Big Ideas Simply Explained - The Religions Book

See also: Symbolism made real 46–47 ■ The ultimate reality 102–105 PRIMAL BELIEFS 49 The whole universe was originally contained in an egg or seed. The Nommo Everything that exists began as a vibration in this egg. The Nommo are ancestral The form of man was prefigured in the egg, beings worshipped by the and is also echoed in the form of the universe. Dogon. They are often described as amphibious, Everything, from the smallest seed to the expanse of hermaphroditic, fishlike the cosmos, reflects and expresses everything. creatures who, acccording to myth, were fathered by the A village, or a homestead, or a hat, or a seed, god Amma, when he created can contain the whole universe. the cosmic egg. This egg was said to resemble both the decoration and furnishing is laden the seven spiral vibrations that smallest seed cultivated by with symbolism. The hogon’s shook the cosmic “egg of the the Dogon, and the sister star movements are attuned to the world” (see right). During a to Sirius—the brightest star in rhythms of the universe. At dawn crisis, the chiefs gather around the night sky. Within the egg he sits facing east, toward the the headdress; the hogon speaks lay the germ of all things. rising sun; he then walks through into it and upends it on the ground, the homestead following the order as if the world itself has been In one version of the myth, of the four cardinal points; and turned upside down, ready to be two sets of male–female finally at dusk he sits facing west. restored to order by the god Amma. twins, the Nommo, were His pouch is described as “the inside the egg waiting to be pouch of the world”; his staff is The complex cosmic symbolism born so that they could bring “the axis of the world.” of the Dogon reflects outward from order to the world. But the egg the cosmos, and then back in again was shaken by a vibration and Cosmic meaning to the headdress of the hogon, the one of the male twins, Yurugu, Even the hogon’s clothing shell of the world egg. Religion, broke out of it prematurely, represents the world in miniature. society, cosmology, mythology, creating the earth from his His cylindrical headdress, for cultivation, daily life—all are placenta. So Amma sent the example, is a woven image of intermeshed in every detail, three remaining Nommo down and reflected in every action. ■ to earth, and they established the institutions and rituals necessary for the renewal and continuation of life. But because of Yurugu’s premature actions, the world was tainted right from the beginning. For [the Dogon], social life represents the workings of the universe. Marcel Griaule, anthropologist

50 WE EXIST TO SERVE THE GODS THE BURDEN OF OBSERVANCE IN CONTEXT U ntil Christianity arrived The Work of the Gods was a form in Tikopia in the 1950s, all of worship expressed as a system KEY BELIEVERS the residents of this small of trade between human and spirit Tikopians Pacific island devoted themselves beings. The Tikopians performed to ritual for two weeks twice a year, the rituals, and the gods granted WHEN AND WHERE as they undertook the Work of the the people the necessities of life. From c.1000 BCE, Gods. At these times, they perfomed Moreover, the religion was Tikopia, Solomon duties to propitiate the atua, spirits structured so that many of the Islands, Pacific Ocean or gods, believing that they, in turn, activities undertaken to please the would ensure plentiful harvests. gods—such as repairing canoes, AFTER planting and harvesting, and the 1606 European explorers ritual production of turmeric—were first land on Tikopia. of economic value to the Tikopians. Offerings of food and kava (an 1859 The Anglican intoxicating drink) made to the Melanesian Mission makes gods were consumed only in contact with Tikopia. essence—leaving the actual food available for human consumption. 1928–29 Tikopian culture is studied by anthropologist Taking part in the Work of the Raymond Firth; the population Gods brought status to individuals, is divided into four clans. and was perceived as a privilege. The rituals involved in this religion 1955 The Work of the Gods is also underpinned key social and abandoned after an epidemic; economic structures, and held the remaining pagan chiefs Tikopian society together. ■ convert to Christianity. A Tikopian man performs a dance 2002 Tikopia is devastated with a canoe paddle: ritual dancing by Cyclone Zoë, but islanders and drumming on canoes were part take shelter and survive. of the Work of the Gods. 2012 The population of See also: Making sense of the world 20–23 ■ A lifelong bond with the gods 39 Tikopia numbers about 1,200. ■ Sacrifice and blood offerings 40–45 ■ Devotion through puja 114–15

PRIMAL BELIEFS 51 OUR RITUALS SUSTAIN THE WORLD RENEWING LIFE THROUGH RITUAL IN CONTEXT T hrough their ritual songs [The Kixunai] painted and dances, the Hupa themselves and danced there KEY BELIEVERS tribe of northwestern one night. The next morning Hupa California believed they could renew the world, or “firm the earth,” they danced again. WHEN AND WHERE and revitalize the land to ensure Hupa myth c.1000 CE, sufficient resources for the coming northwestern California year. One of their most important The First People world renewal dances, held every The Kixunai were believed by BEFORE autumn, was the White Deerskin the Hupa to be human in form c.900–1100 CE Ancestors Dance. The purpose of the dance but extraordinary in character. of the Hupa arrive in was to re-create the actions of the Whatever the Kixunai did became northwestern California from the Kixunai, or First People, the the predestined custom of the subarctic regions to the north. Hupa’s mythical predecessors. unborn Hupa race. So every detail of Hupa daily life was mapped out AFTER By replaying the sacred by the activities of the First People. 1828 The first contact is narrative of the Kixunai, the Hupa According to Hupa belief, the made with American trappers; hoped to tap into the powers of Kixunai later scattered across the around 1,000 Hupa live in the creation in order to safeguard the ocean, leaving only the mythical Hoopa Valley at this time, and health of the people and guarantee being Yimantuwinyai to assist trade furs until the beginning abundant stocks of game and fish people in their life on earth. ■ of the Gold Rush in 1848. for the hunting season. During the dance, which lasted ten days, the By 1900 The Hupa population elaborately decorated hide of an is reduced to about 500 as a albino deer—a symbol of great result of disease. wealth and status—was displayed. Participants paddled along the 1911 The first modern Hupa river in dugout canoes every Tribal Council is formed. morning and danced every afternoon and evening, holding Today More than 2,000 Hupa deer effigies aloft on poles. live as a self-governing people on their traditional lands. See also: The spirits of the dead live on 36–37 ■ Beliefs that mirror society 80–81

ANCIENT CLASSIC BELIEFS FROM 3000 BCE

AND AL

54 INTRODUCTION Ancient Egypt is Tomb inscriptions known The pantheon of The probable date unified and the Early as the Pyramid Texts, Greek mythology of the foundation of Dynastic period begins. Zoroastrianism A cult of a divine Pharaoh the oldest known evolves in the in Persia, although religious writings, Minoan culture this may have been is established. suggest an Ancient of Crete. as early as the Egyptian 18th century BCE. belief in an afterlife. C.3000 BCE 25TH–24TH CENTURIES 1700–1400 BCE C.1200 BCE 8TH CENTURY BCE C.3000 BCE 20TH–16TH CENTURIES C.1600 BCE Celtic clans spread In the First Scandinavian According to legend, across much of Europe, Babylonian Dynasty peoples begin to make Romulus usurps his twin brother each tribe having its in Mesopotamia, figures of their gods Remus to found the own local deities. a complex mythology and goddesses, and city of Rome. develop a recognizable is recorded in the Norse mythology. Enuma Elish. T he earliest civilizations elaborate tombs left by the early Coalescing faiths emerged when scattered civilizations, such as the Egyptians, By about 1500 BCE, regional nomadic tribes began that belief in an afterlife existed, religious traditions were well to settle in order to raise crops. and that rituals of death and burial established in many parts of Previously localized religious played a major part in religion. the world, and new, more advanced, beliefs and practices evolved, As people settled in ever bigger societies arose, requiring more and the beliefs of different tribes communities, temples dedicated elaborate belief systems. Some amalgamated around common to the gods became focal points in new religions also appeared, deities and mythologies. Complex the towns and cities. notably Zoroastrianism, which pantheons emerged, and an often was arguably the first monotheistic sophisticated body of myths arose Civilization also gave rise to faith, while the foundations of from the various strands that had various forms of written language, Judaism were also being laid down. come together, describing the role which allowed these stories of of the gods and mythical creatures gods and creation to be recorded In India, the numerous local in the workings of the world. and embellished over the millennia. religious beliefs were incorporated Religious inscriptions first appeared into the Vedic tradition, based These more formal religions on the walls of tombs and temples on ancient scriptures called the offered explanations for natural in early civilizations, such as that Vedas. This later became the phenomena, such as the sun, of Egypt. Elsewhere, distinctive pluralistic amalgam now known moon, seasons, weather, and the traditions were also taking shape as Hinduism, but alongside this gods’ influence on them. They as Indian, Chinese, Japanese, came Jainism, which placed more often included creation stories Norse, and Celtic folk religions emphasis on a correct way of life and tales of the interaction of were incorporated into the belief than on the worship of deities, and gods and humans. It is clear from systems of the emerging nations. Buddhism, which was arguably

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 55 The Greek poet The Indian sage The classical period The Vikings flourish, Homer writes the Mahavira establishes of the Ancient spreading their religion Iliad and Odyssey, across northern Europe and Hesiod writes the central tenets Greek civilization of Jainism. begins in the eastern and in Iceland and his Theogony Greenland. (Origin of the Gods). Mediterranean. 8TH–7TH CENTURIES BCE 599–27 BCE 5TH–4TH CENTURIES BCE 9TH–10TH CENTURIES 6TH CENTURY BCE 551 BCE 8TH CENTURY CE 13TH CENTURY The Chinese sage Laozi Confucius, founder Two collections of Icelandic epic describes the dao, the of Confucianism, is Japanese mythology, the poems describing way, and establishes Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki, Norse mythology Daoism in China. born in Zou, Lu are compiled as a resource are composed and State, China. to support Shinto as recorded in national religion of Japan. the Eddas. more a philosophy than a religion, as By the 6th century BCE, the Greek to divine the future, choose it concentrated on enlightenment city-states had been established, auspicious times for action, and without the need for gods. and classical Greek civilization was even defeat enemies. Most of the exerting a strong influence on the time they existed alongside people, This focus on moral philosophy eastern Mediterranean region. unconcerned with human affairs, was also prevalent in the religions Religion (although the Greeks did but, to keep them happy, the that evolved in China and Japan. not have a specific word for it) Greeks erected temples, performed In the ordered society of the great was very much a part of life, and, rituals, and held regular festivals. Chinese dynasties, religion and although the gods were believed to political organization became live separately from the people, they As the early civilizations rose intertwined. Daoism, proposed were imagined to lead remarkably and fell, many of their beliefs faded by the legendary scholar Laozi, similar lives. The history of the away, or were incorporated into advocated a religious way of life Greek people, as interpreted by the religions that replaced them; compatible with Chinese society. Homer in his epic poems, was the pantheon of Greek mythology, Confucius built on this to develop also the history of their gods. The for example, was absorbed into a new belief system based on a hierarchy of deities, with their very Roman mythology, and along reinterpretation of respect for human lifestyles and tempestuous with Celtic and other beliefs, the hierarchy, and reinforced by relationships, mirrored Greek into Christianity. Some religions, ritual. Later, in Japan, traditional society. As well as offering an however, such as that of the religions were unified to create the explanation for aspects of the Norse, were still practiced until state religion, Shinto, which showed world, the deities gave reasons for the Middle Ages, and others, special reverence to ancestors and the vagaries of human behavior, including Shinto, Jainism, Daoism, encouraged followers to connect and with their help it was possible and Confucianism, have survived with them through ritual practices. into the modern age. ■

56 THERE IS A HIERARCHY OF GODS AND MEN BELIEFS FOR NEW SOCIETIES IN CONTEXT The god Marduk kills The Babylonians the goddess Tiamat and succeed the Sumerians KEY BELIEVERS makes all the other gods Ancient Babylonians and establish the city accept him as king. of Babylon. WHEN AND WHERE c.2270 BCE, Mesopotamia He then brings order to King Hammurabi then (present-day Iraq) the universe and creates claims divine authority for mankind to serve the gods. BEFORE his rule and introduces 5th millennium BCE The a code of laws. Ubaidians settle in the fertile valleys between the Tigris and Both Marduk and Hammurabi assert their the Euphrates (Mesopotamia). supremacy over others by establishing… c.3300 BCE The Sumerian ...a hierarchy of gods and men. people supplant the Ubaidians. M esopotamia, the area As these larger settlements grew, AFTER of modern Iraq between so did the need for new social c.1770 BCE Babylonian King the Tigris and Euphrates structures, a common culture, and Hammurabi introduces laws rivers, is often referred to in the shared beliefs in order to unify for governing Babylon. West as the cradle of civilization. the population and reinforce the It was there that—in the Bronze political system. Religion not only c.1750 BCE The Babylonians Age—small communities first explained natural phenomena but become the dominant people evolved into towns and cities. also provided a coherent mythology. of Mesopotamia, adapting Sumerian religion to reflect the power and authority of Babylon’s chief god, Marduk. 691 BCE Babylon falls to the Assyrians; the myths of Marduk are reassigned to the Assyrian god Assur.

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 57 See also: Created for a purpose 32 ■ Renewing life through ritual 51 ■ Beliefs The Enûma Elish that mirror society 80–81 ■ A rational world 92–99 Images of Babylonian soldiers events it relates had largely been The Akitu ritual re-created the lined the Ishtar Gate, which led to adapted from earlier Sumerian creation story of the Enûma the city of Babylon. Effigies of gods mythology, but in this retelling Elish. This begins before were paraded from the gate to the featured Babylonian deities—in time, when only Apsu (the city along the Processional Way. particular Marduk, son of the freshwater ocean) and Tiamat Sumerian god Enki and the rightful (the saltwater ocean) exist. In the 4th millennium BCE, the heir to Anu. The story tells of Apsu and Tiamat give birth Sumerian people inhabited the Marduk as the leader of a hierarchy to the primal gods, including region. The population of Sumer of young deities, whose victory over Anshar and Kishu, the was concentrated in about a dozen the older gods, including the horizons of the sky and the city-states; each was ruled by creator god, Tiamat (see box, right) earth, who themselves beget a king, but political power was gave him the power to create and Anu, the god of the sky, and vested in the high priests of each organize the universe, which he Ea (the Sumerian Enki), the city’s religion. The Sumerians ruled from his chosen home of god of the earth and water. worshipped a pantheon of gods, Babylon. The Enûma Elish provided The shouts of the young gods including Enki, god of water and an obvious analogy to the takeover disturb Apsu and Tiamat’s fertility, and Anu, god of heaven. of Sumer and founding of Babylon, peace, so Apsu attempts to When the Babylonians began to but Marduk’s ascendancy over the destroy them, but is killed by settle in Mesopotamia in the 3rd other gods and his ordering of the Ea. At the site of this struggle, millennium BCE, they absorbed the world also served as a metaphor the god Ea creates a temple for Sumerians and their culture— for the sovereignty of Babylonian himself, which he names Apsu including some aspects of their kings and their authority to make (after his father), where his mythology—into their own empire. and enforce laws. son Marduk is born. To avenge The Babylonian leaders used the her husband, Tiamat wages Sumerian mythology to reinforce A mark of kingship war on Marduk, and puts her the hierarchy they established, To reinforce the idea of Babylonian son Qingu in command of her which helped to assert their power dominance and to unify the empire, forces. Marduk agrees to fight over their own people and the the Enûma Elish was recited and Tiamat’s army, if all the other supplanted Sumerians. acted out in an annual New Year gods accept him as king, with festival, known as the Akitu, which sovereignty over the universe. Babylonian religion was held at the time of the spring Marduk then kills Tiamat and Central to the Babylonian religion equinox. This performance did Qingu, and brings order to was the epic creation story of the more than mark the calendrical the universe. From Qingu’s Enûma Elish, recorded on seven movement from one year to the blood he creates mankind. clay tablets. The sequence of next; it was a ritualized re-creation and reenergizing of the cosmos, I hereby name it Babylon, which enabled Marduk to settle home of the great gods. the destinies of the stars and planets for the year ahead. Both We shall make it the in its mythology and its ritual, the center of religion. Akitu was fundamentally about Marduk, in the legitimizing kingship; it was a Enûma Elish public demonstration that the Babylonian monarch held his authority directly from the god. By recreating Marduk’s triumph over Tiamat, the centrality of Babylon was also reaffirmed. ■

58 THE GOOD LIVE FOREVER IN THE KINGDOM OF OSIRIS PREPARING FOR THE AFTERLIFE IN CONTEXT We want to live again after T he Ancient Egyptians left death, as the god Osiris did. extraordinary tributes to KEY BELIEVERS their dead, such as the Ancient Egyptians If we imitate the Great Pyramids, huge necropolises, mummification of Osiris by underground tombs, and extensive WHEN Anubis, we can join Osiris grave goods and art, but it would 2000 BCE–4th century BCE in the realm of the dead. not be true to say that they were obsessed with death. Instead, they BEFORE There, Osiris will judge us, were preparing for the afterlife. In predynastic Egypt and our hearts will be Bodies buried in the sand are All their mortuary rituals preserved by dehydration; weighed against our sins. of embalming, mummification, this may have inspired later entombment, and remembrance mummification practices. If we are judged were aimed at ensuring new life worthy, we will after death. Egyptians wanted to c.2400–2100 BCE Royal tomb enjoy everlasting life. live after their death as perfected inscriptions at Saqqara—the beings in Aaru, the field of reeds, Pyramid Texts—suggest belief which was itself a perfected version in a divine afterlife for the of the Egypt they already knew. Egyptian pharaohs, promising the kings: “You have not died.” Aaru was the domain of Osiris, lord of the dead. In it, the blessed c.2100 BCE The first Coffin dead gathered rich crops of barley Texts—spells inscribed and emmer wheat—abundant on the coffins of wealthy men harvests that are joyously depicted and women—suggest that on the walls of Egyptian tombs. the afterlife is no longer reserved for royalty. Egyptians believed that a complete person comprised a AFTER number of elements: the physical From 4th century BCE The body, the name, the shadow, the conquering Greeks adopt some ka (spiritual life force), the ba Egyptian beliefs, especially in (personality), and the akh (the the cult of Isis, wife of Osiris. perfected being that could enjoy life in paradise). To ensure life in paradise, care needed to be taken of all these constituent parts.

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 59 See also: The origin of death 33 ■ The spirits of the dead live on 36–37 ■ Entering into the faith 224–25 ■ Social holiness and evangelicalism 239 ■ The ultimate reward for the righteous 279 ■ Awaiting the Day of Judgment 312–13 Elaborate preparations for safe passage to the next world were at first reserved only for the nobility, as here, but later the promise of rebirth into eternal life was open to all Egyptians. The body had to be preserved by decayed, the ka would starve. The the feather, it would be gobbled mummification and buried with a ka needed to take strength from up by Ammut, she-monster and set of funerary equipment, including the body to rejoin the ba in the devourer of the dead. If the scales jars containing the internal organs, in afterlife. Together they created balanced, the deceased could rituals that identified the deceased the akh, which would have to gain proceed to paradise, the gates of with the god Osiris. Reenacting admittance to the afterlife. which were guarded by Osiris. the death and resurrection of the god prepared the deceased for The deceased then negotiated Important Egyptians were buried the journey to the next world. the path from this world to the with a manual: the Book of the next, and was led by Anubis into Dead, or the Spells for Coming Forth Every stage of mummification the Hall of Two Truths. Here, the by Day. This guide taught the dead was accompanied by religious ritual. heart was weighed in the balance how to speak, breathe, eat, and drink Embalmers enacted the role of the against Ma’at, goddess of truth, in the afterlife. It included, crucially, jackal-headed god, Anubis, who symbolized by a feather. If the a spell for “not dying again in the was the protective god of the dead; heart, heavy with sin, outweighed realm of the dead.” ■ Anubis invented the mysteries of embalming in order to resurrect the slain Osiris. Embalming spells reassured the deceased: “You will live again, you will live forever.” The journey of the dead The preservation of the physical body by mummification was important because it was to the body that the ka needed to return for sustenance. If the body was The death of Osiris to destroy the body of a god,” O my heart...! Do not stand Seth said, “but I have done so.” up as a witness against me, The story of the death and Osiris’s wife Isis and her sister resurrection of Osiris was the Nephthys gathered up the body, do not be opposed to foundation myth that offered piece by piece, and the god me in the tribunal. Egyptians the hope of new life Anubis embalmed it as the first Ancient Egyptian after death—initially just for the mummy. Isis changed herself Book of the Dead king, but for all Egyptians by the into a kite and, hovering over Middle Kingdom period. the mummified Osiris, fanned the breath of life back into him The god Osiris was said to for long enough to conceive a have been killed by his jealous child, Horus (who would avenge brother Seth, who cut his body his father), before Osiris took his into pieces and scattered them place as lord of the underworld. across Egypt. “It is not possible

THE TRIUMPH OF GOOD OVER EVIL DEPENDS ON HUMANKIND THE BATTLE BETWEEN GOOD AND EVIL



62 THE BATTLE BETWEEN GOOD AND EVIL IN CONTEXT The creator is wholly good. KEY BELIEVERS However, both good and evil can be seen in the world. Zoroastrians Evil cannot come from good. WHEN AND WHERE 1400–1200 BCE, Iran (Persia) Therefore there must exist a wholly evil being, opposed to the creator. BEFORE From prehistory Many belief We must choose the good, in order to help the creator systems feature a destructive in his struggle against the bad. or mischievous god or spirit who is in opposition to a more benevolent deity. AFTER 6th century BCE The Persian and Mede empires are unified; Zoroastrianism becomes one of the world’s largest religions. 4th century BCE Classical Greek philosophers, including Plato, study with Zoroastrian priests; Aristotle is said to have considered Plato to be a reincarnation of Zoroaster. 10th century CE Zoroastrians migrate from Iran to India to avoid converting to Islam; they become the Parsis, the largest Zoroastrian community today. Zoroastrianism is one of the Ahura Mazda is assisted by his and cannot be considered Ahura oldest surviving religions, creations, the Amesha Spenta or Mazda’s equal. Ahura Mazda lives and one of the first recorded bounteous immortals: six divine in the light, while his twin lurks monotheistic faiths. It was founded spirits. A seventh and less easily in the dark. Their struggle, as evil by the prophet figure Zoroaster in definable Spenta is the Spenta endlessly attempts to vanquish ancient Persia (modern Iran). Mainyu, who is seen as Mazda’s good, forms the entire body of own bounteous spirit, and the Zoroastrian mythology. Zoroaster’s religion developed agent of his will. from the old system of Indo-Iranian Ahura Mazda battles with gods, which included Ahura Mazda, According to Zoroastrianism, Ahriman using the creative lord of wisdom. In Zoroastrianism, the good Ahura Mazda has been energy of his spirit, Spenta Mainyu; Ahura Mazda (sometimes called locked in struggle with the evil the exact relationship between Ohrmazd) is elevated to become the entity Ahriman (also called Angra these three entities remains an one supreme god, the wise creator Mainyu, or destructive spirit) since unresolved aspect of the religion. who is the source of all good, and time began. Ahriman and Ahura Human beings, also Mazda's represents order and truth, in Mazda are regarded as twin spirits; creation, have an important role opposition to evil and chaos. however, Ahriman is a fallen being, in keeping disorder and evil at bay

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 63 See also: The end of the world as we know it 86–87 ■ From monolatry to monotheism 176–77 ■ Jesus's message to the world 204–207 the battle in favor of goodness. According to Zoroastrianism, it is good that will ultimately prevail. The goodness of the wise A world made by goodness Zoroaster Creator can be inferred from Zoroastrianism tells that when Ahura Mazda wanted to create a It is not known exactly when the act of creation. perfect world, he made the Amesha the prophet Zoroaster (also Mardan-Farrukh Spenta and a spiritual, invisible called Zarathustra) lived, but world, which included a perfect c.1400–1200BCE seems likely. by using their free will to do good. being. The spiritual nature of this Although his teachings draw Good thoughts, good words, and world was intended to foil Ahriman, on early Hindu texts such as good deeds support asha, the who tries to attack it nevertheless. the Rig-Veda, he regarded his fundamental order of the universe. Ahura Mazda defeats Ahriman by religious insights into these Asha is seen as being constantly reciting the holiest Zoroastrian texts as visions received at risk from the opposing principle prayer, the Ahunavar, which casts directly from God. Zoroaster of druj, chaos, which feeds on bad him back into the darkness. was already a priest among thoughts, bad words, and bad deeds. seminomadic, pastoral Iranians The essential opposition is between Ahura Mazda then gives on the south Russian steppes creation and uncreation, with evil material form to his spiritual when he began to preach the threatening at all times to undermine world. He creates one primal worship of Ahura Mazda. At the ordered structure of the world. animal (a bull), and his perfect first he found few followers, spiritual being becomes a human but he did convert a local ruler, The birth of Zoroaster, with his being, known as Gayomart who made Zoroastrianism the destiny to recruit humankind to the (meaning mortal or human life). ❯❯ official religion of the Avestan fight between good and evil, tipped people. However, it was not The symbol of Zoroastrianism, until the reign of Cyrus the the Faravahar, is thought to depict Great, in the 6th century BCE, a fravashi, or guardian angel. These that the religion spread across protect the souls of individuals as the Persian empire. they struggle against evil. Key works 4th century BCE Zoroaster’s teachings are compiled in the Avesta, including the Gathas, 17 hymns believed to be Zoroaster’s own words. 9th century CE The dualistic nature of Zoroastrian philosophy is laid out in detail in his Analytical Treatise for the Dispelling of Doubts.

64 THE BATTLE BETWEEN GOOD AND EVIL The dissimilarity of good and evil, light and darkness, is not one of function but one of substance…their natures cannot combine and are mutually destructive. Mardan-Farrukh Fire priests tend a sacred flame. They explains why they may be tempted The fact that Ahura Mazda wear white cloths called padans over to do wrong. It also explains how has given humankind free will their mouths to prevent their breath or evil can exist in the presence of a means that every moment of an saliva from desecrating the fire. good god. Zoroastrian texts state: individual’s existence requires “What is complete and perfect a choice to be made between It is not long, however, before in its goodness cannot produce what is right and what is wrong, Ahriman recovers and renews evil. If it could, then it would not and that it is our responsibility his attack. He breaks through be perfect. If God is perfect in to choose good over evil. the sky in a blaze of fire, bringing goodness and knowledge, plainly with him starvation, disease, ignorance and evil cannot proceed This focus on moral choice pain, lust, and death. He also from him.” This is to say that Ahura makes Zoroastrianism a religion in creates demons of his own. Mazda cannot be responsible for which personal responsibility and Gayomart and the bull ultimately the presence of evil in the world: morality are paramount, not only in die, but upon their deaths, their the source of this is Ahriman. conceptual terms but as practiced semen spills on the ground and is in day-to-day life. Human virtues fertilized by the sun. Ahura Mazda sends rain, which brings forth, One good twin, one evil twin from the seed of Gayomart, the mother and father of humanity: In Zurvanism, a now-defunct begins to doubt his power to Mashya and Mashyoi. Meanwhile, branch of Zoroastrianism, Ahura produce a son. The evil Ahriman the bull’s seed gives rise to all the Mazda is not the sole creator; is born from his doubt, just as other animals of the world. he and Ahriman are the sons Ahura Mazda is born from his of a preexisting god, Zurvan optimism. Zurvan prophesies Because his perfect creation (Time). This doctrine arose from that his firstborn will rule the has been spoiled by Ahriman’s the reasoning that, if Mazda world. Ahriman forces his way destructiveness, Ahura Mazda and Ahriman were twin spirits out first, declaring himself sets a limit on time, which was (as texts said), they needed Ahura Mazda, but Zurvan is not previously limitless. a progenitor. Zurvan, a neutral, deceived, saying, “My son is androgynous god, sacrifices light and fragrant, but you are Evil and human will 1,000 of his years to create dark and stinking.” And Zurvan In Zoroastrianism, all people a son. But, as the end of the weeps to think he has produced are born good. The presence of millennium approaches, Zurvan such an abomination. Ahriman, an active principle of evil,

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 65 Establish the power of Zoroastrian teachings tell that as also the sun. For this reason, acts arising from a life the end of time draws near, the Zoroastrian temples always lived with good purpose, Saoshyant (savior) will arise keep a fire burning, symbolizing for Mazda and for the lord and prepare the world to be made their god’s eternal power. Some whom they made pastor anew, helping Ahura Mazda to temple fires have been kept destroy Ahriman. People will grow burning for centuries. Believers for the poor. pure and stop eating meat, then bring offerings of wood (the only The Ahunavar Prayer milk, plants, and water, until at last fuel used), and fire priests place they need nothing. When all have these in the flames. Visitors are worthy of, and helpful to, Ahura chosen good over evil, there will anointed with ash. Mazda include truthfulness, loyalty, be no more sin, so Az, the demon tolerance, forgiveness, respect of lust made by Ahriman, will The continuing struggle for one’s elders, and the keeping starve, turning on her creator. The Zoroastrian idea of eternal, of promises. Vices such as anger, Ahura Mazda will cast Ahriman opposing forces of good and evil arrogance, vengefulness, bad from creation through the hole that is a form of what philosophy language, and greed are condemned Ahriman made when he broke calls dualism. Another Persian —and not only in this life. in. It is at this point that time dualistic religion, Manichaeism, will be at an end. was founded by the prophet Mani Judgment and salvation in the 3rd century CE. Mani felt that Zoroastrians believe that after Saoshyant will then raise his Religion of Light completed death, individuals will be judged the dead, who will pass through the teachings of Zoroaster, Buddha, twice: once when they die and a stream of molten metal to burn and Christ. once at a Last Judgment at the away their sins. According to end of time. The two judgments Zoroastrianism, the world will begin Like Zoroaster, Mani saw will address, respectively, the again, but this time it will be a the world as an eternal struggle individual’s morality of thought and world everlasting, free of taint. between the forces of good and his or her morality of action. In both evil, light and darkness. This cases, moral failings are punished The use of fire and molten metal was to have a profound effect on in hell. However, these punishments as a purifier in the Last Judgment Christian thinkers, and influence are not eternal; they cease when is reflected in the prominence of medieval, heretical Christian cults the person corrects their moral fire in Zoroastrianism as a symbol such as the Paulicians in Armenia, failing in the afterlife—which, of sanctity. It is seen as the purest the Bogomils in Bulgaria, and, most once successfully accomplished, of the elements. Ahura Mazda is famously, the Cathars in France. ■ is followed by the person going to strongly associated with fire and dwell with Ahura Mazda in heaven. Zoroastrians gather to pray together. This very moral religion is summed up in the old Avestan phrase: “Humata, Hukhta, Hvarshta”—“Good thoughts, good words, good deeds.”

66 ACCEPT THE WAY OF THE UNIVERSE ALIGNING THE SELF WITH THE DAO IN CONTEXT The dao, or Way, is the The dao sustains fundamental principle all things. KEY FIGURE Laozi of the universe. WHEN AND WHERE We must cease actions The dao remains 6th century BCE, China that interrupt this flow and unchanged, while all live simply, in harmony else flows around it. BEFORE 7th century BCE In popular with nature. Chinese religion, people believe their fate is controlled Through meditation and inaction by deities and practice we accept the Way of the universe. ancestor worship. T he origins of Daoism are book, the Daode jing (The Way and AFTER rooted in ancient Chinese Its Power) identified the dao, or 6th century BCE Confucius beliefs concerning nature Way, as the power or principle that proposes an ethical system in and harmony, but its first text, underlies and sustains all things which virtue and respect lead attributed to the philosopher Laozi, and is the source of order in the to a just and stable society. was written in the 6th century BCE universe. Following the dao, rather —an unusually active time for than hindering or obstructing it, 3rd century CE Buddhism, ideas that also saw the emergence not only helps to ensure cosmic with its focus on the personal of Confucianism in China, both harmony, but also leads to personal journey to enlightenment, first Jainism and Buddhism in India, spiritual development and a virtuous, reaches China. and early Greek philosophy. Laozi’s fulfilled, and possibly longer life. 20th century Daoism is banned in China by the Communist regime; this ban is reversed in 1978. 20th century The physical and mental discipline of t’ai chi attracts followers in the West.

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 67 See also: Wisdom lies with the superior man 72–77 ■ Physical and mental discipline 112–13 ■ Zen insights that go beyond words 160–63 For life to run smoothly along and yang. Yin comprises all that is Laozi the Way, we must attune and align dark, moist, soft, cold, and feminine; ourselves with it, performing only all that is light, dry, hard, warm, The author of the Daode jing those simple actions that maintain and masculine is yang. Everything is said to have been a court nature’s inherent balance. is made of yin and yang, and archivist for the Zhou harmony is achieved when the two emperors who earned the What it means to follow the dao are kept in balance. In Daoism such name Laozi (the Old Master) is succinctly expressed in the more balance is sought in mind, spirit, because of his wisdom. The modern phrase, “going with the flow.” and body through practices such younger sage Kong Fuzi, or as meditation and t’ai chi: physical, Confucius (p.75), is thought to Action and inaction mental, and spiritual exercises have journeyed to consult him The dao itself is eternal and intended to balance the flow of on religious rites. However, unchanging. It is life that eddies qi, the life force, through the body. almost nothing is known and swirls around the dao and, to for certain about Laozi. It keep to its path, people must Under the rule of the Han is possible that he was not detach themselves from material dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), Daoist a historical figure at all, and concerns and disruptive emotions philosophy became a religion. Its that the Daode jing is in fact such as ambition and anger. They meditative practices were thought a later compilation of sayings. should instead live a peaceful, to guide experts to immortality. In simple life, acting spontaneously the Daode jing itself, the notion of According to legend, Laozi and in harmony with nature, rather immortality is not intended literally. disappeared under mysterious than acting on impulses from the Someone who completely accepts circumstances; Confucius self. This is the concept of wu wei, the dao reaches a plane above the himself compared him to a or inaction, inherent in the dao; as material, and achieves immortality dragon, which can ascend to the Daode jing says, “the Way by detachment. But the statement heaven on the wind. The story never acts, and yet nothing is left that, for the sage, “there is no realm goes that on witnessing the undone.” In daily life, Laozi placed of death,” was to be taken more decline of the Zhou dynasty, great emphasis on those virtues literally by followers of the Daoist Laozi left court and journeyed that encourage wu wei: humility, religion, who believed that actual west seeking solitude. As submissiveness, non-interference, immortality could be achieved he left, a border guard who passivity, and detachment. through acceptance of the Way. ■ recognized him asked for a token of his wisdom. Laozi The wisdom of Laozi came from My words are very wrote the Daode jing for him, long contemplation of the nature easy to understand and and then traveled on, never of the universe and its constituents, very easy to put into practice, to be seen in this world again. which in Chinese philosophy are yin yet no one in the world can understand them or Key works put them into practice. c.6th century BCE Daode jing Laozi (also known as the Laozi).

68 IN CONTEXT THE FIVE KEY FIGURE GREAT VOWS Mahavira SELF-DENIAL LEADS TO WHEN AND WHERE SPIRITUAL LIBERATION From 6th century BCE, India BEFORE From 1000 BCE The concept of samsara, the cycle of death and rebirth, is developed by wandering ascetics of the shramana tradition in India. AFTER 6th century BCE Buddha’s enlightenment shows him the way to escape samsara. From 2nd century BCE In Mahayana Buddhism, bodhisattvas—enlightened humans that remain on earth to help others—are revered. 20th century Jainism is recognized as a legally distinct religion in India, separate from Hinduism. J ainism is the most ascetic of all Indian religions. Its followers practice self-denial in order to progress toward moksha, release from constant rebirth into this world of suffering. Jainism as we know it was founded by Mahavira, a contemporary of Buddha, in the 6th century BCE. However, Jainism takes a long view of its own historical development: it is said that it has always existed and always will exist. Within the faith, Mahavira is simply regarded as the most recent of 24 enlightened teachers in the current era. Jains believe each era lasts for millions of years and recurs in an infinite cycle of ages. These teachers are called

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 69 See also: The four stages of life 106–109 ■ Escape from the eternal cycle 136–43 ■ Buddhas and bodhisattvas 152–57 ■ The ultimate reward for the righteous 279 ■ The Sikh code of conduct 296–301 Life is an endless cycle of reincarnation. Only by freeing ourselves To do this we must of the burden of karma follow the example of the can we achieve great teachers who have enlightenment and be achieved liberation, liberated from this cycle. such as Mahavira. If we follow this path, The path is set out Images of the jinas or tirthankaras, we too may eventually in the Five Vows of the enlightened beings revered in achieve enlightenment. nonviolence, truth-telling, Jainism, are used as devotional objects chastity, not stealing, and as a focus for meditation while and nonattachment. prayers and mantras are recited. jinas, or more commonly, (aparigraha). The most important (“sky-clad”) sects. Shvetambara tirthankaras: “builders of the ford of these vows is the practice of monks believe that detachment across the ocean of rebirth.” By ahimsa, which extends beyond and purity are mental qualities following the path of self-denial avoiding violence against human that are unimpeded by wearing taught by the tirthankaras, Jains beings to encompass all animals, a simple robe. However, Digambara hope to free their souls from including the smallest organisms monks go naked, believing that the the entanglements of material found in water or air. The other four wearing of clothes indicates that ❯❯ existence. Without this hope, life Great Vows equip the monk or nun is simply a continuous cycle of to follow the life of a wandering Having wisdom, Mahavira life, death, and reincarnation. mendicant, dedicated to preaching, committed no sin himself, fasting, worship, and study. nor did he induce others to Personal responsibilty do so, nor did he consent Jainism does not recognize any Self-denial is central to Jainism. deity, placing full responsibility It is said within the faith that to the sins of others. on the actions and conduct of the Mahavira himself went naked, Akaranga Sutra individual. In order to adhere to having been so deep in thought a life of self-denial, Jain monks at the start of his wanderings that and nuns take what are called the he failed to notice when his robe Five Great Vows—nonviolence snagged on a thorn bush and was (ahimsa), speaking the truth pulled off. But in the 4th century CE, (satya), celibacy (brahmacharya), long after Mahivira’s death, the not taking what is not willingly extent to which self-denial should offered (asteya), and detachment be practiced caused a schism in from people, places, and things Jainism between the Shvetambara (“white-clad”) and Digambara

70 SELF-DENIAL LEADS TO SPIRITUAL LIBERATION The liberated soul in its elevated dwelling place. The symbol adopted by Jainism is a complex arrangement of elements within The four states the soul an outline that represents the universe: may live in: heaven, earthly concerns in the lower regions human, animal, hell. lead up to the abode of celestial beings. The Three Jewels: right faith, right knowledge, right conduct. The open palm, a reminder to stop and consider all actions. The wheel, the symbol The word “ahimsa”— of the cycle of death nonviolence—the principle and rebirth. by which Jains live. a person is not completely detached fallen from the plant in their the aim is to be at one with the from sexual feelings and false notions worship, arguing that to cut a living universe, and to forgive and be of modesty. Digambara monks may flower is an act of violence. Lay forgiven for all transgressions. not even carry alms bowls, but Jains may marry, but are expected (Forty-eight minutes—one-thirtieth must receive food in their cupped to uphold the highest standards of a day—is a mahurta, a standard hands. Digambaras also believe of behavior. In this, as in all things, unit of time in India often used that liberation from rebirth is not Jains follow the path of the Three for ritual purposes.) possible for women until they have Jewels: right faith, right knowledge, first been reborn as a man. and right conduct. Other Jain virtues are: service to others, attention to religious Living in the world Sometimes there is said to study, disengagement from passion, Lay Jains do not take the Five be a fourth jewel, right penance: and politeness and humility. Great Vows, but they do take atonement for sins is important Particular merit is gained by lesser vows that are similar: in Jainism. At the annual festival donating food to monks and nuns. renouncing violence, vowing not of Samvatsari, which follows an All of these practices combine with to lie or to steal, embracing chaste eight-day period of fasting and the self-denial required by even sexual behavior, and avoiding abstinence in the monsoon season, laypersons’ vows to reduce the attachment to material things. All a full confession is made to family karma (consequences of past Jains are strictly vegetarian, in line and friends of the sins of the past deeds) which, the Jains believe, with the vow of nonviolence, and year, and vows are taken not to accumulates on the soul must not do work that involves the carry grudges into the new year. as a kind of physical substance. All destruction of life. Some Jains will Meditation is important, too, and karma, both good and bad, must be only use flowers that have already Jain daily rituals include 48-minute removed to achieve liberation. The sessions of meditation, in which idea is to progress gradually along

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 71 the path of spiritual enlightenment, I ask pardon of all living earning merit little by little, life creatures. May all of them by life. One of the Jain holy texts, pardon me. May I have a the Tattvartha Sutra, sets out a sequence of 14 stages through friendly relationship which the soul must pass to with all beings. achieve liberation: the first stage Jain prayer is called mithyadrishti, in which the soul is in a spiritual slumber; Mahavira the final, 14th, stage is ayoga-kevali, which is populated by souls known The religious reformer as siddhas, who have achieved full Mahavira was born in around spiritual liberation. This final stage 599 BCE in northeast India is beyond the reach of lay Jains. as Prince Vardhamana, the son of King Siddhartha and Forms of devotion found in Hinduism, is called Queen Trishala, who is said Jains may worship in a temple darshan, and involves making to have had many auspicious or at a domestic shrine at home. eye contact with the image of a dreams during her pregnancy. Jain temples are seen as replicas tirthankara, often while reciting a According to Jain tradition, of the celestial assembly halls where sacred mantra. The fundamental Mahavira was placed in the liberated tirthankaras continue prayer of Jainism is the Navkar, the queen’s womb by Indra, their teaching. The adoration and or Namaskar, Mantra. By reciting the king of the Vedic gods. contemplation of images of these this mantra, namo namahar, the Mahavira was allegedly so tirthankaras is thought to bring worshipper honors the souls of dedicated to nonviolence about inner spiritual transformation. the liberated and gains inspiration that he did not not kick in The simplest form of worship, also from them in his or her own quest his mother’s womb, in case for enlightenment. ■ he caused her pain. Only monastic Jains who have fully embraced a life of austerity and At the age of 30, Prince detachment can hope to ascend the Vardhamana left the palace to 14 steps to spiritual enlightenment. live as an ascetic, renouncing material comfort and devoting himself entirely to meditation. After 12 years he reached enlightenment and then became a great teacher, with the new name of Mahavira. Founding a large community of Jain monks and nuns (traditionally thought to be more than 50,000 in total), he molded Jainism into its current form. Mahavira died at the age of 72 at the town of Pava in Bihar, India, and is said at this point to have attained moksha (release from the cycle of death and rebirth).

VIRTUE IS NOT SENT FROM HEAVEN WISDOM LIES WITH THE SUPERIOR MAN



74 WISDOM LIES WITH THE SUPERIOR MAN IN CONTEXT C onfucius, as he is known To govern by virtue, in the West, was one let us compare it to the KEY FIGURE of the first thinkers to Confucius systematically explore the notion North Star: it stays of goodness and whether moral in its place, while the WHEN AND WHERE superiority is a divine privilege myriad stars wait upon it. 6th–5th century BCE, China or is inherent in humankind and can be cultivated. The Analects BEFORE From 11th century BCE Born in the 6th century BCE in of ren could be acquired by anyone. The Zhou dynasty redirect Qufu, in modern China’s Shandong It is in fact the duty of everyone to traditional Chinese ancestor Province, Confucius was one of a cultivate the attributes that make worship toward the concept new breed of scholars—in effect, the up ren—seriousness, generosity, of a heaven, with the Zhou first civil servants—who became sincerity, diligence, and kindness. emperor as its representative. advisors to the Chinese court, rising To practice these virtues is to from the middle classes to positions uphold the will of heaven. 6th century BCE Laozi of power and influence on the proposes acting in accordance strength of their own merit rather The Analects—sayings and with the dao (the Way) in order than through inheritance. In the teachings of Confucius collected to maintain universal harmony. rigidly class-stratified society by his pupils—established a new of the day, this presented an anomaly, philosophy of morality in which AFTER and it is this anomaly that lies at the superior man, or junzi (literally From 6th century BCE the heart of Confucius’s thought. gentleman), devotes himself to Confucian ideals of virtue and the acquisition of ren for its own responsibility inform Zhou The rulers of the reigning sake—he learns for learning’s sake, imperial rule and the political Zhou dynasty believed that they and is good for goodness’ sake. ideology of later dynasties. were given their authority directly by the gods, under the Mandate of 18th century Confucius’s Heaven, and that the quality of ren meritocratic ideas are admired (or jen)—humaneness—was by Enlightenment thinkers an attribute of the ruling classes. who oppose the absolute Confucius, too, saw heaven as the authority of Church and State. source of moral order, but he argued that the blessing of heaven was open to all, and that the quality Heaven is the source of Order is maintained by Goodness is a quality moral order. goodness. that can be learned. Virtue is not sent Therefore, everybody from heaven. can be good.

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 75 See also: Living in harmony 38 ■ Aligning the self with the dao 66–67 ■ Selfless action 110–11 ■ Man as a manifestation of God 188 Asked by a student to explain the Attributes of a wise ruler Confucius rules to be followed by the seeker of As for the rulers, Confucius advised ren, Confucius replied, “One should that rather than exercising their According to tradition, see nothing improper, hear nothing powers in an arbitrary and unjust Confucius was born in improper, say nothing improper, way, they should lead by example, 551 BCE in Qufu, in the state do nothing improper.” and that treating the people with of Lu, China. His name was generosity and kindness would originally Kong Qiu, and only Confucius was concerned not encourage virtue, loyalty, and right later did he earn the title simply with self-cultivation, but behavior. However, in order to Kong Fuzi, or Master Kong. with the relations between people, govern others, it is necessary first Little is known about his life, and the proper way to behave to govern oneself. For Confucius, except that he was from a in a family, a community, and a humane ruler was defined by his well-to-do family, and that as a larger society. Confucius himself practice of ren; without it, he might a young man he worked as a admitted students of all classes as forfeit the Mandate of Heaven. In servant to support his family his disciples, and fundamentally many ways Confucius’s idea of the after his father died. He believed that virtue lay in self- perfect ruler echoes Laozi’s concept nevertheless managed to find cultivation rather than noble birth. of the dao: the less the ruler does, time to study, and became an Because of the rigidity of the the more is achieved. The ruler is administrator in the Lu court, prevailing hierarchy in China’s the stable center around which the but when his suggestions to feudal society, Confucius had to activity of the kingdom revolves. the rulers were ignored he left find a way to promote individual to concentrate on teaching. virtue without calling for a simple Rulers who took this advice meritocracy. He did so by arguing to heart also found themselves in As a teacher he traveled that the virtuous man accepts and need of advisors and civil servants throughout the Chinese understands his place in the social whose skill and trustworthiness ❯❯ empire, returning to Qufu order, and uses his virtue to fulfill at the end of his life. He died his allotted role rather than to Imperial authority in China was there in 479 BCE. His teaching transcend it. “The superior man,” expressed through decisive rule survives in fragments and he said, “does what is proper to the that reinforced the notion of a stable sayings passed down orally by station in which he is; he does not power center; well-advised judgments his disciples and subsequently desire to go beyond this.” were less likely to require revision. collected in the Analects and anthologies compiled by Confucian scholars. Key works 5th century BCE Analects; Doctrine of the Mean; Great Learning

76 WISDOM LIES WITH THE SUPERIOR MAN The Five Constant were founded in the Confucian Confucius traveled and taught for Relationships concepts of virtuous behavior; in 12 years, acquiring disciples in much 136 BCE the Han dynasty introduced the same way that the contemporary Sovereign–Subject new competitive examinations for schools of philosophy were taking Rulers should be benevolent, the imperial civil service based shape in the Ancient Greek world. on meritocratic Confucian ideals. In and subjects loyal. turn the Chinese concept of heaven only could everybody be good, but acquired a distinctly bureaucratic society would be bound together in Father–Son tone, and by the time of the Song a positive and right-thinking way. Parents are to be loving, dynasty (960–1279 CE), heaven was By revering the ancestors and and children obedient. seen as a mirror image of the court performing the correct rites in their of the Chinese emperor, with its honor, humans could maintain a Husband–Wife own emperor and a vast celestial state of harmony between this Husbands are to be good and civil service of lesser deities. world and heaven. At the family fair, and wives understanding. level, such rites were an echo of Despite his many references to those in which the emperors made Brother–Brother heaven, Confucius did not believe sacrifices to their ancestors and Elder siblings are to be his moral precepts were derived confirmed the Mandate of Heaven from the gods; instead he found under which they ruled. gentle, and younger them already existing in the human siblings respectful. heart and mind. To this extent, Only he who is Confucianism is more a humanistic possessed of the Friend–Friend system of moral philosophy than it most complete sincerity Older friends are to be is a religion; although even today, that can exist under considerate, younger with some 5–6 million followers, Heaven can transform. the distinction between the two Doctrine of the Mean friends reverential. remains blurred. In Chinese popular religion, Confucius has joined the crowded pantheon of gods, but many of his followers revere him simply as a great teacher and thinker. Building on ritual The adoption of Confucianism as a religion stems largely from the fact that Confucius upheld the duty to practice rites and ceremonies that honored ancestors. This he saw as part of a wider imperative of loyalty to family and friends, and respect for elders—which Confucius defined in what he called the Five Constant Relationships (see left). Reciprocity plays a key role in these relationships, for Confucianism, at its heart, embodies the Golden Rule: do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself. Confucius believed that by honoring ties of love, loyalty, ritual, and tradition, virtuous thought, virtuous action, and respect, not

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 77 Filial piety remains one of the most Hold faithfulness Men’s natures are alike, important Confucian virtues, and and sincerity it is their habits that its ties and duties extend beyond carry them far apart. death. Sons are expected to make as first principles. The Analects offerings at their parents’ graves, The Analects and to honor them at shrines in the home that contain ancestor tablets, in which the spirits of the elders are said to dwell. Even today, the key moment in a Confucian wedding is when the couple bow to the groom’s ancestor tablets, thus formally introducing the bride to the ancestors of her husband’s family in order to secure their blessing. Confucianism evolves of later dynasties such as the New Confucianism has emerged It was during the Song dynasty that Han (206 BCE–220 CE), the Song in China, blending Confucian ideas the scholar Zhu Xi (1130–1200 CE) (960–1279 CE) and the Ming with modern Chinese thinking incorporated elements of Daoism (1368–1644CE) recognized the value and Western philosophy. Although and Buddhism into Confucianism, of Confucian ideals in maintaining Confucius built his philosophy on creating an enduring religion that is social order, and Confucianism existing concepts and practices, he also known as Neo-Confucianism. became the Chinese state religion. was remarkable for his insistence Confucius was not the first Chinese It was also a profound influence on that human beings are naturally sage to contemplate the eternal daily life and thought into the 20th good—only needing to be taught truths, and Confucius himself century, and was attacked during and encouraged, to be virtuous— claimed to have invented nothing, the Cultural Revolution for its social and that this goodness is not but merely to have studied the conservatism, but in recent years a confined to the aristocracy. ■ ideas of earlier thinkers, gathering them together in five books, known as the Five Classics. Under the Western Zhou dynasty, from 1050 to 771 BCE, scholars were highly valued at court, and in the 7th century BCE the so-called Hundred Schools of Thought emerged. Confucius lived in a time of philosophical ferment, but also of social change, as the power of the Zhou emperors declined and the whole social order seemed to be under threat. His focus on order and harmony emerged from a genuine concern about potential societal breakdown. The emperors Respect for elders and ancestors is a core value of Confucianism: these young Chinese students are marking the anniversary of Confucius’s birth by honoring his image.

78 A DIVINE CHILD IS BORN THE ASSIMILATION OF MYTH IN CONTEXT A round 1420 BCE, the Minoan the place where Zeus’s mother, civilization of the island of Rhea, hid her baby from his jealous KEY BELIEVERS Crete was conquered by the father, Cronus, the cave became Ancient Minoans Myceneans from mainland Greece, one of ancient Greece’s many and Myceneans and as the Greek invaders absorbed sacred sites, or shrines. the culture of the Minoans, so WHEN AND WHERE indigenous Cretan and Greek myth Rhea may have been one of 14th century BCE, Crete became intertwined. The chief the names of the original, Minoan, deity of the Minoans was a great great goddess, but in Greek myth, BEFORE mother goddess, who, in legend, although she was the mother of From prehistory Early gave birth to a divine son in the gods, Rhea was not considered an settlers, probably from western Diktaean cave above Psychro. This Olympian goddess in her own right. Asia, leave evidence of rituals cave became her holiest shrine and Her divine child, on the other hand, and worship in caves on Crete. no one, god or man, was permitted was elevated in status to become to enter. Once a year a fiery glow the highest god of all, the father c.25th century–1420 BCE was said to erupt from the cave, of all other gods. ■ Goddesses are the primary when the blood from the birth of focus of worship in Minoan the divine child spilled over. The infant Zeus, here painted Crete; many are associated by Carlo Cignani (1628–1719), was with serpents, birds, or bees. This child grew into a wondrous variously described in myth as being beardless youth or kouros, a demi- nursed by nymphs, a she-goat, or bees AFTER god who was often invoked in that lived in the Diktaean cave. 7th century BCE The Greek hymns to bring fertility and good poet Hesiod relates the birth fortune to humans each year. of Zeus to Rhea at Psychro and his concealment from The Dorian Greeks, who the wrath of his father. succeeded the Myceneans, gave the Minoan kouros the name of 5th century BCE The Roman their own supreme god, Zeus, the Republic assimilates the deity who came to rule the classical myths and iconography Greek pantheon of gods that lived of Zeus in its supreme on Mount Olympus. Regarded as god, Jupiter or Jove. See also: Symbolism made real 46–47 ■ Beliefs for new societies 56–57 ■ The power of the great goddess 104

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 79 THE ORACLES REVEAL THE WILL OF THE GODS DIVINING THE FUTURE IN CONTEXT T he ancient Greeks set advisable, meant that personalized great store by divination access to the gods became the KEY BELIEVERS of the future, and the most province of the rich and powerful. A Ancient Greeks valuable and influential sources of popular alternative was the service prophecy and wise counsel were offered by seers or soothsayers, WHEN AND WHERE the oracles, who were almost who, unlike the oracles, were 8th century BCE–4th always women. The oracles would prepared to travel—particularly century CE, Greece enter a trancelike state, during useful for Greek armies on the and the Mediterranean which the gods spoke directly move. These seers interpreted through them. The gods’ messages signs from the gods by methods BEFORE were sometimes unintelligible, but such as dream analysis, inferring From 3rd millennium BCE could be interpreted by priests. If meaning from chance events, The temple at Per-Wadjet offerings were made at the oracles’ observation of birds, and deducing contains the most renowned sanctuaries, or dwelling places omens from animal sacrifice. ■ oracle in Egypt , that of the (often caves), they would often snake-headed goddess Wadjet. provide more satisfactory responses. The Sibyl, with raving lips… reaches over a thousand c.800 BCE The oracle of Apollo Oracles could be consulted on years with her voice, is established at Delphi. any aspect of life, from personal thanks to the god in her. matters, such as love and marriage, Heraclitus AFTER to affairs of state. Prophecies could From 1st century BCE The also be used for political ends: haruspex is an influential Alexander the Great visited the figure in the Roman Empire, oracle of the Egyptian god Amun using Etruscan divination after conquering Egypt in 332 BCE, techniques to interpret the and had his rule legitimized when entrails of sacrificed animals. the oracle recognized him as the “son of Amun.” However, the From 1st century CE The number of oracles was limited, and Christian Church condemns this, combined with the fact that divination as a pagan practice; substantial offerings were often it is forbidden in the biblical Book of Deuteronomy. See also: The power of the shaman 26–31 ■ The African roots of Santeria 304–305 ■ The Pentecostal Church 336

80 THE GODS ARE JUST LIKE US BELIEFS THAT MIRROR SOCIETY IN CONTEXT The gods The gods Household gods, take an active take an active the penates, KEY BELIEVERS interest in our interest in our reside in our Ancient Romans public affairs. homes and help domestic provide for us. WHEN AND WHERE affairs. 8th century BCE, Rome The gods are BEFORE just like us 8th–6th centuries BCE The Greek civilization flowers, Public leaders Ancestor spirit with its pantheon of deities. consult the gods gods, the lares, AFTER about political act as our 8th century BCE decision making. guardians. Rome is founded. Political leaders c.509 BCE The Roman can be given the monarchy is overthrown status of gods. and the Republic established. T he pantheon of ancient mirrored the lives of the mortals 133–44 BCE Civil wars finally Roman gods was largely and reflected their history. bring an end to the Roman adapted from that of other However, while the Greeks saw Republic; Julius Caesar is civilizations, notably the Greeks. their gods as remote controllers named “dictator for life” before As the Greek deities had done, of the universe, the Romans his assassination in 44 BCE. the Roman gods lived, loved, and considered them to be an intrinsic fought their battles in a way that part of their lives, and to have 42 BCE Julius Caesar is deified. c.335CE Roman Emperor Constantine I (the Great) converts to Christianity. 391 CE Emperor Theodosius bans the worship of pagan gods.

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 81 See also: Beliefs for new societies 56–57 ■ The assimiliation of myth 78 The lares ■ Living the Way of the Gods 82–85 Constituting a bridge between a direct influence on every aspect invited to take up residence in the public and domestic gods, of existence. They believed that Rome. For most Roman citizens, the lares were typically divine aid was key to successful however, the local and household guardian deities, whose governance, and so worship, ritual, gods, the lares and penates, were function was to protect the and sacrifice were incorporated the ones associated with everyday livelihood of a particular area. into public ceremonies in order to life. They were so interested in While many homes had a ensure the cooperation of the gods. human affairs that their presence shrine devoted to the local Public ceremonies also helped was everywhere; they were open lares, their scope was broader to strengthen the authority of the to negotiation, and prayers to them than that of the household regime, and religious festivals, often took the form of bargains: penates, and shrines to the often involving public holidays “I give so that you will give.” neighborhood lares were often and games, contributed to political placed at crossroads, a symbol unity. Religious and state life The foundation of religion for of home in its wider sense. were interdependent, with priests the Romans was the family. The The lares are thought to have forming a part of the political elite paterfamilias—head of the family— evolved from earlier cults of and leaders expected to perform was the spiritual leader and moral hero-ancestors, or the spirits religious duties. In time, individual authority, who held legal rights over of ancestors buried in rulers became associated, during the property of the family and was farmland, with their role their lifetime, with a particular responsible for its members in as protectors of agriculture god; some eventually became society. The home was sacred to and livestock. In the Roman regarded as gods—either by being the Romans, and the heart of the Republic, they came to be deified after death or even home was the hearth. The spirit of the guardians of businesses, achieving divine status while the head of the household presided transport, and communication. they were still alive. over all the household gods, Lares were closely associated including the penates, the deities with local communities and Cults and household gods of the store cupboard, to whom everyday public life, and Various cults coexisted with the a portion of each meal was offered were very much gods of the religion of the state. Some were on the flames of the hearth. ■ plebians (such as soldiers, devoted to a particular god— seafarers, farmers, and often one outside the conventional The Roman gods had human traders), rather than of the pantheon; sometimes the foreign characteristics; they are often ruling class of patricians, god of a conquered people was depicted feasting, sleeping, or complementing the major engaging in bawdy drunkenness. deities of the state religion. At Rome as elsewhere, in order to understand the society of the gods, we must not lose sight of the society of men. Georges Dumézil

82 IN CONTEXT RITUAL KEY MOVEMENT LINKS US Shinto TO OUR PAST WHEN AND WHERE LIVING THE WAY OF THE GODS 8th century, Japan BEFORE From prehistory In Japan, animist belief in nature spirits blends with ancestor worship; the emperors claim to be descendants of the gods. 2nd millennium BCE In ancient China, just rulers are thought to be invested with divine authority. 6th century CE Buddhism reaches Japan and begins to attract followers. AFTER 19th century Shinto becomes the Japanese state religion. 1946 The Japanese emperor renounces his divine lineage. Shinto is disestablished, but continues to be practiced. S hinto is the indigenous, traditional religion of Japan. Some say that it is not so much a religion as a Japanese way of life, because it is so intrinsically linked to the topography of the land and its history and traditions. Its origins can be traced to prehistoric times in Japan, when animist beliefs, with their respect for nature and natural phenomena, prevailed. As the universal belief system of an isolated island nation, Shinto had no need to define itself until it was challenged by the arrival of a rival religion, Buddhism, in the 6th century CE. The traditional Japanese beliefs lacked complex intellectual doctrines, allowing

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 83 See also: Making sense of the world 20–23 ■ Animism in early societies 24–25 ■ Beliefs for new societies 56–57 ■ Devotion through puja 114–15 ■ The performance of ritual and repetition 158–59 ■ Jesus’s divine identity 208 Great Japan is the Land of The world was created by the gods the Gods. Here the Deity at the beginning of heaven and earth. of the Sun has handed It is full of sacred energies, or kami. on her eternal rule. Account of the Some kami are great creative beings, some are Righteous Reigns of the natural forces, some are the souls of the ancestors. Divine Emperors Buddhism and also Confucianism The kami created our nation and shaped our culture. to become influential in Japanese theology and philosophy. In Rituals honoring the kami link us to our past. response, the Japanese imperial court consolidated Japan’s native a great weight of tradition, sacred present, for example, as essences beliefs with a name—Shinto— beings called kami are prayed to of natural phenomena (such as and in the early 8th century, at the and honored. The word Shinto storms and earthquakes) and the request of the Empress Gemmei, literally means “Way of the Divine geographical environment (rivers, the great Shinto texts such as the Beings,” and Shinto is known in trees, and waterfalls, for example). Kojiki (“Record of Ancient Matters”) modern Japanese as Kami no Mountains, especially Mount Fuji, and Nihon Shoki (“Continuing michi, the “Way of the Kami.” are held to be particularly sacred. Chronicles of Japan”) were compiled. The essence of everything As entities, kami include gods, These books recorded the oral The word kami means “that which goddesses, and the souls or spirits traditions of Japanese history and is hidden” and can be translated of family ancestors (ujigami) and myth, alongside the lineage of the as god, spirit, or soul. However, in other exceptional human beings. Japanese emperors, said to be Shinto belief, the term designates Shinto teaches that these kami descended from the gods. They not only a vast range of divinities occupy the same material world also defined a body of ritual that and spirit beings, but also the as people, rather than existing on has remained key to Shinto ever spiritual energy or essence that a supernatural plane. They respond since—perhaps more so than belief. is found in everything, and which to prayer and can influence events. Shinto still permeates every aspect defines that thing: kami are However, unlike the divine beings of Japanese life, and its rituals, in in many other religious traditions, ❯❯ which purification plays a key role, are performed in both spiritual and secular situations—for example, to bring success and good fortune to sporting events, new car assembly lines, or construction projects. During these rituals, which carry

84 LIVING THE WAY OF THE GODS kami, although godlike, are not ancestors. The ritual worship of omnipotent: they have limitations these sacred beings therefore and are fallible. However, not all confirms a powerful connection kami are good—some can be evil to Japanese history and tradition. or demonic. But in their more benign aspect, they possess Shrines and temples As you have blessed the sincerity and a will to truth, or A harmonious relationship between ruler’s reign...so I bow down makoto, and maintain harmony in kami and humankind is maintained my neck as a cormorant in the universe through the creative by praying and making offerings at search of fish to worship you potency known as musubi. shrines and temples. On entering a shrine, a ritual of purification is through these abundant Shinto’s creator gods performed. These rituals are central offerings on his behalf. According to the Kojiki, at the to Shinto, for which ideas of purity Prayer to Amaterasu creation of the universe, the first and impurity are very important. three kami emerged. These Shinto does not have a concept Public temples and shrines may included the Kamimusubi (divine/ of original sin, but rather believes be as large as a village, or as small high generative force kami), which that human beings are born pure, as a beehive. They are remarkable was too abstract to be a focus of only becoming tainted by impurity for their simplicity; many originated worship. However, after several later. The sources of impurity as sacred areas around natural generations of formless kami, the are sin (acts within our control) objects such as trees, ponds, or major Shinto gods appear: Izanagi and pollution (things beyond our rocks. Each Shinto temple has and Izanami, who created the control, such as disease or contact a gateless entrance called a world, or “invited it into being.” with death). These impurities, or torii, which usually consists of Many Shinto myths are devoted tsumi, need to be ritually purified. a pair of uprights and a crossbar. to them and to the activities of Purification rituals may take a Typically, every temple also has their offspring, Susanoo, the storm variety of forms, but ceremonial a wall where worshippers may post god, Tsukuyomi, the moon god, hand washing and mouth washing wooden votive tablets that bear a and Amaterasu, the sun goddess. sequences are common to most. message to the kami, asking, for example, for success in passing The kami represent the creators Small shrines known as kami- an exam or help in finding a of Japan, the very land itself (as dona are found in many Japanese suitable marriage partner. the spirits of its natural features homes, consisting of a small shelf and natural forces), and those displaying objects used to honor Individual prayers at the who have gone before—Japanese the ancestors and other kami. worship hall of a Shinto shrine follow a set four-step process, after the initial ritual cleansing. First, money is put into an offering box. Next, the worshipper makes two deep bows before the shrine, then claps their hands twice, and finally, after concluding prayers, makes Shinto priests may be male or female; their white-clad assistants, or miko, are often the daughters of priests. Traditional costumes emphasize Shinto’s connections with Japan’s great imperial past.

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 85 one last deep bow. In addition to Rituals that please and propitiate the gods are among the prayer and offerings at shrines, oldest in history, and still reverently attended to by followers Shinto has celebratory festivals of Shinto. An offering of sushi to a fox-spirit or kitsune statue known as matsuri, at which the should result in a prayer being carried to Inari, goddess of kami are honored and important plenty, and be rewarded with a fine harvest. points in the agricultural year are marked, such as rice-planting in April. Correctly performed, Shinto followers believe that these rituals enable wa, the positive harmony that helps to purify the world and keeps it running smoothly. Descended from the gods Buddhism, but also placed an concessions to the Allies. Viewed The most revered Shinto temple is emphasis on the superior status by the occupying US forces as too that of Amaterasu, the sun goddess, of the Japanese people in general. militaristic and nationalistic, at Ise, on the Japanese island of This was used, in turn, as the Shinto was disestablished in Honshu. The simple wooden shrine rationale for Japan’s political and 1946, ceasing to be the official has been rebuilt every 20 years for military ambitions, especially state religion. In the same year, the last 1,300 years; the action of after the Meiji Restoration, which Emperor Hirohito renounced his renewal is thought to please the returned imperial rule to Japan in claim to divinity. But while today kami. Most Japanese people aim to the 19th century. the emperor is no longer formally visit Ise at least once in their life. regarded as divine, the imperial The emperor and his court were ceremonies are still viewed The emperors of Japan were obliged to carry out ceremonies to as important. Shinto’s strong traditionally regarded as the direct ensure that the kami watched over emphasis on order and harmony; descendants of Amaterasu (the Japan and secured its success, a its regard for social norms, ritual, first emperor, Jimmu, who took tradition that was maintained until and tradition; and its respect for power in 660 BCE, was said to be the end of World War II. Shinto’s the emperor means that Shinto has her great-great-great-grandson), standing in Japan was transformed, maintained its role as the bedrock and this became official doctrine however, after the country lost the of conservative Japanese society. ■ in the 7th and 8th centuries. The war and was forced to make codifiying of Shinto at this time not only eliminated influences from The origins of purification rituals Man by nature is inherently Purification rituals (harai) play not to look at her, but he lights good, and the world in a key role in Shinto and are a torch and discovers her rotting believed to originate in a myth body crawling with maggots. which he lives is good. This involving Izanami and Izanagi, He flees to the land of the living is the kami-world. Evil then the two creator gods. The female and bathes in the sea to purify cannot originate in man or in of this pair, Izanami, is fatally himself. The message of the this world. It is an intruder. burned while giving birth to contaminating influence of the fire god, Kagutsuchi, so she the dead is clear: Shinto regards Sokyo Ono descends to Yomi, the land of death as the ultimate impurity. the dead. Grief-stricken, Izanagi For this reason, Shinto priests follows her there, but discovers will not officiate at funerals, that she has eaten the food of which means that most funerals the underworld and is unable in Japan are Buddhist, whatever to leave. Izanami begs Izanagi the beliefs of the deceased.

86 THE GODS WILL DIE THE END OF THE WORLD AS WE KNOW IT IN CONTEXT A sense of doom runs through Ragnarok, the final battle, in which the Norse mythology of the gods will die and the world will be KEY BELIEVERS Vikings, for everything utterly destroyed. Vikings in it leads up to one calamitous moment, in which two gods—Odin, As punishment for having WHEN AND WHERE the all-father, and the trickster, duped Odin’s blind son, Hoder, 8th–12th century CE, Loki—bring an age-old conflict into slaying his brother, Baldr, Scandinavia between the gods and the giants the shining prince of goodness, to its terrifying conclusion. This is Loki was chained to three rocks BEFORE for eternity. As he struggles to From prehistory Preserved bog bodies such as Tollund Catastrophe and violence will signal the beginning of the end. Man, found in modern Denmark, suggest ritualized The barrier between the worlds of the living human sacrifice. A pantheon and the dead will be breached. of Norse gods—the Aesir, led by Odin—develops and is In a mighty conflict, the gods themselves will die. widely worshipped across In the twilight of the gods, the whole world will be destroyed. northern Europe. But a new world will arise, with new hope for humanity. AFTER 13th century As Christianity spreads across Nordic regions, Viking beliefs begin to pass into legend. To preserve them, the Eddas, poetic compilations of Norse myth, are compiled. From 19th century In Scandinavia and across northern Europe, Germanic neopagan movements that venerate the Aesir are formed.

ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL BELIEFS 87 See also: Making sense of the world 20–23 ■ The battle between good and evil 60–65 ■ Beliefs that mirror society 80–81 ■ Entering into the faith 224–27 ■ Awaiting the Day of Judgment 312–13 The gigantic wolf Fenrir, here god finally breaks free, the sky will Yet from this destruction a new swallowing Odin, was the offspring of split open, Loki’s monstrous wolf- world will be born, as a new land Loki’s liaison with a female jötunn, one son Fenrir will swallow the sun, rises from the sea. One man and of a race of giants at war with the gods. and Loki will lead an army of giants, one woman, Lifthrasir and Lif, will monsters, and the dead from the survive the destruction. From them free himself, the world will shake; underworld, in a ship made from a new race of humans will be born. trees will be uprooted, and the uncut fingernails of the dead. As for the gods, Odin’s sons Vidar mountains will fall. Loki will begin and Vali, and Thor’s sons Modi and to regain his strength, and nature Odin’s army retaliates Magni, will be the only survivors of itself will start to go awry: a series Odin is the god of poetry and the battle. They will be joined by of terrible winters, with snow, frost, magic, but he is also the god of war the slain Baldr the beautiful and and biting winds, will soon become and battle, and it is from the slain his blind brother Hoder, who were constant, with no summer at all. of the battlefield that he assembles tricked by Loki—both freed at There will be battles everywhere, his army of dead warriors, the last from the underworld. ■ brother fighting against brother, Einherjar, to fight against Loki’s father against son, until the whole underworld horde. The sun turns black, world is ruined. When the chained earth sinks into the sea, Norse mythology is quite clear, the bright stars vanish however, that even with this mighty army, the gods are destined to be from the sky. defeated and destroyed in this The Eddas conflict. Odin’s son, the mighty god Thor, will be killed by the huge serpent Jörmungandr, and Odin will be devoured by Fenrir. Thor’s brother Vidar will step forward and rip Fenrir in two by the jawbones, but it will not be enough to save either Odin or creation. The whole world will be destroyed by fire, and will subside beneath the sea. The Viking heaven Fallen warriors were burned on Vikings who died of natural been eligible. The other half of a pyre, as decreed by Odin. Weapons, causes faced the dismal prospect slain warriors belonged to Odin, food, and tools were burned with of Hel, the cold, damp realm of and they spent the afterlife in them for use in the afterlife. the dead. Only Vikings chosen to Valhalla, the hall of the slain, die in battle by Odin’s valkyries roofed with shields. There they (a race of warlike, supernatural fought each other all day, but females), or those selected for arose unhurt at night to feast sacrifice, could cross the rainbow on the meat of a magical boar bridge to Asgard, home of the gods. and drink the mead milked Half of those who had died in battle from a magical goat. This was belonged to the goddess Freyja and to prepare them for the day went to the meadow, Fólkvangr, to when they would march from be seated in her hall. Women who Valhalla to fight for the gods in died heroic deaths may also have the final battle of Ragnarok.

HINDUIS FROM 1700 BCE

M

90 INTRODUCTION Vedic tradition Brahmanic ideas Mahavira becomes The poet Valmiki begins to develop emerge, based on the a major figure writes the Sanskrit in India, with ritual concept of Brahman, in establishing epic the Ramayana. the supreme power. Jainism. offerings made to the gods. 1700 BCE 6TH CENTURY BCE 6TH CENTURY BCE C.500–100 BCE 1200–900 BCE 6TH CENTURY BCE 6TH CENTURY BCE The four Vedas are The first of the Siddhartha written. These are the Upanishads is Gautama, later oldest Hindu scriptures written, offering a known as Buddha, philosophical approach is born into a and most ancient Hindu family. Sanskrit texts. to religion. A lhough Hinduism could connected faiths is as much any religion or creed. It may arguably be called the sociopolitical as religious. The word broadly be described as a way oldest of living religions, “Hindu” (which shares its roots of life and nothing more.” the term itself is a relatively modern with the name of the River Indus, one, which gives a misleading and of India) essentially means Common beliefs impression of a unified faith with “Indian.” It distinguishes the native However, certain ideas have a single set of beliefs and practices. religions from those introduced to remained central to virtually all Hinduism can trace its origins the country, such as Islam, and strands of Hinduism, in particular to the Iron Age, but it is in fact newer breakaway religions the notion of samsara (the cycle more a convenient umbrella term such as Jainism and Buddhism. of birth and rebirth of the atman, covering most of the indigenous the soul) and the associated belief religions of the Indian subcontinent. The difficulty of defining in the possibility of moksha, or Although these religions share some Hinduism was summed up in an release from this endless cycle. characteristics, they vary greatly Indian High Court ruling in 1995: The key to achieving moksha is in practice and encompass a wide “… the Hindu religion does not encapsulated in the word dharma, range of different traditions. In claim any one prophet; it does which is variously translated some of these traditions, the not worship any one god; it does as “virtue,” “natural law,” “right faith has remained substantially not subscribe to any one dogma; living,” or simply “appropriateness.” unchanged since the earliest times. it does not believe in any one philosophic concept; it does not Inevitably, this is subject to a While more than three-quarters follow any one set of religious number of interpretations, but three of the population of India identify rites or performances; in fact, main ways of achieving moksha themselves as “Hindu,” today the it does not appear to satisfy the have emerged, collectively known definition of such a range of loosely narrow traditional features of as the marga. These are jnana-marga

The Yoga Sutras Adi Shankara Sri Ramakrishna HINDUISM 91 —the key texts establishes the emerges as a leading non-dualistic Advaita figure in the Hindu Mahatma Gandhi of Yoga, a school of Vedanta school of combines religion Hindu philosophy— Hindu philosophy. reform movement. and politics in his peaceful opposition are compiled. to injustice and discrimination. 2ND CENTURY BCE 788–820 CE 1836–86 1869–1948 2ND CENTURY BCE 6TH CENTURY CE 1526 1788–1860 The Mahabharata, Bhakti—a Hindu The Islamic The German including the Bhagavad- movement with an Mughal Empire is philosopher Arthur Gita (“Song of the Lord”), emphasis on personal Schopenhauer begins devotion—develops. founded, ruling to incorporate Indian offers role models parts of India until for Hindus. the arrival of the beliefs into his British Raj in 1858. Idealist philosophy. (knowledge or insight), karma- And so, while it may seem that One of the main characteristics of marga (appropriate action or right Hinduism is a polytheistic religion, these Hindu traditions is tolerance. behavior), and bhakti-marga in many traditions, it is truer to say As a consequence of invasion, first (devotion to the gods). The marga that adherents have a belief in a by the Greeks under Alexander the allow scope for a very wide range Lord God, who is complemented Great, and later by Muslims and of religious practices to suit the by the many minor deities who Christians, Hinduism has adapted different traditions, including have special powers or carry and accepted some influences. a variety of rituals, meditation, particular responsibilities. yoga, and everyday worship (puja). However, while some reform Sacred texts movements emerged as a result of Concepts of god The different Hindu traditions colonial influences, collectively Virtually all branches of Hinduism have all been shaped by the four labeling these connected religions accept that there is a supreme Vedas, a collection of ancient as Hinduism gave them political creator god, Brahma, who with texts composed between 1200 clout and a focus for nationalism. Vishnu (the preserver), and Shiva and 900 BCE. The Brahmanas, This came to a head in the (the destroyer) form a principal commentaries on the Vedas, and struggle for Indian independence trinity, the Trimurti. However, later the Upanishads, provided a in the 20th century, with Mohandas many traditions have their own theoretical underpinning of the Gandhi famously advocating the pantheons, or add local and religion, while other texts—notably Hindu weapons of nonviolent personal deities to the mix. the two Indian epic poems, the resistance and civil disobedience, Confusingly, even the three major Mahabharata and the Ramayana— and thereafter establishing an gods (and a lot of the minor ones) expanded on history, mythology, independent India in which all often appear in different guises. religion, and philosophy. religions are not only tolerated but embraced. ■

THROUGH SACRIFICE WE MAINTAIN THE ORDER OF THE UNIVERSE A RATIONAL WORLD



94 A RATIONAL WORLD There is, strictly speaking, The eternal cosmic order no single religion that Dharma, or “right way,” is IN CONTEXT can accurately be called a key term for expressing what “Hinduism”; this is a modern Hinduism is about. In its original KEY SOURCE Western term for the different form, sanatana dharma, it may be The Vedas religions and spiritual philosophies translated from Sanskrit as “the that have originated within the eternal order of things,” truth, or WHEN AND WHERE Indian subcontinent. Nevertheless, reality. It expresses the idea that 1500–500 BCE there are some basic features of there is an underlying structure these religious ideas and practices and meaning to the world; beneath BEFORE that are shared by the majority of the complexity and apparently From prehistory Early beliefs Hindus, and it is these ideas that random nature of events, there regard events as unpredictable are grouped together under the are some fundamental principles, or at the whim of the gods. umbrella of Hinduism. In practice, and, underpinning these, a single, individual Hindus are free to unchanging reality. These ideas are 1700 BCE Aryan races begin choose which deities they worship, demonstrated in Hinduism in the a migration into the Indian whether they do so at home or at a hierarchy of gods and goddesses, subcontinent. temple, and how often they take each of whom expresses particular part in religious activities. But they aspects of a single truth. AFTER share a common social and religious 6th century BCE The authority background that sets Hinduism The idea of an eternal order of the Brahmin class to perform apart from other belief systems, also has implications both for the sacrifices is challenged by especially the monotheistic faiths. individual and for society. Religion is both Buddha and Mahavira, effectively a way of understanding founder of the Jain movement. In the same way as other the place of humanity in the world. religions, however, Hinduism seeks If the world is capable of being 6th centuryCE Devotional to explain how human life fits into understood, and if it has a definite Hinduism, or bhakti, becomes the universal context. Its rituals hierarchy or structure, then, by popular; worshippers make and practices aim to address three following that order, a person can their own offerings in order to levels of relationship—person to live in harmony with the rest of develop a personal relationship the divine; person to person; society and with the universe as a with the gods, an idea very and person to him or herself—and whole. A key feature of the forms different from the establishing how all of these relate in turn to of religion that came together as of order by Vedic sacrifice. the universal order of all things. Hinduism was that, in following this There is an underlying, rational This sense of order is acknowledged order to the universe. when we perform sacrifices to the gods. Through sacrifice we maintain In the sacrifice, we learn our place in the order of the universe. this order and the right way to live.

HINDUISM 95 See also: Making sense of the world 20–23 ■ Sacrifice and blood offerings 40–45 ■ Man and the cosmos 48–49 ■ Beliefs for new societies 56–57 ■ The ultimate reality 102–105 Hinduism is not just a starting point is the only stage at Religious ritual and order faith. It is the union of which linear theories of time require From perhaps as early as 1700 BCE, reason and intuition that some kind of input from outside the and continuing over the next few cannot be defined but is world itself: something has to have hundred years, there was a gradual only to be experienced. been responsible for setting the influx of Aryan people from Central Radhakrishnan, The great train of cause and effect in Asia into India. They brought motion at the beginning of time. with them their pantheon of gods, Bhagavad-Gita together with ideas that had Conversely, in Hindu thought, parallels with those of the Ancient order, or dharma, a person may the ever-turning cycles of time Greeks. The Aryans integrated be required to perform rituals and are contrasted with an eternal themselves into the Indus Valley make offerings to the gods (a form of and unchanging reality called civilization of northern India, an sacrifice) that are thought necessary Brahman, which exists in and ancient society known to have had to maintain the sense of order. through everything. Worldly time its own religious traditions. There runs in cycles, but Brahman is is strong evidence to suggest ritual Hindu ideas of time timeless, the central force that keeps bathing and worship of a great Hindu thought sees time as cyclical, the cycles moving; it is the eternal mother goddess (p.100); other with the universe already having reality that stands behind the artifacts found include cremation moved through three great cycles. process of creation and destruction urns and a seal depicting a horned, Each of these is said to have taken that characterizes the world of cross-legged deity. millions of years; each coming human experience. into being and then passing away. What took place was not a If the great cycles of time are sudden or overwhelming change, Thinking of time as cyclical utterly dependent upon a timeless but an intermingling of cultures. has an important consequence for reality, then the right ordering of In terms of religion, what emerged religious thought. In the Western, this changing world depends on was a tradition of sacrificial linear, concept of time it is possible awareness of that reality. This worship and ritual that found to think of everything as simply logic gives rise to the idea that expression in the hymns of the first the product of something else that one of the aims of religion is to great collection of Hindu sacred preceded it (the law of cause and understand and maintain the literature, the Vedas. Within this ❯❯ effect), and it is therefore natural to right ordering of the world. wonder how the world began. This By performing rituals in the prescribed way, Hindus believe that they are aligning themselves with the rational ordering of the world and becoming at one with it. The images and actions are richly symbolic.

96 A RATIONAL WORLD We concentrate our minds Fire was an essential part Indra. Agni is the god of fire; his upon the most radiant of any sacrificial ritual; fire was most important role is to manifest thought to exist in both heaven and as the fire that burns on the light of the Sun god, who earth, and thus have a divine sacrificial altar, destroying any sustains the Earth, the power that could reach the gods. demons who may attempt to Interspace and the Heavens. disrupt the sacrifice. Varuna, the As the Vedic religion developed god of the sky, water, and celestial Gayatri Mantra it became important that the ocean, is also the guardian of rta— Rig-Veda sacrifices were performed by the cosmic order. He is the most the right people (the Brahmin prominent god of the Rig-Veda new tradition, religious rituals class) and in exactly the correct (the ritual book of the Vedas), and sacrifices were considered form. Details of the hymns to responsible for separating night important, because they were recite and actions to perform and day. He is believed to have thought to maintain the order of were carefully prescribed. created the waters, to prevent the the cosmos. They also ensured rivers and oceans from overflowing, that participants understood their Sacrificial ground needed to be and to sustain the universe. Indra, place within that order and carefully prepared in a particular the god of thunder, rain, and war, aligned themselves with it. area as recommended by the is known for his indulgence in ritualistic literature of the Vedas. soma, a sacrificial drink (see below); Sacrifice was the primary rite The texts also specified the right securing his goodwill is considered of the Vedic tradition. It was a wood needed to light the sacrificial essential—he is locked in an symbolic reenactment of the fire, and the type of vessel required eternal struggle against the forces creation of the world and invoked to hold the sacrificial offering (huti). of chaos and nonexistence, and deities who represented either Priests were expected to feed the it is his efforts that separate and universal qualities, or different sacrificial fire with offerings that support heaven and earth. features of the one, true reality. It might include ghee, cereal, fruit, was through this worship that a or flowers, while chanting hymns Gods as aspects of order human fulfilled the most important from the Vedas. As Hinduism developed, the Aryan of human tasks: forging a link to gods of the Vedas were joined and the divine. The ritual sacrifice was The sacrifice also needed to be in many cases superseded by believed not only to provide a performed on an auspicious date. It others. Minor Vedic gods were also connection to the invisible realm, might be an offering to a particular but also to establish the right god or goddess, but especially offering to the gods in order that ordering of things. In exchange for favored were Agni, Varuna, and its energizing properties might the sacrifice, a human might obtain assist and inspire them, although protection from evil forces and The drink of the gods it seems likely that the priests accrue worldly benefits—such as themselves also partook. better crops, good weather, robust The ritual drink soma appears health, and increased happiness. in the Vedas and the sacred Fly agaric (Amanita muscari) texts of Zoroastrianism, the or psilocybin mushrooms may Sacrifice in this context simply ancient Persian religion, which, have been the source of soma; meant making an offering to the like Hinduism, has its roots both are common inducers of gods, generally of food or drink. in very early Aryan cultures. trance in shamanic rituals. Produced by pressing the juice Marijuana and ephedra have from certain plants, it had also been proposed, the latter intoxicating, possibly stimulant for its highly stimulating effects, and hallucinogenic properties. consistent with descriptions The Rig-Veda describes it as of the god Indra downing soma “King Soma,” proclaiming: “We as a preparation for battle. have drunk soma and become immortal: we have attained the light the Gods discovered.” It was prepared by priests as an

HINDUISM 97 The dance of Shiva represents the cosmic cycles of creation and destruction, the balance between life and death. Shiva is the destroyer, but also the transformer. elevated to much more prominent represents the ongoing process of Historically, it is probable that, with positions. Later Hindu literature birth and death. He has four arms: the invasion of the light-skinned contains a huge range of gods and in his upper right hand he holds a Aryans, a contrast was established goddesses, reflecting the blending drum, whose beat brings about between them and the darker- of different traditions and different creation, and in his upper left a skinned native inhabitants of India, periods in the history of early destructive flame; his lower with the latter being treated as Indian religion. From these gods arms express a rhythmic balance inferior. This led to a social system there emerged a ruling triumvirate between creation and destruction. of four main classes, or varnas, a responsible for the existence, order, His right foot is raised in the word meaning “color.” and destruction of the universe. dance; his left treads on a demon, These three gods—the Trimurti, representing ignorance. This wild, However, in Hinduism, this or trinity—represent different exuberant figure symbolizes perfect historical explanation is overlaid aspects of reality: Brahma, the balance in an ever-changing world. by a mythological account of the creator (not to be confused with Given that time is cyclical, Shiva’s origin of the class system. In the Brahman); Vishnu, the protector destruction of the universe is seen Rig Veda there is a hymn to the and guardian of humanity; and as constructive, in that it paves Divine Person (Purusha) in which Shiva, the destroyer, or, he who the way for beneficial change. the body of a primal human being balances the forces of creation is sacrificed and divided up to and destruction. The ordering of society create the four main varnas The classification of Indian society or classes of people: Brahmin, The god Shiva is often into four main groups has, since Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra. represented, in images and in Vedic times, been based on the Brahmins are members of the sculpture, as Shiva Nataraja, the concept of dharma, extending the priestly class, who are said to Lord of the Dance. Shiva’s cosmic theory of the order and structure of have been created from Purusha’s dance is shown as taking place the universe to include the correct mouth. Kshatriya is the military within a circle of flames, which ordering of human life and society. or administrative class, created from Purusha’s arms, while ❯❯ You dwell in all beings; you are perfect, all pervading, all powerful and all seeing… You are the Life in all life, yet you are invisible to the human eye. From a hymn to Vishnu

98 A RATIONAL WORLD Brahmins All living entities have (priests) different characteristics According to Hindu tradition, and duties that distinguish the four varnas, or classes, were them from one another. formed from the various body Bhavishya Purana parts of Purusha, the primal man. Kshatriyas (warriors) Shudras Vaishyas tradition to, literally, maintain the (workers) (merchants) sense of order in the universe. By contrast, the caste system was Vaishyas are members of the Class distinctions discriminatory, emphasizing merchant class, formed from The four varnas are sometimes separation as being necessary in Purusha’s thighs. Shudra is the referred to as castes, but that is not order to avoid “pollution”: higher- class of the common working strictly accurate. The Indian caste caste people began to fear that people, hewn from Purusha’s system is based on an equally they would be contaminated by feet. Because they all come ancient way of classifying people, contact with a low-status person. from the single human reality, broadly in terms of their occupation. The caste system encouraged Purusha, they are interdependent There are a very large number social fracturing, with rules and all have an essential part to of such classes, or jati, each with a forbidding people of different castes play in the ordering of society. corresponding social status. The to mix together and especially to Their roles reflect their dharma two different approaches seem to marry. This divisiveness was —their divine duty. have become entangled as Hindu recognized in the Constitution society developed in the later Vedic of India, drawn up in 1948, Members of the first three period (from around 1000 BCE), and which prohibited discrimination varnas are said to be twice-born the crucial differences between against lower castes, although in a sacred thread ritual, the them became blurred. popular prejudice has taken upanayana, which marks the longer to eliminate. person’s acceptance of responsibility Under the varna system the as a Hindu. The ritual is generally different social classes are all Personal versus social performed when, or soon after, a essential to to the right ordering of In the 6th century BCE, wandering child turns eight, and has the effect the world; since everyone comes teachers within India, such as of establishing his or her social from a single primal human figure, Buddha and Mahavira, became position. Below the four varnas Purusha, everyone depends upon critical of the formal and class- are those who find themselves one another. Only the Brahmins bound nature of Vedic worship. completely outside the class were portrayed as a superior class They welcomed followers from any system; formerly called outcasts —understandably, given that in the class, and all were treated equally. they are now generally referred to Vedic literature they are the ones These teachers argued for an as Dalits, meaning “the oppressed.” empowered and authorized by emphasis on personal insight rather than inherited privilege. They also rejected the authority of the Vedas, and were therefore