (\u201cGlory of God\u201d). He of the Ottoman authorities, was brought up as a Muslim, but and was sent to a penal colony became one of the \ufb01rst followers in \u2018Akka, in Palestine. He was of the Bab, Siyyid \u2018Ali Muhammad gradually permitted greater Shirazi. In the 1850s, he came to freedom, but nevertheless believe that he was the ful\ufb01llment remained a prisoner in \u2018Akka of the Bab's prophecies. He was until his death in 1892. imprisoned for his heretical beliefs, then banished to Baghdad Followers of the Baha\u2019i and later to Constantinople faith consider it more respectful (modern Istanbul), where, in 1863, to depict Baha\u2019u\u2019llah not with he declared himself as Baha\u2019u\u2019llah, an image, but with a stylized God\u2019s latest messenger on earth. version of his name in Arabic calligraphy, as shown left.","310 BRUSH AWAY THE DUST OF SIN TENRIKYO AND THE JOYOUS LIFE IN CONTEXT T enrikyo is one of the Throughout the world, so-called Japanese New God is the broom KEY FIGURE Religions that appeared for the sweeping of Nakayama Miki in the 19th century and were regarded as sects of Shinto. the innermost heart. WHEN AND WHERE Tenrikyo was founded by a peasant The Ofudesaki From 1838, Japan woman, Nakayama Miki, following revelations to her from Tenri-O-no- in order to follow the joyous life BEFORE Mikoto, God the Parent, during successfully: oshii (miserliness), 6th century Buddhism a Buddhist exorcism ritual in 1838. huoshii (covetousness), nikui spreads to Japan, bringing She recorded the substance of these (hatred), kawai (self-love), urami with it ideas of reincarnation revelations in the Ofudesaki (\u201cTip (grudge-bearing), haradachi derived from Hinduism. of the Writing Brush\u201d), Tenrikyo\u2019s (anger), yoku (greed), and koman sacred text, and became known (arrogance). Hinokishin is also 8th century In response to to her followers as Oyasama (\u201cthe practiced to give thanks to Tenri- increasing Buddhist in\ufb02uence, Parent\u201d) or the Shrine of God. O-no-Mikoto for allowing believers traditional Japanese beliefs in to borrow their bodies in a cycle of gods and spirits are codi\ufb01ed Tenrikyo followers believe in a reincarnation based on the notion in the Kojiki and the Nihon single, benevolent God, who wishes of kashimono-karimono (\u201ca thing Shoki, the \ufb01rst texts of Shinto. humans to \ufb01nd happiness in their lent, a thing borrowed\u201d). \u25a0 lives on earth. A major part of AFTER Tenrikyo practice is to follow the Late 19th century Tenrikyo Joyous Life, avoiding what are seen believers attach themselves as negative tendencies. What other to a Buddhist sect to avoid religions consider as sins, Tenrikyo persecution, but Tenrikyo is describes as mental dust that forcibly incorporated into the needs to be swept away by of\ufb01cial state religion of Shinto. hinokishin\u2014the performing of acts of kindness and charity. 1945 After World War II, State Believers identify eight mental Shinto is disestablished and dusts that need to be swept away Tenrikyo is classi\ufb01ed as a separate religion. See also: Living the Way of the Gods 82\u201385 \u25a0 Escape from the eternal cycle 136\u201343 \u25a0 Let kindness and compassion rule 146\u201347","MODERN RELIGIONS 311 THESE GIFTS MUST BE MEANT FOR US CARGO CULTS OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS IN CONTEXT Western trade and They developed the idea of a golden colonialism during the age to come, when\u2014by propitiating KEY BELIEVERS 19th century brought their ancestors and deities with Paci\ufb01c islanders modern goods in abundance to the religious rites\u2014the cargo would be islands of the Paci\ufb01c and, despite restored to them, and the Westerners WHEN AND WHERE the work of Christian missionaries, would be driven out of their lands. Late 19th century, Paci\ufb01c this had an unexpected impact on indigenous belief systems. Islanders These cults sprang up in parts BEFORE came to believe that this material of Melanesia and New Guinea, Precolonial times Tribes wealth, the cargo of the Western and proliferated in the 1930s as air in Melanesia, Micronesia, and traders, was of supernatural origin, transport increased. Their spread New Guinea hold a variety and had been sent to them as a accelerated during World War II, of beliefs involving ancestral gift from their ancestral spirits, but when the islands were used as spirits as well as deities. had been seized by the white men. bases by American and Japanese forces, bringing in large quantities 1790s The \ufb01rst Christian Followers of the John Frum cult of equipment and supplies. The missionaries arrive in the \ufb01gure \u201cdrill\u201d with model weapons to cult \ufb01gure John Frum, revered Paci\ufb01c islands. attract well-stocked military vessels. on the island of Tanna in Vanuatu, Some say the name \u201cJohn Frum\u201d was is often depicted as an American AFTER originally \u201cJohn From\u201d America. serviceman. As well as developing 1945 The term cargo cult special religious ceremonies that is coined in the colonial news frequently mimicked military drills, magazine Paci\ufb01c Islands with \ufb02ags and uniforms, cult Monthly, and is popularized followers built wharves, landing by anthropologist Lucy Mair. strips, and sometimes even life- size models of aircraft to attract 1950s Some Tanna islanders the bringers of goods. in Vanuatu start to worship Prince Philip, husband of Cargo cults persist in some Britain\u2019s Queen Elizabeth II, remote areas of the Paci\ufb01c, but believing him to be John have been largely superseded as Frum\u2019s brother, who \u201cmarried Western in\ufb02uence has spread. \u25a0 a powerful lady overseas.\u201d See also: Making sense of the world 20\u201323 \u25a0 Social holiness and evangelicalism 239 \u25a0 The African roots of Santeria 304\u2013305","312 THE END OF THE WORLD IS NIGH AWAITING THE DAY OF JUDGMENT IN CONTEXT T he Jehovah\u2019s Witnesses complete destruction in the battle emerged from the Bible at Armageddon with Satan, when KEY FIGURE Student movement in only true Christians\u2014Jehovah\u2019s Joseph Franklin the United States in the 1870s. Witnesses\u2014will be spared. Rutherford They see their faith as a return to the original concepts of 1st-century According to the movement, WHEN AND WHERE Christianity, and refer to this early the present world era is nearing its From 1931, US and interpretation of the Bible as \u201cthe end, having entered its \u201clast days\u201d Western Europe Truth.\u201d The group believes that in October 1914. This was \ufb01rst all other religions, and all forms thought to be the beginning of the BEFORE of present-day government, are battle at Armageddon, but is now 1st century CE Jesus controlled by Satan, and face accepted as the time when God, announces the arrival of known as Jehovah, entrusted the God\u2019s Kingdom; in the Book of Revelation, St. John In 1914, Jesus Christ \u2026where he has corrupted describes the apocalypse began his rule of God\u2019s the world and \ufb01ghts that will precede God\u2019s heaven and expelled the true believers, \ufb01nal judgment. Satan to earth\u2026 Jehovah\u2019s Witnesses. 19th century According to the Plymouth Brethren\u2019s The world is now in its last God will establish his Dispensationalist view of Bible days before the battle kingdom on earth after teachings, all who accept at Armageddon. Jesus will be swept up into destroying the world heaven by a \u201crapture\u201d that will ruled by Satan. precede global tribulation. The end of the world 1881 Charles Taze Russell is nigh. founds what is originally called the Zion\u2019s Watch Tower Tract Society; his Bible Student movement predicts Christ\u2019s advent on earth.","MODERN RELIGIONS 313 See also: The battle between good and evil 60\u201365 \u25a0 The end of the world as we know it 86\u201387 \u25a0 Jesus\u2019s message to the world 204\u2013207 \u25a0 A divine trinity 212\u201319 \u25a0 Entering into the faith 224\u201327 \u25a0 The ultimate reward for the righteous 279 Judgment Day is near, according to released into the world. Only Joseph Franklin Jehovah\u2019s Witnesses, who believe that true believers, a select 144,000 Rutherford those not of their faith can soon expect Jehovah\u2019s Witnesses, will remain a reckoning, as depicted here in John when Jesus passes the rule of the Born in rural Missouri in Martin\u2019s The Great Day of His Wrath. Kingdom back to God. 1869, Joseph Rutherford came from a poor farming rule of the Kingdom of Heaven to Because of their dismissal of family and was raised as Jesus Christ, who then expelled other faiths (even other Christian a Baptist, but became Satan to earth. During this \ufb01nal denominations) as corrupted by disillusioned with religion phase, Jesus, aided by a \u201cfaithful Satan, Jehovah\u2019s Witnesses have after he left home. He studied and discreet slave\u201d in the Governing been rejected by most other law and had a successful legal Body of Jehovah\u2019s Witnesses, will religions. Public opinion has been career in Missouri and New maintain his invisible rule over adversely affected by their insistent York. His interest in religion earth. For Jehovah\u2019s Witnesses there door-to-door evangelizing and the was renewed in the 1890s is no literal second coming; rather, selling of their publications The by the work of Charles Taze Jesus will at some unknown point Watchtower and Awake!\u2014which Russell, founder of the Bible begin the battle against Satan, after nevertheless command high Student movement, and he which God will extend the Kingdom circulation \ufb01gures worldwide. became actively involved of Heaven, creating an earthly But their rejection of \u201ccorrupt\u201d with the Watch Tower Society, paradise under Christ\u2019s Millennial government has had surprising becoming its second president Reign. They believe Christ to be results. Many Jehovah\u2019s Witnesses in 1917, after Russell\u2019s death. God\u2019s representative ruler and not who would not \ufb01ght for the Nazis Dramatic changes were made part of a Trinity. Similarly, the Holy ended up in concentration camps. to the organization under his Spirit is not part of the deity, but Elsewhere, their refusal to engage leadership, and the doctrines manifests in forces such as gravity. in the wars of secular governments of present-day Jehovah\u2019s helped to bring about changes to Witnesses were established. During the thousand-year reign the laws of conscientious objection, He remained president of of Christ on earth\u2014a prolonged and their refusal to compromise the Society, increasing its judgment day\u2014the dead will be their beliefs has led to many court membership by introducing resurrected and judged by Jesus, cases and in\ufb02uenced civil rights door-to-door evangelizing, facing a \ufb01nal test when Satan is legislation in several countries. \u25a0 among other things, until his death from cancer in 1942. The Lord declares he has entrusted his people with the privilege and obligation of telling his message. The Watchtower","314 THE LION OF JUDAH HAS ARISEN RAS TAFARI IS OUR SAVIOR IN CONTEXT The black peoples of Africa U nlike the Creole religions have been exploited for that developed among KEY FIGURE centuries by \u201cBabylon,\u201d the black slaves in Haile Selassie the Caribbean (pp.304\u2013305), the white men\u2026 Rastafari has little to do with WHEN AND WHERE traditional African religions. From 1930s, Jamaica \u2026but it was prophesied that Instead, the movement is largely a savior from the family of based on the Christian Bible. BEFORE Judah would come to \u201cZion\u201d It nevertheless emphasizes its 18th\u201319th century Creole, binding links to Africa. or syncretic, religions arise (Africa) to free them among slave communities, from oppression. Rastafari (followers dislike the fusing African beliefs with the term Rastafarianism, and indeed Christian faith that slaves are The savior appeared in all \u201cisms\u201d) is as much a political forced to adopt by their masters. the form of Ras Tafari, or social movement as a religious God\u2019s chosen king on earth\u2026 faith. It emerged during a period 1920s Written in Anguilla, the of increasing awareness of the Holy Piby identi\ufb01es Ethiopians \u2026who became Emperor \u201cAfrican-ness\u201d of the black as God\u2019s chosen people, and Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia, population of the New World. Marcus Garvey as a prophet; the Holy Land for Rastafarians. Pan-Africanism\u2014the movement to it becomes an in\ufb02uential unite and inspire people of African Rastafari text. The Lion of Judah descent\u2014was also on the rise. This has arisen. movement had begun in the 19th AFTER century, but gained momentum in Mid-20th century In the US, the 1920s and 1930s, particularly the Nation of Islam movement through the work of the political proclaims W. Fard Muhammad activist Marcus Garvey (1887\u20131940). to be the messiah predicted He was especially in\ufb02uential in his by both Judaism and Islam. native Jamaica, which at that time While \ufb01ghting for African\u2013 was still under British rule. American and black Muslim rights, the movement becomes Garvey\u2019s denunciation of heavily politicized. oppression and exploitation chimed with many Jamaicans, especially as large numbers lived in poverty. The vast majority of","MODERN RELIGIONS 315 See also: Jesus\u2019s message to the world 204\u2013207 \u25a0 Social holiness and evangelicalism 239 \u25a0 The African roots of Santeria 304\u2013305 \u25a0 The Nation of Islam 339 Jamaicans were descended from The Rastafari \ufb02ag with its imperial believe Haile Selassie to be African slaves, and had been forced lion is waved behind Damian \u201cJr. Gong\u201d the second coming of Jesus, an to adopt the British slave-owners\u2019 Marley, son of reggae legend Bob Marley. incarnation of their God, Jah, but mainly Protestant Christianity, some see him as simply God\u2019s while their own African-based the Christian scriptures, rather earthly representative and ruler. religious beliefs and traditions than a synthesis of African and had been largely quashed. What Christian beliefs. Rastafari spread in the post- evolved was therefore a uniquely World War II years as Caribbean black Jamaican interpretation of A savior in Zion migrants left to seek work in Britain Inspired by black nationalism and and America. Jamaican culture and Pan-Africanism, some Jamaicans music, especially reggae, became claimed that much of the Bible had very popular in those countries in been changed by white men as part the 1960s and 1970s, and Rastafari of their ongoing oppression of Africa gained a considerable following and Africans. They interpreted the in its wake. \u25a0 Old Testament\u2019s Zion as Africa, and believed that a savior would Many discouraging hours come to rescue African peoples will arise before the rainbow from oppression by \u201cBabylon\u201d\u2014the of accomplished goals will corrupt Europeans. The savior was prophesied to come to Zion from the appear on the horizon. family of Judah. When Ras Tafari Haile Selassie came to the throne of Ethiopia with the dynastic title \u201cHis Imperial Majesty Haile Selassie I, Conquering Lion of the Tribe of Judah, Elect of God and King of the Kings of Ethiopia,\u201d the prophesy was seen as ful\ufb01lled, and the Rastafari movement was born. Most Rastafarians Haile Selassie Born Tafari Makonnen, inheriting Ethiopia, returning in 1941 after the title \u201cRas\u201d (analagous to the British liberation. Although Duke) as the son of Ethiopian respected around the world, he nobility, Haile Selassie became became increasingly unpopular Regent of Ethiopia in 1916. He in his home country, and in 1974 replaced the heir to the throne, was deposed and imprisoned by Iyasu, whose links with Islam and members of the armed forces general misconduct precluded his calling themselves the Derg becoming head of state. On the (Committee). Many members of death of the Empress Zewditu in his family and government were 1930, Tafari, a devout member of imprisoned or executed, and, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, in August of the following was crowned Emperor, and took year, it was announced that the regnal name of Haile Selassie, the ex-Emperor had died of \u201cMight of the Trinity.\u201d He spent respiratory failure, although some years in exile in England there was some controversy following Mussolini\u2019s invasion of around the causes of his death.","316 ALL RELIGIONS ARE EQUAL CAO \u00d0\u00c0I AIMS TO UNIFY ALL FAITHS IN CONTEXT I n 1920, a Vietnamese civil Sun Yat-sen. In unifying the world\u2019s servant, Ng\u00f4 Van Chi\u00eau, stated faiths and removing the religious KEY FIGURE that during a seance he was differences that lead to aggression, Ng\u00f4 Van Chi\u00eau contacted by the Supreme Being, Cao \u00d0\u00e0i hopes to achieve world who informed him that the time peace. Despite this ambition, WHEN AND WHERE had come to unite all the world\u2019s the movement became associated From 1926, Vietnam religions into one. Referring to in the mid-20th century with the himself as Cao \u00d0\u00e0i (Supreme Palace Vietnamese nationalist movement, BEFORE or Altar), God explained that in the and was involved in political 6th century BCE In China, past, his message had been and military resistance to French Confucius teaches a philosophy revealed through prophets colonialism and, later, Communism. \u25a0 of morality, respect, sincerity, in two periods of revelation and and justice. salvation, which had given rise Because of the very to all the world\u2019s major religions. multiplicity of religions, 3rd century BCE Buddhism, He had now chosen, in a third humanity does not always founded in India by Siddhartha period, to reveal his truth via live in harmony. That is Gautama, spreads to China. seance ceremonies. Ng\u00f4 Van why I decided to unite Chi\u00eau, along with others who 1st century CE Jesus, revered had received similar revelations, all\u2026into one. as a saint in Cao \u00d0\u00e0i, promises founded the \u00d0\u00e0i \u00d0ao Tam Ky Pho God\u2019s message to to return to earth to complete \u00d0o (\u201cReligion of the Third Great God\u2019s purpose for humankind. Period of Revelation and Salvation\u201d), Ng\u00f4 van Chi\u00eau commonly known as Cao \u00d0\u00e0i. 6th century Muhammad receives the Qur\u2019an, and says Combining elements of several it is a renewal of the message religions, especially Buddhist and given to Moses and Jesus. Confucian philosophy, Cao \u00d0\u00e0i reveres the prophets of all the AFTER major world faiths, along with more 1975 The Communist regime surprising \ufb01gures such as Joan of in Vietnam proscribes Cao \u00d0\u00e0i. Arc, Shakespeare, Victor Hugo, and 1997 Cao \u00d0\u00e0i is granted See also: God-consciousness 122\u201323 \u25a0 Jesus\u2019s message to the world 204\u2013207 formal recognition by the \u25a0 The origins of Ahmadiyya 284\u201385 \u25a0 The revelation of Baha\u2019i 308\u2013309 Vietnamese authorities.","MODERN RELIGIONS 317 WE HAVE FORGOTTEN OUR TRUE NATURE CLEARING THE MIND WITH SCIENTOLOGY IN CONTEXT S cientology as a religious Scientology headquarters in Berlin, philosophy evolved from the Germany, displays the eight-pointed KEY FIGURE work done by science-\ufb01ction cross, representing the eight dynamics L. Ron Hubbard author L. Ron Hubbard in the 1930s of existence that are de\ufb01ned in the and 1940s on Dianetics. This was a movement\u2019s theology. WHEN AND WHERE self-help system based on elements From 1952, US of psychotherapy with an emphasis Operating Thetan, and rediscover on dealing with past traumatic their original potential. Hubbard BEFORE experiences to achieve spiritual was keen to secure celebrity 1950 L. Ron Hubbard sets up rehabilitation. This process of endorsement for Scientology, and the Hubbard Dianetic Research counseling, known as auditing, this, along with the high cost of Foundation and publishes an is at the heart of Scientology. one-to-one auditing sessions and article on Dianetics in the sci-\ufb01 study materials, led to accusations magazine Astounding Science Followers of Scientology believe that it was a moneymaking cult. Fiction, followed by his book that man\u2019s true spiritual nature After protracted court cases in the Dianetics: The Modern Science is embodied in an eternal spirit US and elsewhere, Scientology now of Mental Health. known as the Thetan, which has has tax-exempt status as a religion been reborn continually in human in some parts of the world, but AFTER form, and has consequently lost is still not recognized in 1982 A Religious Technology its true nature of spiritual purity. many countries. \u25a0 Center is established to oversee By undergoing one-to-one auditing, Scientology technology; some using an E-meter (an instrument members see this as against for detecting electric current, original Scientology principles designed by Hubbard), practitioners and form a breakaway group, can free their unconscious minds which they call the Free Zone. of images of trauma, known as engrams, and return to the state 1993 Scientology is formally of Clear\u2014their true spiritual recognized as a religion identity. Progressing through in the US. various levels of auditing, they eventually reach the level of See also: The ultimate reality 102\u2013105 \u25a0 Escape from the eternal cycle 136\u201343 \u25a0 Purging sin in the Uni\ufb01cation Church 318","318 FIND A SINLESS WORLD THROUGH MARRIAGE PURGING SIN IN THE UNIFICATION CHURCH IN CONTEXT T he Holy Spirit Association Wedding Blessing ceremonies, for the Uni\ufb01cation of World often with hundreds of couples KEY FIGURE Christianity, commonly participating, are not legal marriages, Sun Myung Moon known as the Uni\ufb01cation Church, but are believed to free the couple\u2019s or more pejoratively as the Moonies, offspring from original sin. WHEN AND WHERE was founded by Sun Myung Moon From 1954, South Korea in Seoul, South Korea, in 1954. Children born without sin His family had converted from The path to complete redemption BEFORE Confucianism to Christianity when for humankind, Moon maintained, 1st century St. Paul af\ufb01rms he was ten years old, and, as would begin with his own marriage that all humankind inherits a teenager, Moon had a vision of to Hak Ja Han in 1960, and be sin from the Fall, and also that Jesus asking him to complete followed by the mass weddings marriage is a sacred state. his mission of redemption. and rededications that became characteristic of the Uni\ufb01cation From 2nd century The early To do this, Moon established the Church and are its core ceremonies. Christian Fathers formulate Uni\ufb01cation Church, which he saw Children of these marriages, in the doctrine of original sin, but as a Christian denomination based which premarital and extramarital dispute whether Adam or Eve on the Bible and on his own book sex are prohibited, would then be was more responsible for it. the Divine Principle, but offering born without fallen natures, a radically different interpretation thus heralding the advent of 4th century St. Jerome uses of the Christian story of the Fall that a sinless world. \u25a0 the example of Jesus to argue led to original sin: Moon believed that celibacy is the preferred that Eve\u2019s spiritual relationship with state for a truly holy life. Satan before her sexual one with Adam led to all of her progeny being 7th century The notion that born with defective, sinful natures, Mary, mother of Jesus, was and, crucially, that Jesus came herself conceived free from to rectify this, but was cruci\ufb01ed original sin gains ground. before he had the opportunity to marry\u2014and therefore he only 16th century Martin Luther achieved a partial redemption. reasserts that all humans are born sinful, with the exception See also: The battle between good and evil 60\u201365 \u25a0 Wisdom lies with the of Mary, mother of Jesus. superior man 72\u201377 \u25a0 Augustine and free will 220\u201321","MODERN RELIGIONS 319 SPIRITS REST BETWEEN LIVES IN SUMMERLAND WICCA AND THE OTHERWORLD IN CONTEXT P robably the best known of Although Wiccans believe in an the 20th-century neopagan afterlife, they emphasize making KEY FIGURE (new pagan) religions, the most of the present life in Gerald Gardner Wicca originated in England, and nature-based rituals. These include was popularized by a retired civil celebrations of the seasons, and WHERE AND WHEN servant, Gerald Gardner, in rites of passage such as initiation, From 1950s, UK the 1950s. Although he referred wiccaning (similar to baptism), to the religion as witchcraft, and and marriage or sexual union. BEFORE its adherents as the Wica, the Pre-Christian era Celtic and version he founded and its various Because of some apparent Norse mythologies include the subsequent branches or traditions resemblances to Satanism (the idea of otherworlds such as are today known as Wicca. Horned God, for example), Wicca Asgard, where the Norse has often been confused with black heaven Valhalla is situated. Wiccan beliefs are centered on magic cults, and has, until recently, the principles of masculine and suffered prejudice and persecution, 19th century Spiritualists feminine, as embodied in the especially in Christian countries. \u25a0 and Theosophists coin the complementary Horned God and name Summerland to describe Moon Goddess, and the existence I do not remember an astral plane where virtuous of an otherworld known as my past lives clearly; souls rest in bliss. Summerland where souls spend the afterlife. Many branches of Wicca I only wish I did. 1920s Anthropologist also believe in reincarnation, and Gerald Gardner Margaret Murray publishes see Summerland as a resting place work on the Christian for souls between lives, where they persecution of witches in can examine their previous life and history, identifying witchcraft prepare for the next. These souls as a pagan religion separate are sometimes contacted by from black magic cults. Wiccans in magic ceremonies similar to those of spiritualism, AFTER involving mediums or ouija boards, 1970s In the US, feminist but this practice is not universal. politics is incorporated into Wicca by practitioners of See also: Animism in early societies 24\u201325 \u25a0 Man and the cosmos 48\u201349 Dianic Witchcraft. \u25a0 The power of the great goddess 100","320 NEGATIVE THOUGHTS ARE JUST RAINDROPS IN AN OCEAN OF BLISS FINDING INNER PEACE THROUGH MEDITATION IN CONTEXT I n 1958, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi traveled to the West KEY FIGURE to teach Transcendental Maharishi Mahesh Yogi Meditation (TM), with the original intention of founding a Hindu WHEN AND WHERE revival movement. His methods From 1958, Europe evolved from Hindu mantra meditation techniques, with BEFORE the similar aim of transcending the From 1700 BCE Meditation con\ufb01nes of physical consciousness techniques are found in early to tap into a creative force. Indian Vedic practices. Cultivating inner peace Maharishi Mahesh Yogi founded From 6th century BCE The practice of TM involves sitting TM as the Spiritual Regeneration Meditation is practiced in meditation for 20 minutes, twice Movement. Today it is an organized in Buddhism in India and a day, using a personal mantra. This international movement with its Confucianism in China. is believed to result in improved headquarters in the Netherlands. psychological and physical well- 19th century European being and increased potential for Bhagavad-Gita. Today, proponents intellectuals discover Eastern creativity, allowing the individual to of TM offer it as a scienti\ufb01c method philosophy and arouse general experience \u201ccommunion with the for self-development that is open interest in Buddhist and Hindu wellspring of life\u201d and overcome to all. TM techniques have been meditation and yoga. negative thoughts, which become adopted not only by individuals, but merely \u201craindrops falling into the also by business institutions, and AFTER ocean of your bliss.\u201d even in some medical practices, 1967 The Beatles meet posing the question as to whether Maharishi Mahesh Yogi in At \ufb01rst, TM initiates were it should be considered as religion, London and visit his ashram encouraged to give thanks to or simply a form of therapy based in India for TM training. the Hindu deities for providing the on traditional Indian techniques. \u25a0 knowledge behind the method 1976 TM promotes its and to study the Vedas and the Siddhi program with the claim that it enables See also: Physical and mental discipline 112\u201313 \u25a0 Zen insights that go beyond practitioners to levitate. words 160\u201363 \u25a0 Life-energy cultivation in Falun Dafa 323","MODERN RELIGIONS 321 WHAT\u2019S TRUE FOR ME IS THE TRUTH A FAITH OPEN TO ALL BELIEFS IN CONTEXT T he Unitarian Universalist This notion of respect runs through Association (UUA) was the UUA philosophy and its \u201cSeven KEY MOVEMENT formed in 1961 by the Principles\u201d: the inherent worth and Unitarian Universalism merger of two movements founded dignity of every person; justice, in the 19th century: the Universalist equity, and compassion in human WHEN AND WHERE Church of America and the relations; the acceptance of one From 1961, US American Unitarian Association. another and encouragement to and Canada Although it emerged from a largely spiritual growth; a free, responsible Christian tradition, and some search for truth and meaning; the BEFORE members have beliefs that are right of conscience, and the use 6th century BCE Confucius Christian in nature, the UUA aims of the democratic process within asserts that virtue is not sent to be a \u201cnon-creedal, non-doctrinal congregations and in society at from heaven, but can be religion which af\ufb01rms the large; the goal of world community; cultivated in the self. individual\u2019s freedom of belief.\u201d and respect for the interdependent Members acknowledge the need for web of all existence. \u25a0 1st century CE Angering the a spiritual and religious dimension Jews, who consider themselves to life and believe individuals can The freedom of the the chosen people, Jesus learn from all the world\u2019s religions. mind is the beginning asserts that God\u2019s kingdom They place more emphasis on of all other freedoms. is open to all who accept him. a humanist search for truth and Clinton Lee Scott meaning in this life than on belief 16th century In Protestant in a supreme being and salvation in Christianity, the authority of an afterlife. Some followers are in Rome is replaced by spiritual fact agnostic or even atheist. self-examination. For the Unitarian Universalist, 19th century The Baha\u2019i personal experience, conscience, Faith emerges as one of and reason form the basis for the \ufb01rst universalist new religious faith; the opinions and religions, open to all. beliefs of all men and women should therefore be respected. 20th century Cao \u00d0\u00e0i is founded on the principle See also: God-consciousness 122\u201323 \u25a0 Why prayer works 246\u201347 \u25a0 The that all religions are equal. revelation of Bah\u00e1\u2019i 308\u2013309 \u25a0 Cao \u00d0\u00e0i aims to unify all faiths 316","322 CHANTING HARE KRISHNA CLEANSES THE HEART DEVOTION TO THE SWEET LORD IN CONTEXT T he Hare Krishna movement Chaitanya taught that by using this or International Society for mantra anyone, even if born outside KEY FIGURE Krishna Consciousness the Hindu class system, could A.C. Bhaktivedanta (ISKCON) is best known for the achieve Krishna consciousness. Swami Prabhupada practice of chanting the Maha In the 1960s, one of Chaitanya\u2019s Mantra. ISKCON has its roots in the followers, A.C. Bhaktivedanta WHEN AND WHERE Gaudiya Vaishnava movement in Swami Prabhupada, traveled to From 1960s, US and Hinduism, founded by Chaitanya the US and founded ISKCON. western Europe Mahaprabhu (1486\u20131534), in which Its ideas dovetailed well with the believers use devotional practices hippie culture and a new interest BEFORE known as bhakti to please and to in Eastern spirituality, and spread 4th century BCE First develop a loving relationship with to Europe after being popularized evidence of worship of Lord the god Krishna, believed to be the by celebrities such as the Beatles. \u25a0 Krishna, a key \ufb01gure in the Supreme Personality of Godhead. Hindu epics, appearing as an avatar of the god Vishnu The Maha Mantra Lord Krishna provides in the Mahabharata. The mantra is chanted as a means everything we need of clearing the mind and cleansing to bring the spiritual 6th century The bhakti the heart. The repeated use of world into our lives. tradition of devotional worship the holy name enables Krishna A.C. Bhaktivedanta develops in Hinduism. consciousness to emerge from Swami Prabhupada the soul, free of the distraction of 16th century The Gaudiya sensual or physical consciousness. Vaishnava movement in India The chant \u201cHare Krishna, Hare sees Krishna as the original Krishna, Krishna Krishna, Hare form of God\u2014the source of Hare, Hare Rama, Hare Rama, Vishnu, and not his avatar. Rama Rama, Hare Hare\u201d calls upon the energy of God (Hare), the 1920 Srila Bhaktisiddhanta all-attractive (Krishna), and the Sarasvati Thakura Prabhupada highest eternal pleasure (Rama). founds the Gaudiya Math, an organization to spread the See also: A rational world 92\u201399 \u25a0 Devotion through puja 114\u201315 \u25a0 Buddhas and Gaudiya Vaishnava message bodhisattvas 152\u201357 \u25a0 The performance of ritual and repetition 158\u201359 around the world.","MODERN RELIGIONS 323 THROUGH QIGONG WE ACCESS COSMIC ENERGY LIFE-ENERGY CULTIVATION IN FALUN DAFA IN CONTEXT T here was a revival of but also a way to put practitioners interest in the meditative in touch with the energy of the KEY FIGURE exercises known as qigong universe in order to elevate them Li Hongzhi (literally \u201clife-energy cultivation\u201d) in to higher levels of existence. China in the second half of the 20th WHEN AND WHERE century, and while the Communist In his book Revolving the From 1992, China authorities saw it as a way to Wheel of Law, Li describes \ufb01ve improve public health, others found core exercises to cultivate the BEFORE spiritual meaning in the practice. mind, body, and spirit. He explains c.2000 BCE Various movement Among them was Li Hongzhi, who that the Falun (the law wheel) is and breathing exercises are founded the Falun Dafa movement situated in the lower abdomen, developed for meditation and (popularly known as Falun Gong) in and its rotation\u2014in sympathy healing in China, and are later the early 1990s. He advocated the with the revolving of the universe collectively known as qigong. practice of Falun Gong (\u201cPractice of \u2014rids the practitioner of negative the Wheel of Law\u201d) as not only a in\ufb02uences, allowing access to 5th century BCE Qigong means of cultivating life-energy, cosmic energy. Complementing exercises are incorporated these exercises is a philosophy into the philosophies of Qigong exercises aim to rebuild or based on the virtues of zhen-sh\u00e0n- Daoism, Confucianism, rebalance qi, the essential life force or ren (truthfulness, benevolence, and and Buddhism in China. energy, through controlled movement, forbearance), similar to traditional breathing, and mental awareness. Confucian, Daoist, and Buddhist 1950s The Chinese ideas, which governs the conduct Communist government of Falun Dafa practitioners. adopts qigong techniques as part of a secular health- Viewed by some as a new improvement program. religion, but by others as a practice continuing in the Chinese tradition AFTER of cultivation of the mind, body, 1990s Li Hongzhi moves to the and spirit, Falun Dafa has attracted US; the Chinese Communist many followers in China, where Party declares Falun Dafa a its religious overtones have, heretical organization, while however, led to it being outlawed. \u25a0 in the West, the practice of qigong gains in popularity. See also: Aligning the self with the dao 66\u201367 \u25a0 Physical and mental discipline 112\u201313 \u25a0 Escape from the eternal cycle 136\u201343","DIRECTO","RY","326 DIRECTORY D espite the apparent prevalence of atheism in the West, the number of people professing some kind of religious belief is increasing worldwide. Christianity and Islam, both proselytizing religions, are now espoused by more than half of the world\u2019s total population. Other faiths, such as Hinduism, have also continued to attract followers into the 21st century. Religions spread for all kinds of reasons, such as the missionary activities of their adherents, population increases, and the need to \ufb01ll \u201cbelief vacuums\u201d that occur when primal or other local religions go into decline. So, while many people in Africa have left behind traditional beliefs to embrace new Christian churches, in Europe dissatisfaction with Christianity and interest in ideas from the East has led to a modest growth in Buddhism and other Eastern religions. MAJOR WORLD FAITHS NAME FOUNDED FOUNDER GOD ADHERENTS Baha\u2019i Faith Tehran, Persia, Baha\u2019u\u2019llah One God, revealed through 5\u20137 million Buddhism 1863 various religions Northeastern Siddhartha Theravada is nontheistic; 376 million India, c.520 BCE Gautama, Mahayana involves devotion to or Buddha the Buddha and bodhisattvas Cao \u00d0\u00e0i Vietnam, Ng\u00f4 Van Chi\u00eau One God, and reverence for founders 8 million 1926 of other faiths (including Buddhism, Daoism, and Christianity) Christianity Judea, Jesus Christ One God, in the form of the Holy 2,000 million c.30 CE Trinity: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit Church of Massachusetts, Mary Baker One God, no Holy Trinity 400,000 Eddy Christ (Scientist) 1879 Church of Jesus New York, Joseph Smith, Three separate beings: God the 13 million Christ of Latter- 1830 Jr. Father; Jesus Christ the Son; day Saints and the Holy Spirit (Mormons) Confucianism China, 6th\u20135th Confucius None, although Confucius believed 5\u20136 million centuries BCE in the Great Ultimate, or dao","DIRECTORY 327 NAME FOUNDED FOUNDER GOD ADHERENTS Church of California, L. Ron Hubbard None Not known Scientology 1954 20 million Daoism Laozi Dao pervades everything 10 million Falun Dafa China, c.550 BCE 900 million Hinduism Li Hongzhi Many gods and spiritual beings 1,500 million China, 1992 4 million Islam Indigenous Many deities, all manifestations 7 million India, of one supreme reality 15 million Jainism prehistoric 1 million Muhammad, the One God, Allah 3\u20134 million Saudi Arabia, \ufb01nal Prophet 3\u20134 million 7th century CE 23 million Mahavira No gods, but devotion to some 1 million India, c.550 BCE divine beings 3 million (of\ufb01cial \ufb01gure) Jehovah\u2019s US, 1872 Charles Taze One God 1\u20133 million Witnesses Russell 200,000 Judaism Israel, Abraham, One God, YHWH 2000 BCE Moses Rastafari Jamaica, 1930s Haile Selassie I One, Jah, incarnate in Jesus movement and Haile Selassie Santeria Cuba, early None; a More than 400 deities 19th century syncretic faith Shinto Japan, Indigenous Many gods and spirits, prehistoric known as kami Sikhism Punjab, India, Guru Nanak One God 1500 CE Tenrikyo Japan, 1838 Nakayama Miki God the parent Uni\ufb01cation South Korea, Sun Myung God, the heavenly parent of Church 1954 Moon all humanity Wicca Britain, 1950s, Gerald Gardner Usually two: the Triple Goddess based on and the Horned God ancient beliefs Zoroastrianism Persia, 6th Zoroaster One God (Ahura Mazda), century BCE but dualism embraced","328 BRANCHES OF HINDUISM T he Hindu faith is thought to have originated in the Indus Valley (Pakistan and northwest India) more than 3,000 years ago. Today, it has almost a billion followers, most of them in India. Hindus all worship a supreme being, though the identity of this deity differs according to sect. There are four principal denominations: Vaishnavites, for whom Vishnu is god; Shaivites, who are devoted to Shiva; Shaktis, who worship the goddess Shakti; and Smartas, who can choose their deity. These and other branches of Hinduism share many beliefs; the Vedas (pp.94\u201399) are their most sacred texts, and central to Hindu belief is the idea that a person\u2019s deeds affect their future in an endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. VAISHNAVISM by a higher divinity. Shaivites Shakti; those who worship her are (worshippers of Shiva) believe known as Shaktis (p.104). Although c.600 BCE, India that Shiva embodies this coming the roots of goddess worship in together of opposites like no other India extend to the earliest Indus The largest devotional sect within deity. He embraces many dualities, Valley civilizations, Shaktism is Hinduism, Vaishnavites focus such as life and death, time and thought to have arisen as an on the worship of Vishnu as the eternity, and destruction and organized movement in the 5th one supreme god. He is seen as creation, and takes a multiplicity century CE. The goddess of Shakti the preserver of the universe, a of forms. In one popular depiction devotion has many names and can \ufb01gure unparalleled in his divine he appears as Nataraja, Lord of take many forms (fearsome, benevolence. Vishnu is said to give the Dance. After destroying the wrathful, benign, and homely), but life to the creator, Brahma, who sits universe, he dances its re-creation, all point to her as a manifestation of in a lotus blossom at Vishnu\u2019s navel, carrying both \ufb01re (symbolizing divine power and energy. The sacred and to sustain and protect all that destruction) and a drum (the \ufb01rst texts of the faith are the Vedas, the Brahma creates. As well as inspiring sound to be made at the beginning Shakta Agamas, and the Puranas. devotion in his own right, he is also of creation). Shaivism encompasses Some devotees hope to come closer worshipped in the form of his avatars, many subsets, and is widespread in to the goddess by using yoga, puja, Rama and Krishna. Followers, or India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka today, and tantra (pp.112\u201315). Vaishnavas, emphasize devotion and its in\ufb02uence is felt as far as over doctrine. Their \ufb01nal goal is Indonesia and Malaysia. THE DARSHANAS freedom from the cycle of birth and death, and spiritual existence SHAKTISM 2nd\u201313th centuries CE, India in the presence of Vishnu. 5th century CE, India While the followers of theistic sects, SHAIVISM such as Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism is one of the main and Shaktism, worship deities, c.600 BCE, India devotional branches of Hinduism. Hinduism also encompasses six According to Hindu belief, Shakti schools, or darshanas, which focus One of the four major denominations, is the divine power that creates on philosophy rather than gods. of Hinduism, Shaivism holds that and sustains creation; the great These schools emphasize the Shiva is the supreme god. At the goddess (known as Devi or ultimate reality or Brahman, the heart of Hinduism is the belief Mahadevi) embodies Shakti and great self who must be realized to that dualities can be reconciled is often referred to by the name attain liberation from reincarnation.","DIRECTORY 329 The darshanas follow sacred texts They reject the authority of the ARYA SAMAJ written in early Indian history, and Brahmin caste and of the sacred each branch relates to a different texts, the Vedas, promoting 1875, India sphere. The six darshanas are a message of social equality and Samkhya (cosmology), Yoga (human reform. The movement retains a Arya Samaj is a modern religious nature), Vaisheshika (scienti\ufb01c laws), large following in southern India. and social reform movement Nyaya (logic), Mimamsa (ritual), founded by Swami Dayananda, Vedanta (metaphysics and destiny). SWAMINARAYAN a religious leader who sought to SAMPRADAY reaf\ufb01rm the supreme authority of SMARTISM the ancient Hindu texts, the Vedas Early 19th century, western India (pp.94\u201399). He built a number of 9th century, India schools throughout India in the late Swaminarayan Sampraday was 19th century designed to promote One of the four major sects of founded by the religious reformer Vedic culture. Similar projects Hinduism, Smarta derives its name Swami Narayan at the beginning continue today, including the from the Sanskrit word smriti, which of the 19th century, largely as a establishment of colleges and refers to a group of sacred Hindu response to alleged corruption orphanages, and activities that texts. This orthodox Hindu sect among other Hindu sects. Rituals, focus on social reform and the draws from Advaita Vedanta laws, observances, and prayers alleviation of injustice and philosophy, which propounds the are based on Hindu tradition and hardship. The sect is opposed to unity of the the self and Brahman, the teachings of the movement\u2019s the caste system, but has been and the teachings of the monk- founder. By following these moral criticized for intolerance of other philosopher Adi Shankara, who and spiritual codes in everyday faiths. Arya Samaj upholds the is thought to have founded the life, the aim is to become an ideal doctrines of karma and samsara movement in India in the 9th satsangis (adherent) and thereafter and the centrality of rituals century. Followers uphold the rules attain ultimate redemption. The connected with major events of conduct outlined in the ancient movement has several million in life. The movement is popular texts, known as the sutras, and followers throughout the world. in northern and western India. worship the supreme god in any form (Shiva, Shakti, Vishnu, BRAHMOISM SATYAT SAI BABA Ganesha, or Virya); for this reason, SOCIETY they are considered liberal and 1828, Calcutta, India nonsectarian. 1950, India Brahmoism is a Hindu reform LINGAYATISM movement that can be traced to Sathyanarayana Rajuin (born 1926) is the Brahmo Samaj (Divine Society), thought to have performed numerous 12th century, southern India founded by Ram Mohan Roy in miracles. At age 14 he was stung by Calcutta in 1828, which aimed a scorpion and went into a trance. Followers of the Lingayat sect take to reinterpret Hinduism for the On waking he claimed to be a their name from the linga, emblem modern age. Brahmoism differs reincarnation of the guru Shirdi Sai of the god Shiva, which devotees from orthodox Hinduism in its Baba, and was henceforth known as wear around their necks. The adherence to one universal and Satya Sai Baba. His fame spread in movement is thought to have been in\ufb01nite deity. It rejects the authority the 1950s due to his miracles; he established in southern India in of the Vedas (pp.94\u201399) and, attracted several million devotees the 12th century by the teacher in some cases, belief in avatars who are guided by four principles: and religious reformer, Basava. (incarnations of deities) and karma truth, satya; duty, dharma; peace, Lingayats are distinctive for their (effects of past deeds). One of shanti; and divine love, prema. worship of Shiva as the sole deity; its key features is social reform. Unlike many Hindus, he did not in their monotheistic belief, Shiva Brahmoism has a following in attach a speci\ufb01c dharma to each and the self are one and the same. Bengal, India, and in Bangladesh. social class\u2014all are said to be equal.","330 BRANCHES OF BUDDHISM Now followed in many parts of the world, Buddhism originated in northern India over 2,500 years ago with the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama. Buddhism arose within Hinduism, which, at the time, was producing some of its most deeply philosophical and abstract texts, and Buddhism is dominated by ideas, not deities and doctrines. It has one aim\u2014to guide each person on to the path that leads to enlightenment, or spiritual liberation from the worldly self. Buddha himself taught that any means by which this aim could be achieved was valid, and as Buddhism spread geographically, it also diversi\ufb01ed to suit local traditions of worship. It now takes several forms, from the ascetic to the highly ritualized. THERAVADA BUDDHISM auxiliary role in helping to sustain their compassion, six perfections: the monks in their pursuit of an generosity, morality, patience, vigor, 6th century BCE, Northern India ascetic way of life; for example, meditation, and wisdom. supplying them with food in return Theravada Buddhism is, with for blessings and teachings. PURE LAND BUDDHISM Mahayana Buddhism, one of the two main forms of Buddhism. MAHAYANA BUDDHISM 7th century CE, China The oldest surviving branch of Buddhism, it is generally 3rd\u20132nd century BCE, Arising in China out of the considered the form closest to the Northwestern India Mahayana tradition, Pure Land dhamma\u2014the original teachings Buddhism now consists of several of Buddha. It is practiced today Mahayana Buddhism, which, with sects based in China and Japan. in Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Theravada Buddhism, is one of the All are centered on devotion to Burma. Central to Theravada is the two main forms of Buddhism, spread Amitabha, the Buddha of In\ufb01nite concept of the sangha or monastic eastward from India and is today Light, said to rule a paradise community. Theravada monks practiced in large areas of Asia, known as the Pure Land. By means (and sometimes nuns, although including China and Korea. Unlike of various spiritual techniques they have a lesser status) have Theravada Buddhists, who believe focused on Amitabha, the faithful few possessions and live in basic that total enlightenment represents may avoid the cycle of death and accommodation. They follow a departure from this existence, rebirth, go to dwell with him in the the Eightfold Path and the Five adherents of Mahayana Buddhism Pure Land, and thereafter achieve Precepts (pp.136\u201343), travel believe that Buddha has remained enlightenment. The main Pure Land around villages, and teach the eternally present in this world, text is the 1st-century Lotus Sutra, dhamma and the scriptures of the guiding others to enlightenment. In which states that devotion to Pali Canon. Their most important this tradition, there is no purpose to Amitabha is the one true way. activity is meditation, which enlightenment unless it is used to they practice to empty their assist other people on their spiritual TIBETAN BUDDHISM minds of the self and move closer path. Mahayana Buddhists believe to nirvana (perfect enlightenment). other people may become buddhas, 7th century, Tibet Although a full-time monastic and revere those who have come existence is the ideal, there is also close to nirvana as bodhisattvas Buddhism was introduced to Tibet a place in Theravada Buddhism for (wisdom or enlightenment beings), by Indian missionaries in around lay people. They play an important and who possess, in addition to the 7th century CE. Although","DIRECTORY 331 derived from the Mahayana ZEN BUDDHISM SOKA GAKKAI tradition (see opposite), Tibetan Buddhism evolved quite differently 12th century, Japan 1937, Japan from Buddhism in other countries. It has its own orders of monks The Chinese version of Buddhism In 1937, two Japanese reformers, and its own religious practices, (Ch\u2019an) took root in Japan in the Tsunesaburo Makiguchi and Josei including devotion to a guru and 6th century, where it became known Toda, founded an education the use of mandalas, or symbolic as Zen. The religion has also had society inspired by the teachings diagrams, as meditation aids. a signi\ufb01cant impact in countries of the Japanese Buddhist monk in\ufb02uenced by Chinese culture, such Nichiren. Following Makiguchi\u2019s One of Tibetan Buddhism\u2019s as Vietnam, Korea, and Taiwan. death in 1944, Toda refounded the most distinctive features is its Zen Buddhism emphasizes devotion organization as a religious sect, nomination of lamas. These to meditation, the attainment naming it Soka Gakkai. Like spiritual teachers are the most of enlightenment, the value of Nichiren Buddhism, it places revered of all the monks, and experience over scripture, and strong emphasis on the Lotus several are believed to have been the belief that human beings are Sutra, and on the ritual chanting spiritual leaders in a previous life. identical with the cosmos and share of the words of its title. The Succession is by reincarnation. an identity with all that is in it. movement has attracted some When a lama nears the end of his 12 million followers in Japan and life, he gives a series of clues as to For its followers, Zen pervades around the world, partly as a result the identity of his next incarnation. every aspect of life\u2014the physical, of determined recruiting. His followers then search for the intellectual, and spiritual realms. child who best matches these clues. Composing poetry and creating TRIRATNA BUDDHIST minimalist rock gardens are COMMUNITY TANTRIC BUDDHISM considered particularly expressive activities. The best-known schools 1967, United Kingdom 7th century, India of Zen are Rinzai and Soto. Tantric Buddhism takes its name NICHIREN BUDDHISM Formerly the Friends of the from the texts known as Tantras, Western Buddhist Order (FWBO), which became powerful tools in 13th century, Japan the Triratna Buddhist Community the quest for buddhahood. The was founded by the English-born texts describe how a person can The Japanese monk Nichiren Buddhist monk Sangharakshita. realize their Buddha nature more founded this school of Buddhism After studying in India he returned quickly than in other forms based on the passionate faith he to the UK to form the movement in of Buddhism. The techniques placed in the supreme spiritual 1967, with the aim of explaining involved include the use of rituals, power of the Lotus Sutra, how Buddhism\u2019s basic teachings meditation, mandalas, and even a collection of Buddhist teachings can be applied to life in the West magic. The Tantras seek to reconcile from around the 1st century CE. today. Members are ordained, but all states and emotions, recognizing He encouraged his followers to may choose a monastic or a lay that all are part of the essential chant from the text: \u201cI take refuge lifestyle. They commit to a number Buddha nature of all people. in the Lotus of the Wonderful of core principles: taking Triple Law Sutra.\u201d Rejecting all other Refuge in the Buddha, the Tantric Buddhists revere forms of Buddhism, he believed dhamma, and the sangha; the many buddhas and bodhisattvas that only the study of the Lotus ideal of buddhahood; and belief in (including Amitabha, the Buddha Sutra could lead to buddhahood. other teachings of the Buddhist of In\ufb01nite Light), seeing each Many Nichiren Buddhist sects still tradition. These combine a as a manifestation of buddha \ufb02ourish in Japan and a number balance of moral precepts, study, nature. Today there are schools of of new religious movements take and devotion. The movement has Tantric Buddhism in Tibet, India, his teachings as their basis, for af\ufb01liations with groups in Europe, China, Japan, Nepal, Bhutan, example, Soka Gakkai (see right). North America, and Australasia. and Mongolia.","332 BRANCHES OF JUDAISM J udaism is the religion of the Jews. Dating back to around 2000BCE, it is the oldest of the three main monotheistic faiths (the others being Christianity and Islam), all of which have roots in the Middle East. According to Moses, the patriarch to whom God revealed the tablets of the law, the Jews were God\u2019s chosen people and received his guidance in the form of the Torah. For much of their history the Jews were exiled from their homeland, so followers of Judaism may be found far beyond the Jewish state of Israel, giving rise to geographical branches of the faith. Jews interpret their faith in different ways, with varying emphasis on the centrality of the Torah and Oral Law to their beliefs and observances. ORTHODOX JUDAISM SEPHARDIC JUDAISM HASIDIC JUDAISM c.13th century BCE, Canaan 10th century BCE, Iberia c.1740, Mezhbizh (now in Ukraine) Orthodox Judaism sees itself as The name Sephardic Judaism Hasidic Judaism (from hasid, the continuation of the religious refers to the Jews who lived in meaning \u201cpious one\u201d) is a branch tradition developed in Canaan Iberia (modern-day Portugal and of Orthodox Judaism that stresses 3,000 years ago, and practiced by Spain) from as early as the 10th a mystical relationship with God. the Jews in the time of Moses. It is century BCE, and their descendants. Followers believe the Torah not a single movement, but is made Despite some restrictions, Jews is made up of words that are in up of many branches that share a coexisted peacefully for centuries some sense realignments of the set of core beliefs. At the heart of with Christians and then Muslims name of God, YHWH. A true the faith is the belief that the Torah in Iberia. However, following the Hasid is cut off from the world \u2014the \ufb01rst \ufb01ve books of the Hebrew Christian conquest of Spain in and meditates, prays, and studies Bible\u2014contains the actual words 1492, and of Portugal in 1497, the the Torah to become closer of God, and provides guidance on Sephardim who resisted conversion to God. A core belief of Hasidism every aspect of life. From the to Christianity were expelled by is that God is both the center Middle Ages, Orthodox Judaism Christian decree and \ufb02ed to North of the cosmos and in\ufb01nite. was deeply rooted in Central and Africa, Italy, France, England, the Eastern Europe. These communities Netherlands, the Ottoman Empire, NEOORTHODOX JUDAISM of Jews were known as Ashkenazim, and even America. Today there are from the name of a patriarch. They thriving Sephardic communities Late 19th century, Germany were persecuted and frequently in Israel, France, Mexico, the US, ghettoized over the centuries, and and Canada. Many of the The Neoorthodox movement arose millions of Orthodox Jews in Europe fundamental beliefs of Sephardic out of the persecution of Jews in died during the Holocaust. After Judaism are consistent with those the West in the late 19th century. World War II, many Jews traveled to of Orthodox Ashkenazi Judaism, It provided a middle ground for the US, and later to the State of though there is more emphasis those who wished neither to Israel, which was established in on mysticism, and some notable withdraw completely into 1948, and where Orthodox Judaism differences in culture and Orthodox communities nor is the state religion. More than practice, including those to wholly renounce them. Although 50 percent of practicing Jews relating to language, diet, adhering to the teachings of the consider themselves to be Orthodox. holidays, prayer, and worship. Torah, Neoorthodox Judaism","DIRECTORY 333 attempted to accommodate, laws than their Orthodox be an appropriate response to and adapt to, the demands of equivalents. Many of the rulings modernity. This branch of Judaism the modern world. Followers of Conservative rabbis have been considers the laws of the Torah to consider it vital that Jews rejected by Orthodox Jews, but the be useful only if they have a clear engage with non-Jewish people. movement has proved popular, purpose for the Jewish people, especially in the US. or for humanity as a whole, and REFORM JUDAISM that the laws therefore require JEWISH SCIENCE continuous reinterpretation. 1885, Pittsburgh, PA Some of the changes that have 1920s, Cincinnati, OH been effected in Reconstructionist Popular in western Europe and Judaism are quite radical. For North America, Reform Judaism The Jewish Science movement example, their Sabbath Prayer has its origins in 19th-century was founded in the early 1920s Book includes no mention of the efforts to update liturgy and in the US by Alfred G. Moses, Jews as a chosen people, and worship in Europe. Reform Jews Morris Lichtenstein, and Tehilla does not look forward to the tend to see the Torah as written Lichtenstein. It is often considered coming of a Messiah. In place of by a number of different writers to have been a response to the such doctrines, Reconstructionism inspired by God, rather than as growing in\ufb02uence of Christian strives for a better world for all, God\u2019s actual words. They have Science, as developed by Mary populated by better people. adapted their beliefs and practices Baker Eddy (p.337) at the end of to be more consistent with modern the 19th century. Adherents HUMANISTIC JUDAISM lifestyles and are accordingly less are encouraged to cultivate a strict in their observances than sense of personal contentment 1963, Michigan Orthodox Jews. For example, and a positive attitude toward Reform Jews have abandoned themselves and others. Rather Rabbi Sherwin T. Wine founded many traditional dietary laws and than being regarded as a paternal Humanistic Judaism in the US adopted new traditions, such as \ufb01gure, God is seen as an energy or in the 1960s to offer nonreligious the ordination of women rabbis. force that permeates the universe, Jews a nontheistic alternative to and as the source and restorer of the traditional religion. Humanistic CONSERVATIVE JUDAISM health. Self-help, visualization, Jews hold that Judaism is an and af\ufb01rmative prayer (focusing ethnic culture formed by the 1887, New York City, NY on a positive outcome) are central Jewish people, with no connection to the faith and are believed to to God. The tradition\u2019s humanistic, Many Jews felt that the Reform promote both physical and egalitarian philosophy is re\ufb02ected movement in the late 19th century spiritual well-being. Jewish in its uplifting celebration of went too far in rejecting the Science acknowledges modern Jewish culture: nontheistic rituals traditional tenets of their faith. medicine and, unlike Christian and ceremonies are open to all, As a result, in 1887, the Jewish Science, permits conventional Jew and non-Jew, regardless of Theological Seminary was founded medical treatment. gender and sexual orientation. to foster a branch of the faith that Participation in religious festivals preserved the knowledge of RECONSTRUCTIONIST is considered important, although historical Judaism as exempli\ufb01ed JUDAISM all references to God are omitted in the Hebrew Bible and the from services, and religious Talmud. This form of Judaism, now 1920s\u201340s New York City, NY passages have been rewritten from known as Conservative or Masorti a secular perspective. Adherents Judaism, holds that the Torah and The Reconstructionist movement are encouraged to focus on self- Talmud do have a divine origin, was founded by Mordecai Kaplan, determination, self-help, and and that their laws must be a Lithuanian-born American. He reason to shape their lives, followed; however, rabbis have a proposed a progressive approach rather than on the intervention freer hand in interpreting those to Judaism, which he regarded to of divine authority.","334 BRANCHES OF CHRISTIANITY The world\u2019s largest religion, with more than two billion adherents, Christianity is based on the teachings of Jesus Christ, which are chronicled in the Gospels\u2014four books in the New Testament of the Bible. Christianity is a monotheistic religion that has common roots with Judaism. However, Christians believe that Jesus was the Messiah promised in the Old Testament. For centuries the main religion of Europe, Christianity spread around the world with European colonization from the 15th century. Political and doctrinal differences saw Christianity diversify into Eastern and Western branches in the Great Schism of 1054, and then into numerous denominations following the Reformation, which began in the 16th century. ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH century CE. The Ethiopian Orthodox Christians worship in their own Church was founded around 340 CE language using a 5th-century 1st century CE, Rome, Italy as a branch of the Coptic Church. translation of the Bible. Their It follows several Jewish-in\ufb02uenced churches are plain and they have The Roman Catholic Church is practices, such as observing a day two kinds of priests: parish priests the original, and still the largest, of rest on the Sabbath, circumcision, who, unless they are monks, must Christian Church. Its leaders, the and certain dietary rules that link marry before ordination; and popes, claim to be the descendants it to its Middle Eastern origins. doctors, who are celibate and of St. Peter, who founded the \ufb01rst The Syrian Orthodox Church has may become bishops. Christian Church in Rome in the members in southern Turkey, 1st century CE. This lineage is seen Iran, Iraq, and India, as well as EASTERN ORTHODOX to connect the Pope directly with in Syria itself. The Syriac language CHURCHES Christ\u2019s \ufb01rst followers, and therefore is used in worship, and the liturgy to give him a unique authority: he is one of the richest of all the 1054, Constantinople (Istanbul) is considered infallible when ruling Christian Churches. on key articles of faith. The Eastern Orthodox Churches of ARMENIAN CHURCH Eastern Europe, the Balkans, and ORIENTAL ORTHODOX western Asia arose from a split CHURCHES c.294 CE, Etchmiadzin, Armenia between the Western Catholic Church and the Churches of the 3rd\u20134th centuries CE, various Armenia was the \ufb01rst country to Byzantine Empire in the Great make Christianity its state religion: Schism of 1054. This split was The Oriental Orthodox Churches, St. Gregory converted its ruler, King caused by differing views about the which include the Coptic Church Tirirdates III, in the late 3rd century Holy Trinity (pp.212\u201319). In addition, and those of Syria and Ethiopia, CE. The Armenian Church was at the Western Church tends to stress as well as Armenia (right), share \ufb01rst close to the Eastern Orthodox humankind\u2019s sinful nature, while the view that Christ has one nature Churches, but around 506 CE they the Eastern Church recognizes its (inseparably human and divine). split over de\ufb01nitions of the nature of essential goodness; the Western All Oriental Orthodox Churches Christ. Like the Oriental Orthodox Church focuses on dogma, while trace their origins directly to the Church, of which it is part, the the Eastern is more centered on early centuries of Christianity. The Armenian Church sees Christ as worship. All Orthodox Churches Coptic Church is Egypt\u2019s national having one nature, simultaneously celebrate seven sacraments, like Christian Church, dating to the 3rd human and divine. Armenian those of the Catholic Church, but","DIRECTORY 335 they are referred to as mysteries. MENNONITE CHURCH BAPTISTS The mystery at the heart of the faith is emphasized by the fact that large 1540s, The Netherlands Early 17th century, parts of the Eastern Orthodox The Netherlands and England service take place behind a screen, The Dutch preacher Menno Simons, out of sight of the congregation. originally a Catholic who joined the The \ufb01rst Baptists were English Anabaptists\u2014a radical Reformation Protestants; their Church was LUTHERANISM group\u2014in 1536, believed in Church founded in England in 1612 by reform, paci\ufb01sm, and the baptism Thomas Helwys. Baptist beliefs 1520s, Germany of adult believers only. His followers, include the primacy of the Bible and known as Mennonites, spread that baptism should be reserved for The Lutheran Church traces its throughout Europe. German adult believers who can profess their origins to German reformer Martin Mennonites were among the early faith. Baptist churches spread across Luther (p.235). Lutheranism spread settlers of America, and many the US and are especially popular across northern Europe during Russian Mennonites migrated to with the black community there; they the 16th and 17th centuries. the US after World War II. Today, have gained ground internationally Followers see the Bible as the only the majority of Mennonites live in and are one of the world\u2019s largest guide to doctrine and believe that North America and pursue a Bible- Christian groups today. people come to God through faith in based faith. They anticipate the Jesus Christ, not good works. There Second Coming of Christ and live QUAKERS are now around 70 separate Lutheran a life of holiness and prayer. Churches, all under the umbrella Missionary and relief work is c.1650, Great Britain of the Lutheran World Federation. important to believers. The Quaker movement began in ANGLICANISM PRESBYTERIANISM the 17th century, led by George Fox. The name originated when Fox told 1534, London, England 16th century, Scotland a magistrate to quake at the name of the Lord. Fox and his followers The Anglican Church separated Presbyterianism originated with had no clergy, no sacraments, and from the Roman Church in the 16th 16th-century reformers, such as no formal liturgy, believing that the century due to ecclesiastical and French theologian John Calvin Friends\u2014as they called themselves political con\ufb02icts surrounding King (p.237). As well as his in\ufb02uential \u2014could communicate directly with Henry VIII\u2019s petition to the Pope for ideas on predestination, Calvin God. They opposed warfare and a divorce from Catherine of Aragon. believed Christian groups should be refused to take legal oaths. Although It retained many Catholic features governed by elders. This appealed widely persecuted, they are now at \ufb01rst, but was later in\ufb02uenced by to church leaders in Scotland, keen to admired for their campaigns for Protestant reformers. Today, the increase community involvement in peace, prison reform, and abolition Anglican Church embraces those religious affairs. Presbyterians are so of slavery. Modern Quakers still who favor elaborate ritual, known named for being governed by emphasize direct contact with God, as Anglo-Catholics, as well as presbyters (ministers or elders) and gathering together in silence until those termed Evangelical who hold have no bishops. Congregationalism the Spirit moves a member to speak. simpler services. The Anglican developed for similar reasons, Church includes 30 autonomous especially in England, and was AMISH Churches around the world, known the religion of the Pilgrims who as the Anglican Communion. emigrated to America. In the late Late 17th century, Switzerland All believe in the importance of 20th century, the Presbyterians and Scripture, accept an unbroken line of Congregationalists joined to form The Amish are members of a strict bishops (traced back to the Apostles), the World Alliance of Reformed Protestant group that originated in and celebrate two sacraments: Churches, whose members see Switzerland under the leadership of baptism and the Eucharist (p.228). salvation as the gift of God. a Mennonite minister, Jacob \u276f\u276f","336 DIRECTORY Amman, but now mostly live in SHAKERS of gold tablets bearing the word of the eastern US. Of several groups God by an angel. He translated them of Amish that exist today, the most c.1758, Great Britain as The Book of Mormon (1830), which, distinctive is the Old Order, who together with other Mormon texts, adopt traditional clothes, shun The Shakers\u2019 name is derived and the Bible, form the religion\u2019s recent developments such as from the trembling experienced by writings. Smith claimed the right motorized transport, and run their members in religious ecstasy. Their to guide the Church through further own schools, preferring to help each founder, Ann Lee, claimed she had revelations, including permission other than to accept state funding. revelations that she was Christ\u2019s for polygamous marriages and the Worship takes place in their homes, female counterpart. Persecuted possibility for all men to become with different homeowners taking in England, she and her followers gods. After his death in 1844, the turns to host the Sunday service. emigrated to America, where they Mormons followed a new leader, held their possessions in common Brigham Young, to Utah, where the MORAVIAN BRETHREN and were celibate. Although the Church remains strong. group was popular in the 19th 1722, Saxony, Germany century, membership declined PLYMOUTH BRETHREN in the 20th century, and today In 1722, German Count Nikolaus there are few members. However, 1831, Plymouth, England von Zinzendorf invited a group of the Shakers are still respected Protestants from Moravia (now in for their austere lifestyle and the The Plymouth Brethren began the Czech Republic) to form a simple furniture they created. as a group of Christians who community on his estate in Saxony. rejected the sectarian nature of Owing their origins to the earliest UNITARIANISM the existing Protestant churches, Protestants, the followers of reformer seeking a less formal religion. Jan Hus, who was burned at the 1774, England They believed that all should have stake in 1415, they became known equal access to their faith, and did as the Moravian Brethren. Their Unitarians believe in one God but not ordain priests. Enthusiastic Church looks to the Scriptures for not the Holy Trinity (pp.212\u201319), preachers, they emphasized the guidance on faith and conduct, with and they seek truth based in human importance of regular worship, little emphasis on doctrine. A key experience rather than religious Bible study, and missionary work. part of their worship is the sharing of doctrine. Unitarian ideas began to In 1848, they divided into two a communal meal called a lovefeast. emerge in Poland, Hungary, and broad groups, the Open and the They are evangelical, sending England in the 16th century, but the Exclusive Brethren, differing in missionaries throughout the world. \ufb01rst Unitarian Church was founded their interpretation of certain in England only in 1774, and in the theological issues and their METHODISM US in 1781. Numbers declined in attitudes toward outsiders. the 20th century, but there are still Today, there are an estimated 1720s\u201330s, England thriving congregations in the US two million members of the and Europe. Congregations are group around the world. Methodism was founded by John independent of one another Wesley in England in the 18th and there is no Church hierarchy. CHRISTADELPHIANISM century. It is now one of the four largest Churches in Britain and has MORMONISM 1848, Richmond, VA more than 70 million adherents worldwide. Methodists believe that 1830, New York The name Christadelphians Christians should live by the method (\u201cChrist\u2019s brothers\u201d) re\ufb02ects a desire outlined by the Bible, and place The Church of Jesus Christ of of the Church\u2019s English founder, major emphasis on Scripture and Latter-day Saints was founded by John Thomas, to return to the faith little on ritual. Preaching is American Joseph Smith, Jr. He of Jesus\u2019s \ufb01rst disciples. He rejected considered especially important. claimed to have been guided to a set the term Christianity, believing that","DIRECTORY 337 the Christian Churches had distorted JEHOVAH\u2019S WITNESSES as tongues of \ufb02ame. The Churches\u2019 Jesus\u2019s true message. Followers roots are in the work of the preacher adhere to Jesus\u2019s teachings but 1872, Pittsburgh, PA Charles Parham. These Churches reject the doctrine of the Holy Trinity emphasize spiritual experiences, and look forward to the Second The Jehovah\u2019s Witnesses such as healing, exorcism, prophecy, Coming of Christ. The Church does (pp.312\u201313) have their roots in and speaking in tongues after not ordain priests, and its members the International Bible Students\u2019 baptism in the Holy Spirit. Parham\u2019s do not vote or take part in politics, Association. They believe that Jesus student, William J. Seymour, and reject military service. Christ was not, himself, God, but founded the Apostolic Faith Gospel God\u2019s \ufb01rst creation. They anticipate Mission in Los Angeles, which SEVENTH-DAY ADVENTIST the coming of the kingdom of God, inspired the founding of Pentecostal CHURCH reject nationalism, and dispute Churches worldwide. doctrines such as the Trinity. The 1863, Battle Creek, MI Church aims to convert others by CHARISMATIC door-to-door proselytizing. MOVEMENT Adventists are Protestant Christians who believe in the imminent Second CHURCH OF CHRIST 1950s\u201360s, various Coming of Jesus Christ. At this time, (SCIENTIST) known as the Advent, Christ will The Charismatic movement is a return to earth, destroy Satan, and 1879, Boston, MA worldwide movement of Christian create a new world. The American revival. At its heart is the belief Adventist William Miller claimed Mary Baker Eddy dedicated her in the charismata, or gifts of the this process would begin around life to reviving the early healing Holy Spirit (p.219). Worship tends 1843. When it did not, he blamed ministry of Jesus after she was to be informal and the Second people\u2019s refusal to keep the Sabbath cured without medical treatment Coming of Christ is often seen as (hence the term Seventh-day following an injury. Eddy claimed imminent. The movement stresses Adventist) and founded the Church to be able to heal the sick, and the importance of the Holy Spirit, in 1863. Adventists follow the believed that those who understand which is said to enter believers dietary rules of the Old Testament, the link between God and love can during baptism. eschew worldly pursuits (such as also become healers. She founded gambling and dancing), and observe the Church of Christ (Scientist) in NEW AFRICAN CHURCHES the Sabbath on Saturday. 1879. Eddy\u2019s own writings and the Bible form the basis of the religion. 20th century, Africa THE SALVATION ARMY Services feature readings from both, but have no sermons. Christian The last hundred years have seen 1865, London, England Science is today established in the rapid rise of a speci\ufb01cally more than 80 countries. African form of Christianity south Methodist preacher William Booth of the Sahara. In the late 19th founded the Salvation Army in PENTECOSTALISM century, Africans began to reject the London in 1865. His beliefs were Christianity imported by Western strongly in\ufb02uenced by his religious 1900\u20131906, Topeka, KS; missionaries, creating independent background, but the sect\u2019s Los Angeles, CA African Churches. The largest organization was inspired by the include the Kimbanguists, founded military. The church leader is its Pentecostal churches are prevalent in the Democratic Republic of the general and its ministers are of\ufb01cers in the developing world, and in Congo, with some 10 million and wear uniforms. Booth\u2019s aim was poorer communities in the members; and the similarly sized to do missionary and social work developed world. They take their Celestial Church of Christ in Benin. on a large, organized scale, and the name from the \ufb01rst Pentecost, Many of these Churches arose in denomination gained a reputation (p.219) when the Holy Spirit is said times of persecution and have a for helping the poor. to have descended on the Apostles strong sense of sacred places.","338 BRANCHES OF ISLAM The most recently founded of the three great monotheistic religions, Islam spread quickly from its roots in the Middle East and has been hugely in\ufb02uential in scholarship and politics all over the world. The most signi\ufb01cant division within Islam is that between Sunni and Shi\u2018a, two branches that developed when the early Muslim community disagreed over who was to succeed their \ufb01rst leader, Muhammad. Later con\ufb02icts over leadership led to further subdivisions, but there are also groups within Islam that are set apart by doctrinal differences: Su\ufb01sm, or mystical Islam, for example, is vigorously opposed by some more orthodox Muslim groups that consider its practices un-Islamic. SUNNI ISLAM nominated his cousin \u2018Ali to should be inherited, but rather that lead the faith as his successor. it should be won by election. The 7th century CE, Arabian Peninsula Its largest branch identi\ufb01es \u2018Ali sect gained a reputation for their and a continuous line of 11 extreme militancy and opposition More than 85 percent of the Muslim descendants as the imams, or to established authority; however, population of the world is Sunni. In spiritual leaders, of Islam, whose some Islamic scholars have most Islamic countries, the majority authority is divinely sanctioned. interpreted their actions as an of Muslims are Sunni, with the This branch is known as Twelve- attempt to uphold justice. The exception of Iran, Iraq, Azerbaijan, Imam Shi\u2018a, or the Twelvers. Kharijites maintained a literal and and Yemen, as well as some of the Another group of Shi\u2018a Muslims, unswerving observance of the Gulf States. The founders of this the Seveners, does not recognize Qur\u2019an, lived puritanical lives form of Islam were the group of the last \ufb01ve imams in this lineage. strictly according to Islamic Muslims who believed that Abu Both groups also have doctrinal rule, and held that anyone who Bakr, Companion and father-in-law differences with Sunni Islam: for committed a major sin could not of Muhammad, should succeed example, they hold that God may remain a Muslim. The early the Prophet as the \ufb01rst leader or change his decisions (a concept Kharijites were almost wiped out caliph (literally, successor). Sunni called bada\u2019). in their frequent uprisings, but Muslims take the Sunna, or tradition members of a more moderate of Muhammad, as the model for KHARIJITES group survive today in North Muslim conduct and have a further Africa, Oman, and Zanzibar. allegiance to one of four schools 7th century CE, Middle East that interpret Islamic law, or shari\u2018a ISMAILISM (p.273): Hana\ufb01, Maliki, Hanbali, The assassination of the third and Sha\ufb01\u2019i. caliph, \u2018Uthman ibn \u2018Affan, in 7th century CE, Arabian Peninsula 656 CE sparked a bitter con\ufb02ict SHI\u2018A ISLAM that split the Islamic world. At Ismailism is a sect of Shi\u2018a Islam and its center was a group of rebel itself has numerous subsects, 7th century CE, Arabian Peninsula Muslims responsible for the including the Druze (see opposite). assassination, who later became The movement has its origins in Shi\u2018a Islam is named after the Shi\u2018a known as the Kharijites, a name the late 7th century CE, following \u2018Ali, or Party of \u2018Ali, the group within deriving from the Arabic for \u201cto a con\ufb02ict within Shi\u2018a Islam over the early Muslim community that leave\u201d or \u201cexit.\u201d They did not who should succeed Jaafar claimed that Muhammad had believe that the position of caliph al-Sadiq as the sixth imam.","DIRECTORY 339 Those who considered his son spiritual teacher and seek a direct SALAFISM Ismail to be the rightful successor and personal experience of God, established a breakaway group, which is often characterized by Late 19th century, Egypt and became known as Ismailis. intense, ecstatic experiences, Although there are variations including trancelike states. The Sala\ufb01sm is a modern, conservative within Ismailism, its followers spinning of the Whirling Dervishes, movement within Sunni Islam that generally uphold fundamental a Su\ufb01 order, is an expression of looks to the Salaf, or predecesors, Muslim belief with respect to this attempt to experience God. the earliest Muslims, for guidance the unity of God, the Prophet Because Su\ufb01sm involves such on exemplary Islamic conduct. The Muhammad, the Qur\u2019an, and practices, which are thought to movement is considered to have shari\u2018a law. However, among their lead to the union of the individual emerged as a reaction to the principal doctrines is a belief that with God, Su\ufb01s have been accused spread of Western, speci\ufb01cally the religion has exterior and of turning their backs on Islam. European, ideology in the late interior aspects, and that the However, they insist that their 19th century; Sala\ufb01sts believe in exterior features hold hidden, experience of the love of God is eliminating foreign in\ufb02uence to inner truths that will be made the anchor of their Islamic faith, ensure a return to the pure faith. clear via the imams. The imams\u2019 and that adherence to shari\u2018a law They have a strict interpretation interpretations of the Qu\u2019ran\u2019s (pp.272\u201373) is as vital to them as of the sins of shirk (idolatry) and hidden truths are regarded as it is to other Muslims. bida\u2019h (innovation), and reject binding in the community. kalam, or theological speculation. AHMADIYYA Followers uphold the precedence DRUZE of shari\u2019a law (pp.272\u201373) and the 1889, Punjab, India literal truth of the Qu\u2019ran. Sala\ufb01sm 11th century, Middle East is said to be Islam\u2019s fastest- Controversy has surrounded the growing movement worldwide. The beliefs of the sect known Ahmadiyya movement since its as the Druze developed out of establishment in Punjab toward THE NATION OF ISLAM Ismailite doctrine. This small sect the end of the 19th century. The is characterized by extreme founder of the movement, a Sunni 1930, US secrecy: many of its teachings Muslim named Mirza Ghulam and practices have been withheld, Ahmad, claimed not only to have Arising out of the Depression of not only from the outside world, been divinely inspired, but also to the 1930s in African-American but also from its own members. be a messiah \ufb01gure (pp.284\u201385). areas in the US, the Nation The Druze community is divided This con\ufb02icted with the accepted of Islam was founded by Fard into the ukkal (initiated) and the idea of Muhammad as the last true Muhammad, to whom some have juhhal (uninitiated); only the ukkal prophet, and as a result most other ascribed divinity. Other key have access to the faith\u2019s sacred Muslims regard followers of the \ufb01gures have included the civil texts and may participate fully Ahmadiyya movement as heretics. rights activist Malcolm X and in rituals and ceremonies. The The movement does, however, Louis Farrakhan. The theology majority of Druze now live in share many traditional beliefs of of the movement combines core Lebanon, with smaller groups Sunni Islam and accepts the Islamic beliefs with a strong in Syria and Israel. Qur\u2019an as its holy text. Adherents political agenda focused on believe that the message about African-American unity and SUFISM their version of Islam should be rights. The Nation of Islam has conveyed to non-Muslims as well been accused of being both black 13th century, Turkey as Muslims, and the movement supremacist and anti-Semitic, but has spread throughout the world, has nevertheless been effective in The mystical and ascetic branch building centers of worship and spreading ideas about faith and of Islam is known as Su\ufb01sm learning in Africa, North America, equality among black people, and (pp.282\u201383). Devotees follow a Asia, and Europe. upholds a strict code of ethics.","340 GLOSSARY Key Arhat (B) A perfect being who has includes the Jewish books of the law, (B) Buddhism attained nirvana. Jewish history, and the prophets; and (C) Christianity the New Testament, which deals (D) Daoism and other Artha (H) The pursuit of material with the life and work of Jesus, his wealth, one of the duties of a person followers, and the early Church. Chinese religions in the \u201chouseholder\u201d stage of life, the See also Hebrew Bible. (H) Hinduism second phase of the ashrama. (I) Islam Bodhisattva (B) Someone on the (J) Judaism Ashkenazim (J) Jews from path to becoming a buddha, who (Jn) Jainism Eastern and Central Europe, and puts off \ufb01nal enlightenment to help (S) Sikhism their descendants around the world. other people to reach the same state. (Sh) Shinto (Z) Zoroastrianism Ashrama (H) The stages of life, of Brahma (H) The creator god, one of which there are four, in the Hindu the Hindu Trimurti. Adi Granth (S) See Guru social system: student; householder; Granth Sahib. retiree; and ascetic. Brahman (H) The impersonal and unchanging divine reality of the Advaita Vedanta (H) A school of Atman (H) The individual self. universe. All other gods are aspects Hindu philosophy developed in the of Brahman. 9th century, which gives a uni\ufb01ed Avatar (H) An incarnation of a explanation of the Vedas, and Hindu deity; especially the various Brahmin (H) A priest or seeker of focuses on the idea of Brahman. incarnations of the god Vishnu. the highest knowledge; the priestly class and custodians of dharma. Ahadith (I) See Hadith. Avesta (Z) The principle sacred texts of Zoroastrianism. Buddha (B) An enlightened being. Ahimsa (B, H, Jn) A doctrine of nonviolence of both thought Ayat (C) The smallest entries in Canonization (C) The process by and action. the Qu\u2019ran, which are short verses which the Christian Church declares or \u201csigns.\u201d that a person is a saint. Akhand path (S) A complete and uninterrupted oral rendition of the Baptism (C) The sacrament that Charismata (C) Spiritual gifts Guru Granth Sahib. admits a person to the Christian conferred by the Holy Spirit of God Church in a ritual that involves being on believers, manifesting in forms Allah (I) The name of the one God. sprinkled with, or immersed in, water. such as the ability to heal, or speak in tongues. Amrit (S) Sweetened holy water Bar\/bat mitzvah (J) The ceremony used in religious ceremonies; the marking a Jewish boy\u2019s or girl\u2019s Christ (C) Literally, \u201canointed one\u201d; speci\ufb01c Sikh ceremony of initiation. admission to the adult religious title given to Jesus. community; the state of having Analects (D) The collected sayings reached religious adulthood. Con\ufb01rmation (C) A ritual in which of Confucius and his contemporaries, those who have been baptized written by his followers. Bhakti (B, H) An active religious con\ufb01rm their Christian faith. devotion to a divinity leading Ananda (H) A state of bliss. to nirvana. Covenant (J) An agreement between God and the Jewish people Anata (B) A state of freedom from ego Bible (C) The collection of books in which the Jews are identi\ufb01ed as to which Buddhists aspire. that constitute the sacred text of the group he has chosen to play Christianity. The Christian Bible a special role in the relationship Anicca (B) The impermanence comprises the Old Testament, which between himself and humanity. of existence.","GLOSSARY 341 Dao (D) The path or way that Gathas (Z) The most sacred texts Haram (I) Conduct that is forbidden; an individual aims to follow; the of Zoroastrianism, supposedly something sacred or inviolate. underlying way or pattern governing composed by Zoroaster himself. the working of nature. Hasid (J) A member of a Jewish Gentile (J) A non-Jew. group founded in the 18th century Darshan (H) The worshipping of a that places a strong emphasis deity by means of viewing an image Gospels (C) The four books of on mysticism. of the god or goddess. the New Testament of the Bible, attributed to the apostles Matthew, Haskalah (J) The Jewish Dhamma (B) A variant of dharma, Mark, Luke, and John, which tell of Enlightenment, a movement most commonly used in Buddhism. Jesus\u2019s life and teachings; Gospel among European Jews in the (good news) can also refer to the 18th\u201319th centuries. Dharma (H) The underlying path or content of Christian teaching. pattern that characterizes the cosmos Hebrew Bible (J) A collection of and the earth; it also refers to the Granthi (S) An of\ufb01cial who takes sacred writings that form the basis moral path that a person must follow. care of the Guru Granth Sahib and of Judaism, including the Torah, the gurdwara. A granthi is also a revelations of prophets, and other Dukkha (B) Suffering or skilled reader of the sacred book. sacred texts; the equivalent of the Old dissatisfaction; the idea that all Testament in the Christian Bible. life is suffering, the \ufb01rst of the Four Gurdwara (S) A Sikh temple; the Noble Truths de\ufb01ned by Buddha. place where the Guru Granth Icon (C) A sacred image, usually Sahib is housed. depicting Christ or one of the saints, Eightfold Path (B) The path of which is used as a focus for devotion, disciplined living that Buddhists Guru (H) Teacher; (S) One of the especially in the Orthodox Churches. follow in the hope of breaking free 10 founder-leaders of Sikhism. from the cycle of death and rebirth. Imam (I) Leader of prayers in a Followers aim to achieve correct Guru Granth Sahib (S) The Sikh mosque; or, one of the great leaders of understanding, intention (or thought), sacred book, also known as the the Muslim community in the Shi\u2018a speech, conduct, occupation, effort, Adi Granth. branch of the faith. mindfulness, and concentration. Hadith (I) Traditional accounts of the Incarnation (C) The belief that in Enlightenment (B) Discovery of the deeds and teachings of the Prophet the person of Jesus Christ, divine and ultimate truth, and the end of dukkha. Muhammad; the second source of human natures were made one. Islamic law and moral guidance after Eucharist (C) One of the main the Qur\u2019an. Jihad (I) A religious duty to struggle sacraments, involving the taking against evil in the name of God, of wine and bread as the blood and Ha\ufb01z (I) A term of respect for a whether spiritually or physically. body of Christ; it is known as Mass in person who has memorized the Catholicism, Holy Communion in the Qur\u2019an. Jina (Jn) A spiritual teacher. Anglican Church, and the liturgy in See tirthankara. the various Orthodox churches. Haggadah (J) The body of teaching of the early rabbis, containing Kaaba (I) One of Islam\u2019s most sacred Fatwa (I) A nonbinding judgment legends, historical narratives, and buildings, sited in Mecca inside the on a point of Islamic law given by a ethical precepts. Masjid al-Haram mosque; a principal recognized religious authority. destination for those on hajj. Hajj (I) The pilgrimage to Mecca, the Four Noble Truths (B) A central fourth of the \ufb01ve pillars of Islam; all Kabbalah (J) An ancient Jewish teaching of Buddhism, explaining Muslims hope to make this journey mystical tradition based on an the nature of dukkha, its causes, once in their lives. esoteric interpretation of the and how it can be overcome. Hebrew Bible. Halal (I) Conduct that is permitted; Fravashi (Z) A guardian angel who speci\ufb01cally, the correct method of Kaccha (S) Long shorts worn under protects the souls of individuals as slaughtering livestock, and the meat other garments by Sikhs; one of the they struggle against evil. from correctly slaughtered animals. distinguishing \u201c\ufb01ve Ks\u201d of Sikhism.","342 GLOSSARY Kalam (I) Discussion and debate, or other training, or one who is Murti (H) An image or statue of especially relating to Islamic theology. considered to be the reincarnation a deity, seen as the dwelling place of a previous spiritual leader. or embodiment of the deity. Kami (Sh) A spirit or deity in Shinto religion. There are many thousands Mandala (B) A sacred diagram, Nirvana (B) The state of liberation of kami in the Shinto pantheon. usually depicting a conception from the round of death and rebirth. of the cosmos, used as a focus for Kangha (S) A small comb worn in meditation and in other rituals, Puja (H) Worship through ritual. the hair by Sikhs; one of the \u201c\ufb01ve Ks\u201d especially in Tibetan Buddhism. of Sikhism. Puranas (B, H, Jn) Writings not Mantra (B, H) A sacred sound or included in the Vedas, recounting Kara (S) A steel bangle worn by word used to bring about a spiritual the birth and deeds of Hindu gods Sikhs on the right wrist. One of the transformation; in Hinduism, the and the creation, destruction, or \u201c\ufb01ve Ks\u201d of Sikhism. metrical psalms of Vedic literature. re-creation of the universe. Karma (B, H) The law of moral cause Matha (H, Jn) Monastic and similar Pure Land (B) The paradise where, and effect that in\ufb02uences our rebirth religious establishments. according to some forms of Buddhism, after death. the souls of believers go after death; Matsuri (Sh) A festival or ritual in known in Japanese Buddhism as jodo. Kesh (S) Uncut hair; one of the \u201c\ufb01ve Shinto. Many feature processions Ks\u201d of Sikhism. of shrine-bearing worshippers. Purusha (H) The eternal and authentic self that pervades all Khalsa (S) The community of Maya (H) The illusion of the world things in the universe. initiated Sikhs, founded by Guru as experienced by the senses. Gobind Singh. Qi (D) The life force or active Mihrab (I) A niche in the prayer hall principle that animates things in Khanda (S) A two-edged sword of the of a mosque, indicating the qibla. the world, according to traditional kind used by Guru Gobind Singh in a Chinese philosophy. ritual that marked the founding of the Mishnah (J) The \ufb01rst major written Khalsa; now a symbol of Sikhism. redaction of the Jewish oral traditions Qibla (I) The direction that a Muslim and also the \ufb01rst major work of should face when praying\u2014that of the Kirpan (S) A sword worn by Sikhs; rabbinic Judaism. Kaaba in Mecca. one of the \u201c\ufb01ve Ks\u201d of Sikhism. Mitzvah (J) A commandment from Qigong (D) A system of breathing Kirtan (S) Hymn singing that forms God, speci\ufb01cally either one of the and exercise for physical, mental, and an important part of Sikh worship. 10 principal commandments, or spiritual health. one of the 613 instructions found Koan (B) In Zen Buddhism, a in the Torah. Qur\u2019an (I) The words of God as problem or riddle without logical revealed to the Prophet Muhammad solution, which is intended to Moksha (H) The release from the and later written down to form the provoke an insight. round of life, death, and rebirth; also sacred text of Islam. known as mukti. Kojiki (Sh) The sacred text of Shinto. Rabbi (J) A teacher and spiritual Mool mantra (S) A statement leader of a Jewish community. Kosher (J) Sanctioned by religious of Sikh belief in the oneness of god, law; especially food deemed \ufb01t to eat, composed by Guru Nanak; also called Rabbinical (J) Of, or relating according to Jewish dietary laws. the mool mantar. to, rabbis. Kundalini (H) Life force or energy Mudra (B, H) A symbolic gesture, Ramadan (I) The ninth month of that is coiled at the base of the spine. usually with the hands. the Islamic calendar; a month of daily fasting from dawn until sunset. Lama (B) An adept spiritual teacher Mullah (I) An Islamic religious in Tibetan Buddhism, speci\ufb01cally one scholar, who may also preach and Ren (D) Benevolence or altruism who has undergone particular yogic lead prayers in a mosque. in Confucianism.","GLOSSARY 343 Sabbath (J) The rest day of the Shari\u2018a (I) The path to be followed Torah (J) The \ufb01rst \ufb01ve books of the Jewish week, lasting from sunset in Muslim life and, therefore, Islamic Hebrew Bible, seen as representing on Friday to sunset on Saturday. law, based on the Qur\u2019an and on the teaching given by God to Moses the Hadith. on Mount Sinai. Sacraments (C) The solemn rites of Christianity. The Catholic and Shi\u2018a (I) One of the two main groups Trimurti (H) The trio of principal Orthodox Churches recognize seven: of Muslims, consisting of those who Hindu gods\u2014Brahma, Vishnu, and baptism, Eucharist, penance, believe that Muhammad\u2019s cousin \u2018Ali Shiva\u2014or a threefold image of them. con\ufb01rmation, ordination, extreme was his rightful successor as caliph. unction (last rites), and marriage. See also Sunni. Trinity (C) The threefold god, Most Protestant Churches recognize comprising Father, Son, and Holy only two: baptism and the Eucharist. Shirk (I) The sin of idolatry or Spirit in a single divinity. polytheism. Sadhu (H) A holy man who has Upanishads (H) Sacred texts dedicated his life to seeking God. Sruti (H) The Vedas and some of containing Hindu philosophical the Upanishads. teachings; also known as the Salat (I) Prayer; the second of the \ufb01ve Vedanta, the end of the Vedas. pillars of Islam. Muslims are expected Su\ufb01 (I) A member of one of a to pray \ufb01ve times each day. number of mystical Islamic orders, Vedas (H) Collections of hymns whose beliefs center on a personal and other writings in praise of Samsara (B, H) The continuing relationship with God. Su\ufb01 orders can the deities. and repeating cycle of birth, life, be found in Sunni, Shi\u2018a and other death, and rebirth. Islamic groups. Su\ufb01sm is associated Wa (D) Harmony, in which the group with the ecstatic whirling dances of takes precedence over the individual. Samskara (H) Imprints left on the the dervishes. mind by experience in current or Wuwei (D) Uncontrived and past lives; Hindu rites of passage. Sunna (I) Muhammad\u2019s way of life, effortless doing. taken as a model for Muslims and Sawm (I) Fasting, especially during recorded in the hadiths. Yin\u2013yang (D) The two principles of the month of Ramadan; the fourth of the cosmos in Chinese philosophy, the \ufb01ve pillars of Islam. Sunni (I) One of the two main seen as opposite but complementary groups of Muslims, followers of those and interacting to produce a whole Sangha (B) An order of Buddhist who supported an elected caliphate. greater than either separate part. monks and nuns. See also Shi\u2018a. YHWH (J) The four letters that Satya (H) Truth, or what is correct Sutra (B, H) A collection of represent the name of God in and unchanging. teachings, especially sayings Judaism, considered to be too holy attributed to Buddha. to utter, but pronounced \u201cyahweh.\u201d Se\ufb01rot (J) The 10 emanations, the attributes of God in kabbalah. Talmud (J) Text made up of a body Yoga (H) A form of physical and of discussion and interpretation of mental training. One the six schools Sephardim (J) Jews who come from the Torah, compiled by scholars and of Hindu philosophy. Spain, Portugal, or North Africa, or rabbis, and a source of ethical advice their descendants. and instruction, especially to Zakat (I) The giving of alms in Orthodox Jews. the form of a tax to help the poor; Seva (S) Service to others, one of the the third pillar of Islam. important principles of Sikhism. Tantra (B) Text used in some kinds of Buddhism (mainly in Tibet) Zazen (B) Seated meditation. Shahada (I) The Muslim profession to help users to reach enlightenment, of faith, translated as, \u201cThere is or the practices based on such a text. Zurvan (Z) The God of time; in some no God but God; Muhammad is the forms of Zoroastrianism, the primal messenger of God\u201d; the \ufb01rst and Tirthankara (Jn) One of the 24 being, from whom were derived the most important of the \ufb01ve pillars spiritual teachers or jinas who have wise lord Ahura Mazda and the of Islam. shown the way of the Jain faith. hostile spirit Angra Mainyu.","344 INDEX Numbers in bold refer to main entries. Baha\u2019i faith 295, 308\u2013309, 326 Buddhism, beliefs (cont.) Baiga 19, 32 Four Noble Truths 128\u201329, 135, A Baptists (Christianity) 335 138\u201339, 140, 142, 154 Bar Kokhba, Simeon (Judaism) 181 human cravings and needs 138\u201339 Aborigines (Australian) 19, 34\u201335 Barth, Karl 218, 219, 245 interconnectedness 130\u201335, 142\u201343, Abraham (Judaism) 166, 170\u201371, 175 Benedictine order (Christianity) 220, 148, 150, 157 Abu Bakr (Islam) 271, 283, 338 Jataka tales (birth stories) 154\u201355 Adi Shankara (Hinduism) 91, 118\u201321, 222, 223 metta (loving kindness) 146\u201347 Benson, Herbert (prayer study) 246 The Middle Way 129, 132\u201334, 135, 122, 329 Bible Student movement see Jehovah\u2019s 145, 147, 148 African Churches (Christian), new 337 moral guidelines 140\u201341 Agni, Hindu god of \ufb01re 96 Witnesses nihilism, rejection of 133\u201334 Ahmadiyya movement (Islam) 151, Booth, William (Salvation Army) 337 nirvana, mental training for 139, Brahman (Hinduism) 91, 95, 96, 97, 141\u201343, 155 284\u201385, 308, 339 nonviolence 146\u201347 Ahura Mazda (Zoroastrianism) 62\u201363, 102\u2013105, 122\u201323 rebirth 154\u201357, 331 Buddhism 326 self as constantly changing 148\u201351, 64, 65, 327 157 Ainu 19, 24\u201325 bodhisattva 152\u201357 three poisons, freedom from 113 Alexander the Great 79 Bodhi Tree 132, 138 unsel\ufb01sh action 110 Almohad movement (Islam) 281 elements in Confucianism 77 wisdom acquisition, stages of 144 Amish (Christianity) 335\u201336 existentialism 151 Yogacara Buddhism 158 Amitabha (Buddhism) 156, 330, 331 Japan 82\u201383, 85, 310, 330 Anglicans (Christianity) 221, 236, 335 Lokayata philosophy 132, 133\u201334 Buddhism, branches of 330\u201331 Anthony, Saint (Christianity) 221, 223 mandala 156, 158, 331 Mahayana Buddhism 114, 128, 129, Anubis, Egyptian god 59 meditation 141\u201342, 144, 146\u201347, 154\u201357, 330\u201331 Aristotle 62, 203, 229, 277, 281 Nichiren Buddhism 145, 331 Armenian Church (Christianity) 334 156, 157, 162\u201363, 330, 331 Pure Land Buddhism 330 Arya Samaj (Hinduism) 329 monastic life 134, 135, 145, 330, 331 Soka Gakkai Buddhism 331 al-Ash\u2019ari, Abu al-Hasan (Islam) 277 ritual and repetition 158\u201359, 331 Tantric Buddhism 129, 154, 158\u201359, Ashkenazim (Judaism) 166\u201367, 332 Samkhya philosophy (Indian) 113, 331 Asoka (Emperor) (Buddhism) 147 Tibetan Buddhism 158\u201359, 330\u201331 Augustine of Hippo (Christianity) 203, 329 Theravada Buddhism 129, 140, 145, spread and diversi\ufb01cation 129 150, 155, 330 214, 218, 220\u201321 symbolism 155\u201356 Triratna Buddhist Community 331 Avalokiteshvara (Buddhism) 155\u201356, 159 Tibetan Lamas 159 Zen Buddhism see Zen Buddhism Averroes (Ibn Rushd) (Islam) 278 timeline 128\u201329 Avicenna (Ibn Sina) (Islam) 250, 276, 280 Vedic religion, rejection of 133, 134 Buddhism, \ufb01gures 129, 154\u201357, 159 Aztec civilization 18, 42\u201345 Buddhism, beliefs Amitabha (Buddha of In\ufb01nite Light) ahisma (nonviolence) 146\u2013147 156, 330, 331 B anata (lack of \ufb01xed essence) 134, 135 Asoka (Emperor) 147 anicca (impermanence) 134, 135 Avalokiteshvara, Bodhisattva of Baal Shem Tov (Judaism) 188 conventional and absolute truth 151 Compassion 155\u201356, 159 Babylonian Dynasty 54, 56\u201357, 176\u201377, debate, importance of 144 Dalai Lama 147, 156, 157, 159, 331 dhamma, (Wheel of Life) 136\u201343, Emerald Buddha 150 179\u201380, 183 Nagarjuna (philosopher) 157 155, 331 Nagasena (sage) 149\u201351 dukkha (truth of suffering) 129, 134, Nishida Kitaro (Zen Buddhism) 161 Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) 90, 138, 139 128, 132\u201333, 138, 326 Eightfold Path 135, 138\u201343, 154, 330 Sixteen (or Eighteen) Arhats 149 enlightenment 54\u201355, 129, 132, 144, 145, 154\u201357, 330 eternal cycle, escape from 136\u201343 Five Precepts 146\u201347, 330 \ufb01xed ego and existential unhappiness 161","INDEX 345 Buddhism, texts Christianity (cont.) Christianity, branches of (cont.) Lotus Sutra 155, 330, 331 Romanticism, effects of 243\u201344 Eastern Orthodox churches 203, Pali Canon 128, 140, 330 scienti\ufb01c discovery, effects of 203, 334\u201335 Perfection of Wisdom sutras 157 242\u201345 Indian Baptist, Methodist, and The Questions of King Milinda social change movements 207 Gospel Churches 46 149\u201351 Spanish Inquisition 203 Jehovah\u2019s Witnesses 218, 294, 306, theologians of hope 247 312\u201313, 337 C timeline 202\u2013203 Jesuits 237 and Tzotzil religion 45 Mennonites 335, 336 Calvin, John (Christianity) 221, 237, Wars of Religion 203 Methodism 203, 239, 336 335 Moonies (Uni\ufb01cation Church) 318, 327 Christianity, beliefs Moravian Brethren 336 Cao \u00d0\u00e0i 295, 306, 316, 326 Arianism amd monotheism 216 Mormonism 294, 295, 306\u2013307, 326, cargo cults, Paci\ufb01c Islands 294, 295, conditional immortality and rejection 336 of dualism 211 Oriental Orthodox churches 334 311 Eucharist 202, 203, 227, 228\u201329, Pentecostal Church 218, 219, Caribbean see Rastafari; Santeria 335 337 Cathars 65 foreknowledge of God, rejection of Pietist Movement 243 cave paintings 20\u201323 246\u201347 Plymouth Brethren 336 Celtic deities 54, 55, 319 forgiveness of sinners 206 Presbyterians 236, 335 Charismatic movement (Christianity) free will and Pelagian controversy Protestant Liberalism 242\u201345 220\u201321 Quakers 335 219, 306\u2013307, 337 Hell, meaning of 225 Rastafari 294\u201395, 305, 314\u201315, 327 Chewong 19, 38 immortality 210\u201311 Roman Catholicism 203, 210, 226, China incarnation of Jesus 208 227, 236\u201337, 334 indulgences, sale of 233\u201334 Sabellians 216, 217 Buddhism 114, 129, 154\u201357, 330 infant baptism 220\u201321 Salvation Army 337 Confucianism see Confucianism Messiah, and second coming 202, Seventh-day Adventists 337 Daoism see Daoism 204\u2013206, 335, 337 Shakers 336 Falun Dafa (Falun Gong) movement miracles 206 Unitarians 218, 296, 321, 336 original sin 221, 318 295, 323, 327 papal authority 226, 227 Christianity, \ufb01gures Christadelphians 336\u201337 prayer, relevance of 246\u201347 Anthony, Saint 221, 223 Christian Humanist movement 234, 237 purgatory 233\u201334 Augustine of Hippo 203, 214, 218, Christianity 326 sacraments 202, 226\u201327, 334\u201335, 220\u201321 see also Eucharist (above) Barth, Karl 218, 219, 245 Andean mummies, destruction of 37 Ten Commandments 264 Calvin, John (Protestant Reformer) Crusades 203 transubstantiation 228\u201329 221, 237, 335 ecumenical movement 224 Trinity doctrine 202, 214\u201319, 334, Cyprian (theologian) 225\u201326 Fourth Lateran Council 226, 227 336, 337 disciples 205, 227 Great Schism 202, 203, 226 Erasmus (Christian Humanist) 232, 234 heretics 65, 227, 242 Christianity, branches of 334\u201337 Fox, George (Quakers) 335 hierarchical structure 226 African Churches, new 337 Galileo as heretic 242 Jewish roots, separation from 206\u2013207 Amish 335\u201336 Garvey, Marcus (Rastafari) 314 Latin, use of 232\u201333 Anglicans 221, 236, 335 Haile Selassie (Rastafari) 314\u201315 martyrdom 209, 211 Armenian Church 334 Helwys, Thomas (Baptists) 335 Mayan civilization 45 Baptists 335 Jesus\u2019s message to the world monasticism 222\u201323 Benedictine order 220, 222, 223 204\u2013207, 211 mysticism 186, 238 Charismatic movement 219, Luther, Martin (Protestant Reformer) Origen of Alexandria 210\u201311 306\u2013307, 337 203, 233\u201335, 239, 335 Platonic philosophy 62, 210\u201311 Christadelphians 336\u201337 Miller, William (Seventh-day Protestant Reformation 203, 221, 227, Christian Humanist movement 234, Adventism) 337 237 Schleiermacher, Friedrich 232\u201337 Church of Christ (Scientist) 326, 333, (theologian) 243\u201345 religious gatherings and Church 337 Smith, Jr., Joseph (Mormonism) 294, Congregationalists 335 307, 336 membership 224\u201325 Coptic Church 334 Renaissance and humanism, challenge of 203","346 INDEX Christianity, \ufb01gures (cont.) E H Teresa of Avila (Carmelite nun) 238 Thomas Aquinas 203, 228\u201329, 242 Eastern Orthodox churches Haile Selassie (Rastafari) 315 Wesley, John (Methodism) 203, 239, (Christianity) 203, 334\u201335 Haitian voodoo 305 336 Hare Krishna movement 294, 295, 322 Young, Brigham (Mormonism) 307 Eddy, Mary Baker (Church of Christ Hasidic movement (Judaism) 167, 187, Scientist) 333, 337 Christianity, texts 188, 295, 332 Bible in vernacular 232\u201337 Egypt, Ancient 58\u201359 Hatun Runa 36\u201337 Biblical texts, historical criticism of afterlife belief 54, 58\u201359 Helwys, Thomas (Baptists) 335 244\u201345 Anubis, god of the dead 59 Herzl, Theodor (Judaism) 167, 189, Gospels 252, 253 divine Pharaoh cult 54 Heidelberg Catechism 232 ka, spiritual life force 58, 59 196\u201397 Nicene Creed 202, 203, 208, 212\u201319, mummi\ufb01cation 58\u201359 Hinduism 327 Testaments, Old and New 225 Osiris 58\u201359 Aryans, in\ufb02uence of 95\u201396, 97 Church of Christ (Scientist) 326, 333, Emerald Buddha 150 class system (varnas) 97\u201398, 99, 337 Erasmus (Christian Humanist) 232, 108\u2013109, 125, 302, 329 Confucianism 72\u201377, 326 234 de\ufb01nition problems 90 Analects (teachings) 74\u201375, 77 Essenes (Judaism) 222 mathas (monastery schools) 101 belief in inherent human goodness meditation 100, 121, 128, 320 77, 321 F puja offerings 114\u201315, 328 Buddhist elements in 77 Shiva (destroyer) 97 Daoist elements in 55, 77 Falun Gong (Falun Dafa movement) soma (drink of the gods) 96 Five Constant Relationships 76, 77 295, 323, 327 Tantric rituals 100, 158, 328 Golden Rule 76 time cycles 94\u201395 Mandate of Heaven 75, 76 Fard Muhammad (Nation of Islam) 339 timeline 90\u201391 Neo-Confucianism 77 Fox, George (Quakers) 335 Vedanta philosophy 91, 118\u201319, rulers, advice to 75\u201376 virtue and moral superiority 74\u201375 G 118\u201319, 122, 329 yoga 91, 100, 112, 328 Congregationalists (Christianity) 335 Galileo Galilei 242 Hinduism, beliefs Conservative (Masorti) Judaism 333 Gandhi, Mahatma (Hinduism) 91, ahimsa (nonviolence) 124\u201325, 146 Constantine I 80 atman (pure consciousness) 102\u2013105 Coptic Church (Christianity) 334 124\u201325, 302 bhakti (religious devotion) 90, 91, 94, Creole religions 294, 305 Garvey, Marcus (Rastafari) 314 Crete (Minoans) 78 Gaudiya Vaishnava movement 114, 115, 122, 159 Cyprian (Christianity) 225\u201326 Brahman (absolute reality) 91, 95, (Hinduism) 322 D Geiger, Abraham (Judaism) 192, 193 96, 97, 102\u2013105, 122\u201323 al-Ghazali, Abu Hamid Muhammad Brahman, unknowable 118\u201321 Dalai Lama (Buddhism) 147, 156, 157, consciousness and knowledge 159, 331 (Islam) 279 Gobind Singh, Guru (Sikhism) 299, 119\u201320 Daoism 55, 66\u201367, 327 dharma (universal order and right elements in Confucianism 55, 77 300, 302, 303 immortality concept 67 Greece, Ancient, 78\u201379 way of living) 94, 106\u2013109, 110 meditation 67 Four Stages of Life 106\u2013109 mental and physical discipline 112 Aristotle 62, 203, 229, 277, 281 inner transformation 123 rulers, advice to 75 hierarchy of deities 55 karma and reincarnation 329 tai-chi 66 Minoan culture 54, 78 moksha (release from endless cycle of oracles 79 Darshanas (Hinduism) 101, 328\u201329 Plato 62, 210\u201311 birth and rebirth) 90\u201391 Dogon 19, 48\u201349 moral principles 109 Dreaming, the 34\u201335 other religions as paths that lead to Druze (Islam) 338, 339 the same truth 123 personal devotion as means of liberation 98\u201399 religious teaching levels 101 ritual and worship 92\u201398, 114\u201315, 329","INDEX 347 Hinduism, beliefs (cont.) I Islam, beliefs (cont.) sacri\ufb01cial ground and \ufb01re 96 compassionate God 279 samsara (cycle of birth and rebirth of Ibn Tumart, Muhammad (Almohad Day of Judgment 279 the atman, the soul) 90, 104, 329 movement) 280\u201381 divine unity doctrine 280\u201381 satyagraha 124\u201325 Five Pillars 250, 264\u201369, 271 self, nature of 102\u2013105 Ibn \u2018Umar, Abdullah (Islam) 265 fundamentalism 251 sel\ufb02ess duty 91, 110\u201311, 112, 320 Incas 18, 36\u201337 God beyond human comprehension sense experience and pure India 276\u201377 consciousness, distinction jahiliyya (age of ignorance) 289\u201390 between 120\u201321 Baiga 19, 32 jihad and striving against evil 251, tolerance 91 Buddhism see Buddhism 278, 285, 288\u201390 Vedic sacri\ufb01ce 92\u201399, 111 Hellenization 150 monotheism 176, 250, 280\u201381 Hinduism see Hinduism Ramadan observance and fasting Hinduism, branches of 328\u201329 Jainism see Jainism 267\u201368 Arya Samaj 329 Parsis (Zoroastrianism) 62 salat (prayer), commitment to 265\u201366 Brahmoism 329 Samkhya philosophy 113, 329 shahada (profession of faith) 264\u201365, Darshanas 101, 328\u201329 Sikhism see Sikhism 280\u201381 Gaudiya Vaishnava movement 322 Iran (Persia) shari\u2019a law 256, 272\u201374, 291, 338, Hare Krishna movement 294, 295, Baha\u2019i faith see Baha\u2019i faith 339 322 Manicheism 65, 221 tawhid (oneness) 280\u201381 Lingayatism 329 Shi\u2018a Islam 270, 271 Satya Sai Baba Society 329 Zoroastrianism see Zoroastrianism Islam, branches of 338\u201339 Shaivism 328 Islam 327 Ahmadiyya movement 151, 284\u201385, Shaktism 100, 328 Arab Spring democracy 251 308, 339 Smartism 329 Arabic script as art form 261 Almohad movement 281 Swaminarayan Sampraday 329 Aristotle, philosophy of 277, 281 Druze 338, 339 Transcendental Meditation (TM) 294, Crusades 251 Ismailism 338\u201339 295, 320 Egyptian revivalist 289 Kharijites 338 Vaishnavism 328 European Council for Fatwa and Muslim Brotherhood 289, 291 Mu\u2018tazilites 276\u201377 Hinduism, \ufb01gures Research 272 Nation of Islam 339 Adi Shankara 91, 118\u201321, 122, 329 Golden Age and Abbasid dynasty Qadiani Ahmadiyyas 285 Agni, god of \ufb01re 96 Sala\ufb01sm 339 avatars (gods) 115, 328, 329 250, 251 Shi\u2018a Islam 250, 251, 270\u201371, 309, Gandhi, Mahatma 91, 124\u201325, 302 and Greek philosophy 276\u201377 338 goddesses 100 ideological and political con\ufb02ict 251 Su\ufb01sm 269, 282\u201383, 295, 339 gods as aspects of order 96\u201397 Islamic Revivalism 288\u201390 Sunni Muslims 251, 269, 270, 271, Krishna 110\u201311, 328 Jesus recognized as prophet 252 275, 338, 339 Ramakrishna 91, 122\u201323 Jibrail\u2019s (Gabriel\u2019s) appearance to Twelvers 271, 309 Shiva 91, 97, 328, 329 Wahhabism 269 Trimurti trinity 91, 97 Muhammad 253, 256\u201357 Whirling Dervishes 339 Varuna 97 Mecca 250, 253, 266, 267\u201369 Vishnu 91, 97, 115, 328 as modern religion 291 Islam, \ufb01gures Vivekenanda 123 muezzins 265, 266 Abu Bakr 271, 283, 338 puri\ufb01cation before prayer 265\u201366 Ahmad, Mirza Ghulam (Ahmadiyya Hinduism, texts schools of law 275 movement) 151, 284\u201385, 308, Bhagavad-Gita 91, 107, 108, 110\u201311, Sunna (authoritative sayings and 339 112, 320 al-Ash\u2019ari, Abu al-Hasan 277 Mahabharata 91, 101, 111, 115, 322 actions) 253, 266, 270, 273, 274, 281 Averroes (Ibn Rushd) 278 Ramayana 91, 101, 111, 114 theological speculation in 276\u201377 Avicenna (Ibn Sina) 250, 276, 280 Rig Veda 65, 96, 97, 99 timeline 250\u201351 Fard Muhammad (Nation of Islam) Upanishads 90, 91, 99, 101, 102\u2013105, Western in\ufb02uences, rejection of 339 118, 120\u201321, 133, 135, 148 al-Ghazali, Abu Hamid Muhammad Vedas 54, 90, 91, 99, 100, 101, 107, 289\u201390, 339 279 109, 114, 320, 329 Islam, beliefs Ibn Tumart, Muhammad (Almohad movement) 280\u201381 Hubbard, L. Ron (Scientology) 317 almsgiving, importance of 266\u201367 Ibn \u2018Umar, Abdullah 265 Humanistic Judaism (Judaism) 333 Christian and Jewish scriptures, Hupa 18, 51 belief in human corruption of 252, 257","348 INDEX Islam, \ufb01gures (cont.) Judaism 327 Judaism, branches of (cont.) Al-Mahdi (Hidden One) 250, 271, anti-Semitism 197 Reform Judaism 175, 181, 189, 192, 285, 309 Diaspora 166\u201367, 181, 196\u201397 193, 195, 199, 333 Muhammad 250, 252\u201353, 265, early foundations of 54 Sadducees 183, 210 270\u201371, 284\u201385 European emancipation 192 Sephardic Judaism 332 Qutb, Sayyid 289\u201390 Exodus, from Egypt 166, 171\u201372 Zionism 167, 189, 196\u201397 Ramadan, Tariq 291 festival dates 195 Rumi, Jalal al-Din Muhammad Halacha (Jewish law) 194 Judaism, \ufb01gures 282\u201383 Haskalah movement (Jewish Abraham 166, 170\u201371, 175, 327 al-Sarakhsi, Shams al-A\u2019imma 278 Enlightenment) 189, 196\u201397 Baal Shem Tov 188 al-Sha\ufb01\u2019i (scholar) 256, 274\u201375 Holocaust 167, 193, 198, 332 Bar Kokhba, Simeon, as possible Talib, \u2018Ali ibn Abi 271 Israelites\u2019 exile 170, 174, 179, 186, Messiah 181 196 Geiger, Abraham 192, 193 Islam, Qur\u2019an 250, 253, 256\u201361, Israelites and Jews, distinction 179 Herzl, Theodor 167, 189, 196\u201397 273\u201375, 281, 339 Jerusalem 166, 181 Kaplan, Mordecai 333 Jesus as possible Messiah 181 Luria, Isaac (kabbalah) 186\u201387 Arabic language as sacred 260\u201361 maternal line 167, 175, 199 Maimonides, Moses 181, 182, and Bible, similarities between messiah, origin of term 178 184\u201385 Messianic Era 178\u201381 Mendelssohn, Moses 189 259 prosecution 167 Moses 171, 172\u201373 and Day of Judgment 279 Sabbath observance 172, 173, 194 Noah, covenant with 173 disposal of 260 Son of God, use of term 208 inimitability of 260 Star of David 197 Judaism, texts Meccan chapters 257\u201358 timeline 166\u201367 Dead Sea Scrolls 180 memorization and recitation of YHWH as greatest god 170, 176\u201377 Deuteronomy and third covenant 173 Mishnah text 166, 182\u201383 258\u201359, 260, 267 Judaism, beliefs Talmud 170, 172\u201373, 182\u201383, 186, physical respect for 259\u201360 covenant 170\u201375 187, 192, 333 suras (chapters) and verses, ordering David\u2019s line, Messiah from 179\u201380 Ten Commandments 172, 174, 194, 264 Golden Rule 174 Torah (Pentateuch) 166, 167, 170\u201374, of 257\u201358 Jews as God\u2019s chosen people 188, 189, 195, 332, 333 174\u201375, 204 Zabur (book of Psalms) 256 J kashrut (dietary law) 194\u201395 Zohar (mystical text) 184 life after death 181 Jainism 66, 68\u201371 Messiah 178\u2013181 K Five Great Vows 69, 70 monotheism 176\u201377, 184\u201385, 193\u201394 Mahavira 55, 68\u201369, 71, 90, 94 Oral Law 182\u201383 kabbalah (Judaism) 167, 186\u201387 meditation 70 prophecies 180\u201381 Kaplan, Mordecai (Reconstructionist nonviolence 69, 70, 146 Samvatsari festival 70 Judaism, branches of 332\u201333 Judaism) 333 self-denial 69\u201370 Ashkenazim 166\u201367, 332 Karaites (Judaism) 183 shrines and temples 71 Conservative (Masorti) Judaism 333 Khalsa order (Sikhism) 299\u2013300, 302 soul liberation 71 Essenes 222 Kharijites (Islam) 338 symbolism 70, 300 Hasidic movement 167, 187, 188, Krishna (Hinduism) 110\u201311, 328 295, 332 Japan Humanistic Judaism 333 L Ainu 19, 24\u201325 Jewish Science movement 333 Buddhism 82\u201383, 85, 162\u201363, 310, kabbalah and mysticism 167, Laozi see Daoism 330, 331 186\u201387 Liberal Judaism 175, 195 Shintoism 55, 82\u201385, 310, 327 Karaites 183 Lingayatism (Hinduism) 329 Tenrikyo 294, 310, 327 Liberal Judaism 175, 195 Zen Buddhism 129, 162\u201363 Neoorthodox movement 332\u201333 Orthodox 181, 194, 332, 333 Jehovah\u2019s Witnesses (Christianity) 218, Pharisees 210 294, 306, 312\u201313, 337 Progressive Judaism 192\u201395 Reconstructionist Judaism 195, 199, Jesus (Christianity) 202, 204\u2013207, 208, 333 211, 334, Jewish Science movement 333"]