[",,1621\u201324 MELANCHOLY IS A HABIT, ,,A SERIOUS AILMENT, A SETTLED HUMOUR, NOT ERRANT, BUT FIXED\u2026 Robert Burton, English scholar, The Anatomy of Melancholy, 1621 This engraving of the Greek philosopher Democritus is taken from the title page of Robert Burton\u2019s book on mental illness, The Anatomy of Melancholy. William Bourne (c.1535\u201382) in WITH HIS 1621 TREATISE angle of 2.5REFRACTIVE INDEX 1578, and consisted of a wooden ON THE CIRCLE, Cyclometricus, incidence 2.4Air frame covered with leather and Dutchman Willibrord Snellius Water powered by oars. Drebbel became the \ufb01rst European to glass 2 Perspex subsequently built two larger publish the law of refraction Glass submarines, capable of describing the relationship incoming angle of glass is denser than 1.5 1.5 Diamond carrying a number of between the angles of incidence incident ray refraction air, so ray slows down 1.5 1.3 passengers, which were and refraction of light passing enters the glass and bends inward demonstrated on the Thames through two different transparent 1.0 River in England. In tests, substances, such as air and glass. exiting refracted light ray 1 the \ufb01nal version of Drebbel\u2019s Although known as Snell\u2019s Law returns to its speed in air submarine managed to stay (see panel, right), this principle 0.5 submerged for over three hours, had been mentioned by English SNELL\u2019S LAW suggesting that it had some mathematician Thomas Harriot 0 means of providing oxygenated about 20 years earlier, and was The law of refraction, or Snell\u2019s Law, concerns the relationship SUBSTANCE air for the occupants\u2014although originally described by Persian between the angle of incidence (the angle at which light approaches there are no records to explain mathematician Ibn Sahl in 984. the surface of a transparent medium) and the angle of refraction Refractive indices how Drebbel could have (the angle the light takes as it changes speed through the The refractive index of a substance achieved this. Despite the The best known book by English medium). The relationship is constant for all angles of incidence compares the speed of light when it success of the submarine, scholar Robert Burton (1577\u2013 and refraction, but varies from substance to substance. passes through the substance to the the Royal Navy had no interest 1640), The Anatomy of Melancholy, speed of light in a vacuum. in using it. appeared in 1621. It attempted to Following from Napier\u2019s In 1622, English mathematician, describe various forms of mental discovery of logarithms, English William Oughtred (1574\u20131660), with several designs for his In 1605, in the book The disorder and their symptoms, mathematician Edmund Gunter discovered that multiplication slide rule, starting with a circular Advancement of Learning, and suggested possible medical (1581\u20131626) devised logarithmic and division could be done by shape, but eventually settling on English philosopher Francis causes and remedies. Although scales that could be engraved sliding two of Gunter\u2019s scales the familiar straight ruler with Bacon had advocated inductive the book was written in the style on a ruler to help seamen make against each other and reading a sliding middle section, which reasoning for scienti\ufb01c of a medical textbook, it was more calculations for navigation using the result\u2014the principle of the remained in use until the invention investigation. He wrote on the a literary work than a scienti\ufb01c a pair of compasses or dividers. slide rule. Oughtred experimented of the pocket calculator some subject again in 1620, in a major one. Nonetheless, it was a 300 years later. treatise on logic called Novum forerunner of later scienti\ufb01c cursor body\/stock Organum Scientiarum (New studies of the psychology and Modern slide rule Instrument of Science). Bacon psychiatry of mental disorders. Complex calculations could be done also advocated a process rapidly by lining up the different of reduction, which involved logarithmic scales inscribed on the explaining the nature of rulers of the slide rule and reading things in terms of the the result using the cursor. relationships of their parts. movable slide 16C2o0trhnDseeuu\ufb01lbtircsmshDtairnnreiavnbevebingetaol brblueilds 16W21irlelDeodbfuisrrtcoceohrfdvrmeaSracnstnietohlnleiulsaw 16m22OatuEshglneihgdmtleriaserthdiucliineavneWntisllitahme 1F6r2a0ncEinsgBmliasecIhnothsprnotehredaiulxsoomposflneoainnipinndthgsouefhrcintSisicNvieeewnce B1s6cuh2rto1TolhnaEernpARgunloMbiasbletihesolrahmtneycshoof ly 99","1543\u20131788 THE AGE OF DISCOVERY UNDERSTANDING PLANETARY ORBITS THE MOVEMENTS OF THE PLANETS CAN BE DESCRIBED WITH THREE LAWS AND EXPLAINED BY GRAVITY The eight planets of the Solar System, as well as millions of smaller Neptune bodies such as comets and asteroids, travel around the Sun in closed loops Uranus called orbits. What keeps these objects on their curved trajectories is the Saturn same force that makes things fall to the ground on Earth: gravity. For centuries it was generally believed that the JOHANNES KEPLER Jupiter Earth was the center of the Universe, with the Kepler was an Sun, Moon, planets, and stars rotating around it. assistant to the great Mars However, this geocentric model could not Danish astronomer satisfactorily account for planetary orbits, and in Tycho Brahe. He used Earth 1543 Danish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus Brahe's observations (1473\u20131543) proposed his heliocentric (Sun- of the planets when Venus centered) model, with the planets moving around formulating his laws the Sun in circular orbits (see 1543). of motion. Mercury KEPLER\u2019S LAWS suggested that 0 10 20 30 40 50 In the early 1600s, German astronomer Johannes the same force AVERAGE ORBITAL SPEED (KM\/S) Kepler (1571\u20131630) used observations of planetary that makes objects fall to Orbital speeds The closer a planet is to the Sun, the greater its average orbital speed. The closest, Mercury, moves almost nine times faster than Neptune, the farthest. movements to try to prove Copernicus right. the ground on However, he could make the observations \ufb01t a Earth\u2014gravity\u2014might also be keeping the Moon heliocentric system only if the orbits were not in orbit around our planet. Newton realized that the Moon, he was able to work out the Moon\u2019s circles but ellipses, with the Sun at one focus (see the force of gravity is weaker the further you are orbital period. This allowed him to formulate his below left). This fact became the \ufb01rst of Kepler\u2019s from the center of the Earth, and he proposed universal law of gravitation (see 1687) and to three laws of planetary motion. His second law that gravity weakened in direct proportion to the realize that gravity must also be responsible for (see below right) relates to the way a planet\u2019s square of the distance. When he applied this to keeping the planets in orbit around the Sun. speed changes during its orbit, and his third law (see opposite) concerns the relationship between a planet\u2019s distance from the Sun and how long it 92 , 955, 778takes to complete each orbit (its orbital period). GRAVITATIONAL FORCE Kepler had no idea why orbits should be elliptical. THE AVERAGE DISTANCE IN MILES The answer came after his death from English BETWEEN THE SUN AND THE EARTH scientist Isaac Newton (1642\u20131727), who ELLIPTICAL ORBITS total length SPEED AND DISTANCE Sun at one planet moves Kepler\u2019s \ufb01rst law states that every planet\u2019s orbit is an ellipse of yellow lines The second of Kepler\u2019s laws states that an imaginary line joining focus of the more slowly when with the Sun at one focus. An ellipse has two foci; they are the is equal to a planet to the Sun sweeps across equal areas in equal times. elliptical it is farther away points from which two lines meeting any point on the ellipse total length of This takes into account the fact that a planet moves faster when orbit from the Sun always have the same total length. blue lines it is closer to the Sun and slower when it is farther away. direction of planet planet moves faster planet\u2019s orbit when it is nearer major to the Sun axis both blue regions have the same area, with the planet crossing both in equal time Minor axis Sun at second focus planet on one focus of ellipse elliptical orbit 100","BALANCED FORCES elliptical orbit UNDERSTANDING PLANETARY ORBITS The Sun exerts a gravitational pull on a planet, and the of planet planet exerts an equal gravitational pull on the Sun. As Sun wobbles a result, both the planet and the Sun orbit around a slightly point called the center of mass. Without gravity, the planet would \ufb02y off in a straight line out into space; gravity pulls it into an elliptical orbit around the center of mass. The center of mass is located inside the Sun, so the Sun's orbit is manifested as a small wobble. gravity pulls the Sun toward the planet planet gravity pulls the planet center of mass toward the Sun is inside the Sun planet\u2019s actual direction of movement constantly changes due to gravity, resulting in an elliptical orbit without gravity planet\u2019s motion would be in a straight line ORBITAL PERIODS Mercury Earth Mars Saturn Neptune Kepler\u2019s third law gives a mathematical (0.24 year) (1 year) (1.9 years) (29.5 years) (164.8 years) relationship between a planet\u2019s average distance from the Sun and its orbital period (the time to PLANETARY YEARS complete each orbit). Speci\ufb01cally, it states that The length of a planet\u2019s \u201cyear,\u201d the square of the orbital period is proportional or orbital period, depends on its to the cube of the semimajor axis (half the average distance from the Sun. diameter of an ellipse at its widest point). This The innermost planet, Mercury, makes it possible to quantify the increase in the has the shortest year at just 88 orbital period with increasing distance from the Earth days. Neptune\u2019s is the Sun. Although Kepler\u2019s third law is not as simple longest: 60,190 Earth days (164.8 as the second law, it enabled Newton to develop Earth years). The diagram on his universal law of gravitation. the right (which is not to scale), shows the planets\u2019 orbital periods in Earth years. Sun Venus Jupiter Uranus (0.6 year) (11.9 years) (84.3 years) 101","1625\u201327 1628\u201330 ,, THE HEART OF ANIMALS IS THE FOUNDATION OF THEIR LIFE\u2026 THE SUN ,,OF THEIR MICROCOSM, UPON WHICH ALL GROWTH DEPENDS, FROM WHICH ALL POWER PROCEEDS. William Harvey, English physician, from An Anatomical Essay, 1628 Sodium sulfate crystals, known as Glauber\u2019s salt up to the late 18th century, are mostly sourced from natural minerals. IN 1625, YOUNG DUTCH\u2013GERMAN up from empirical evidence\u2014 arteries capillaries Harvey doubted this was true. coming from the heart, is CHEMIST JOHANN GLAUBER acted on an impulse. He wanted His experiments had shown that distributed around the body (1604\u201370) recovered from a to see if he could preserve meat 20% 10% so much blood was pumped by through arteries, while low stomach bug after drinking from by stuf\ufb01ng a chicken carcass the heart that continuous pressure blood returns through a spring. The following year, he with snow. While the experiment 70% production was improbable. veins. He also theorized about succeeded in crystallizing sal was a success, Bacon contracted Instead, he deduced that the a speci\ufb01c circulation for mirabile (miraculous salt) from pneumonia and never recovered. veins volume of blood is \ufb01xed and this the lungs. the spring\u2019s water. This became is continuously circulated in the known as Glauber\u2019s salt and is In 1627, the most accurate Distribution of blood body. High-pressure blood, In 1629, Italian inventor in fact sodium sulfate, which catalog of astronomical Most blood in the systemic Giovanni Branca published has laxative properties. For measurements was published circulation is carried in the veins. nearly 300 years physicians since Nicolaus Copernicus had The blood in these thin-walled superior vena cava HEAD the aorta (main would use it as a purgative. suggested that the Sun was at vessels is at a very low pressure, (main vein) returns AND artery) sends the center of the Solar System so it effectively pools there. deoxygenated blood UPPER oxygenated blood In 1626, while traveling through (see 1543). Much of the data BODY around the body icy London, English philosopher had been collected by Danish IN 1628, ENGLISH PHYSICIAN to the heart Francis Bacon\u2014champion of the astronomer Tycho Brahe, but he WILLIAM HARVEY published idea that theories must be built died before he could publish the his most celebrated work: An right left work. It fell to his collaborator, Anatomical Essay Concerning lung lung German astronomer Johannes the Movement of the Heart and Blood in Animals. Harvey capillaries liver heart Kepler, to complete the was a great believer in the exchange catalog, which was named need for science to progress by deoxygenated capillaries bring Rudolphine Tables after the experimentation, and had closely blood for oxygenated blood to Holy Roman Emperor studied the blood systems of oxygenated the body, where it is Rudolph II. This work animals. In the previous century, replaced with contains data on the Italian physician Matteo Colombo blood deoxygenated blood had demonstrated that the heart positions of nearly 1,500 stars, worked as a pump, and not by KEY intestines LOWER and the planets known at the suction, as the Ancient Greeks BODY time. Kepler \ufb01nanced the had thought. But the traditional Systemic loop book\u2019s printing and dedicated view persisted\u2014originating it to Brahe. with Ancient Greek surgeon, Pulmonary loop and philosopher Galen\u2014that Frontispiece of blood was continuously made CIRCULATION OF BLOOD Rudolphine Tables in the liver. After assessing the This depicts an imaginary pumping effect of the heart, A double blood circulation system facilitates the exchange of monument celebrating the oxygen and carbon dioxide, and ensures maximum pressure of achievement of generations blood in the lungs and around the body. Blood that has been of astronomers, including oxygenated in the lungs (red) is pumped around the body by the Hipparchus, Ptolemy, left side of the heart. Deoxygenated blood from body tissues (blue) Nicolaus Copernicus, is pumped back to the lungs by the heart\u2019s right side. and Tycho Brahe. 16G2e5JromDdhiuaastnncconhcv\u2013hGeerlasmuaibsletarxative salt 16i2s6hthuSwemai\ufb01tnahrtnsoatbrtitoohodeSmyratmeenamotsomupriereoerteatrure 16d2e7tnhAoeSdfpdrtiehieavegaeehnloluvpdmamensaecnnrftibeetuss 16H2a8ArnWvCeAoioylnnflacpBitaethulomorebmnolHiidisncehiganaeltrsAhEtnesaisnMmadoyavlsement 16P2a9PrakJPrioank\ufb01hrs-rnaionsdnt-iSsgpeuau,nrbs\u2019dlsaiesTindheierntosrgebbsetortoihakel 1 0 2 1625 KCehprvilseetrro\u2019aisp\ufb01fnohperirsnSmeJvcdsoehichreottainienondetnnhrieetmhsraaetgteinOacAtroobmeartta3hr1ai,tp1cr6ho2\u201cvicpi6dkreJeeosfmoseerbvmpirdhfyeeeoodrnstf\u201dcialefirzreoamtion 1627 KeRpuldeorlpcohmineplTeatebsles 162pu9bGliisohvoeaf isninnnacvilecuBnodsrtletailoeesnncacatsmainotnheeaantrgliyne","1631\u201334 William Harvey demonstrated that one-way valves in veins ,,AND YET IT MOVES. ,,Galileo Galilei was tried by the Inquisition and forced to retract his heliocentric stop blood from \ufb02owing back to the hand. views. He was placed under house arrest, where he remained till he died. WILLIAM HARVEY (1578\u20131657) Born in England, William Galileo Galilei, Italian astronomer, supposedly after his forced Harvey studied at the recantation of the theory that Earth moves around the Sun, 1633 universities of Cambridge and then Padua, in Italy, before a Paradise\u2014became an important IN 1631, FRENCH World Systems. In measuring Vernier career in England devoted to text on the cultivation of plants, MATHEMATICIAN PIERRE it he defended the jaw scale studying blood and circulation; both for their esthetic and VERNIER (1580\u20131637) described heliocentric model of later, he also investigated medicinal qualities. Although a device that assisted in the Copernicus that Earth orbited retainer 103 reproduction and development. widely acknowledged as the accurate measurement the Sun, against the classical He served as physician to both \ufb01rst gardening book, it made of length. It was based on view of Ptolemy, who said that main King James I and King Charles I, limited impact on the scienti\ufb01c an earlier idea by German Earth was at the center of the scale and treated victims of the understanding of plants. mathematician Christopher Solar System. As a result of this English Civil War. Clavius. The original instrument heresy, Galileo was tried by the 800 had a sliding scale along the Inquisition and convicted. He a collection of machine designs edge of a quadrant, which meant was forced to recant his views. that included an early steam THE the user could measure a engine. The steam-blasting APPROXIMATE fractional part of the smallest In the early 1630s, Italy faced vessel blew through a pipe that NUMBER OF division on the scale. To this day, a deadly natural threat. Malaria was directed at the vanes of a PLANTS the Vernier scale remains one was spreading northward into paddle-wheel, causing the wheel ILLUSTRATED of the best mechanical devices swampy, low-lying regions; it to revolve. Branca came up with IN PARKINSON\u2019S for accurate measurement. had already claimed the lives several uses for his machine: 1629 WORK of several popes and countless lifting water, and grinding stone In the same year, English Roman citizens. Agostino or gunpowder. In reality, however, mathematician William Salumbrino (1561\u20131642) had it would have limited practical Oughtred\u2014inventor of the worked as an apothecary in use. It was also entirely unrelated slide rule\u2014published a text that Peru, where the bark of the to later, more successful steam would have a lasting in\ufb02uence cinchona tree was used to engine designs. on many other mathematicians, control the disease. He sent the including Isaac Newton. bark to Europe, where demand Englishman John Parkinson Oughtred\u2019s The Key of the for it escalated. Its active (1567\u20131650) was a herbalist and Mathematicks introduced some ingredient, quinine, would be apothecary to the king. He was fundamental algebraic symbols: used to treat malaria for more also a plantsman caught the multiplication sign (x), and than 300 years. between the ancient herbalists the proportion sign (:). For and a new generation of years it was described as the Vernier scale botanists. His \ufb01rst major most in\ufb02uential mathematical Two adjoining scales that slide horticultural book\u2014wryly publication in England. against one another are used to entitled Park-in-Sun\u2019s Terrestrial make accurate measurements. Early in 1632, Italian astronomer This device helps subdivide Galileo Galilei published the smallest of divisions. Dialogue Concerning Two Chief 16d3e1scPriiebrerse aVeVrenrinerie\ufb01rrssctale 16S3a1clouPtnmreterabauirtnvinmiinaoangslAbaeragnirodakssttqionuoRinoimnee-to FeGbaDrluiiTlaaewloroogyGuC2aeh2liiC,ele1of in6Wpc3oue2rbrlnldiisnShgyeststheems 1p6u2b9liNstoheenienlsdpOial\u2019naGgtglraueitceasa,tvniasifcetteimr s matheOmuga1aht6litgcr3iee1adbnEriannWigtcrilolislsdiyhaummcbeosls Mar1c6o3S2eIvtaesl\ufb01ruiiarnrsngotiscptueauxrlbgtplbeiasoothonhekosolongy","1635\u201337 1638\u201340 ,, EACH PROBLEM THAT I ,,SOLVED BECAME A RULE WHICH SERVED AFTERWARD TO SOLVE OTHER PROBLEMS. Ren\u00e9 Descartes, French philosopher and mathematician, from Discourse on Method, 1637 Ren\u00e9 Descartes asserted that knowledge In 1639, Jeremiah Horrocks was the \ufb01rst person known to record a transit had to be distinct and precise. of Venus as the planet moved across the surface of the Sun. IN 1636, THE FRENCH Truth in the Sciences, which PIERRE DE FERMAT (1601\u201365) apart, and each paired transit MATHEMATICIAN MARIN included essays on astronomy, occurs more than 100 years apart. When the time came, MERSENNE published a treatise geometry, and optics. In the Horrocks focused the Sun\u2019s image onto paper and spotted the on the mathematical analysis book\u2019s appendix, Geometry, Trained as a lawyer, Pierre de shadow of Venus only 15 minutes later than his prediction. of musical sound, in which Descartes explained how Fermat in\ufb02uenced several Horrocks went on to calculate Venus\u2019s size and distance more he described laws to explain algebra and geometry were branches of mathematics. accurately than ever before. a stretched string\u2019s frequency connected. Two quantities, While he considered himself an In 1640, sixteen-year-old French prodigy Blaise Pascal of vibration. He stated that the x and y, could be represented on amateur, and often refrained (1623\u201362) published Essay on Conics, in which he described frequency was lower in longer two intersecting coordinate lines, from providing proof for his the geometric relationship that occurs when a hexagon is drawn strings but increased with more the x and y axes, in a graph, discoveries, his work in within a circle. In doing so he completed a mathematical stretching force. and the relationship between geometry anticipated that of theorem so advanced that at \ufb01rst many, including Ren\u00e9 Following Italian physicist the two could be represented in Ren\u00e9 Descartes. In 1654, Descartes, refused to believe that the young mathematician Galileo Galilei\u2019s conviction an algebraic equation. Another Fermat corresponded with had done it. for heresy in 1633, French French mathematician, Blaise Pascal and helped In 1640, English botanist John Parkinson (1566\u20131650) philosopher and mathematician Pierre de Fermat (1601\u201365), develop probability theory. published a plant catalog called Theatrum Botanicum (Theater of Ren\u00e9 Descartes delayed the had independently devised this Plants). This was the most comprehensive work of its kind release of The\u00a0World\u2014a bold method in 1629, but it was given at the time, and remained a popular guide for many years. account of his scienti\ufb01c views, Descartes\u2019 name, and was an + bn = cn, where n is greater IN 1638, GALILEO GALILEI 7,522 including an agreement with called the Cartesian coordinate than 2. He wrote the theorem published his \ufb01nal word on MILES Galileo\u2019s theory of Earth revolving system (see panel, below). in the margin of an old textbook, physics: Discourses and THE DIAMETER OF VENUS around the Sun. Part of the text Fermat became better known claiming that he had proof for the Mathematical Demonstrations appeared in 1637, in Discourse on for his \u201cLast Theorem,\u201d which theorem but no room to write it. Relating to Two New Sciences, the Method of Properly Conducting stated that no positive whole Independent proof for the theorem which dealt with the strength of One\u2019s Reason and of Seeking the numbers \ufb01t the equation was not found until 1995. materials and kinematics\u2014the study of the motion of bodies CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM without reference to mass or When Descartes and Fermat coordinates of y axis coordinates force. The Inquisition had banned realized how coordinates link B are (\u22124, 2) of A are (4, 4) publication of any work by Galileo algebra and geometry, it was Y after his trial in 1633. However, a major breakthrough for Discourses was published in 4A Leiden, Netherlands, where the 3 science. Coordinates consist of B2 x axis Inquisition had little in\ufb02uence. two intersecting axis lines\u2014x English astronomer Jeremiah (horizontal) and y (vertical). It is 1 Horrocks (1618\u201341) had been X \u22125 \u22124 \u22123 \u22122 \u22121 0 1 2 3 4 5 X possible to de\ufb01ne the position \u22121 D studying Venus and estimated of any point within this that the planet would pass the two-dimensional space by \u22122 coordinates Sun on December 4, 1639. His stating the values of x and y, coordinates of C of D are (2, \u22122) prediction was based on the that is, the x and y coordinates. C are (\u22123, \u22123) understanding that transits of \u22123 \u22124 Y Venus occur in pairs, eight years MaFyrba1onJ5tcaa,efrno1\u2019dsiu6cinp3ngdr5daienurdcdRieipnonai,Pl,taihsreis 16m37dateFshrFoeeelmvnrecmadhtaihctiiascnl\u201caLPimaiessrtrtTeohheaovreem\u201d 16a3u7MthAoNormoratorenTtEnrdhhniowcfgAaamrlmnuiistaneehsasrCiiacnabanTonahua\ufb02etnoNraew 16h3is8 lGaasltilbeooopkuobnlisphheyssics FeFbrBreunl\u201cacamiharsyeymcsi1Ptrai6cactl4shehc0eea(mPxlaaasgstoirclcavaiemal\u2019sns\u201dtthwheietohrinem) 16p4u0BbolJoitosfahhPnenliacsPunTamthsr)ek(Tainhtrseuoamnter maMthhieserml1sa6eawn3tisn6ceioFafdrneoeMnsscccaihrrlilibnaetison DmisaDctMehosueec1mrtaes6areo3ttr7oeiscns,FiaDMprneuieonRbtpchletihsornGihd\u00e9cee,stos,hmaenedtry secYniiencn1ygc6txili3\ufb01on7pcgeTCepdHhnhuiecesibnytaWlecviSssleooohenrnpekgResindeagviase,aolfed DeJcoeebremsmebriveaerhs4Ht,ho1er6rtoo3rfc9akVnsesnitus OcctPloaiebimrerrse1hd8feeo,rhF1aeh6sri4Tsmp0h\u201craeLotoiotrtfelem\u201d 104","1641\u201342 1643\u201344 30INCHES THE STANDARD HEIGHT OF MERCURY IN A BAROMETER AT SEA LEVEL Although the symptoms of cholera were \ufb01rst cataloged in the 1600s, the cholera bacterium, seen here, was not isolated until the 19th century. THE GRAND DUKE OF TUSCANY, calculating machine to published posthumously. This IN THE EARLY 1640S, Torricellian tube Italy, Ferdinand II (1610\u201370) help his father with his work book contained some of the EVANGELISTA TORRICELLI Evangelista Torricelli\u2019s invented the sealed glass in government taxes. Known earliest descriptions of tropical was investigating the practical device consisted of an thermometer in 1641. Working as the Pascaline, this device diseases, including beriberi problems associated with evacuated glass tube with Italian physicist Evangelista worked by a system of wheels and cholera. pumping water from deep wells. containing a mercury Torricelli, he improved on and gears and could perform He imitated the action of a column\u2014the height of Galileo\u2019s thermoscope (see routine arithmetic functions of Another Dutchman, explorer suction pump in a small tube which was determined by 1590\u201393) by sealing the liquid addition, subtraction, division, and merchant Abel Tasman and used a denser substance, atmospheric pressure. column in a glass capillary, and and multiplication. (1603\u201359), became the \ufb01rst mercury, instead of water, to using wine, which did not freeze European to reach Van Dieman\u2019s study the effects. Torricelli mercury up the tube, as easily as water. Dutch physician Jacobus Land (now called Tasmania in discovered that mercury would and its height was Bontius (1591\u20131631) had his honor). He went on to visit rise into the sealed tube to a determined by the value A year later, Blaise Pascal traveled to the tropical East New Zealand and islands of \ufb01xed height of 30in (76cm), of this pressure (see invented a mechanical Indies for the Dutch East India the Southwest Paci\ufb01c. On his and leave a gap at the top, p.106). Later, it was Company in 1627. In 1642, his voyages, he recorded the earliest which later became known discovered that the Pascal\u2019s calculating machine medical treatise\u2014De Medicina European observations of as the Torricelli vacuum. He pressure value varied This \ufb01rst Pascaline was primarily Indorum (Indian Medicine) was Australasian fauna and \ufb02ora. deduced that pressure from according to altitude used by accountants, and its dials the atmosphere was forcing the and weather, and small were calibrated in accordance with display window shows number dial for changes in atmospheric the French currency. input and answers to calculations inputting numbers pressure signaled impending changes in weather. Torricelli\u2019s instrument therefore came to be adopted as the \ufb01rst barometer. In 1644, Ren\u00e9 Descartes published Principles of Philosophy, in which he proposed an entirely mechanical basis for the Universe. He proposed that the Universe was \ufb01lled with small, unobservable particles of matter that were set in motion by God, and that all aspects of science could ultimately be explained in accordance with this mechanical principle. 16in41vlieqFnuetirsddatinhsaeenramdleIoIdmeter 16m42caakBleclsauialsaewtiPnoogadsmceanalchine 16J4a2pcuoDobbnuluitstscrhhoBepposihnctytahisuleiscm\ufb01iaernsdticbionoek 16E4v3Taonargrfmeioclreeiselrtlrciauudnreynveebrlaoorpofsmtheeter 16O4pa4epTropoaflrmiGreiesocoetGmiloalinelpitltrueoibco\ufb02al\u2019si,usalhiadnewsdss 16p4uP4bhRlaiislemohnsee\u00e9oscpDhPhearysni,ncidaccearipstlelcuesrsnibiovinfegrse Frtahnecdis1ec6eu4ps1cSDleyulfvttlciotuhbhseasdstcesioesefncpttrahiisbretaebtserasin MaanractWohm2ir,iss1ut6nJ4go2phdaaGisnneccnrormveGeaeartonsicrtgdhuect NoDvTeuamts\ufb01cmrhbsaetenrExp2ublre4oocc,rpaoe1telhmr6laee4Aend2lbsatTeontalhdssemeneoawnia Pi1Pe6trr4oob4MlIetemanlpi:gaatonrhlteiimcppuaorltsaehercesinmstuehamvetiabcBlieuaarensseoelfraies 1 0 5G1tiho6ev4a4mnInitciaorOlbfoiadoasnoice\ufb02okarypnso\u2019istacnreodamynpeeoispcmciernroaeistrbrhaceeonspc\ufb01eircsltife","1645\u201348 ,,1649\u201351 ,, Florin P\u00e9rier, Blaise Pascal\u2019s brother-in-law, climbed France\u2019s Puy-de-D\u00f4me volcano to measure WHILE [THE ATOMS] ARE changes in atmospheric pressure at higher altitudes with a rudimentary barometer. MOVING\u2026 MEETING, INTERWEAVING, ,,INTERMINGLING, UNROLLING, UNITING AND BEING FITTED TOGETHER, MOLECULES\u2026 ARE CREATED. Pierre Gassendi, French philosopher, from Syntagma Philosophiae Epicuri, 1649 IN THE 1640S, FRENCH idea. Receiving proof, Pascal and soil, he had deduced that IN 1644, FRENCH PHILOSOPHER German physicist Otto von MATHEMATICIAN BLAISE suggested that air would material for the tree\u2019s growth had AND MATHMETICIAN REN\u00c9 Guericke (1602\u201386) performed PASCAL started to investigate thin out into a vacuum at still come from water. More than a DESCARTES (1596\u20131650) had many experiments to prove that hydraulics\u2014the mechanical greater altitudes. century later, experimenters described a mechanical universe the vacuum existed. Around properties of liquids. He found found that an even greater that was \ufb01lled with particles of 1650, he invented a piston- that unlike gas, liquid cannot be Polish astronomer Johannes quantity came from air, in matter, within which a vacuum operated vacuum pump with compressed, so when a force is Hevelius\u2019s (1611\u201387) greatest the form of carbon dioxide. (a space devoid of matter) was a valve system that could remove applied, it is transmitted through achievement came in 1647, when an impossibility. In 1649, French the air from a container by the liquid. Pascal\u2019s studies led he published Selenography 848 priest, experimenter, and to the invention of the hydraulic (Description of the Moon). The philosopher Pierre Gassendi Piston-operated vacuum pump press and the syringe. By 1646, \ufb01rst atlas of the Moon\u2019s LB\/FT\u00b3 (1592\u20131655) rejected the notion Using an elaborate piston system, Pascal had con\ufb01rmed Italian surface, it became a standard that everything could be Otto von Guericke created a vacuum physicist Evangelista Torricelli\u2019s reference for years to come. 62.4 explained in purely mechanical inside two joined hemispheres, called observation that a \ufb02uid would LB\/FT\u00b3 terms, and proposed an the hemispheres of Magdeburg, after rise in a glass column because of In 1648, a collection of essays alternative. He suggested that his hometown in Germany. air pressure bearing downward written by Flemish chemist Jan MERCURY WATER the properties of matter were (see 1643\u201344). Pascal also Baptist van Helmont (1580\u20131644) determined by the shapes of predicted that this pressure was posthumously published by Comparative densities the atoms, and that atoms joined would diminish at higher his son. Helmont had articulated Nearly 14 times denser than water, together to make bigger altitudes. He asked his brother- an early version of the law mercury rises short measurable molecules. Gassendi accepted in-law Florin P\u00e9rier, who lived of conservation of matter distances in capillary tubes, making the existence of vacuums and near a mountain, to test the by describing a \ufb01ve-year it useful in barometers. even proposed that most matter experiment in growing a willow consisted of \u201cvoid.\u201d Gassendi\u2019s tree. By weighing both the plant views anticipated later ideas concerning the bonding of MEASURING ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE atomic elements and the idea that an atom\u2019s mass is almost For centuries, it was believed that entirely concentrated at its nucleus (see 1911). air had no weight. But in fact thin-walled at low atmospheric a higher it exerts a measurable force glass tube pressure, mercury atmospheric THE AIR\u2026 FLOWS ALL AROUND per surface area of the Earth. level rises a short pressure forces US. JUST AS IT PRESSES FROM Blaise Pascal demonstrated vacuum height a greater ABOVE ON THE HEAD, IT LIKEWISE atmospheric pressure by amount of inverting a mercury-\ufb01lled glass mercury higher mercury into ,,PRESSES ON THE SOLES OF THE tube over a mercury reservoir. reservoir atmospheric the tube The tube\u2019s mercury falls to create FEET\u2026 AND\u2026 ON ALL PARTS OF pressure THE BODY FROM ALL DIRECTIONS. atmospheric pressure an airless space (a vacuum), but atmospheric pressure pushes down on the reservoir to maintain a column: the bigger the pressure, the taller the column. LOW ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE HIGH ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE Otto von Guericke, German physicist, from Experimenta Nova, 1672 16s4a5bileoE\ufb01grnriMnRsgtsleotihasbrpectheularawbttslohiDsruou\u2019hssldeiinnplekgrgynotGjoheewecrntaiorwdnouorsfld 16a4n6vaaDtpnouumDotbcniileshisptmhlIaseegbrsbruaareonmedcouknsograph 16H4e7avnJeolaihtulasanspnuoebfsltihseheMsoon 16n4a8MtuGatrhreaocerlgfimnsrBtaaartGvnaueezrodialrelgshecisritboersy 16d4e9tshcPerioiebrreyrseoafGnmasaastteotenmrdiic 16d5e0viOsettsoavovnacGuuuemricpkuemp p1u6b4l5isoBhnelhasiissaempPaeamccshapcalhacnllueilctaatlor SeptaetmmdebomesFvprolahno1rers9iirte,nris1caP6twpe\u00e94risrt8eihetshrshauetrigeht 164b8ivcooaJolnanlolngceHhycBeetaalemmrppdetiooswipssntutotrth\u2019yrbsuklaimssnhodeudsly 164i9deRgneltani\ufb01n\u00e9edDsaetcshsocetnhatperritonbeleoscadelyn\u2019ster W1P6hil5ylit0aom\ufb01ElorngsHgitaolciwsBahetrpaibtpllaoaountngbsantlynosiisscifsathaBetr,emrrtsihataenistgihceadlly 1h6yd5de0rvaePuloalpsicscaptlrheess 106","1652\u201354 Pierre Gassendi\u2019s \u201catomic\u201d theory Otto von Guericke\u2019s evacuated copper hemispheres were sealed together by nothing more than was ahead of its time. a smear of grease, yet two teams of eight horses were unable to pull them apart. pumping, rather than suction. ENGLISH PHYSICIAN NICHOLAS Probability In 1654, four years after problem. This collaboration Von Guericke published CULPEPER (1616\u201354) combined As the Pascal\u2013Fermat theory tells a creating a vacuum pump to resulted in the formalization descriptions of his experiments interests in medicine and botany gambler, the probability of throwing extract air from two sealed of the principles of probability. in 1672 in Experimenta Nova to publish The English Physician a double 6 with two dice is 1 in 36. hemispheres, Otto von Guericke After hearing about the Pascal\u2013 (New Experiments), which also in 1652\u2014a book that integrated staged one of the most dramatic Fermat exchange, Dutch scholar contained illustrations of his herbal medicine with astrology\u2014 Liquids. This publication public experiments of all time Christiaan Huygens published vacuum pump design. followed by Complete Herbal contained the idea that later in front of an audience at his the \ufb01rst book on probability in in 1653, which catalogued the came to be known as Pascal\u2019s hometown Magdeburg, Germany. 1657. Because of the widespread While physical investigators medicinal uses of plants. Many Law: an incompressible liquid\u2019s Guericke sealed two copper enthusiasm for gambling, debated the nature of matter, of the plants he listed are still pressure in a small closed hemispheres with grease, probability theory became biologists questioned the in use in medicine today\u2014for system is equal in all directions. evacuated them using the pump, popular among those who took origins of life. Many took the view example, foxglove (Digitalis) and suspended them between the trouble to understand it. that life could arise spontaneously. for heart conditions. Culpeper\u2019s two teams of eight horses. Such In 1651, English physician William work included descriptions of was the strength of the air BLAISE PASCAL Harvey, who had previously many remedies that had been pressing in on the two copper (1623\u201362) described the circulation of blood kept a secret up to that time. hemispheres, that the horses (see 1628\u201330), maintained that could not pull them apart despite Born in Clermont-Ferrand animals could only originate In 1653, Blaise Pascal published their best efforts. This astounded in France, Blaise Pascal from eggs. After studying the results of his exhaustive the assembled audience, and was a child prodigy who was chickens, he set out to \ufb01nd the studies in the physics of liquids helped Guericke prove the power tutored by his tax-collector mammalian \u201cegg.\u201d As royal in Treatise on the Equilibrium of of the vacuum. father. While still in his teens, physician, Harvey was granted he solved a complex access to the king\u2019s fallow deer ,, THE HERBS OUGHT TO BE Meanwhile, the gambling mathematical problem and for his studies. He examined habits of French nobleman invented a mechanical pregnant animals killed ever ,,DISTILLED WHEN THEY ARE IN Antoine Gombaud (1607\u201384) calculating machine. He closer to the point of copulation were about to help open a new helped form the basis of in the hope of tracing the source THEIR GREATEST VIGOR\u2026 SO \ufb01eld of mathematics. Gombaud probability theory and the of the egg. Harvey did not know OUGHT THE FLOWERS. questioned the pro\ufb01tability of physics of hydraulics. that embryonic development in a certain strategy in a game deer is naturally delayed for up to Nicholas Culpeper, English botanist, from The English Physician, 1652 of dice, so he called upon the eight weeks after fertilization\u2014so assistance of mathematician he wrongly concluded that the egg Blaise Pascal to explore the arose spontaneously in the womb. subject. Pascal initiated Mammalian eggs were not found correspondence with his until the 1800s, when ovaries were contemporary Pierre de Fermat examined with microscopes. (see 1635\u201337) to solve the Complete Herbal This illustration of medicinal plants is from an 1850 edition of English physician Nicholas Culpeper\u2019s Complete Herbal. 16H5a1arlWvlfreaioylnlmiaiamsmesagelgrstssdethveatlop DeDcaTenhmniosabmhtmhepaerehssl1yyB6samai5ncrp2ditahhdnaoetlisicncsriybsetsem 16C5o3mCpulelpteepHeerrpbualblishes 16d5e3osfcFtrrhiabeneclsiivstehGreliasnsoantomy MaOytdt8oep,mvo1oiwon6nnd5etGsher4tuemoreafMorttneiahcssgektdtervheaaebtciuuorungm CThuel1pE6en5pg2elriNspihcuhPbohlilysashsiecsian pounb1lhi6sy5hda3ernosdPdsahytsyuncddaarimleasuiclsics pubtorliinsaa1hnas6egn5Psl3eaaa,rsPilcttaarhatesmleca\u2019srateikTlstirnecioaawlnngle Judlye 1F6dee5rmv4eaFlotrpeannpcdrhoBmblaaebinsilePitiPyeartsrheceaolry 107","1543\u20131788 THE AGE OF DISCOVERY THE STORY OF MEASURING TIME THE ACCURATE MEASUREMENT OF TIME IS VITAL TO MANY ASPECTS OF THE MODERN WORLD The modern conception of time of a standardized quantity is shared across zodiac ring shows the world. It combines knowledge of astronomical calendars and clocks the constellations based on the apparent motions of stars and planets with recent technologies for measuring and recording relatively short intervals of time. main hand indicates local Humans have probably been aware of the measured by tracking the dripping of water, or passage of time from the dawn of consciousness, later the \ufb02ow of sand, through a narrow aperture. solar time but a proper understanding of the seasons and changing length of days throughout the year CLOCK TIME the Sun moves only became important with the beginning of The earliest weight-driven mechanical clocks through the zodiac settled agriculture around 8000 BCE. Prehistoric probably originated in Europe early in the 2nd constellations over monuments from around the world, including millennium CE. A single clock on a public building the course of a year Stonehenge in Britain, show a clear ability to track such as a church suf\ufb01ced for an entire community. seasons from the rising and setting of the Sun. Mechanical clocks became portable with the introduction of the spring drive around 1500, and The need to measure smaller time intervals their accuracy was greatly improved in the late arose only with the advanced civilizations of 17th century. The Industrial Revolution, bringing ancient Mesopotamia around 2000 BCE, probably with it faster travel and telegraph communication, driven by religious, ritual, and administrative eventually forced a standardization of timekeeping requirements. Sundials were used to roughly track across widespread areas. the time of day, while shorter time intervals were ,, \u2026TRUE AND MATHEMATICAL TIME\u2026 FLOWS UNIFORMLY Astronomical clock, Prague, Old Town Square, Czech Republic ,,AND\u2026 IS CALLED DURATION. Isaac Newton, from Principia, 1687 2000 BCE 520 CE Time candles First calendars The \ufb01rst reference to 800 CE time candles\u2014slow- Hourglasses Ancient Babylonians develop the burning wax candles or The \ufb01rst de\ufb01nitive references to this sticks of incense, which sand-based equivalent of the water earliest known calendars. The year can roughly reveal the clock date from the 14th century, but time even at night\u2014is the sandglass was probably invented is split into 12 months based on the made in a Chinese poem. in Europe, or at least introduced there, in the early 9th century. lunar cycle and an extra month added to bring the lunar and solar cycles back into line. Other civilizations Mayan develop similar calendars. calendar 1600 BCE 1500 BCE 1088 Clock tower Water clocks Early sundials Su Song\u2019s Greek clepsydra Although probably developed Developed in both Babylon clock tower in Mesopotamia, water clocks and Egypt, the \ufb01rst sundials Chinese scholar Su (clepsydra) become popular in track time through the Song builds a water clock that Greece and Rome. Typically, a shadow cast by an upright uses a complex series of gears to graduated marker is used to track rod called a gnomon. keep track of astronomical cycles, the level of water in a container anticipating advances in European with a small hole on the base. Ancient Egyptian sundial clockmaking technology. 108","THE STORY OF MEASURING TIME the Moon circles the sky roughly every 29.5 days; ball rotates to represent the lunar phase star, representing local sidereal (star) time, moves as the Sun shifts against the background sky 24-hour dials in ancient Czech, Roman, and Arabic numerals TIME ZONES start and end Until the early 19th century, towns kept their own of ancient local time based on the Sun\u2019s position at noon. The Czech day advent of rail travel\u2014which reduced travel times from days to hours\u2014made the time difference shaded areas between locations problematic. Railroad separate day, companies drove the move to adopt agreed \u201cmean night, and times\u201d that would be applicable across broad twilight regions or even countries. Near-instantaneous telegraph communication drove a similar Astronomical clockface revolution later in the century, with many territories Installed in Prague\u2019s old City in the British Empire adopting time zones that were Hall in 1410, this clock combines a a set number of hours behind or ahead of 24-hour clockface with mechanisms to Greenwich Mean Time, as measured at London\u2019s show the directions of the Sun and Moon Royal Greenwich Observatory. By 1929, this system among the stars, and the lunar phases. was adopted almost universally. 13th century 1656 1927 Weight-driven mechanical clocks Quartz clock The earliest mechanical clocks, Huygens\u2019 pendulum clock The \ufb01rst electronic clock 1967 known from English cathedrals using the natural electricity The second de\ufb01ned such as Salisbury and Norwich, use Dutch inventor Christiaan Huygens generated by a rapidly A second is rede\ufb01ned a falling weight on a chain to power vibrating quartz crystal is as the duration of the rotation of the gears, which is harnesses the regular oscillations built. It measures time with 9,192,631,770 cycles regulated by an escapement-and- the accuracy of a fraction of transition between oscillator mechanism. of a weighted pendulum to build of a second per day. two energy levels in a cesium atom. clocks that keep time accurately to within a few seconds Huygens\u2019 each day. pendulum clock Quartz clock 1430 1759 1947 1970s Casio Spring-driven clock Marine chronometer Atomic clock Digital timekeeping watch Harnessing the force from English clockmaker John These instruments use rapid The use of liquid an uncoiling spring helps Harrison perfects a spring-driven transitions in the internal crystals to display reduce the size of clocks timepiece that can keep time structure of elements such changing digits and watches. German accurately over long periods as cesium to measure time in digital devices clockmaker Peter Henlein at sea, permitting the exact with tremendous accuracy. revolutionizes uses this technique to make calculation of longitude on the way time is the \ufb01rst pocket watches. Henlein\u2019s pocket watch board a ship for the \ufb01rst time. Atomic clock represented. 109","1655\u201359 1660\u201361 Dutch mathematician Christiaan Huygens was the \ufb01rst person to see Saturn\u2019s Gresham College in London, England, was the original home of the Royal rings, and he suggested they were composed of solid particles. Society; the college was founded by \ufb01nancier Sir Thomas Gresham. IN 1655, JOHN WALLIS, AN Johann Rahn would invent the 1% THE ROYAL SOCIETY, one of A year later, Robert Boyle ENGLISH MATHEMATICIAN, symbol for division: \u00f7. white blood the oldest learned scienti\ufb01c published The Sceptical Chymist, helped develop a way of \ufb01nding cells and societies, was founded in which established his reputation the tangential lines to a curve\u2014a Christiaan Huygens, a Dutch platelets London in November 1660. as the father of chemistry. In fundamental aspect of the study mathematician and instrument- The \ufb01rst meeting of 12 natural it, he criticized the old alchemy of in\ufb01nitesimal changes known maker, invented new kinds of 45% 54% philosophers took place at and described a new scienti\ufb01c as calculus. He devised a new timepieces and telescopes. Early red blood cells plasma Gresham College and included way of studying chemistry that mathematical symbol to denote in 1655, he discovered Titan\u2014 English architect Christopher advanced by experimentation. He in\ufb01nity (a quantity larger than Saturn\u2019s biggest moon\u2014using a Components of blood by volume Wren and Robert Boyle. The replaced old ideas about nature\u2019s any number): \u221e. Four years telescope he had made with his The scarcity of white blood cells, along society met weekly to discuss elements with the modern later, Swiss mathematician brother. By the end of 1656, with inadequate microscopy, meant \u201cnatural knowledge\u201d and watch concept of an element as a he had noticed that Saturn\u2019s that 17th-century microscopists were experiments; the \ufb01rst Curator of pure substance that cannot be crutch able to record only red blood cells. Experiments was Robert Hooke. degraded into simpler forms. crescents cast a shadow toothed on the surface, suggesting tough muscle layer elastic layer endothelium wheel that these rings were made of solid material \ufb01brous layer pendulum not directly connected to bob the planet. In the same attributed to English inventor ARTERY tough elastic layer valve year, Huygens invented an Robert Hooke, it allowed \ufb01brous layer accurate pendulum clock. pendulum clocks to work with Until the early 1600s, smaller swings and longer VEIN muscle endothelium clocks could lose up to 15 pendulums with heavier weights. layer endothelium minutes a day. Huygens\u2019 Later, in 1658, Hooke devised the clock was a hundred times balance spring for watches as CAPILLARY single cell more accurate. By 1657, part of an improved escapement. he was back to mathematics, TYPES OF BLOOD VESSELS collaborating with Pierre de In 1657, a new scienti\ufb01c society Fermat and Blaise Pascal was established in Florence, Thick-walled arteries have the most elastic \ufb01bers to help sustain to publish the \ufb01rst major Italy. Accademia del Cimento the high pressure of blood from the heart. Thin-walled veins textbook of probability (The Academy of Experiment) transport low-pressure blood and have valves to stop back\ufb02ow theory. The mechanism of aimed to further enquiry by as the blood returns to the heart. Between them are microscopic Huygens\u2019 pendulum clock experimentation. Its prospectus capillaries composed of endothelium (a single-celled layer) only, was further improved by became a popular laboratory which facilitates the transfer of food and oxygen into tissues. the invention of the anchor manual in the 1700s. escapement in 1657. Widely Jan Swammerdam, a Dutch Pendulum clock biologist, spent much of his career Huygens\u2019 clock kept better studying anatomy and insects time because the period of using a microscope. In 1658\u2014 the pendulum remained before his university training\u2014he the same, regardless of was, purportedly, the \ufb01rst person to observe red blood cells. the amplitude of its swing. MaCrhdcrihistshc2toeoi5afvla,eSa1nrras6gtH5ueTusr5iynttagmne,noson 16d5e6ssocHSlriaudibtyunegrasentntu\u2019hssreerionfgs 16in5v7eesRncotasbpetehrmet Heanontocfkhoeorrclocks 16p5o8bslsJoiaobndlyScoewblaslsmermveesrdreadm NoTvhfeeomuRnbodeyeardl8Si,no1Lc6io6ent0dyoisn 16B6o0NyelRPewohipbnyEusecwxbilrcpiutltoeidhs-rihMniamengeseceanhxirtapsnpeiurcimaml,pents 1655inJintor\ufb01honndiuWtcyaeslsylimtshbeol HDueygceenmps\ufb01bemrensrdat uk1ael6cusc5mut6hrcaeltoeck 1657 Huygptehrneosb\ufb01parbustibllbiitsoyhotekhseoonry 165f7ooufTnhEdexepAdecrianimdFeelmonryteinsce invsepnrt1sin6tg5h8efoHbraowloaakntecchees 1d6e6s0crTibhpeousmearanpsdeWrnaialllmifseevser 110","1662\u201364 Observed by Robert Hooke in 1664, Jupiter\u2019s red spot is a giant storm, large enough to engulf three Earths. TWENTY YEARS after it was ROBERT BOYLE (1627\u201391) proved that air pressure More than 30 years earlier, The Sceptical Chymist decreases with height, English fellow. Today, Graunt\u2019s life English physicist and inventor, in his great treatise on blood Robert Boyle\u2019s book is a dialog meteorologist Richard Towneley tables mark the foundation Robert Boyle was a pioneer of circulation, English physician between \ufb01ctitious supporters of noted that a \ufb01xed amount of of the statistical study of chemistry as well. He pursued William Harvey had suggested alchemy and the \u201cvoice of reason\u201d trapped air expanded in volume populations: demography. science through experiment that the body contained minute extolling a science based on atoms, at high altitude. Robert Hooke and reasoning, and he was blood vessels that connected de\ufb01nable elements, and experiments. subsequently con\ufb01rmed these In 1663, Scottish astronomer inspired by Galileo\u2019s work (see arteries with veins\u2014and thereby observations by experimentation. James Gregory proposed a 1611\u201313). Boyle made an air completed the circuit. In 1661, devoted much of his career to the Robert Boyle published what he design for a re\ufb02ecting telescope. pump and used it to study the Italian physician and biologist microscopic study of anatomy. called \u201cTowneley\u2019s hypothesis\u201d behaviour of gases. One of the Marcello Malpighi used his He would go on to make in 1662, but later it became one weight produces \ufb01rst fellows of the Royal Society, microscope and discovered these important discoveries about the known as Boyle\u2019s law. pressure in the he came up with the modern blood capillaries. Malpighi kidneys, embryos, insects, and container concept of chemical elements. even plants. In the same year, at a time when an outbreak of the bubonic molecules It incorporated mirrors as ,, I NOW MEAN BY plague in London was imminent, DIFFUSION spread evenly a way of avoiding the color ELEMENTS, CERTAIN English shopkeeper John aberrations that arose when PRIMITIVE OR SIMPLE, Graunt published his analysis two weights produce lenses refracted (bent) different OR PERFECTLY of Bills of Mortality. Although not double the pressure wavelengths of light. However, a scholar, Graunt used these in the container it was Isaac Newton who was ,,UNMINGLED BODIES\u2026 records to work out population able to get the \ufb01rst re\ufb02ecting trends. Impressed with Graunt\u2019s high pressure telescope made (see 1667\u201368). efforts, Charles II ordered the squeezes Royal Society to admit him as a molecules into half Although astronomers had the original volume studied Jupiter earlier, they did BOYLE\u2019S LAW not record its Great Red Spot until the 1660s. This may have Unlike liquids, gases are been because of inadequate compressible. Physicist Robert telescopes or because, until Boyle formalized a law then, it was not there at all. The describing the relationship spot, which is a giant storm, between the pressure of a probably started only around gas and its volume. As long as 1600. Robert Hooke observed it temperature stays the same, in 1664, but Italian astronomer the pressure and volume of a Giovanni Cassini may have seen gas are inversely proportional. it as early as 1655. In quantitative terms this means Robert Boyle, English scientist and inventor, from The Sceptical that if pressure is doubled, PRESSURE Chymist, 1661 volume is halved and vice versa. MaMrapcruhtcbhe1laeli5lslolvn,hue1eMeno6tsgwal6ia,lo1p(dratiergkiershoacsiftraiicscbaesipn)oigalnlniatdsries 16B6e2thllLteinhoaierndekaenitszdoconmreibyyesosf 16p6u2PboJlUilosipthhiocennasGlBNOrilaablustsuneorrtfavMlaatoinrodtnasliMtyade 16S6t3tehnNmaotiacrthdeheoceoloahgfsenmaizruetssicsle MaHyoGo9rk,ee1a6to6bR4seedRrovSbepseortJtupiter\u2019s MMalaprigcuhhnia1mrmt6eha6fbekeb1ierg\ufb01leosurnosocdtuescteolls 166d1isNcsioeavllesiovrfSsattrthepyhenaegsrlleadoanrutnigcddet,gsttlhaend 1661SRcpoeubpbetliricstahBleCosyhlTyehmeist Breovlyaoletl1oiuod6fmnea6sse2hgcaairRpnisbod,beblepseaBtrrtwteeothersyeselceuna\u2019rsleleLdaw d1e6s6ac3rrieJb\ufb02aemesctethisneGgdrteeesglieogsrnycoofpe 1 1 1pubB1l6risa6hi4ne,TswhAiotonhmfaattahosDtemheWNeysiiecorlrrlfFiivtspuehtnseiocantniodns","1665\u201366 1667\u201368 ,, \u2026THERE IS A NEW 11PINTS VISIBLE WORLD THE AVERAGE DISCOVERED TO THE VOLUME OF BLOOD ,,UNDERSTANDING. IN THE ADULT HUMAN BODY Robert Hooke, English inventor, from Micrographia, 1665 This image of a louse is from Micrographia\u2014a record of observations Robert Hooke made using a microscope. ENGLISH INVENTOR ROBERT Ice cap on Mars IN 1666, THE FIRST BLOOD horizontal HOOKE, Curator of Experiments Giovanni Cassini observed an ice cap TRANSFUSIONS\u2014dog to dog\u2014 eyepiece at the Royal Society, London, on Mars, although it was centuries had been demonstrated before had turned his attention to later that images such as this helped the Royal Society. In 1667, Although the microscopy. In 1665, he reveal its makeup. animal-to-human \u201ctherapeutic\u201d book Experiments published the Society\u2019s \ufb01rst blood transfusions were on the Generation of monograph, Micrographia, plague. One of its students, He also calculated the planet\u2019s attempted; animal blood was Insects appeared as an with exquisite illustrations of physicist and mathematician rotational period to be about regarded as less likely \u201cto be obscure publication in 1668, miniature life, including the \ufb01rst Isaac Newton (1642\u20131727), 24 hours, 40 minutes. In the rendered impure by passion or its author, Italian physician depiction of a microorganism\u2014 used his freedom to make previous two years, he had vice.\u201d Independently of one Francesco Redi (1626\u201397), had in this case, a mould. The book extraordinary discoveries. Within determined the rotational another, English physician described potentially ground- contained the \ufb01rst published two years, he invented calculus, periods of the planets Jupiter Richard Lower (1631\u201391) and breaking experiments in it. Redi reference to a biological cell, had his \ufb01rst insight into gravity, and Venus as well. French physician Jean-Baptiste was testing the idea that life\u2014 which Hooke named after and used prisms to study the Denis (1643\u20131704) transfused speci\ufb01cally maggots\u2014could looking at cork tissue. colors of a rainbow. small quantities of lamb\u2019s form spontaneously, as was the blood into their patients. Those prevailing wisdom. He placed In this year, Cambridge In 1666, Italian astronomer patients lucky enough to survive University, England, was closed Giovanni Cassini (1625\u20131712) doubtless did so because the as a precaution against the was the \ufb01rst to observe that the allergic reaction was minimal. planet Mars had a polar cap. white light constituent 11\u20444whitelight INCHES colors THE DIAMETER split screen OF THE OBJECTIVE MIRROR IN NEWTON\u2019S TELESCOPE \ufb01rst prism second However, the procedure was pieces of meat in jars, sealing prism eventually banned in France some with gauze and leaving following a number of fatalities. others open. Maggots appeared NEWTONIAN PRISM EXPERIMENT only in the open jars\u2014evidence In 1668, Isaac Newton built the they could not form on their Although other scientists had shone white light The \ufb01rst prism splits white light into seven colors, \ufb01rst re\ufb02ecting telescope. By own. However, his through a prism to produce a rainbow of colors, each made up of light with a different wavelength. using mirrors, the design avoided debunking of Isaac Newton had the novel idea that the colors Splitting happens because light with the longest the lens aberration associated spontaneous were constituents of white light, which were wavelength (red) bends less than light with the with refracting telescopes. generation had separated by the prism. He proved this by placing shortest wavelength (violet). The second prism Scottish astronomer James little impact on a second prism upside-down in front of the \ufb01rst. bends them again\u2014and so recombines them. Gregory had described such an the progress of instrument \ufb01ve years earlier, but biological thought had no means of producing it. JaJnoutuharjeonr\ufb01uyaplrur5dnsb,teal1isslc6,caS6bit\u00e7ee5ioangnvtiani\ufb01insncsP, aris JaEnnuRgaolpirbsuyehbr1ltpi6shH6hiol5eoosskoMepihcreorgraphia Madreacsnhcra2itb1ter,as1c6gt6riva6evHiftooyrocakese 16l6ig6ahpNtcrareeilwscfmrutaol,cunatsionobdnsibenyrvveuenssitnsg JuFnrJeeen1pac5enhr,re-f1pBbco6holrao6ymrposd7tsideicsdtittaherhneaDun\ufb01mesrnfsauytnssion Ocsthodobewoepfsretnhh1de6esa6lru7otnnHfguionsno\ufb02cktaeitoinon 112 G16io6vM6anaItnrasiliChaaanssasasintpri oodnliasorcmoicveeerrcsap bio1Sl6got6ege7oinsloDtotgNaphinreiccoiasoedlhlauatrcrsleeiesastitse","1669\u201374 Richard Lower was part of a transfusion \u201ccraze\u201d that spread across Europe. A 19th-century engraving depicts Dutch naturalist Jan Swammerdam being plagued Here, he is seen transfusing blood from a lamb to a man. by a swarm of bees after removing their queen from the hive. sliding focus Replica of Newton\u2019s telescope Joseph Wright\u2019s In 1672, Isaac Newton presented composed With its horizontal eyepiece, The Alchymist a paper to the Royal Society on of leather Newton\u2019s re\ufb02ecting telescope This highly dramatic his observations of the rainbow was easier to use than traditional painting of 1771 is a of colors that make up white movable instruments. Its 1\u00bc in (3cm) mirror fanciful recreation, rather light (see panel, opposite). He mount reduced the optical imperfections than a true portrait, of was subsequently elected a seen in refracting telescopes. Hennig Brand\u2019s accidental fellow of the Society, but Curator discovery of phosphorus. of Experiments Robert Hooke until the work of Louis Pasteur criticized Newton\u2019s paper, in the 19th century on the GERMAN ALCHEMIST HENNIG mineralized remains of triggering an ongoing disputeDISTANCE (IN MILLION MILES) introduction of organisms from BRAND was searching for extinct organisms\u2014 between the two men. the environment (see 1870\u201371). the \u201cphilosopher\u2019s stone\u201d that found in these strata supposedly changed base metal could be sorted by age. In 1673, German mathematician In 1668, English chemist John into gold and, in 1669, he thought Gottfried Leibniz created a Mayow (1640\u201379) developed a he had found it. But the glowing The scienti\ufb01c study calculating machine and combustion theory countering substance Brand discovered of insects arguably had presented it to the Royal Society. earlier suggestions of burning was phosphorus. its foundations in Jan In the same year, Dutch occurring through the liberation Swammerdam\u2019s 1669 astronomer Christiaan Huygens, of phlogiston. He saw that That year, Danish biologist and book General History inventor of the pendulum clock, burning antimony\u2014a metallic geologist Nicolas Steno (1638\u201386) of Insects. In this, the published the mathematical element\u2014caused a gain, rather explained that as sediment Dutch microscopist analysis of pendulum motion, than a loss of weight. He layers accumulated, old rock described the larval and pupal showing how length and weight suggested this came from a strata were overlain by newer stages of insect life histories. affect swing. component of the air he called ones. This meant that fossils\u2014 In 1670, English chemist spiritus igneo-aereus. This idea Robert Boyle poured acid onto a 120 anticipated the discovery metal and obtained in\ufb02ammable of oxygen a century later. air. Boyle had isolated hydrogen. 90 Cassini\u2019s work on astronomical dimensions in 1671 included his 60 computation of the Earth\u2013Mars distance, which gave the \ufb01rst 30 indications of the Solar System\u2019s size. His 1672 calculation of the 0 Earth\u2013Sun distance is close to Cassini\u2019s Actual current estimates. estimate distance ,, ,,IT IS UNWORTHY OF EXCELLENT Earth\u2013Sun distance Cassini\u2019s religious faith made him MEN TO LOSE HOURS LIKE SLAVES resist the idea of a Sun-centered IN THE LABOR OF CALCULATION. Universe, but his views changed as he computed astronomical distances. Gottfried Leibniz, German philosopher and mathematician, 1685 16c6h8MemEaayniir\u201cosgactwleoiJsrnsohiutahalgnisgnpesisrtist\u201d 16m68JaotEthhhnenoelmifWslamahawtiolclmoiisafendcneotsnucsmreirbveastion 16J6a9GneDSnuwetracahml mHmiiesctrrodorasymcoofppIiunsbstleiscthses 16d6e9fsocSsrrmttiercbanoaeotmtosaifopftanohasserosaifnilrwgsoatchykeofage 16c7h0BeomEhynyilsegdtlriioRssogholebaneterts 16C7h3pruDiPsbuetliitnascdhahunealsuHsmOturnyoCgntlheooenmckser Fr1a6tnh6ce8eogsIretciaenolseiRaroneafdtpsiiohpdnyoissnoiptcfarimoanvneaeogsugsots buildres\ufb02t1he6ec6t\ufb01i8nrgNsteteowlpettosinccaolpe Berleaamnldc1eh6nde6itms,9cliaGosatveteserHrrmpseihdanaoennsnnipgteih\ufb01woerdus AuguEsatrd1teh6t7\u2013eS2rmuCniandsesissinttaihne\ufb01cr1es6t7p2aNpeertwhoteonnslpipgeuhcbtt,rliudsemhsecosrfhibcioisnlogrs de1msG6igo7antt3thsfGeraimeecrdamatLliacceunimiablannatciiznhgine 113","1543\u20131788 THE AGE OF DISCOVERY Robert Hooke\u2019s microscope spare specimen lens c.1665 lens holder British scientist Robert Hooke devised a compound (two-lensed) microscope pasteboard Van Musschenbroek\u2019s in which a water-\ufb01lled sphere was barrel microscope used to focus light from an oil lamp c.1670s onto the specimen. The simple microscope of Dutch instrument-maker Johan van lamp-oil water-\ufb01lled Musschenbroek had ball-and-socket reservoir sphere joints to move small specimens, such as insects, into focus. focusing ball-and- lens screw socket joint objective Leeuwenhoek\u2019s microscope lens holder c.1674 Dutch merchant Antony van Leeuwenhoek made a unique screw moves kind of simple (one-lens) specimen up microscope; his tiny spherical or down lens helped him see microscopic organisms. MICROSCOPES VIEWING THE MICROSCOPIC WORLD BEYOND THE NAKED EYE By opening up a world in miniature, microscopes have barrel helped scientists to understand the building blocks of the world around us\u2014from the cells of living things stage (holds down to individual molecules and even atoms. specimen) mirror In the early 1600s, Dutch eyeglass-makers made the mirror to coarse \ufb01rst microscopes by \ufb01xing two lenses together in a tube focus light on focus to create a magnifying power greater than that of a single lens used on its own. As lenses were re\ufb01ned, so specimen Tulley & Sons achromatic the quality of the magni\ufb01ed image improved. Then, in microscope the 20th century, breakthroughs in atomic physics led to c.1835 the invention of the electron microscope, which\u2014instead Designed by British scientist Joseph of light rays\u2014used electron beams with shorter Lister, this microscope was made wavelengths to reveal even tinier particles. with new achromatic lenses that focused different colors accurately instruction together, yielding better images. booklet interchangeable objective lenses Compound drum Culpeper compound microscope microscope c.1850 c.1740 The popular drum British instrument-maker microscope focused on Edmund Culpeper produced a specimen mounted inexpensive tripod-style on a basal stage, using microscopes; early models a sliding body tube that were made partly of wood. contained the lenses. However, the \ufb01xed upright This design made it design and crude focus easy to transport the made them dif\ufb01cult and microscope and lenses. uncomfortable to use. 114","stage holds MICROSCOPES specimen binocular eyepiece device containing polarizing prisms light source illuminating adjustment mirror knob Petrological achromatic camera compound microscope mount c.1890 Designed by British geologist Allen pivot Phase contrast body Dick, this microscope used polarized microscope containing light to study petrological specimens 2000 phase (rocks and minerals), and could be Invented in 1932, phase- plate pivoted for comfortable use. contrast techniques reveal subtle differences that the eye Polarizing light microscope cannot see\u2014so colorless c.1980 living cells could be studied Polarizing \ufb01lters\u2014which line up without staining them. light vibrations in one direction\u2014 are used in microscopes to study the optical properties of crystal. eyepiece lens electron USB microscope gun 2008 interchanging A Universal Serial Bus (USB) lenses electromagnet microscope is a miniature device acts as lens that is connected to a computer Multiocular to generate on-screen images of microscope magni\ufb01ed specimens. c.1890s German instrument- eyepiece maker Carl Zeiss was a leading manufacturer of microscopes. His work with German physicist Ernst Abbe meant that lens design could be radically improved to produce superior images. digital display 61\/2ft- (2 m-) high body tube Metropolitan Vickers adjustment screw EM2 electron microscope c.1946 eyepiece The \ufb01rst electron microscope to be mass produced in Britain, Atomic force microscope c.2000 this had the potential to Developed from the scanning Scanning tunneling microscope tunneling microscope in 1986, 1986 magnify to 50,000 times. this scans objects with an Invented in 1981, this was the \ufb01rst kind of atom-sized probe and is microscope that allowed scientists to see An electron microscope one of the most powerful individual atoms. Objects could be viewed microscopes available today. to a resolution of a nanometer (one millionth \ufb01res a beam of electrons of a millimeter). at a specimen contained 115 in a vacuum and uses electromagnetic \u201clenses.\u201d","1675 1676\u201378 2,920 Leeuwenhoek\u2019s animalcules were really single-celled organisms\u2014such as this Paramecium\u2014many of which reproduce rapidly in standing water. MILES THE GAP BETWEEN RINGS A AND B OF SATURN, KNOWN AS THE CASSINI DIVISION ISAAC NEWTON PUBLISHED was built to improve ways of IN 1676, DUTCH ASTRONOMER HOOKE\u2019S LAW HIS HYPOTHESIS OF LIGHT in measuring longitude for sea OLE R\u00d6MER (1644\u20131710) used 1675, suggesting that light was navigation: it marked what later astronomical measurements to Hooke originally applied his unstretched X made up of particles that he became the prime meridian deduce that light has a \ufb01xed law of elasticity to a clock spring called corpuscles. Physicists between east and west. Many speed\u2014something that was spring, but it applies to any had long debated the nature years later, through international not readily accepted until the elastic material\u2014a solid that force (F) of the of light: some, like Newton, agreement, it would mark an mid-1700s. can change shape but then small object favored particles, others of\ufb01cial starting point of each return to its original form. the theory that light traveled day\u2014at the stroke of midnight In 1668, Dutch textile merchant stretches the spring like waves. The corpuscular Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). Antony van Leeuwenhoek As applied force (F) by a distance of X theory prevailed until the 1800s, (1632\u20131723) had traveled to increases, so does the stretch when British physicist Thomas Italian microscopist Marcello London and been impressed length (X): doubling the force F Young proved that light was Malpihgi (1628\u201394) published by Englishman Robert Hooke\u2019s stretches the elastic twice as wavelike (see 1801). his principal work Anatome publication on microscopic life: much. The law applies up to Plantarum (Anatomy of Plants) Micrographia. On his return a certain elastic limit, beyond In March, Charles II appointed on the \ufb01ne structure of plant home, Leeuwenhoek designed which the material does not British astronomer John tissues, naming the outer layer his own microscopes\u2014with recover and may snap. Flamsteed (1646\u20131719) as the of a leaf the epidermis and its small spherical lenses fashioned \ufb01rst Astronomer Royal for a tiny breathing pores, stomata. by drawing out a thread of glass, he became the \ufb01rst person to was possible to calculate the new observatory at Greenwich, which was rounded off at the tip see human spermatozoa and, distance between Earth and London. The Royal Observatory Another Italian, astronomer (see p.114). The magni\ufb01cations as he persisted, Leeuwenhoek\u2019s the Sun\u2014later known as the Giovanni Cassini, noticed that rivaled those of any microscopes scienti\ufb01c reputation improved. astronomical unit\u2014by making Royal Greenwich Observatory Saturn\u2019s distinctive ring was then in use\u2014and he set about geometric measurements during Home of the prime meridian divided. The dark gap became exploring miniature worlds. In 1677, English astronomer a transit of Venus as the planet and Greenwich Mean Time, the known as the Cassini division. When he saw the microscopic Edmond Halley suggested it passed in front of the Sun. Halley Royal Observatory was made Scientists now know that this taste buds on an ox\u2019s tongue, could not test this theory in his a World Heritage Site by he was curious to study taste. Antony van Leeuwenhoek lifetime, but at the next transit, UNESCO in 1997. gap comprises small This led him to soak pepper This merchant\u2019s experience of using in 1761, his technique was used particles at low density. and spices in water. One of a magnifying glass in the textile to produce a value very close to his pepper infusions ended up trade led him to make microscopes, modern estimates. teeming with tiny living beings, and then microbiological discoveries. which Leeuwenhoek referred to In England, Robert Hooke as animalcules. Many of these had been turning his attention organisms were likely to have to the physics of elastic clock been the microbes that were springs. He formalized an later referred to as protozoans. everyday observation\u2014that the force applied is proportional to In 1676, Leeuwenhoek wrote the amount of stretch\u2014into what the \ufb01rst of many letters to the became known as Hooke\u2019s Law, Royal Society describing what which he published in 1678. he saw\u2014initially provoking scepticism. The following year, MaFrlaacpmhApsJsototiernheotndneodismBerirtaRiony\u2019sal IsaparmocpNaodesewesutoptnhoaftplaigrhtitcilses 16c7a6slcpOuelleeadtReo\u00f6sfmtlhiegerht No1v6se7em7iensbLteehserpeuemwrmiecnarhotooszecookape 16H7a8clalEietndaymltpohugoebnosldfiosushtteahsresr\ufb01nsresstekny MarcAenlpalotuobMmliayslhpoeifgsPhhliaisnts GiovanangiaCpaisnsSinaitduirsnc\u2019osvreirnsgs OctobeLAreen9ut,ow1and6enye7nimvs6hacoanrelibckuesles con\ufb01OrmmctiscorRbLoeeoberbeue5owr,bt1esH6neo7hroo7vkaeetkio\u2019sns 16t7h8eHeoolafobsaketesiccpdopremirsnoecgpsrH,iekbiornneotosiwkewehs\u2019nastaLsaw 116","1679\u201381 1682\u201384 ,,IF THE SPINE OF A STEVEDORE [DOCKWORKER]\u2026 SUPPORTS A LOAD OF 120 POUNDS\u2026 THE FORCE OF ,,NATURE EXERTED IN THE DISK AND\u2026 MUSCLES ,,OF THE SPINE IS EQUAL TO 25,585 POUNDS. Giovanni Borelli, Italian physiologist, 1670s Dione, one of Saturn\u2019s moons, was discovered by Italian astronomer Giovanni Cassini in 1684. screw safety valve IN 1682, AS ENGLISH Giovanni Cassini had been lever ASTRONOMER EDMOND HALLEY studying the planet Saturn, and plotted the orbit of a comet, he by 1684 discovered four of its weight On the Motion of Animals realized that its characteristics moons. He called them Sidera In this book, Giovanni Borelli applied matched those of comets Lodoicea\u2014the Stars of Louis\u2014in GERMAN MATHEMATICIAN the physical principles of mechanics recorded in 1531 and 1607. He honor of Louis XIV, patron of the Gottfried Leibniz had to describe how the living body deduced that they were all the Paris Observatory. Individually, investigated a binary number works and moves. same comet\u2014which today the moons are now named system in which numbers bears his name. Iapetus, Rhea, Dione, and Tethys. are represented by just two Also this year, English botanist Robert Hooke and Edmond symbols: 0 and 1. In 1679, Nehemiah Grew (1641\u20131712) Halley had been collaborating he suggested using such published his book The Anatomy on trying to explain observed a system as the basis for a of Plants, one of the earliest planetary motions based on computing machine. comprehensive texts on plant mathematical laws that had This year, French inventor biology. Grew often collaborated been described by German Denis Papin (1647\u20131712) with the Italian Marcello astronomer Johannes Kepler collaborated with his Anglo\u2013 Malpighi on microscopic at the start of the century. When Irish counterpart Robert Boyle on a steam digester. This his career studying the ,,ALL NATURE IS AS ONE cooking device using high- movements of animals. He pressure steam made it realized that muscle contraction GREAT ENGINE, MADE BY, possible to extract fat relied on chemical processes AND HELD IN HIS HAND. from bones, and led to the and nervous stimulation. His development of the steam pioneering work in this new \ufb01eld Nehemiah Grew, English botanist, in The Anatomy of Plants, 1682 engine and pressure cooker. of biomechanics was published Italian physiologist and in 1680, a year after his death. physicist Giovanni Borelli (1608\u201379) spent much of BOILING POINT (IN \u00b0C) 125 anatomy\u2014Grew concentrated they were unable to do so, in on plants, Malpighi on animals. 1684, Halley visited English vessel Papin\u2019s steam digester 120 Previously, Grew had extracted physician and mathematician 16d7e9osfcGbroiibtnteafrsriyeadasrLyisethtiebmmneiztic The safety valve that the green plant pigment\u2014called Isaac Newton in Cambridge to Papin invented for his 115 chlorophyll today\u2014and may gauge his opinion, only to be told steam digester was an have made some of the earliest that Newton had already resolved important technological 110 observations on chloroplasts. the issue. Encouraged by Halley, advance for the use of steam He also asserted that plants Newton went on to explain the as a motive power. 105 reproduce sexually (in other elliptical orbits of planets, words, have male and female which he eventually incorporated 100 parts), and found that pollen in Principia (see 1687\u201389). grains had distinctive surface 95 5 10 15 sculpturing (see 1916\u201317). 0 PRESSURE (IN PSI) Boiling points Water boils at higher temperatures as pressure is raised. As a result, food cooks at higher temperatures in boiling water under pressure. 16B8o0mreGtelhciloiehvealaxinvnpiilncnaisginobsfothdey SeHpaotlefllemtahytbeepreclorcotam1sr6ret8hyt2ehthicsaotnuwarsmilele De1c6ee8xm4mpblIKosaeteaiirnoaps1ncle0pNbr,l\u2019aeasswnleeatdowtanosrny 1679deDsmteeonanismstPrdaaiptgeienssater 16AG8n2raeNtwoemphuyebmolfiisaPhhleasnts 16fo8u4rCoafsSsaintui drnis\u2019scomveorosns 117","1685\u201386 1687\u201389 IN A WORD THE CORRUPTION Newton argued that the Moon is AND WANT OF [TEETH] IS AS GREAT subject to the force of Earth\u2019s gravity. A DEFORMITY, AND OF AS MUCH PREJUDICE TO ONE, AS ANYTHING ,,WHATSOEVER CAN BE. Charles Allen, British dental practitioner, from The Operator for the Teeth, 1685 Painted by Dutch artist Gerrit von Honthorst, The Tooth Extractor illustrates the crudities of 17th-century dentistry. ,, ,, IN 1685, EARLY DENTAL diversity. Naturalists classi\ufb01cation. Following Historia Plantarum IN THE SUMMER OF 1687, THE PRACTITIONER CHARLES ALLEN catalogued and classi\ufb01ed Willughby\u2019s premature death in John Ray\u2019s three-volume treatise ROYAL SOCIETY IN LONDON published the \ufb01rst book written animals and plants based 1672, Ray published his studies appeared from 1686 to 1704. He AUTHORIZED PUBLICATION in English on dental procedures, on their structure, often posthumously. Willughby\u2019s classed plants as either herbs or of Isaac Newton\u2019s Philosophiae The Operator for the Teeth. performing painstaking treatise Ornithology, which had trees, and distinguished between Naturalis Principia Mathematica Dentistry had been attempted\u2014 dissections of specimens to do appeared in 1676, was the \ufb01rst spore- and seed-bearing plants. (Mathematical Principles of with varying degrees of success so. Prominent among them was book to take a scienti\ufb01c Natural Philosophy). In this \u2014since the ancient civilizations, English naturalist John Ray approach to the study of birds. breaking achievement in celebrated book (usually referred but speci\ufb01c \u201coperators for the (1627\u20131705), who published the The History of Fishes, published natural history but sold poorly, to simply as Principia), regarded teeth\u201d emerged only in the 17th \ufb01rst volume of his treatise The in 1686, was another ground- which meant that its publisher, by some as the most important century. These early dentists History of Plants in 1686, a work the Royal Society, could not scienti\ufb01c work ever produced, gave advice on dental hygiene, relying heavily on his travels in afford to fund Isaac Newton\u2019s made arti\ufb01cial teeth, and also Europe. Ray created a system Principia a year later. ISAAC NEWTON performed extractions, without of classi\ufb01cation to organize his (1642\u20131727) anesthetic, using a \u201cpelican\u201d\u2014 catalog and, signi\ufb01cantly, English mathematician an instrument so-called formalized the idea of a Edmond Halley, already Arguably the greatest of all because of its resemblance species. He emphasized the known for his astronomical mathematicians, Newton to the bird\u2019s bill. importance of reproduction: that discoveries, also studied founded classical mechanics, seeds sprouting from the same the terrestrial atmosphere. invented calculus, and made This latter part of the 17th parent plant belong to the same breakthrough discoveries century saw important advances species, even though they may In 1686, he suggested that about gravity and light. in the classi\ufb01cation of life\u2019s exhibit accidental variations. surface winds occurred He studied at Cambridge Ray\u2019s concept was to be adopted because of a pattern of University, England, where Edmond Halley by generations of naturalists. atmospheric circulation that was he became a professor Although perhaps best known for his ultimately driven by heat from of mathematics. After work on astronomy, Halley was also Another English naturalist, the Sun. Tropical warmth at the reforming the coinage of the a mathematician and geophysicist, Francis Willughby (1635\u201372), equator makes air there rise, Royal Mint, he was elected and became professor of geometry had studied at Cambridge causing more air to rush in to president of the Royal Society at Oxford University in England. University, England, under John the region of low pressure. This in 1703 and knighted in 1705. Ray with whom he collaborated phenomenon provided the basis in much of their work on for Halley\u2019s explanation of the behavior of trade winds and IN ORDER THAT AN INVENTORY monsoons. At this time he also OF PLANTS MAY BE BEGUN\u2026 revisited observations made by other researchers 40 years ,,WE MUST\u2026 DISCOVER CRITERIA\u2026 earlier: that atmospheric pressure decreases with FOR DISTINGUISHING WHAT ARE altitude (see 1645\u201354). Halley CALLED \u2018SPECIES.\u2019 searched for the quantitative relationship between pressure John Ray, from Historia Plantarum, 1686 and altitude, and so established routine use of the barometer in practical surveying. 16C8h5pauEfrbolnelrwgisstolhhiArseeklhlsTemoeTnneahtndeheO,naptniesretaratyrolry 16p8u6vboJlPliuosl\ufb01ahmhnrnetsetesstRro,tdamhfceyeHo\ufb01\u201cni\ufb01nsstrpitatoseiiotrncyniineoogsff\u201dtthhee 16e8x6cpilrEbacdeiupnmtlwrsaeoetasinetosdmnnuHoraaestanmpldalhenoteydhsrpeiachllitenirtkuicde JuIslyapa5utc,bh1lNcei6sleafh8owse7ustsniocdhnaailstmiPonreicnfhocaripniiac,s 118 oWf iFllius1hg6eh8sb6ypisF\u2019osrpsaHutnhibscultiimossrhoyeudsly",",, THE LAW OF GRAVITATION IS RENDERED PROBABLE, ,,THAT EVERY PARTICLE ATTRACTS EVERY OTHER PARTICLE WITH A FORCE WHICH VARIES INVERSELY AS THE SQUARE OF THE DISTANCE. Isaac Newton, English mathematician, from Principia, 1687 pulley year, Newton immersed himself gravitational force pulls equal gravitational force pulls in a study of physical laws, the pink ball toward green green ball toward pink result of which was his three- known part masterpiece. In Principia, ATTRACTION BETWEEN TWO OBJECTS OF THE SAME MASS weight Newton describes his three laws of motion (see pp.120\u201321) doubling both masses Newton described the laws of and the universal law of quadruples the total force motion and universal gravitation gravitation (see panel, right), that became the foundation of known the basis of the branch of physical science. The appearance weight physics dealing with forces of Principia was due in part to and motion: mechanics. the efforts of Edmond Halley. unknown At a time when the Royal Society weight Just before his death, Polish had already spent its annual astronomer Johannes Hevelius publishing budget, Halley (1611\u201387) completed the most DOUBLING THE MASS stepped in to \ufb01nance its comprehensive celestial atlas production. He had even been and star catalog of the time, doubling the distance responsible for Newton starting in which he identi\ufb01ed several quarters the total force work on it in the \ufb01rst place. new constellations, including First law of motion Triangulum Minus. His work DOUBLING THE DISTANCE Three years earlier, three According to Newton, these weights was published a few years later. members of the Royal Society\u2014 stay still because no net force acts In 1688, German astronomer UNIVERSAL LAW Christopher Wren, Robert upon them. Unknown weight can Gottfried Kirch (1639\u20131710), Hooke, and Halley\u2014were be calculated if the forces acting to director of the Berlin Newton applied the physics of planetary interactions to create debating mathematical laws keep it still are known. Observatory, described another a Universal Law of Gravitation. Gravity is the force of attraction that govern the orbits of new constellation, named between bodies: stronger for more massive objects, weaker for a planets, and Halley asked on planetary motion; impressed, Sceptrum Brandenburgicum bigger distance apart. But whereas force and mass have a simple Newton for help in resolving Halley asked Newton to prepare in honor of the royal Prussian relationship, that between force and distance follows an inverse- a technical matter. Newton\u2019s a more exhaustive text for the province. Today, its stars square rule\u2014doubling the distance reduces force by a quarter. response was a manuscript Royal Society. For more than a are considered part of the constellation Eridanus. of plant groups. Both men remarkably, many of his plant 32.2 followed the principle of families are still recognized. Naturalists continued to chart classifying species according NEWTONS the diversity of the living world. to anatomical similarities. One of the earliest books on In France, the botanist Their work implied underlying pediatric medicine appeared THE Pierre Magnol (1638\u20131715) af\ufb01nities within plant groups, in 1689, published by English GRAVITATIONAL had just become curator of although the evolutionary physician Walter Harris FORCE PULLING France\u2019s biggest botanical implications were not fully (1647\u20131732). This treatise on ON 1 LB MASS garden at Montpellier. Magnol recognized for nearly two the diseases of children became ON EARTH corresponded with English centuries. Magnol published a standard text on the subject. naturalist John Ray, who had his work in 1689 and, embarked on his own survey 16H8e7hviJesbolesihuftoaasrnrecnaohetmilssapsdleestahetoshr.tly 16d8e8csocGBnrorsibattteenfrsldlieaethndtieboKunnirreSgcwihcceupmtrum 16p8u9ebaWlpriselahidleetiseastrtorwHincoaermrkoriesfsdtohinceine 1c6l8as9sPi\ufb01iiedcraeprtnueitboiMlfniysaionhgfgenpsoflanahmnistisli,es 119","1543\u20131788 THE AGE OF DISCOVERY UNDERSTANDING NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION rocket remains THREE STRAIGHTFORWARD RULES DESCRIBE AND PREDICT HOW THINGS MOVE stationary until a force acts on it In the late 17th century, English physicist and mathematician Isaac Newton tanks contain established the science of mechanics\u2014the study of forces and motion\u2014 fuel and oxygen with three simple but revolutionary scientific laws that are still used today. that will produce a force when ignited liquid liquid oxygen fuel When Newton was a student, suggests that the force with which scholarly understanding of forces an object is thrown is stored in the ROCKET AT REST and motion was based on the object, and gradually runs out. A rocket stands on a launch pad. ideas of ancient Greek philosopher Italian mathematician and physicist Its enormous weight is the result Aristotle (384\u2013322 BCE), who believed Galileo Galilei (1564\u20131642) of gravity pulling it downward that an object moves only as long as overturned these ideas, realizing toward Earth. The launch pad a force acts on it. For example, that an object continues to move at produces an upward reaction according to Aristotle, projectiles in the same speed and in the same force that exactly balances free motion are pushed along by direction unless a force\u2014such as the weight, and the rocket following air currents. Thinkers in gravity or air resistance\u2014acts upon does not move. the Middle Ages expanded on this it. Newton adopted this idea as the idea with the \\\"impetus\\\" theory that \ufb01rst of his three laws, which he rocket\u2019s weight expressed in mathematical form in is the force his book Philosophiae Naturalis of gravity Principia Mathematica (1687). Newton\u2019s laws accurately describe reaction force and predict the motion of objects in balances most situations. At very high speeds or in strong gravitational \ufb01elds, they rocket\u2019s weight are not accurate because of effects explained by Einstein\u2019s theories of FIRST LAW relativity (see pp.244\u201345). Newton\u2019s \ufb01rst law states that an object remains at rest or continues moving in a straight line unless a force acts upon it. Most objects have many ISAAC NEWTON different forces acting on them at all times, but often the forces balance. Newton was the most in\ufb02uential thinker A book lying on a table, for example, is being pulled downward by gravity\u2014 and experimentalist of the 17th and 18th but the table pushes upward on the book with a force of exactly the centuries. He made enormous contributions same magnitude (see third law). Since the forces balance, the book to the study of gravity, light, astronomy, remains stationary. and mathematics. ball's motion boot exerts is changed force on ball ball remains 31,000 stationary MOTION FORCE THE SPEED, IN MILES PER HOUR, AT AT REST IN MOTION FORCE APPLIED WHICH THE VOYAGER 1 SPACECRAFT IS A ball remains stationary Once the ball is in A force, such as a kick from until a force acts upon it. motion, its velocity\u2014or a boot, alters the ball\u2019s LEAVING THE SOLAR SYSTEM. VOYAGER The ball's weight pulls it particular combination velocity, a change termed KEEPS MOVING THROUGH SPACE BECAUSE downward, but the ground of speed and direction\u2014 acceleration. The ball either NO AIR RESISTANCE ACTS ON IT. exerts an upward reaction continues. In reality, friction slows down, speeds up, or force of the same magnitude, between the ball and the changes its direction with or so the net force is zero. surface would slow it down. without changing its speed. 120","UNDERSTANDING NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION ROCKET ENGINE NOZZLES liquid oxygen released Causing a rocket to accelerate upward into combustion chamber requires enormous forces, not least to overcome the gravity pulling the rocket expanding gases downward. The force is generated inside exert force on the engine by expanding exhaust gases, chamber walls which escape through these nozzles. walls exert equal and opposite forces combustion chamber weight of rocket large mass of expanding gases until lift off, launch pad forced downward exerts a reaction force, at high speed supporting weight of rocket SATURN V LIFT OFF The Saturn V rocket, used during NASA's Hot gases expand, exerting forces on the walls Apollo missions of the 1960s and 1970s, of the combustion chamber to lift the rocket. The had a weight of 28 million newtons, and walls of the chamber produce a reaction force an engine thrust of 34 million newtons. that pushes back on the gases, which escape at high speed through the bottom of the engine. THIRD LAW Newton\u2019s third law states that forces exist in pairs. When one object exerts SECOND LAW a force on another, the second object exerts an equal and opposite force on Newton\u2019s second law involves momentum: an object\u2019s mass multiplied by the \ufb01rst. If one of the objects is immobile, then the other object will move; its velocity. The law states that the change in momentum is proportional push against a wall on a ice rink, and the wall pushes back on you\u2014which to the force exerted. So, a force doubled will accelerate an object twice as makes you slide on the ice. If both objects can move, then the object with much; but the same force applied to an object with twice the mass will less mass will accelerate more than the other; for example, a heavy gun produce only half the acceleration. The second law is often summarized recoils slightly as the bullet shoots out at high speed. with a simple equation: a = F\/m, in which a is the acceleration, F is the force, and m is the mass of the object. SMALL MASS, SMALL FORCE small force An applied force causes an object to accelerate. The acceleration small mass \u2014change in velocity per second\u2014 depends upon the size of the force, doubled force acceleration when but also on the mass of the object. people same mass twice the push SMALL MASS, acceleration together, DOUBLE FORCE forces are Since a = F\/m, doubling the equal and force but keeping the same opposite mass will cause the object to accelerate at twice the rate. people move apart with the same velocity DOUBLE MASS, force doubled double EQUAL AND OPPOSITE EQUAL MASSES DOUBLE FORCE again the mass Two people on skateboards pushing against If the two people have the same mass, they Doubling the force again one other will move apart. Even if only one will accelerate equally; but if one has much (to four times the original same acceleration person does the pushing, the other person\u2019s less mass, he or she will move away more value) but also doubling the as before body will produce a reaction force of equal quickly, since the same force will produce mass produces the same strength in the opposite direction. a greater acceleration. acceleration as before. 121","1690\u201391 1692\u201393 ,,ONE MAY CONCEIVE LIGHT TO SPREAD SUCCESSIVELY, BY ,, ,,SPHERICAL WAVES. Christiaan Huygens, Dutch physicist, from Treatise on Light, 1690 The location of fossil \ufb01sh and other marine creatures far inland gave rise to con\ufb02icting theories among naturalists and theologians. mandible IN 1690, a decade after making of waves\u2014supporting a theory IN 1692, SCOTTISH PHYSICIAN John Ray (jawbone) an early pressure cooker that proposed by French philosopher JOHN ARBUTHNOT (1667\u20131735) Philosopher and theologian, John produced high-pressure steam, Ren\u00e9 Descartes in the 1630s and published Laws of Chance. This vertebral French inventor Denis Papin English inventor Robert Hooke in was a translation of Christiaan Ray is also regarded as the column the 1660s. But Isaac Newton\u2019s Huygen\u2019s 1657 classic work on founding father of English (spine) modi\ufb01ed his original design idea that light was made from probability theory, and the \ufb01rst natural history. by incorporating a piston, particles (see 1675\u201384) was publication in English devoted femur producing the \ufb01rst to predominate over the wave to the subject. have created the speci\ufb01c (thighbone) working \u201catmospheric\u201d theory for more than 100 years. layers that could be engine. Boiling water English naturalist John Ray observed in geological tibia in a cylinder created Clopton Havers (1657\u20131702), had written extensively on deposits. He suggested (shinbone) steam, which pushed an English physician, was the the diversity of plants since the that in an ancient world the piston up; as the \ufb01rst to study the detailed 1660s, but by the 1690s he covered by sea, land rose steam condensed, it anatomy of bones\u2014including was also active in paleontology by volcanic activity\u2014which created a vacuum marrow and cartilage. He (the study of fossil organisms) would explain the occurrence in the cylinder and published his results in 1691, and zoology. His accurate of fossilized marine animals on atmospheric pressure describing the microscopic pores descriptions of fossils supported land. However, Ray\u2019s theological plunged the piston and cavities running through the idea that they were the leanings meant that he was back down. This a bone\u2019s structure. Havers remains of once-living species. reluctant to take the view that invention marked the surmised that they carried oil, Ray also tried to explain the divinely created species could beginning of steam but it is now known that these locations of fossils. A popular become extinct. He proposed engine development. so-called Haversian canals concept was that the Biblical Papin received advice contain blood and lymphatic \ufb02ood had been responsible for NEVER\u2026 DID on his designs from vessels, and provide bone cells the forming of fossils, but Ray I EXPECT TO Dutch astronomer with oxygen and nourishment. saw that a deluge would not Christiaan Huygens ,,PRODUCE A (1629\u201395) who, also 70 in 1690, made a HISTORY OF signi\ufb01cant contribution PERCENT QUADRUPEDS. to other areas of knowledge with his John Ray, from Synopsis of Quadruped Animals, 1693 Treatise on Light. Based on the observation that light beams that organisms so far known only could cross without bouncing, he as fossils would one day be found deduced that light is composed living in remote areas. Permeated bones THE AMOUNT In 1693, Ray published one of The bones of the body are his most important works of permeated by tiny organic channels, OF BONE MADE zoology, Synopsis of Quadruped named after Clopton Havers, the OF NONLIVING Animals and Serpents. Based on physician who discovered them. MINERAL anatomical features, it provided 16i9n0vdeeFsnvrtteeeolnaorcmpDhseeannipgsiisPntaeopnin 16C9h0dreDiissnutcihtraciiabshneTasHrseatuarywotginsaeoevnmeosnethrLeigohryt 16J9o2phunSEbcnAlpoigrsrtblthoiiusbesthhsahbwtpnhiholoeitytrsy\ufb01kirtcohsinatenory 122 1691 EpnugblCilslioohsnphptebhosonynasHeictariaaevnenaarttsiosemy",",, 1694 MANY SPECIES OF ANIMALS HAVE BEEN LOST OUT OF THE WORLD, WHICH PHILOSOPHERS AND DIVINES ,,ARE UNWILLING TO ADMIT\u2026 John Ray, English naturalist, from Three physico-theological discourses, concerning the primitive Chaos, and creation of the world, 1713 By the end of the 17th century, the sexual function of \ufb02owers was recognized. Clematis marmoria, seen here, has separate male and female plants. the \ufb01rst scienti\ufb01c classi\ufb01cation named for the Greek hero killed person to draw up life annuity BY THE END OF THE 17TH sexual organs, but that of animals. He identi\ufb01ed by an arrow wound in his heel. charts based on mortality tables. CENTURY THE WORK OF pollen was the agent of male mammals as viviparous (giving Opportunistically, Verheyen had Thirty years earlier, a shopkeeper SEVERAL NATURALISTS had fertilization. Camerarius birth to live young) quadrupeds, been able to dissect his own left called John Graunt had produced revealed some of the secrets of observed that female shoots and placed them into groups leg, which had been amputated \u201clife-tables\u201d as part of a scheme \ufb02owering plants. In 1694, French separated from male shoots according to structures such because of illness nearly to monitor the advance of botanist Joseph Pitton de often failed to set seed, and that as feet and teeth. 20 years before. Verheyen had bubonic plague, but Halley had Tournefort (1656\u20131708) when pollen-producing stamens insisted on preserving the limb the mathematical skills to carry published a classi\ufb01cation system were removed, no seeds were In the same year, Belgian so he could study it. Based on out a more sophisticated that was based on the structure produced at all. But he was physician Philip Verheyen personal experience, he was one analysis. Using data on births of \ufb02owers and fruits, as well as frustrated by the fact that he (1648\u20131711) published his of the \ufb01rst physicians to report and deaths from the European leaves and roots. Although illustrated Anatomy of the Human phantom limb phenomenon: city of Breslau, he estimated Tournefort\u2019s conclusions could not probe deeper into Body, which would become a the sensation that an amputated the city\u2019s population size and the were often misguided, his the minute functions of standard textbook on the subject limb is still attached to the body. probabilities of its citizens work had a lasting in\ufb02uence \ufb02owers. It would not be until in European universities. In this surviving to particular ages. The because of the clarity of his better microscopes opened work, Verheyen introduced the Also in 1693, English study became a model for future species-level accounts. He up the world of cells more term Achilles tendon for the astronomer and mathematician demographic investigations. was also one of the \ufb01rst than a century later that the structure at the back of the leg, Edmond Halley was the \ufb01rst botanists to use the genus microscopic basis of plant as a taxonomic category that reproduction could be Animalium viviparorum quadrupeda included similar species: a properly explored. MAMMALS forerunner of the binomial English instrument maker system of naming formalized Daniel Quare (1649\u20131724) Ungulata Unguiculata by Linnaeus in the 1700s is credited with a number of MAMMALS WITH HOOVES (see 1733\u201339). innovations in horology (the MAMMALS WITH study of time), including the CLAWS OR NAILS German botanist Rudolf invention of repeating watches Camerarius (1665\u20131721) and the introduction of the Solidipeda Bifulca Ungulata anomala went much further in minute hand. By 1694, he studying \ufb02owers. His 1694 had also produced the \ufb01rst SOLID-HOOFED CLOVEN-HOOFED MULTI-HOOFED paper on the reproduction of portable barometer, which MAMMALS MAMMALS MAMMALS plants provided experimental he patented the following evidence for the notion that year. Until then, the system Ruminantia Non ruminantia Ray\u2019s classi\ufb01cation of mammals not only did plants have of tubes associated with a RUMINANTS NON-RUMINANTS John Ray grouped mammals according to barometer was not easily whether they had hooves, claws, or nails. The Portable barometer division he called Unguiculata is no longer The construction of Daniel moved, but a portable valid, but his hoofed (ungulate) groups are Quare\u2019s barometer ostensibly instrument could allow partly supported by modern biology. He allowed free movement of experimentalists to also recognized ruminants: cud-chewing the instrument without measure atmospheric herbivores with multichambered stomachs. letting air in or spilling its mercury. pressure in places such as mines or mountains. 16a9s3EtrdEcomrnnaegoonalmnitnsdeeuhsrHittyahlecleh\ufb01yarrsttslife FrTeonsuctrhrfnoubercoftcotularartnseuissasit\ufb01seJcstoah\ufb02steieoobpwnahesris EnmglpaiskrboheadrirunDocsmaetnrseuieatmelpreQonurtat-areble 1693JEonhgnliRshacyn\ufb01lmarastsautskrsia\ufb01eclsciiesatntthaiteoni\ufb01nimcoafls 1693 BpeulgbPilahinsihlhipupehmsVyeaasrnicbhiaoeanoyneakntoonmy puRtGbhueleidrsmoshleefaxsCnuaaabmlotirtteeayranaotiirfssitpuelsaonnts 123","1695\u201397 1698\u201399 Dutchman Antony van Leeuwenhoek was one of the \ufb01rst observers of microscopic The \ufb01rst dissection of a chimpanzee, organisms such as these mold spore capsules. in 1698, revealed a humanlike brain. SOME 20 YEARS AFTER HE was praised ISAAC NEWTON HAD MADE HIS FIRST OBSERVATIONS by many, including of miniature life (see 1675\u201384), Isaac Newton. ALREADY ESTABLISHED that Dutch microscopist Antony van Whiston suggested Leeuwenhoek published a that the global sound moves as longitudinal compilation of his work, Arcana catastrophe of the Naturae (Secrets of Nature) in Biblical \ufb02ood had compression waves, not by 1695. As well as describing and been caused by a illustrating a range of biological comet. He would main screw transverse waves (oscillation at curiosities\u2014from tadpoles to red succeed Newton as right angles to the direction of blood cells\u2014the book contained the third Lucasian descriptions of the techniques Professor of Mathematics body plate travel), as previously thought. In Leeuwenhoek had used to carry at Cambridge University 1698, he went on to calculate out his studies. Many of these, in England. including his microscope, were the speed of sound in air, which his own inventions. In 1697, many decades before the discovery of oxygen, phlogiston, which was given off Simple microscope he determined to be 979ft In the same year, English German chemist Georg Stahl when something burned. Stahl In his 1695 study Arcana Naturae, (298m) per second. (The modern theologian and mathematician (1660\u20131734), proposed a theory thought that the amount of Antony von Leeuwenhoek explained value is 1,125ft per second.) William Whiston (1667\u20131752) to explain combustion. phlogiston varied: there was the use of the microscope he had published his New Theory of the He suggested that metals a great deal in coal, which designed himself. Dutch astronomer Christiaan Earth, which was a combination and minerals contained two diminished to ashes during Huygens died in 1695, but of religious and scienti\ufb01c components\u2014one being the combustion, but very little in iron, thought. He supported the idea calx (ashy residue), and the which did little more than rust. his \ufb01nal book, Cosmothereos, of divine creation, and his work other being a substance called The phlogiston theory had its roots with Stahl\u2019s mentor, gravity. By studying the rates appeared in 1698. He had German alchemist Johann Becher, who conceived of movement along this curve, delayed publication because phlogiston as terra pinguis (oily matter), one of the classical Bernoulli\u2019s work had important he feared offending religious elements. Later, the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier implications for the development sensibilities\u2014he had conjectured argued that combustion happened by oxidation: reaction of calculus: the mathematics of upon the possibility that life of the substance with oxygen in the air. Stahl\u2019s idea of the calx in\ufb01nitesimal changes. existed on other planets with was equivalent to the modern idea of oxide. Also in 1697, English explorer habitable conditions. In 1697, Swiss mathematician William Dampier (1651\u20131715) British physician Edward Johann Bernoulli, prompted by a dispute with his brother published an account of his \ufb01rst Tyson (1650\u20131708) was governor (who was often his bitter rival), solved a trajectory problem. voyage, A New Voyage Around the of the Bethlem Hospital for He described the path followed JOHANN BERNOULLI (1667\u20131748) by a particle moving under World\u2014containing descriptions psychiatric patients, in London. of the Americas and East Indies. He routinely performed Bernoulli was born into a The British Admiralty granted prominent mathematical family and had professorships in 1,125him the command for another Groningen, the Netherlands, and Basel, Switzerland. His trip, and Dampier eventually work included studying the circumnavigated the globe three mathematical trajectories of times. His work on navigation curves and investigating the in\ufb02uenced explorer James re\ufb02ection and refraction of light. Cook, while his studies of natural FEET PER Together with his brother Jacob, history would be used by SECOND he helped Newton and Leibniz biologists such as Alexander von develop calculus. Humboldt and Charles Darwin (see 1859). THE SPEED OF SOUND 16L9e5peuAuNbwnaltitesounhnrheyaoseveaAknrcana 16p9u5obfWltishihleleiEasmaNrteWhwhiTshtoenory 16B9e7trrnJaoojehucaltlnoi nsryolpverosbalem 16m98IastEamhanesecgmpalNiesaseuethiwdrceitoasofnntshoeund 1697phGpleorogooripsfgotcosSonetmasthhbtlheuoesrtiyon pub1l6is9h7eWs ai\ufb01lnlriasamtcwcDoouarnmldtpovifeohryaisge 124",",, \u2018OUR PYGMIE\u2019 IS NO MAN, NOR YET ,,THE COMMON APE; BUT A SORT OF ANIMAL THAT BELONGED BETWEEN MAN AND THE APES. Edward Tyson, British physician, in Orang-Outang, sive Homo Sylvestris (Orang-Outang, or Man of the Woods), 1699 STEAM POWER maker and perfected cold water thermometers and barometers shower for measuring temperature and When water is heated to boiling then generated when the pressure. He was also the \ufb01rst point it creates gaseous steam; atmosphere is let in to \ufb01ll the experimenter to discuss the if this steam is then trapped in void. The idea of harnessing idea of an absolute zero a sealed container and cooled, this force in an \u201catmosphere for temperature. In 1699, it condenses back into water. engine\u201d originated in the 1690s Amontons turned to mechanics, As the quantity of gas drops, and would be fully realized describing how friction force so does its pressure, creating in the steam engines of the depended upon load. Amontons\u2019 a partial vacuum. Force is next century. friction law had a prestigious history, being based on autopsies in an effort to sequence was controlled by a experiments \ufb01rst understand the causes of mental system of taps. Savery claimed performed by illness. But he dissected animals his pump could be used to pull Leonardo da Vinci. too, so becoming the father of water up from mines, but it comparative anatomy. In 1699, had a working height limit of funnel for he published his study of the about 25ft (7.5m). It was also \ufb01lling with chimpanzee (which he called an vulnerable to explosion. tap water \u201corang-outang\u201d), concluding that it had more in common with Again in 1699, Welsh naturalist steam vessel for humans than it did with monkeys. Edward Lhyud (1660\u20131709) boiler trapping published a catalog of fossils. steam That year, an English inventor This included one of the earliest suction Thomas Savery (1650\u20131715) unambiguous specimens\u2014a pipe demonstrated his latest creation tooth\u2014later identi\ufb01ed as that of to the Royal Society: \u201can engine a dinosaur. Lhyud had fanciful 16d9e9scGruibilelasuhmisefArimctoionntolnasw to raise water by \ufb01re.\u201d Patented notions about his specimens, the year before, it exploited the suggesting that fossils grew in 125 recently discovered power of gas rocks from vaporous spawn that pressure, which could generate came from the sea. considerable force when gas rushed in to \ufb01ll a vacuum. French physicist Guillaume Savery\u2019s steam pump consisted Amontons (1663\u20131705) was of a boiler to produce steam that an accomplished instrument was directed into a vessel below a cold-water shower. This Savery\u2019s steam pump created a vacuum in the vessel Having understood the as the steam condensed, which principles of atmospheric sucked up water from below. The force, Savery created a steam generator to pump water vertically. 16p9uo9bnlEicsdhhwiemasrpdhaiTsnyzssetouendsy 16L9h9cyauEtdadlwpouagrbodlfisfhoesssials 1699dTehmomonassstterSaaatmveesrphyuims p","1700\u20131701 1702\u20131703 Edmond Halley\u2019s isogenic chart shows lines of magnetic Isaac Newton, here seen speaking at a meeting of the variation from true magnetic north. Royal Society, was elected its president in 1703. AS THE 18TH CENTURY JETHRO TULL (1674\u20131741) ISAAC NEWTON\u2019S SCIENTIFIC By the 18th century, scholars DAWNED, British astronomer ACHIEVEMENTS became were starting to consider natural Edmond Halley sailed the Born in Berkshire, England, increasingly well known in the events, such as earthquakes, as Atlantic on his third voyage of Jethro Tull intended to enter 18th century. A key moment in phenomena to be investigated discovery. In January 1700, he politics in London, but ill health the growth of his fame was the scienti\ufb01cally rather than as made the \ufb01rst observation of the kept him at home, farming. 1702 publication of Astronomiae acts of God. In 1703, French Antarctic convergence, where Noticing that hand-sown seeds Physicae et Geometricae Elementa priest and inventor Abb\u00e9 Jean icy Antarctic waters come up were scattered chaotically, he (Elements of Astronomy, Physics, de Hautefeuille (1647\u20131724) against warmer Atlantic waters developed the mechanical drill and Geometry) by Scottish described a seismometer in a ring around Antarctica. On to sow seeds in even rows. mathematician David Gregory. for measuring the severity of February 1, he made the \ufb01rst He became a key \ufb01gure in the One of the \ufb01rst popular accounts earthquakes. De Hautefeuille\u2019s recorded sighting of tabular agricultural reforms that swept of Newton\u2019s theories, this work device, a simple balanced icebergs, which have steep through England in the 1700s discussed his ideas on gravity pendulum whose swing sides and a \ufb02at top. Halley also and then around the world. and the movement of the responded to ground movement, showed that Earth\u2019s magnetism planets. Newton was elected was one of the earliest \ufb02uctuates too much for caused by tiny microorganisms president of the Royal Society seismometers used in Europe. compasses to be used to \ufb01nd or \u201cworms\u201d that he had seen longitude at sea. He con\ufb01rmed through a microscope. automatically planted seeds 500,000 that magnetic north does not in neat, evenly spaced rows. correspond with true north, a In 1701, English agriculturalist The adoption of Tull\u2019s method THE NUMBER OF EARTHQUAKES phenomenon known as magnetic Jethro Tull helped modernize increased crop yields by as THAT OCCUR EACH YEAR declination (see1598\u20131604). farming practices when he much as 900 percent. invented the mechanical Also in 1700, French physician seed drill\u2014a machine that Nicolas Andry (1658\u20131742) suggested that smallpox was Sowing seeds in London in 1703, a post he held Botanists, meanwhile, were Jethro Tull\u2019s 1701 seed drill planted until his death in 1727. beginning to embark on voyages seeds in uniform, equally spaced of exploration to study the rich rows. By giving seeds enough space In 1703, German chemist Georg variety of unknown plants in to grow, it increased yields and Stahl developed Johann Becher\u2019s newly discovered parts of the reduced waste during sowing. 1667 idea that an element called world. After three plant-hunting terra pinguis is released from voyages to the West Indies, substances such as wood French botanist Charles Plumier when they burn. Stahl called published Nova Plantarum the element phlogiston, and the Americanarum Genera, a huge phlogiston theory of combustion and groundbreaking work on came to dominate 18th-century plant classi\ufb01cation. In it, he chemistry until \ufb01nally disproved described the plants fuchsia by Antoine Lavoisier (see 1789) and magnolia for the \ufb01rst time. later in the century. 17N0i0scmoFtliranaelsylnp\u201cAcowhnxodprirshmyycsssai\u201duucgisagenedsbtsy JaEnnuEgadloirmbsychsoo1enan7rdsvv0teeHr0rsoagntlehloenemycAeetrlantic 17J0e3iannFverdenentscHhaaupstreeiiefsesmut ioAllmbebe\u00e9ter 1pB7u0eWbr0lonisIrathkareeldisrainsnDooipsnRheaoyamscsicecausizapzomnaifntetiihodneicailne 1701 JdeetvherlsooepTesudltlhderill 1703GGeoerprgmhlSaotngaihcshltoednmevtiihssteeosry 1703dFfeCurschechnarscribilhaeebssaonPtthdlauenmmipsalitaegnrntoslia 126","1704\u20131706 ,, IN\u2026 1456\u2026 A COMET WAS SEEN ,, PASSING RETROGRADE BETWEEN ,,THE EARTH AND THE SUN\u2026 HENCE I DARE VENTURE TO FORETELL, THAT IT WILL RETURN AGAIN IN\u2026 1758. Edmond Halley, from A Synopsis of the Astronomy of Comets, 1705 Edmond Halley correctly surmised that comets seen at regular 76-year intervals had been the same comet. It later became known as Comet Halley. THE CHANGING OF BODIES demonstrations at the Royal INTO LIGHT, AND LIGHT INTO Society in London on the BODIES, IS VERY CONFORMABLE effects of static electricity. TO THE COURSE OF NATURE, In 1704, Hauksbee thrilled WHICH SEEMS DELIGHTED witnesses with a demonstration of \u201cbarometric light\u201d\u2014the ,,WITH TRANSMUTATIONS. sparks of light that appear when mercury in the vacuum at the Isaac Newton, from Opticks, 1704 top of a mercury barometer is shaken. Two years later, ISAAC NEWTON PUBLISHED HIS separated when each color Hauksbee built the \ufb01rst SECOND GREAT SCIENTIFIC of light is bent, or refracted, electrical machine, which he BOOK, entitled Opticks, in 1704. differently as it enters the prism called the \u201cin\ufb02uence machine,\u201d The experiments he described and slows down slightly. He in which a hand-turned spindle in this book proved that the also suggested that light is a rubbed wool against amber spectrum of brilliant colors stream of tiny particles, or inside a glass vacuum globe produced when sunlight shines \u201ccorpuscles,\u201d traveling at great to generate a glowing static through a prism is not an effect speed. The theory ignited a charge. It was a forerunner of the glass (see 1665\u201366). debate that lasted more than of electric light. Instead, as Newton showed, 200 years about whether light is the colors are all contained in indeed formed of particles or, as In 1703, Dutch mathematician \u201cwhite\u201d sunlight and are simply suggested by Newton\u2019s Dutch and astronomer Christiaan Huygens had published details rival Christiaan of the gearing needed to drive In 1705, English astronomer Earth and Moon Huygens, waves. a clockwork model of the Solar Edmond Halley explained how This orrery, made by George Graham System that would precisely comets are on a great elliptical and Thomas Tompion, shows how That same year, represent how the Sun and journey around the Sun, and Earth and the Moon move around English instrument planets move in a year of appear periodically when their the Sun. Later orries included the maker and 365.242 days. By 1704, English journey brings them near to the movement of all the planets. experimenter clockmakers George Graham Sun and Earth. He argued that Francis Hauksbee (1764\u201351) and Thomas comets seen in 1456, 1531, 1607, to describe the ratio of the (1660\u20131713) began Tompion (1639\u20131713) had built and 1682 were a single comet\u2014 circumference of a circle to its a series of a clockwork mechanism, now known as Halley\u2019s Comet\u2014 diameter\u2014approximately equal based on Huygens\u2019 calculation, and predicted, correctly, that it to the number 3.14159. Also this Splitting light to show how Earth and the Moon would return in 1758. year, English inventor Thomas Isaac Newton\u2019s move around the Sun. The pair Newcomen (1663\u20131729) built \ufb01ndings, published were asked to make another In 1706, Welsh mathematician a prototype for his steam in Opticks in 1704, mechanism for English nobleman William Jones (1675\u20131749) engine that was to kickstart the showed that \u201cwhite\u201d Charles Boyle, 4th Duke of Orrery. proposed the Greek letter pi (\u03c0) Industrial Revolution in Europe sunlight contained Such devices subsequently (see 1712\u201313). all the colors of became known as orreries. the rainbow. 17a0s4mtrEpoannthphgoyuesmlimbiscelhiiarss,tthicIesisaanOa,cpatNnicdekwston 17G0e4TooErmgnepgilGoisrnhaihcnalvomecnkatmnthadekTeohrrosrmerays 17a0s5EtrdEpomnnroegoofdmlniHiscdeahtrsHllaethlyle\u2019esyrCeotumrnet 17F0r6tahnEiencns\ufb02igstualHietsianhcucesekclsemiebcnetarteciichsintinveents 1704 EFnragnlicsbihdsaesrHmocaimeounnketsstirtsbritecaetleigsht n1a7t0uS5ribaiGmylipelslpurtamobMoMrlaiftasaenbrhnriueaitatsstnetaurn\ufb02dyies iroNnemw1oc7no0gmp6ereorEntTnsoithgtneyloviapsmemehnaotsesfntahgiene 127","1707\u201309 1710\u201311 1.707 BILLION TONS THE AMOUNT OF IRON PRODUCED EACH YEAR AROUND THE WORLD It was in Coalbrookdale in Shropshire, England, that engineer Abraham Coral reefs may look like plants but Darby built the \ufb01rst coke-\ufb01red blast furnace to cast iron. really they are colonies of animals. THE HUMAN PULSE WAS Chinese had been making \ufb01ne opposing IN 1710, GERMAN PAINTER KNOWN AS AN INDICATOR OF porcelain for centuries, the electrical \ufb01elds JACOB CHRISTOPH LE BLON HEALTH more than 2,500 years technology had eluded the west (1667\u20131741) found he could print ago. But it was not until English until this time. keep the pictures in a range of colors with physician John Floyer invented balloons apart just three different-colored inks. his pulse watch in 1707 that In 1709, English experimenter Paint of almost any color could be western physicians began to Francis Hauksbee published balloon is created by mixing three primary measure the pulse in terms of Physico-Mechanical Experiments negatively colors, but Le Blon realized that heartbeats per minute. Floyer\u2019s on Various Subjects, in which charged the colors did not have to be timepiece was a watch that ran he described his celebrated mixed. Instead, they could be for exactly a minute while the experiments with static nearby part LIKE CHARGES REPEL printed one on top of the other physician counted pulses. electricity. Hauksbee discovered of the wall is in three layers. He started off in positively charged 1710 with three colors: red, blue, The following year, Dutch that by rubbing glass, he could OPPOSITE CHARGES ATTRACT and yellow. Later, he discovered botanist and physician create static electricity and that even better results could be Herman Boerhaave produce astounding STATIC ELECTRICITY achieved with four colors: black developed a electrical effects, (K) and the three primary colors systematic approach such as \u201celectric Static electricity is the build-up or de\ufb01ciency of electrons (particles used in printing\u2014now known to diagnosis that light\u201d (the glow contained in atoms). Surfaces charged with excess electrons are as cyan (C), magenta (M), and involved considering inside a rotating attracted to surfaces that have lost electrons. Experiments to create yellow (Y), today called the the patient\u2019s evacuated glass static electricity were widely practiced in the 18th century, often with CMYK system. history, conducting sphere when striking results. Some of the most important investigations were a physical rubbed), electric carried out by English experimenter Francis Hauksbee. Also in this year, French examination at the wind (the prickling entomologist Ren\u00e9 de R\u00e9aumur bedside, taking the sensation when (1678\u20131717) revolutionized markings, and it was similar to (1683\u20131757) set out to investigate pulse, and studying rubbed glass is ironmaking in 1709 by producing today\u2019s devices. The Fahrenheit whether spiders can make silk excretions. brought near the cast iron in a coke-fueled blast temperature scale (see 1740\u2013 like silkworms. He showed that face), and electric furnace at Coalbrookdale in 1742) was named after him. Also in 1708, repulsion and England. For the \ufb01rst time, iron 17 German physician, attraction. could be cast in very large In Lisbon, meanwhile, mathematician, English engineer shapes, paving the way for the Brazilian-born priest and CUBIC INCHES and experimenter Abraham Darby machines and engineering feats naturalist Bartholome de THE TOTAL Ehrenfried Walther of the Industrial Revolution. Gusm\u00e3o (1685\u20131724) sent CAPACITY OF von Tschirnhaus Alcohol thermometer a ball to the roof using hot air THE HUMAN (1651\u20131708) Gabriel Fahrenheit\u2019s In Amsterdam, also in 1709, and designed a hot-air airship. HEART discovered that 1709 thermometer Polish\u2013Dutch physicist Gabriel Although the \ufb01rst recorded he could make was the \ufb01rst compact Daniel Fahrenheit (1686\u20131736) manned \ufb02ight in a hot-air porcelain with a device of its kind. It constructed an alcohol-\ufb01lled balloon would not happen for paste mixed from showed temperature thermometer. It was the \ufb01rst another 74 years, de Gusm\u00e3o\u2019s clay, alabaster, and by the expansion of compact, modern-style experiment anticipated future calcium sulfate. colored alcohol. thermometer with graduated developments in aviation. Although the Later, versions using mercury were popular. 17F0l7aoyJwceooarthuthccnnerhteipnfauogtrlesse JaAnbuprraauorhsdyaiun1mcg0eDc,so1ack7raeb0sy9t iron 17H0a9wuiFkthrsabsnetcaeitsiecxepleercimtreicnittys 17B1l0tohnJpearitncihnovrtebeinneLgt-secmoleotrhod 17R1\u00e90thaRmuaetmanskup\u00e9eriddsseeihlrkosws Boesryhsatea1mv7de0aiait7nigctHnrmoeodrsemuitnchgaeonsidllafnoerss 1708 EhdriesncfvooforrvniemeTrdsasckWthhinaiergltnfhpoheoramrrucusellaain 1709cGoanbsrtireulcFtstahhaernremanlhoceomihteotlerAugust 8d, e17G0u9smBah\u00e3rootthd-oaelivroismaeierssahip 128","1712\u201313 English astronomer John Flamsteed\u2019s meticulous observations of the night sky formed the basis of the \ufb01rst modern star catalog. athough spiders do make silk, 10THE FIRST FULL-SCALE STEAM Steam power water it is much thinner thread, and Increased demand tank he argued that spiders were too ENGINE, built by English for coal to fuel iron aggressive to use commercially. engineer Thomas Savery in production meant that 1698, proved too dangerous mines needed to be Mathematician John Keill for general use because high deeper. The Newcomen (1671\u20131721) published a paper pressure in its boiler tended to GALLONS engine was invaluable claiming that Gottfried Liebniz, cause explosions. But English for pumping out water a German mathematician, stole ironmonger Thomas Newcomen THE AMOUNT that seeped in. the idea of calculus from British (1663\u20131729) overcame the mathematician and physicist beam Isaac Newton. It is now thought danger in 1712 to create the OF WATER moves up condensing that both men independently world\u2019s \ufb01rst practical steam PUMPED EACH and down cylinder developed the basis of calculus. engine. Newcomen\u2018s solution pump water The following year in Italy, was to boil water in an isolated MINUTE BY rod boiler Bolognese nobleman Luigi chamber and send the steam NEWCOMEN\u2019S Fernando Marsili asserted that into a cylinder with a piston FIRST ENGINE 129 corals are plants, not animals. at low pressure. When steam His mistaken view prevailed at \ufb02owed into the cylinder, it pushed the time, although others had realized that corals are animals. the piston up. A valve closed, cold publication that he gathered Spider web water was sprayed in, and the and burned 300 of the 400 In 1710, Frenchman Ren\u00e9 de R\u00e9aumur showed that spiders steam condensed, creating a printed copies. produce silk. Spiders use the thread to make webs to catch prey or as vacuum that pulled the piston Swiss mathematician Jacob cocoons for their young. down, moving the engine\u2019s beam. Bernoulli\u2019s book Ars Conjectandi Newcomen\u2019s steam engine (The Art of Conjecture) was was so successful that soon published seven years after thousands of them were installed his death, in 1713. It introduced in mines across Britain and the Law of Large Numbers, Europe to pump out \ufb02oodwater. which says that the more times In London this year, Isaac you perform an experiment, Newton and astronomer the closer the average result Edmond Halley enraged British tends to be to the average of a astronomer John Flamsteed by large number of experiments. publishing a catalog of more than That year, Bernoulli\u2019s nephew, 3,000 stars based on Flamsteed\u2019s Nicolas Bernoulli, devised the observations made over 40 St. Petersburg paradox familiar years at the Royal Greenwich to probability theorists today. Observatory. Newton and Halley It is based on a theoretical believed the data should be lottery game that seems to published, but Flamsteed felt allow an in\ufb01nite win, yet it is it was not thorough enough. one that nobody with any sense He was so incensed by the would enter. 17F1e1irnnLscauiosnirtgadsil,osinMacraoerrspriellacintltys, that 17N1e2thwTsechto\ufb01eomramsmetanpserinnagvcietnincetasl 17B1e3CroJnpnooujhuebalclilntsia\u2019nhsneAddirsipsosthumously 1S7t1e1pahEneninmglHiasalhlbeclsoleomrdgeypamrseuasnrseusre 1712 John Fstlaarmicssatpteauelbodlg\u2019issuheed SeptemmatSbhBtee.ermPr9nea,ott1euic7rlils1aib3nouuSNrlwgiinciposeaslsartsahdeox","1714\u201315 1716 5 BILLION THE NUMBER OF YEARS BEFORE OUR SUN BECOMES A PLANETARY NEBULA The Horsehead Nebula is a cloud of interstellar gas and dust. Edmond Halley Giovanni Lancisi was \ufb01rst to realize was the \ufb01rst to suggest that indistinct objects in space could be nebulae. that malaria is spread by mosquitos. right-angled BY THE EARLY 18TH CENTURY, land. A good navigator could North Pole corner BRITAIN WAS SENDING OUT work out his latitude\u2014how far latitude 90\u00b0N thousands of ships over the north or south he was\u2014from oceans to serve its growing the altitude angle of the Sun and latitude 30\u00b0N prime meridian overseas empire. But every the North Star. The problem was Equator longitude 0\u00b0 ship\u2019s captain had the same to calculate longitude\u2014how far problem\u2014of not knowing where east or west. The technique of latitude 0\u00b0 longitude 30\u00b0E the ship was when out of sight of dead reckoning, or estimating longitude 90\u00b0W how far he had sailed from his longitude 60\u00b0W vertical angle 17th-century quadrant average speed, gave a clue. But from plane of This quadrant, designed by miscalculation meant that many latitude 30\u00b0S equator gives mathematician Edward ships were lost at sea. In 1714, longitude 30\u00b0W latitude, here 30\u00b0 Gunter in 1605, showed the British parliament launched latitude. But there was a competition with a prize of GEOGRAPHICAL COORDINATES horizontal angle still no way to be \u00a320,000\u2014a huge amount at the from plane of prime sure of longitude. time\u2014for the person who found meridian gives a way to determine longitude longitude, here 60\u00b0 scale in accurately. Similar competitions degrees were held in France and Holland. Solving the problem of how to \ufb01nd longitude at sea\u2014how far east or west a ship is\u2014was a priority in the 1700s. Lines of longitude, One reason why longitude or meridians, run north-south around the world, dividing it like calculation was tricky was that the segments of an orange. Zero degrees longitude is the Prime Meridian which passes through Greenwich, London, and a the clocks of the day were position\u2019s longitude is its angle east or west of this in degrees. wildly inaccurate. So, in 1715, English inventor In 1715, English astronomer IN 1716, ITALIAN PHYSICIAN George Graham\u2019s Edmond Halley suggested that GIOVANNI MARIA LANCISI development of the age of Earth could be (1654\u20131720) was the \ufb01rst to the deadbeat determined by the salinity of the recognize the source of malaria. escapement oceans, since the salt content This often fatal disease, then was a great would build up steadily as salt is common in Europe, was known breakthrough. washed in from the land. But his as \u201cague\u201d or \u201cmarsh fever\u201d This mechanism theory was impossible to prove, because it tended to occur near eliminated recoil when and, in fact, the salinity is too marshes, such as those around variable to be a measure of Rome. People believed it was a clock\u2019s time gear moved this. Halley was also the \ufb01rst caused by fumes from the damp around a notch, enabling clocks astronomer to argue, correctly, ground\u2014mal\u2019aria is Italian for to keep time within a second per that nebulae, which are seen as \u201cbad air.\u201d But Lancisi realized day\u2014a huge improvement. pale fuzzy shapes in the night that malaria was caused by Deadbeat escapement clocks sky, could comprise clouds of bites from swamp-inhabiting were preferred for scienti\ufb01c dust and gas. mosquitoes. Few listened to observation for the next 200 years because of their accuracy. JuPlaypr1rldii7zae1emt4efeorBnrmrtaiitonimsfifnheegrtshloondgoitfude 17G1r5daehGfaoaedrmobcreglcoaercetkaestsecsapement ItaGliiaiodnveaapnsnhtnciy\ufb01aiserLisrcaiinmeasnroisssoiqfumitoaelasria H17a1ll5ey\ufb01Eivddemennoetnib\ufb01duelsae 130","1717\u201320 The 18th century saw the creation of the \ufb01rst scienti\ufb01c collections of butter\ufb02ies, like this collection of British butter\ufb02ies, \ufb01rst named by English naturalist James Petiver. him, but we now know the that air is compressed by water SMALLPOX WAS A DEADLY were exposed to the disease. 17,500 disease is caused by a parasite pressure at depth, which is why DISEASE IN THE 18TH CENTURY. Chinese physicians began spread by female Anopheles a simple air tube to the surface Millions of people, many of them deliberately rubbing infected WORLD mosquitoes (see 1893\u201394). did not work. Halley\u2019s ingenious children, died from the illness, material into a scratch on solution was to continually and even those who recovered healthy people. Some died 3,700 In England, astronomer replenish the air in the bell were left with faces permanently quickly from the infection this Edmond Halley made the \ufb01rst with air pressurized in weighted dis\ufb01gured by the scars. Yet long caused, but most survived, and PERU safe and practical diving bell\u2014a barrels lowered beside the bell. ago, the Chinese had noticed that seemed to gain immunity to the 56 bell-shaped diving chamber that He also added a weighted tray once people had survived disease. The practice of Britain enabled a person to go under smallpox, they never caught it \u201cvariolation,\u201d as it became water, breathing the air trapped to keep the bell upright, and again, no matter how much they known, spread across Asia to Butter\ufb02y species inside. The idea of the diving a glass window to let in light. Turkey, where it was noticed by James Petiver described 48 species bell dated back to the age of LADY MARY MONTAGU Greek physician Giacomo Pylari of British butter\ufb02ies. Now 56 are Aristotle, and in the 1600s, less bell continually (1689\u20131762) (1659\u20131718), and then the young known (out of 17, 500 around the sophisticated bells were used replenished with wife of the British ambassador world), but species are vanishing to recover goods from pressurized air Mary Montagu\u2019s campaign to Constantinople (Istanbul), with habitat loss. shipwrecks. But Halley, to introduce smallpox Lady Mary Wortley Montagu who studied the inoculation in Britain helped (1689\u20131762). Montagu was so gun was a \ufb02intlock ri\ufb02e mounted problem over two to establish the idea that impressed that she wrote a on a tripod with a revolving decades, realized disease could be prevented famous series of letters home cylinder holding 11 shots that through immunity. She had advocating its use. She had her could be turned by a handle Halley\u2019s diving bell had smallpox herself as a own children inoculated, and to \ufb01re 63 shots in 7 minutes\u2014 This engraving of young woman. Besides her campaigned ardently to introduce three times as fast as the Edmund Halley\u2019s pioneering work on disease, the practice to the British upper best musketman. diving bell illustrates she was a celebrated writer, classes. Her pioneering efforts the weighted much admired by some of led Edward Jenner to discover In 1720, English instrument- platform at the base the leading \ufb01gures of the day. vaccination (see 1796). maker Jonathan Sisson and the separate (1690\u20131747) added a telescopic barrel that In 1717, London apothecary sight to the theodolite, paving replenished the James Petiver (1685\u20131718) the way for the \ufb01rst accurate air to the side. published Papilionum Brittaniae regional surveys and maps. The Icones (Images of British \ufb01rst theodolite had been invented Butter\ufb02ies). It was one of the \ufb01rst by Leonard Digges in 1554 great catalogs of butter\ufb02ies, (see 1551\u201354) but theodolites based on Petiver\u2019s collection of equipped with a telescope could species, now in London\u2019s Natural be used to measure angles over History Museum. long distances. It meant that the height and position of every In 1718, English inventor James feature in the landscape could Puckle (1667\u20131724) was working be surveyed by the method on the design of a forerunner of of triangulation, which uses the machine gun. The Puckle simple trigonometry. EnEgdlmimsdahokinvaeidssntgHr\ufb01oarbnslelotelmlpyrearctical 17p1u7obfJliBasmrhieteissshhPibseutcitvateetarr\ufb02loiges 17S2is0thsJteohonteneioanledtvhsoeaclninottpesic 15 MPauyck1l7e1in8PvJueancmktsleetshGeun 131","1543\u20131788 THE AGE OF DISCOVERY alidade, for sighting stars Portolan map line indicating star pointer Date unknown compass bearing From the 13th century on, sailors relied on portolan charts\u2014maps showing Astrolabe compass bearings\u2014to guide them between ports. This early chart of the Late 15th century Mediterranean depicts the navigational lines between hundreds of ports. Developed over 2,000 years ago to sight stars and make astronomical calculations, astrolabes were later simpli\ufb01ed to \ufb01nd latitude at sea by measuring the height of the Sun and stars. NAVIGATION TOOLS IMPROVEMENTS IN INSTRUMENT DESIGN HAVE MADE NAVIGATION INCREASINGLY PRECISE Ancient navigators relied on the position in the sky of the Sun and the stars to determine their location and chart their course. Later, a compass and an accurate timepiece could be used to work out direction and location. For much of history, sailors found their latitude with tools such as sextants, Navigator\u2019s compass astrolabes, and quadrants that indicated the angle of the Sun and stars c.1860 above the horizon. From about a thousand years ago, compasses gave them From the 13th century onward, a direction to sail in\u2014a bearing. And from the 1700s, chronometers \ufb01nally navigators used a magnetic compass enabled them to work out their longitude. For most modern navigators, with a wire lozenge or metal needle, these instruments have been replaced by satellite systems. mounted to swing freely, to \ufb01nd north. magnetic sliding cover for mineral viewing window Binnacle compass binnacle c.1930 From the mid-18th century, compasses were mounted inside cases called binnacles on \u201cgimbals\u201d\u2014pivots to keep the needle level however much the ship pitched and rolled. Lodestone iron sphere Marine chronometer c.1550\u20131600 compensates for c.1893 Chinese sailors used swinging High-precision clocks, chronometers lodestones\u2014magnetic stones that turn magnetism of provided the accurate timekeeping to align with Earth\u2019s magnetic \ufb01eld\u2014to ship\u2019s iron hull necessary to keep track of longitude gauge direction in overcast conditions. (distance east or west) on a long voyage. 132","shadow cast Backstaff NAVIGATION TOOLS by shadow vane c.1700s aligned with By the 18th century, graduated arc horizon vane Sextant navigators determined c.1940s sight vane latitude by using a Before GPS, the sextant was the ultimate aligned with navigation instrument. Its telescopic sights horizon vane backstaff, which and mirrors for focusing the stars and Sun allowed them to allowed for quick calculations of latitude. horizon Quadrant determine the angle vane aligns Date unknown of the Sun without gyroscope with horizon The quadrant was a simple having to gaze frame directly at it. plumb line way of determining Air\ufb01eld radar dish enamel plate latitude from the sight 1953 with dials height of the Sun Radars locate objects by in the sky at noon. bouncing radio waves off However, the plumb them, which aids navigation by giving aircraft accurate line that was needed to altitude readings. show vertical stayed steady only in still weather. Nautical log \ufb02oat c.1861 Sailors would throw mechanical screw-driven gauges, known as logs, overboard to determine the distance traveled and the speed of a ship. weight keeps gyroscope vertical Gyroscope GPS 1880\u20131900 c.2012 Once set spinning, gyroscopes maintain The global positioning their position however they are rocked system (GPS) of reference and tilted. This makes them invaluable satellites provides an instant sighting platforms onboard a rolling ship. and accurate \ufb01x of position The handle turns the cogs that on even a hand-held device set this gyroscope spinning. like this smartphone. 133","1721\u201322 1723\u201324 The connection between aurorae and variations in Earth\u2019s magnetism was The Russian Academy of Sciences was discovered by English clockmaker George Graham in 1722. founded in St Petersburg in 1724. WITH SO MANY BUILDINGS REN\u00c9 ANTOINE FERCHAULT DE R\u00c9AUMUR (1683\u20131757) IN PARIS IN 1723, Italian MADE MOSTLY OF WOOD, astronomer Giacomo Filippo \ufb01re was a major hazard in Born in La Rochelle, France, Maraldi (1665\u20131729) noticed that 18th-century cities. In the 1600s, Ren\u00e9 R\u00e9aumur was a naturalist there was a bright spot in the the Dutch had rushed water who made contributions to center of the shadow of any disk. pumps mounted on handcarts many different \ufb01elds of science, This phenomenon, later called to \ufb01res, but they delivered little from the study of insects to the Arago spot, is caused by more than a trickle of water. ceramics and metallurgy. interference between waves of The breakthrough came when Elected to the French Academie light coming around the edge of London buttonmaker Richard des Sciences (Academy of the object. Maraldi\u2019s observation Newsham (d.1743) patented a Science) aged just 24, his later became proof of the theory pump in North America in 1721. greatest work was in natural that light travels in waves, not Newsham\u2019s \ufb01re pump cart was history, where he showed that particles, because only waves the forerunner of today\u2019s \ufb01re some crustaceans can can produce an interference engines. It had a 169-gallon regenerate lost limbs. pattern (see 1801). (640-liter) watertank, and its pump operated by long handles as far south as London. Graham swing of a solid weight caused by Also in Paris that year, and foot treadles extending also improved the accuracy of expansion and contraction due to naturalist Antoine de Jussieu either side could squirt 100 pendulum clocks by replacing temperature change. (1686\u20131758) compared stones gallons (380 liters) of water the solid lead weight with a \ufb02ask In France, polymath Ren\u00e9 called ceraunia, thought to be per minute. of liquid mercury. This eliminated R\u00e9aumur (1683\u20131757) was natural, to the stone tools of the variations in the length and experimenting with iron and Native Americans. The likeness In 1722, clockmaker George steel. He realized that the proved that ceraunia were Graham (1674\u20131751) noticed 620 difference between the metals ancient axes and arrowheads. the link between aurorae was caused by their differing (natural light displays in the sky) MILES sulfur and salt contents. Steel, In 1724, Russian emperor Peter and Earth\u2019s magnetism. He produced by smelting iron, was the Great (1672\u20131725) founded observed that magnetic \u201cstorms\u201d THE HEIGHT more brittle than pure iron the St. Petersburg that made a compass needle OF SOME because it contained sulfur, while Academy of Sciences \ufb02uctuate signi\ufb01cantly coincided NORTHERN cast iron was even more brittle and installed Swiss with sightings of the aurorae. LIGHT because it contained still higher mathematician Graham\u2019s discovery followed a DISPLAYS levels of sulfur. R\u00e9aumur Daniel Bernoulli particularly dramatic display of discovered that the brittleness of the aurora borealis, or northern cast iron could be reduced by Prehistoric tool lights, in 1716 that had fascinated burying it in lime to draw sulfur Originally thought people at the time and was seen out. He believed this method was to be of natural too expensive to be practical but origin, ceraunia Accurate timekeeping it later became widely used. stones like this The mercury pendulum helped arrowhead eliminate inaccuracies in came to be timekeeping caused by temperature understood variations with solid weights. as man-made devices. 17b2u1NtteLpowounnmmsdhpaoaknmienrpNRaoitrcethnhatsArdma e\ufb01rrieca 17G2r2tahhGeaemmoregirnecturordyupceensdulum 17a2s3MtrIaAotranraaloilgamdonieosrpbGosietarcvoems othe 134 Grcalobhceaktmw1m7Eesa2aehkr2noetwhBra\u2019usrGsirettmoihosrearhaggleeninaekntidsm 172i2mFproerntRachn\u00e9capeuomolyfumisrnuasiltrfhhuooRnrwecasonnnt\u00e9dhteesntetel","1725\u201326 William Ged\u2019s stereotype printing process involved making a copy of the typeset page from a mold, so the copy could be used again and again for reprints. (1700\u201382) as professor. That year, to the larger. In the Fibonacci 10FROM THE 16TH CENTURY, THOUSAND Bernoulli linked two ancient sequence, each number is the concepts: the golden number, sum of the previous two numbers. Lyon in France had been the THE NUMBER OF which the Ancient Greeks Bernoulli showed that the golden center of European silkmaking. VOLUMES IN THE believed gave perfect artistic number is in fact the ratio of any It was here in 1725 that GUJIN TUSHU proportions, and the Fibonacci Fibonacci number to the previous silkmaker Basile Bouchon JICHENG sequence (see 1200\u201319). The number in the sequence. invented a system for setting golden number (approximately up the cords on the silk loom. 1.618) is the ratio of a rectangle Normally, this was a long and divided in two so that the ratio of the larger piece to the smaller laborious job, but by arranging the wind\u2019s direction was 800,000 pages, and 100 million is the same as the ratio of the whole rectangle for threading needles to be changing but because the boat Chinese characters. nautilus raised or not according to was changing its course. In the In 1726, English clergyman shell holes on a moving roll of same way, Bradley surmized, Stephen Hales (1677\u20131761) Golden spiral paper, Bouchon could the mysterious change in the described how he made the In a nautilus shell, the growth partially automate the direction of the stars, now known \ufb01rst measurements of blood factor by which each spiral section machine. This reduced as stellar aberration, must be pressure by observing how far increases in size is the golden number. mistakes, speeding up caused by the changing motion blood rose up a tube inserted the process. Bouchon\u2019s of Earth. In London this year, in the artery of a horse. He paper roll paved the way Scottish printer William Ged measured the heart\u2019s capacity for all programmable (1699\u20131749) invented the and output in various animals, machines, including, stereotype\u2014a copy of an and the speed and resistance ultimately, today\u2019s computers. original typeset page made using of blood \ufb02ow in the arteries. Although by 1700 it was widely a mold. This meant that limitless accepted that Earth is not \ufb01xed copies could be made from the in position but moves around stereotype without the trouble of the Sun, it was hard to laboriously resetting the type. actually prove. Then, Meanwhile in China, the Gujin in 1725, English Tushu Jicheng (Collection of astronomer James Pictures and Writings) was Bradley (1693\u20131762) being printed. It was a vast observed the star encyclopedia overseen by the Gamma Draconis Qing Dynasty emperors Kangxi moving in the opposite and Yongzheng. Only 64 copies direction to the way it were ever printed, but it usually did. This was consisted of 10,000 volumes, dif\ufb01cult to explain, but it is said that while sailing Blood pressure measurement on the Thames River English clergyman Stephen Hales Bradley realized the weather inserted an 111\u20442 ft- (3.5m-) long vane on the mast sometimes glass tube into the neck artery of changed direction not because a horse, and held it vertically to see how far the blood rose up the tube. 17n2a3dtueFtrhrJaeaaulnrtisseccstheaiAernuancutisoenhniinoatewtsostoonlses 17J2a5smtBeelrsliatBirsrhaabdaelsertrryoaontbioosmnerevres 17J2ic5PhiTiceshtnupegrrGe(iCnsutojaeilnndledTicnuWtisCorhnihutiionnfags) 1A7c2a4dSetm. PyeotfeSrisscbifeounurcgnedsed matheBgmeorFal1nditb7ioeco2unina4llnnaiSuclDwcimnaiiksbsnsseeieqrtlhuaeenndce Bsoeumcsihaioluk1ntm7ob2mau5kialeFdtrersedBtnhamceshai\ufb01lcerhsitne 17in2v5enWtsilslitaemrepGoretiyndpteing 1 3 51S7t2e6pthEheenng\ufb01lrHissathlbeclmsloeoderdgeaysspmcurreraiesbnsmeusernets","1727\u201328 1729\u201330 ,, \u2026AS THE TUBE COMMUNICATED A ,,LIGHT TO BODIES\u2026 MIGHT [IT] NOT AT THE SAME TIME COMMUNICATE ELECTRICITY TO THEM\u2026 Stephen Gray, English experimenter, in A Letter to Cromwell Mortimer Containing Several Experiments Concerning Electricity, 1731 The Cyclopaedia summarized human knowledge, re\ufb02ecting the growing belief that people could learn about the world by studying it scienti\ufb01cally. IN 18TH CENTURY INDIA there idea eventually leading to our Jaipur\u2019s Jantar Mantar FOR MUCH OF HIS LIFE, and mathematics when he was was no better symbol of power understanding of photosynthesis The Samrat Yantra in the Jantar ENGLISHMAN STEPHEN GRAY just 15 years of age, Bouguer and enlightenment than (see 1787\u201388). Mantar is the world\u2019s biggest worked in the family trade as a began to study how light is knowledge of the heavens, which sundial, at over 88ft (27m), and the dyer, and appears to have been absorbed by transparent may be why the Maharajah of In 1728, English physicist Sun\u2019s shadow can be seen visibly largely self-educated. When he substances such as the Amber Jai Singh II had \ufb01ve James Bradley looked at the moving over 1\u20442 in every 10 seconds. retired in the 1720s he began atmosphere. He found that light massive observatories built stars to make one of the \ufb01rst experimenting with electrical does not decrease in intensity across his kingdom. The greatest accurate measurements of the calculated the speed of light to effects. It was the simplicity arithmetically (uniformly ) as of them was the Jantar Mantar speed of light. He used stellar be 987,532,800ft\/s (301,000,000 of Gray\u2019s experiments that it passes through the air but at Jaipur, begun in 1727, which aberration, the apparent m\/s), remarkably close to today\u2019s introduced many people to the geometrically (at an ever- still stands today. Jantar movement of stars caused by estimate of 983,571,056ft\/s phenomenon of electricity. Most increasing rate). Mantar means \u201ccalculation Earth\u2019s motion, which he had (299,792,458 m\/s). signi\ufb01cantly, he demonstrated instrument\u201d and this site discovered in 1722. Bradley how an electric charge could be It is not just the atmosphere contains the world\u2019s largest measured the stellar aberration In Paris, French physician transmitted over distances by that distorts starlight. Telescopes sundial, the Samrat Yantra, of starlight from a star in the Pierre Fauchard launched showing that it could be of the day suffered from which is accurate to within two constellation of Draco and modern dentistry in his book Le conducted through a damp silk chromatic aberration\u2014the seconds. Its signi\ufb01cance is as Chirurgien Dentiste (The Surgeon thread for hundreds of yards. blurring and color fringing much astrological and religious Dentist). He introduced \ufb01llings caused by the fact that a simple, as it is scienti\ufb01c. and advocated cutting down In France, the prodigious conventional lens cannot focus on sugar to avoid tooth decay. mathematician and astronomer all the different wavelengths of In the same year, English In London, English writer Pierre Bouguer was making light at the same point. British clergyman and naturalist Ephraim Chambers published key discoveries about the inventor Chester Moor Hall Stephen Hales wrote about his The Cyclopaedia or A Universal transmission of light. Appointed a solved this problem by producing experiments on plant physiology Dictionary of Arts and professor and lecturer in physics the \ufb01rst achromatic lenses. in Vegetable Staticks. He noticed Sciences, one of the \ufb01rst great how plants drew water up encyclopedias of knowledge metal (copper) ion electrons \ufb02ow through their stems due to root written in English. held in place along wire pressure and transpiration (the evaporation of water through the leaves). He also suggested that plants absorb food from air using energy from sunlight\u2014an 90FEET ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION THE HEIGHT OF THE Electrical conduction is the movement of electrical charge. It is SAMRAT YANTRA essentially a relay race of electrons (discovered later, in 1897). SUNDIAL NEEDLE Electrons are normally attached to atoms, but can sometimes AT JANTAR MANTAR break free. The more easily electrons can break free, the better a substance can conduct electricity, which is why metals such as copper are good conductors. 17J2a7cioSMMninsaatghnrhatuarcIarItjiboaoebngsoienfrsJvaantotaryr 17H2a7VleeSgsteeptpauhbbelleinsShteasticks Junlayev1nig4tea,rt1os7rt2hV8eituDBsaenBriiensrhginSgtrait 17p2hu8ysscEeiacsnlicgssutltielJsalhaltamertehasbeBesrrpraeadetlideoynoftolight 17m29aabkPeoisuetrkrleeigyBhdotisutcrgoauvneesrrmieisssion 17J2o9RsoeEptnhhgelFrisohhlajaminmvpbelenotwionrvents 17C2a9ttheMoesfab\ufb02NryokordraetshacnArdimbfeaesurincaa 1728pPioienrereerFsaduecnhtairsdtry 17pE2up8bhlErisanhigmelsisCChhywacmlroitbpeearersdia 172s9tuSdteiepsheeclnoencGdtrruaiccytailon Amuagtuhsetm1aS,ta1tihcr7aie2abn9caoFNtmardilCecseiosnhotcmcookohlfenav1teso7rSws2an9r,aabsat 1729HaClahlcedhsertveoermloMaptosioctrhleens 136","1731\u201332 Stephen Gray transmitted electricity French engineer Henri Pitot devised the Pitot tube to measure the speed of \ufb02ow along damp silken thread. beneath the bridges crossing the Seine River in Paris, France. SEVERAL INVENTIONS IN 1731 that crops could be sown every into the \ufb02ow so that the height highlighted the growing scienti\ufb01c year without a fallow period. of the water in the upright of the interest in measuring the natural tube indicated the speed of \ufb02ow. world. Italian inventor Nicholas Dutch scientist and physician Pitot tubes are now widely used to Cirillo created the \ufb01rst modern Herman Boerhaave put 18th\u2013 measure airspeed on aircraft. seismograph for measuring century chemistry on a \ufb01rm the intensity of earthquakes. footing in his book Elementa re\ufb02ector It consisted of a sensitively Chemiae (Elements of balanced pendulum that drew Chemistry), published in 1732. pivoting lines on paper as it swung He emphasized meticulous sight with each tremor, so that the measurement and helped Catesby\u2019s account of size of the swings recorded turn chemistry into a science LAURA BASSI (1711\u201378) \ufb02ora and fauna their intensity. based on principles. Boerhaave One bird described by Catesby was also founded the science Born to a wealthy Bolognese the Ivory-billed Woodpecker: one Englishman John Hadley of biochemistry with his family, Laura Bassi was of the world\u2019s largest woodpeckers and American Thomas Godfrey brilliant demonstrations on patronized in her scienti\ufb01c and now probably extinct. independently invented the the chemistry of natural work by Cardinal Lambertini, octant to measure the angle substances such as urine the future Pope Benedict XIV. These were fused lenses designed of the stars and Sun at sea by and milk. She was appointed professor to bring different wavelengths of lining up their image in a mirror of anatomy at the University of light to focus together. with the horizon. The addition In 1732, French Bologna in 1731 and professor of a telescope in 1759 was hydraulic engineer of philosophy in 1732. Her In the same year, Joseph important and the octant was Henri Pitot created work introduced Newtonian Foljambe developed a fast, light widely used for navigation. the Pitot tube for physics to Italy and broke plow that came to be the measuring how fast the ground for many standard for the next 180 years. In that same year, agricultural a river \ufb02owed. This women in science. It was called the Rotherham changes gained impetus with right\u2013angled tube swing plow and could be driven Jethro Tull\u2019s book on horse- could be immersed Octant used in navigation by just one man and two horses. hoeing husbandry, which showed in a river, pointing The octant enabled the angle The design became so popular it of the Sun and stars to be was the \ufb01rst plow ever to be 5FT\/S 45\u00b0 frame made in a factory. covering an measured easily at sea by THE FLOW lining up their re\ufb02ection in In North America, British VELOCITY eighth of a mirror with the horizon. naturalist Mark Catesby began OF THE SEINE a circle to publish the \ufb01rst account of the THROUGH continent\u2019s \ufb02ora and fauna. PARIS degree scale 17m31LateSihnowentbmrihasoassadertuidccfoieEarsunnl\u201ceear\u201dtuarsal logs 17H3e1pruDmobnulaitsbnchihoBecsoshceseireemhnmatisiaisntvtraeyl work 17B3a1wsoIsatmiat blaaieanucnnotLoimvaeteuersarsaci\ufb01thyrsstcience 17h3y2HdreFPanriuettrholinietPccthi\ufb02etuonobtgwedinfeooevfreelrmilqopuesaidstsuhreing inve1nC7toe3rr1iNl\ufb01Iltsiroaceslhctiisaromemnlaaoostdegesrranph aTgurlicl upl1ut7ub3lria1slhihEseontsrgJsbleeihost-ohuhhkrsooboeaninndgry 1731 iJnodtThhehnepoeHrmena\ufb02dadeselencGyttlioyandngifndroveceytnatnt asatnroanleommde1emi7egFr3aha,0tGutprFhcaarehntehy\ufb01adngnsjcoeuhhdfarotsnehwa-estoeSfl-ulintes Gcrv1oo7sz3sd2ethvReaunBsdseirIaviRnnausgnsMSFstiyiarkoahdtioaotirAflorlovamska 137","1733\u201334 1735\u201336 ,,GOD CREATED, LINNAEUS,, ORGANIZED. Carl Linnaeus, Swedish botanist John Kay\u2019s \ufb02ying shuttle was the \ufb01rst of many devices that transformed textile making and led to the Industrial Revolution. THE MACHINE AGE HAD ITS At around the same time, another IN 1735, THE GREAT SCIENTIFIC rotation. French astronomer points of the same longitude) TRUE BEGINNINGS IN 1733, French aristocrat, Ren\u00e9 Antoine QUESTION was determining the Jacques Cassini insisted it was near the equator and the North when English inventor John Ferchault de R\u00e9aumur (1683\u2013 dimensions of Earth. Isaac fatter from pole to pole. With Pole. The polar expedition, led Kay (1704\u2013c.1779) designed 1757), was beginning his great Newton held that Earth is not national pride at stake, King by mathematician and biologist a machine to weave cotton, a study of insects, M\u00e9moires pour quite spherical: it is fatter around Louis XV of France sent off two Pierre Maupertuis (1698\u20131759), material soon cheap enough servir \u00e0 l\u2019histoire des insectes the equator than around the expeditions to measure an arc set off to Lapland while the for the mass market. Kay\u2019s (Memoirs Serving as a Natural poles, because of Earth\u2019s (the distance between two equatorial team, led by naturalist semiautomatic loom swiftly wove History of Insects). This work an important new cloth called contained accurate descriptions broadloom. The machine was of the life and habitats of nearly christened the \u201c\ufb02ying shuttle\u201d all insects then known, and laid because of its operating speed. the groundwork for the science of entomology. In Paris that year, wealthy experimenter Charles Fran\u00e7ois Philosophers across Europe de Cisternay du Fay (1689\u20131739) were questioning established was researching electricity theories. In 1734, English by conducting a series of philosopher Bishop George experiments. He observed the Berkeley (1685\u20131753) criticized difference between substances calculus for the way it never that conduct electricity or heat solved the problem of pinning and those that insulate. He also down movement at a single proposed that there are two instance\u2014preferring to fudge it kinds of electricity\u2014one created instead by calculating it over an by rubbing glass (which he called in\ufb01nitely small distance, between vitreous electricity) and the what are known as limits. other by rubbing resin (resinous electricity). These terms were Swedish philosopher Emanuel replaced 15 years later with Swedenborg proposed the idea \u201cpositive\u201d and \u201cnegative.\u201d that the Solar System formed Du Fay also found that like- from a cloud of gas and dust charged objects repel and that collapsed due to gravity, unlike-charged objects attract. and then began spinning to conserve angular momentum. 925,000 THE NUMBER OF INSECT SPECIES KNOWN TODAY 17d3is3cchCoahvreagrreslseesalredecutorFfiactyawlo kinds 17B3e4crakGleceuloelryugsqeuestions 17n3a5LtuiSnSrwnyasaelitedseuitmssChaapNrulbaltiusrhaees 17m35BinrGearenardlmotgadinisstcGoeveorrgsecobalt 1733tJhoeh\u201cn\ufb02Kyainygcsrehauttetsle\u201d Stwheedne1en7bb3uo4largErmphryaopnpouotehsleessis MGaeyo2reg2xe,tpr1Hlaa7adi3nde5slewtyhineds 138",",,1737\u201339 THOSE, WHO PRETEND TO DISCOVER ANYTHING NEW\u2026 ,,INSINUATE PRAISES OF THEIR OWN SYSTEMS, BY DECRYING ALL THOSE\u2026 ADVANCED BEFORE THEM. David Hume, Scottish philosopher, from A Treatise on Human Nature, 1739 The botanical wallpaper in Carl Linnaeus\u2019s former home, now a museum, in Uppsala, Sweden, is a modern replication of the original 18th-century wall covering. and explorer Charles Marie de 1735, as the French exploratory had produced a fourth, pocket- LATE IN THE EVENING OF La Condamine (1701\u201374), went teams set sail, English sized version known as H4 MAY 28, 1737, English physician to Peru and Ecuador. When the meteorologist George Hadley that was of even greater and astronomer John Bevis teams reported their \ufb01ndings, (1685\u20131768) had a key insight accuracy (see 1759\u201364). (1695\u20131771) witnessed a they proved that Newton, not into the trade winds that drive rare event through a telescope Cassini, was right\u2014Earth is ships across the Atlantic: these Three years before Maupertius at the Royal Greenwich fatter at the equator. Also in winds blow east-west, not and his team went to Lapland, Observatory in London: a straight toward the equator Swedish naturalist Carl planetary occultation\u2014in because they are de\ufb02ected by Linnaeus had traveled there to which one celestial body CARL LINNAEUS Earth\u2019s rotation. collect plant and bird specimens. passes in front of another, (1707\u201378) It was this trip that planted the temporarily hiding it from view. This year, too, English seeds for his great scheme for What Bevis watched was Venus Born in Rashult, Sweden, clockmaker John Harrison classifying life, the Systema passing in front of Mercury, Carl Linneaus was one of (1693\u20131776) completed the Naturae (System of Nature), the only planetary occultation the greatest naturalists \ufb01rst version of his marine \ufb01rst published in 1735. Linnaeus ever recorded. of his time. A practicing chronometer, a clock that could divided the natural world into physician, he spent most of keep time accurately enough three kingdoms\u2014animal, plant, In Switzerland, mathematician his time classifying plants. at sea to allow longitude to and mineral\u2014and subdivided Daniel Bernoulli (1700\u201382) His students traveled the be calculated. By 1759, Harrison each into class, order, genus, published Hydrodynamics, a world, sending back samples and species. He introduced the study of the \ufb02ow of water, based and spreading Linnaean Linnaeus\u2019s animal kingdom now internationally recognized on his work in St. Petersburg, theories. He became In this table from Systema Naturae, Latin binomial (two-part name) Russia. Bernoulli noted that as Professor of Botany at the Carl Linnaeus sets out his six classi\ufb01cation system which the speed of moving \ufb02uid University of Uppsala in 1741. subdivisions of the animal kingdom: indicates \ufb01rst the genus and increases, the pressure within it mammals, birds, amphibians, \ufb01sh, then the species. decreases\u2014a phenomenon now what is now recognized as insects, and worms. known as Bernoulli\u2019s principle. infrared radiation. In Anjou, Also in St. Petersburg, French France, young Scottish HADLEY CELL astronomer Joseph-Nicolas philosopher David Hume Delisle (1688\u20131768) established completed his A Treatise on It is now known that there are direction of Earth\u2019s a method for tracking sunspots Human Nature, in which he three great bands of vertical rotation as they moved across the Sun. tried to create a complete air circulation, or \u201ccells,\u201d on psychological pro\ufb01le of man. either side of the equator, Hadley cell In 1739, French explorer including the tropical cell Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet named after the meteorologist de Lozier (1705\u201386) found the George Hadley. The east-west world\u2019s most remote island, de\ufb02ection of these cells caused now called Bouvet Island, in the by Earth\u2019s rotation creates South Atlantic Ocean. In France, a corkscrew pattern that physicist \u00c9milie du Ch\u00e2telet accounts for prevailing winds (1706\u201349) published her 1739 at different latitudes. paper on combustion, in which she predicted the existence of 17c3lo5ccoEckmhnmprgoalleiknsteohermsJheoithsenr\ufb01Hrsatrmrisaornine MaByeov2ci8csu,ol1bt7as3tei7orvnJeooshftnVheenus 17p3r9iend\u00c9firmcatrsileitedhderauedxCiiahstt\u00e2ieotnenlceet of JaJneuBaaonaru-nynBvieaa1stmpl,ad1tenii7ssddt3cealo9afvtteeerrrshim 1736 ChadrlilesacsoCMvoeanrrdsiaermdueibnbeer co1m73p9leDotenasvHiAdumTHruaemnatEeisreror 1739pCuPballrailsnhLtaeinrsnuGameeonuf(TePsyrlpaaensts) 139","1740\u201342 ,, THE ANIMAL NEVER COMES OUT ON SHORE\u2026 ITS SKIN IS BLACK AND THICK\u2026 ITS HEAD\u2026 IS SMALL, IT HAS NO TEETH, BUT ONLY ,,TWO FLAT WHITE BONES. Georg Steller, German zoologist, 1740 Steller\u2019s sea cow was a large sea mammal that fed on kelp. Discovered in 1740 by German naturalist Georg Steller, it was extinct by 1767. TOUGH AND RESISTANT TO his name. Within 27 years of its 6 THE NUMBER CORROSION, STEEL is a practical discovery, Steller\u2019s sea cow had OF SPECIES GEORG metal for construction and been hunted to extinction. STELLER DISCOVERED machinery. But for thousands DURING THE 1740 VOYAGE of years it was so hard to make Developed in the early 17th reliably in any quantity that it ANDERS CELSIUS century by innovators such as In 1742, French mathematician forces simpler by reducing them was used only for blades. Then, (1701\u201341) the physician Robert Fludd Jean Le Rond D\u2019Alembert to static calculations. Also this in 1740, English clockmaker and astronomer Galileo Galilei, (1717\u201383) found another way to year, American inventor and Benjamin Huntsman (1704\u201376) Born in Uppsala in Sweden, the thermometer displayed consider Newton\u2019s Second Law of statesman Benjamin Franklin perfected his \u201ccrucible\u201d method Anders Celsius succeeded temperature by showing the Motion, by introducing a \ufb01ctitious designed a cast-iron stove of making steel in Shef\ufb01eld, his father as professor of level of liquid in a glass tube as balancing or \u201cequilibrium\u201d force. that could be set in the middle England. It involved heating steel astronomy at Uppsala it expanded or contracted. But Known as D\u2019Alembert\u2019s of a room to maximize its to 2912\u00b0F (1600\u00b0C) in a coke- University in 1730. He is most a century on, it had still not principle, this made calculations heating effect. Cast-iron stoves \ufb01red furnace in clay pots or famous for devising the been agreed how to calibrate about dynamic or changing soon became immensely popular. \u201ccrucibles\u201d to make ingots of temperature scale that now it. Among other suggestions, tough steel large and pure bears his name, but he also English physicist and TEMPERATURE SCALES enough to cast into many helped discover the link mathematician Isaac Newton shapes. Huntsman\u2019s crucible between magnetic storms proposed a scale with the In the 1700s, many KELVIN CELSIUS FAHRENHEIT revolutionized steel making and in the Sun and the aurora melting point of snow at one end temperature scales over the next century, Shef\ufb01eld\u2019s phenomenon on Earth. and the boiling point of water at were used, including 373K 100\u00b0C 212\u00b0F steel production rose from 200 the other, with points divided by R\u00e9aumur\u2019s. Now just to 80,000 tons per year. This was a small boat and returned to 33 degrees in between. In the three are common: the 300K 27\u00b0C 81\u00b0F almost half of Europe\u2019s steel. Russia with news of fur-trading end, the winner turned out to be Kelvin (K, introduced in 32\u00b0F possibilities that would make the temperature scale invented 1848), Celsius (C), and 273K 0\u00b0C 0\u00b0F On June 4, 1740, Danish Russia rich. Among the survivors by Swedish astronomer Anders Fahrenheit (F) scales. 255K \u221218\u00b0C explorer Vitus Bering (1681\u2013 was German naturalist Georg Celsius (1701\u201344) in 1742, which Each just shows \u221299\u00b0F 1741) launched an expedition Steller (1709\u201346), who had developed into the modern degrees between \ufb01xed 200K \u221273\u00b0C to map the remote Arctic collected specimens of hitherto Celsius scale (known until 1948 points. The Kelvin coast of Siberia. He sailed from unknown species of wildlife as Centigrade). In Celsius\u2019s scale, scale starts at absolute 100K \u2212173\u00b0C \u2212279\u00b0F Kamchatka in eastern Russia during the expedition. Steller\u2019s the two end points were set 100 zero. One Kelvin is aboard the St. Peter, while fellow sea cow, Steller\u2019s jay, Steller\u2019s sea degrees apart, with 100 degrees equal to one degree Absolute explorer Aleksey Chirikov eagle, and Steller\u2019s eider all bear signifying the freezing point of Celsius, so 273.15 K is (1703\u201348) sailed aboard the water, while 0 degrees signi\ufb01ed 0\u00b0C, the melting point zero 0K \u2212273\u00b0C \u2212460\u00b0F St. Paul. The ships became boiling point at standard of water, and 373.15 K separated and Bering discovered atmospheric pressure. Two years is 100\u00b0C, the boiling the Alaskan Peninsula while later, Swedish naturalist Carl point of water. Chirikov found some of the Linnaeus adopted Celsius\u2019s Aleutian Islands. After Bering scale for his greenhouse fell ill with scurvy, his ship was thermometers, but reversed the wrecked on the Aleutians and he scale so that 100 degrees was died there. Some of his crew built the boiling point of water. 17c4lo0HcuBcknrrmutitsacimsikbhealrenBsdeteenvejeallmompiasnking JuelxyCp1hlto7ihrr4eei1krAoRAvleuldeusikstsisicaaeonnyvIesrlsands 17a4s2CtreScolwenstnioeeutmdmsigisepprhreraoArdpaenotdusereresssacale May 1V7i4tu1sDcoBaaensristinhogfeAmAxrplcaaltposicsrkeaStrhiabenedria nJautluyra2l0is, t1G7l4ea1onrdGgseeriSnmtAeallnlaesrka 140","1743\u201344 1745\u201346 ,, ,,THE SPECIES\u2026 TODAY ARE\u2026 ,, SMALLEST PART OF WHAT BLIND DESTINY HAS PRODUCED\u2026 Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis, in Essai de cosmologie, 1750 In March 1744, six unusual tails were seen shooting above the horizon from French philosopher Pierre Maupertuis\u2019s ideas the amazingly bright Great Comet of 1744. hinted at later evolutionary theory. IN SPRING 1744, NIGHT IN 1745, SWISS NATURALIST I HAVE FOUND OUT SO MUCH SKIES around the world CHARLES BONNET (1720\u201393) were illuminated by one wrote a key study on insects, ,,ABOUT ELECTRICITY THAT... I of the brightest ever Trait\u00e9 d\u2019Insectologie (Treatise on comets. It was spotted Insectology). In it he noted that UNDERSTAND NOTHING AND CAN through a telescope late caterpillars breathe through EXPLAIN NOTHING. in 1743 by German pores, and that aphids astronomers Jan de reproduce by parthogenesis Pieter van Musschenbroek, Dutch physicist, 1746 Munck and Dirk (without the need for mating). Klinkenberg, and Cassini\u2019s map of France another kind of map, showing all electrodes on the inside and Swiss astronomer In making the \ufb01rst detailed, accurate In France that year, the the country\u2019s surface minerals. It outside of a glass jar. It was Jean-Philippe de map of France, Cassini set out: \u201cTo mathematician and philosopher was perhaps the \ufb01rst ever major not a battery, because it did not Ch\u00e9seaux\u2014it later measure distances by triangulation Pierre Louis Maupertuis geological map. produce a charge itself\u2014instead became known as the and thus establish the exact position (1698\u20131759) was writing V\u00e9nus it stored a static charge built up Comet de Klinkenberg-Ch\u00e9seaux. of the settlements.\u201d Physique, in which he hinted In the city of Leyden in by friction generators. However, By the next spring, this rare at ideas that emerged later Holland, German cleric Ewald it was a compact way of storing \u201cGreat Comet\u201d was so bright triangulation\u2014a technique that in evolutionary theory. He Georg von Kleist (1700\u201348) electricity and provided a useful that it outshone Venus at night establishes positions through suggested that only those and Dutch physicist Pieter van and ready source of charge. and, for a few weeks in March measuring angles. In 1744, animals made in a way that best Musschenbroek (1692\u20131761)\u2014 1744, it could even be seen by day. French mapmaker C\u00e9sar- met their needs would survive, quite independently of one electrode Fran\u00e7ois Cassini de Thury while those lacking appropriate another\u2014developed the \ufb01rst Thanks to new surveying (1714\u201384), also known as Cassini characteristics would not. device for storing electricity. non- equipment, it became possible III, began a huge project to make Maupertius also suggested The Leyden jar stored a static conductive to make accurate maps using the \ufb01rst accurate map of all that all life descends from electric charge between two top France at the scale of 1:84,600. a common ancestor. 1 The project was a landmark electrode in mapmaking. Also this year, French TRILLION mathematician, C\u00e9sar-Fran\u00e7ois chain ESTIMATED NUMBER During this year, Swiss Cassini de Thury developed the or wire mathematician Leonhard Euler Cassini map projection. All map OF COMETS (1707\u201383) was working in Berlin projections are accurate but metal on optics. The clarity of his they distort in various ways. The coating 4,185 80 papers helped ensure that Cassini projection was accurate at Leyden jar known comets great Huygens\u2019 theory that light right angles to a central meridian, The Leyden jar provided comets travels in waves prevailed so was good for local grid-based a way to store and build over Isaac Newton\u2019s theory maps. For this reason, the Cassini up a charge of static Comets of light \u201ccorpuscles\u201d or particles projection was used for the electricity, ready to Great comets\u2014comets that are (see 1675). well-known Ordnance Survey be released. exceptionally bright\u2014are seen less maps of the UK. frequently than other comets. There are trillions of comets that remain In 1746, French mineralogist undiscovered to this day. Jean-\u00c9tienne Guettard (1715\u201386) was pioneering 17a4s3JtraGKonenltidrohnmemekeMaeGnnrurbseneacrtkgCadonismdceoDtvirekr 17m44LateSphowuenpmbihaslapsiasrethdircesiEsaouninlmeorppotritcasnt 17C4h5pauSorblwneliissisnhsBseonesnacatntouetlrrtoaeglaiysttise 17m45Cat\u00e9FdhsreeaeCmTrna-hcasFhutsriricanyinaic\u00e7nmroeiasaptCepasrsotshjieencition 17W46dililEsCiacnomogrvnlieCwsrohasolpklk,hawEaoornlmrigntlhaaicynnidst C\u00e9sar-m1F7raa4dthne4me\u00e7TFomahripseaupntCriicycnahigbsasenFignriainnsce de1v7e4lo5inpTveehdnevtbooLnyvreastKywn,dlEeoeMiwnssutaejslpaasdnarcrGdihaseePtoenierbgtreorek 17P4i5erFprrreeonpLcoohsudeipssehcsMtoilchomaeasuntmopdapoeelhlnrdetlauirffrniesocmiessator 141","1747\u201348 1749\u201350 Bernhard Siegfried Albinus\u2019s Tabulae Sceleti et Musculorum Corporis Humani English astronomer Thomas Wright described contained anatomical drawings of unprecedented accuracy. the Milky Way as being shaped like a disk. AFTER ENGLISH PHYSICIST they are central to calculations NUMBER OF BONES 400 206 IN 1749, FRENCH NATURALIST attention to the stability of ships ISAAC NEWTON\u2019S DISCOVERY about the movement of sound, 270\u2013350 GEORGES BUFFON (1707\u201388) in his book Scientia Navalis of the law of gravitation (see heat, electricity, and \ufb02uids. began the publication of his (Naval Science). He analysed their 1687\u201389) many others became 300 study Histoire Naturelle (Natural three-dimensional motion at interested in the gravitational Countless sailors were dying 200 History), a 44-volume study of sea with such mathematical effect of the Moon. In 1747, from scurvy on long voyages. animals and minerals. He was precision that he had to add a French mathematician Jean le Nobody knew at the time that the 100 one of the \ufb01rst to recognize that third axis to graphs to show Rond d\u2019Alembert argued that illness was caused by a vitamin the world is very ancient and winds are caused by \u201ctides\u201d in the C de\ufb01ciency, but some people 0 that many species have come Buffon\u2019s Natural History atmosphere that are driven by suspected it might be prevented and gone since it was formed. This turkey is one of the many the Moon, just like tides in the by eating lemons and limes. Newborn Adult This laid the groundwork for accurately observed drawings sea. He was mistaken\u2014winds In 1747, British naval surgeon Darwin\u2019s theory of evolution a in Georges Buffon\u2019s important are really driven by variations in James Lind (1716\u201394) carried Human bones century later (see pp.204\u2013205). study, Histoire Naturelle, a work the way the air is warmed by the out an experiment to test the Babies have more bones than adults, translated into several languages. sun, as warm air rises and cold effect of different dietary and some adult bones result from Also this year, Swiss air rushes in to take its place. supplements on six pairs of the fusion of bones that are separate mathematician Leonhard However, his work did introduce sailors suffering from scurvy. in newborns. Euler turned his partial differential equations Only the pair fed limes recovered, (PDEs), complex equations and we now know that eating et Musculorum Corporis Humani involving several variables. Later citrus fruit prevents scurvy (Drawings of the Skeleton and developed by Swiss mathematician because it contains vitamin C. Muscles of the Human Body). The Leonhard Euler, PDEs are now drawings were plotted on grids used for calculating how fast In 1748, Dutch anatomist to ensure their accuracy. one variable changes when Bernhard Siegfried Albinus others are held constant, and (1697\u20131770) published an Also in 1748, English physicist important study of human James Bradley explained an anatomy, entitled Tabulae Sceleti astronomical effect he had been studying for 20 years. This was nutation\u2014the way Earth\u2019s axis nods slightly with a period of 18.6 years. The Moon\u2019s orbit does not lie exactly in the plane of the ecliptic (Earth\u2019s orbit around the Sun), so its changing unsymmetrical gravitational pull unbalances Earth\u2019s rotation. Treating scurvy James Lind\u2019s 1747 study proved that citrus fruits prevented scurvy, but it was many years before his ideas were put into practice. 17d4\u2019A7plaJeeremqtaiuabnaletldreiotifRndfesoernveednlotipasl 17J4o8dheEnislnlFcngroelitibssheshesdrptgihphilyhelsthiceiarnia 17S4i8peugBobfferliihresnuhdhmeAasarlbndhiiansnusasttuodmy y 17i4n9troLdeuocnehsar3dDEcuoloerrdinates 17B4o9huiPsigniueeLexraprree\ufb01pdguiubtirloiesnhd\ufb01eensldainTgersre s1u7g4gf7reusJitatsmctuherasetsLciisntcrduursvy pub1l7is4h8eJosafhmEisaerestxhBp\u2019rslaanndualettayiotnion ApriElu1lF2ee,rr1pm7r4oa9vt\u2018epsLsretiPhomeineeohrranreerumdmdefboerrs 17b4e9gsGitnuesdoyprguoebfHslniicadsatteuotiBrioraunelfoNhfofiasnhttuiosrrey,lle 142","1751\u201352 THE GOAL OF ENCYCLOP\u00c9DIE,, IS TO ASSEMBLE ALL THE ,, ,,KNOWLEDGE... OF THE EARTH... SO THAT THE WORK OF CENTURIES PAST IS NOT USELESS. Denis Diderot, French philosopher, in Encyclop\u00e9die, 1751 This illustration of a state-of-the-art scienti\ufb01c laboratory of the mid-18th century is from Denis Diderot\u2019s and Jean d\u2019Alembert\u2019s Encyclop\u00e9die. variations in depth as well FRENCH MATHEMATICIAN Lightning charge Future American statesman Also this year, physicist Thomas as length and breadth. The PIERRE LOUIS MAUPERTUIS In Philadelphia in June Benjamin Franklin (1706\u201390) Melvill (1726-53) discovered positions or coordinates on (1698\u20131759) wrote Systeme de la 1752, experimenter and was intrigued by the similarity that when he set different these three axes, known as x, Nature (The System of Nature) in statesman Benjamin between lightning and the sparks substances a\ufb02ame, the \ufb02ame y, and z, are now central to 1751. In it he discussed how Franklin risked death as in his home demonstrations of gave differently colored trigonometry (see 1635\u201337). characteristics are passed on he proved lightning is electrical phenomena. Franklin spectra when shone through Also this year, Euler proved from animals to their offspring, electricity by \ufb02ying a kite became convinced that lightning a prism. Salt gave a spectra French mathematician Pierre de later the basis of the science into a thundercloud to is natural electricity and in dominated by bright yellow, for Fermat\u2019s theorem that certain of genetics. His ideas also draw down the charge. Experiments and Observations in instance. This was the beginning prime numbers\u2014numbers that foreshadowed naturalist Charles Electricity, published in London of spectroscopy, by which are divisible only by themselves Darwin\u2019s once discredited ideas knowledge of the time, in 1751, he described an substances are identi\ufb01ed by and the number one\u2014can be on pangenesis, an early theory Encyclop\u00e9die. It was experiment to prove his theory. the color of light they emit. expressed as the sum of two of heredity now receiving the \ufb01rst encyclopedia This involved drawing lightning square numbers. renewed attention. to include work from down to a spike on a sentry box. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN a variety of named (1706\u201390) Meanwhile, French Also in this year, French contributors, and it In May 1752, Frenchman hydrographer Pierre Bouguer philosophers Denis Diderot aimed to collate the Jean-Francois d\u2019Alibard Born in Boston, Franklin (1698\u20131758) was embroiled in a (1713\u201384) and Jean d\u2019Alembert world\u2019s knowledge (1703-99) tried Franklin\u2019s lived most of his life in dispute concerning the shape of started work on their book that in one place. experiment in France and found Philadelphia, where he ran Earth. The French expedition to attempted to summarize all that it worked. The following a printing business. He was South America led by Bouguer In Edinburgh in 1751, month, Franklin, not yet aware of one of the founding fathers and Charles de la Condamine Scottish physician d\u2019Alibard\u2019s success, went out in of American independence in the 1730s (see 1733\u201339) had Robert Whytt (1714-1766) a summer storm in Philadelphia and became famous for his helped prove that Earth\u2019s discovered how the pupil of the to \ufb02y a kite under the clouds to investigations into the nature circumference is \ufb02attened eye automatically opens or draw electrical charge down the of electricity. He also invented at the poles\u2014but the pair closes in response to levels of line to a key, insulated from the lightning rod and a type of disagreed bitterly on the exact light. His pupil re\ufb02ex was the the experimenter by a silk ribbon. cast-iron stove, and he made results. Bouguer published his \ufb01rst discovery of a bodily re\ufb02ex, As sparks streamed off the key, studies of the Gulf Stream. claim in La \ufb01gure de la terre an automatic response Franklin, like d\u2019Alibard, could see (The Shape of the Earth), in 1749. to a stimulus. that the cloud was electri\ufb01ed. De la Condamine published his counterclaim two years later. HE SNATCHED THE In 1750, English astronomer ,,LIGHTNING FROM THE SKY Thomas Wright (1711\u201386) began to think about the shape of the AND THE SCEPTER Milky Way, not then recognized FROM TYRANTS. as a galaxy. Wright speculated correctly that although we Anne-Robert Jacques Turgot, French economist and statesman, cannot see it because we are in on Benjamin Franklin, in a letter to Samuel P. du Pont, 1778 the middle of it, the Milky Way is shaped like a \ufb02at disk. 17W50trhigTsehhhMtoapmdileekasdysclWriikbaeyesaasdisk 17d5is1pcuRopoviebl rerser\ufb02tthWeexhytt 17a5n1bdeDEJgeneinncayinwscoldDor\u2019Aipkd\u00e9leeodrmnioetbtheeritr 17F5r2laignBhketlnninijnapmgrioisnveeslectric 1751 PsieurgrgeesMtosafutphpaeenrtgthueeinoserysis Th1o7m5a2sEMnegllvisilhslepcehpceiotmrnoeissectrospy 143","1753\u201354 ,,1755\u201356 Carl Linnaeus\u2019s classi\ufb01cation of plants focused on their sexual organs, the pistils and stamens, \u2026SYSTEMS OF MANY STARS, as illustrated here by botanical artist Georg Ehret, who worked with Linnaeus in the 1730s. WHOSE DISTANCE PRESENTS THEM ,,IN SUCH A NARROW SPACE THAT THE LIGHT\u2026 REACHES US, IN A UNIFORM PALE GLIMMER\u2026 Immanuel Kant, German philosopher in Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens, 1755 AMERICAN INVENTOR AND Lightning conductor life as known on Earth. But AROUND MIDMORNING ON 15% of POLYMATH BENJAMIN Franklin\u2019s lightning rod Bo\u0161kovi\u0107\u2019s almost-correct theory NOVEMBER 1, 1755, the city buildings still FRANKLIN (1705\u201390) had initially met with worried was a key step in the process of of Lisbon in Portugal was standing proved in 1751 that lightning is opposition, but soon many understanding other worlds devastated by an earthquake natural electricity. Some two buildings were sprouting these beside our own. now estimated at magnitude 8.5 85% of buildings years later, he demonstrated \u201cproperty protectors.\u201d on the Richter scale (see 1935). destroyed with his new invention, the Scottish chemist Joseph After studying the after-effects, lightning rod, how buildings Swiss mathematician Black (1728\u201399) also found British geologist John Michell Great quake could be protected against Leonhard Euler (1707\u201383) out something about Earth\u2019s (1724\u201393) correctly suggested Many major buildings and around this hazard. The simple addressed the question of how atmosphere with his discovery that earthquakes travel as 12,000 dwellings were destroyed device, still used today, of carbon dioxide, which he seismic waves, which alternately by Lisbon\u2019s earthquake of 1755. comprised a metal rod three heavenly bodies, called \u201c\ufb01xed air.\u201d Black learned compress and stretch the placed on top of a building such as the Sun, Moon, that this gas is heavier than ground. Michell worked out use of hydraulic lime, a cement to draw down lightning and Earth, interact. He air, does not allow \ufb02ames to that the quake\u2019s epicenter\u2014 that sets underwater and is and conduct it harmlessly approached what is burn, can cause asphyxiation, the point where the waves that resilient to deterioration when to the ground through a known as the three- and is exhaled by animals shook Lisbon originated\u2014was in wet. Smeaton used hydraulic metal wire, saving the body problem in his in breath. the eastern Atlantic between the lime to build the third Eddystone building from damage. book Theoria Motus Azores and Gibraltar. lighthouse off the coast of Although many argued Lunae (A Theory of During this period, Swedish southwest England. that drawing lightning Lunar Motion), and naturalist Carl Linnaeus (see British engineer John Smeaton only increased the eventually found a 1737\u201339) produced his work (1724\u201392) improved the stability likelihood of a strike, solution in 1760. Euler on classifying plants, Species of buildings with his pioneering the idea caught on also pioneered studies Plantarum (The Species of quickly. But Czech into how the gravitational Plants), which covered some inventor Prokop pull between the Moon 6,000 plants and gave each one Divi\u0161 (1698\u20131765) and Earth drives tides on a binomial (two-part) Latin name independently invented Earth. Understanding of indicating genus and species. a similar device around such forces was still in This system provides the basis the same time, and it was its infancy in 1754, when for plant nomenclature used Divi\u0161\u2019s design that became Dutch dike supervisor by botanists today. more widely used. Albert Brahms (1692\u20131758) began the \ufb01rst scienti\ufb01c 30,000 British naval surgeon James recordings of tide levels. Lind published in 1753 the \ufb01rst Ru\u0111er Josip Bo\u0161kovi\u0107 ESTIMATED edition of A Treatise of the (1711\u201387) of Dubrovnik, who NUMBER OF Scurvy, the result of six years made signi\ufb01cant contributions AMPS CARRIED research into the bene\ufb01ts of to at least half a dozen scienti\ufb01c IN A BOLT OF citrus fruit as a preventive of the \ufb01elds, claimed that the Moon LIGHTNING dread shipboard disease. It was has no atmosphere. In fact, we several decades before anyone now know that the Moon does acted fully on Lind\u2019s theory. have a sparse atmosphere, although not enough to support 17B5e3innIvjnaemnUtiSsn,lFigrhantnkilning rod MaLyinh1nisc,al1sea7yuss5sst3iep\ufb01mCucabaotlriiflsophnleasnt 17o5f3\ufb01pcuBoebfrrlititsJhishaehmeSsnceAausvrTLavriylnedatise 17C5h4thaSmrelweiidnsisedBsaiopstnhoknlayeetmytthtapoetiohppneheryessroiscnaallity 17p5h5KilaoGtnhseoteorfdopmterhhayveenerfolSoIrmopflsmoarrnameSnbayuusteitloleanmr 144 mthL1are7teho5ene3-wmhbSoaoawrrdtkdiiyscsEsipaournnloebtrhleem 1753 RCuro\u0111aetriaBntoha\u0161esktoMrvooin\u0107aootcnmmlahoeiamsrspshneore esntgairntse1es7rc5iA4elnbDteiu\ufb01rttcocBhfretrdiacdiohkeremdleisnvgels 1J7o5s4epShcoBttlaicscahkrcbdhoisencmdoivisoetxrisde NLoiesvaMberomticnhhb,qeaeulnraldk1toe,po1ddrfo7eesm5vveea5pilssottmsApantJitecohshwenoarvyes","1757\u201358 ,, A PARTICLE\u2026 OF POINTS QUITE HOMOGENEOUS, SUBJECT TO A LAW ,,OF FORCES\u2026 MAY EITHER ATTRACT, REPEL, OR HAVE NO EFFECT\u2026 ON ANOTHER PARTICLE\u2026 Ruder Bo\u0161kovi\u00b4c, Croatian scientist, in Theory of Natural Philosophy, 1758 Immanuel Kant believed, as do many scientists today, that the Solar System originated as a cloud of dust between the stars. In Russia, polymath Mikhail MIKHAIL LOMONOSOV (1711\u201365) THE IDEA THAT THINGS Mayer (1723\u201362) and used Lomonosov proved the law ARE MADE FROM ATOMS to calculate longitude at sea. of conservation of matter by Little known in the West, had been important since the Also working on longitude showing that when lead plates Lomonosov was born a early 17th century. But Ru\u0111er calculations at about this are heated inside a jar the peasant and went on to Bo\u0161kovi\u0107, living in Venice at time was English clockmaker collective weight of jar and become a pioneer in physics, the time, went further and John Harrison (1693\u20131776), contents stays the same, chemistry, and astronomy, a developed his own atomic whose H3 chronometer proved although the materials have poet, and a key thinker in the theory, which he explained in precise enough to be used altered. His \ufb01ndings predated by Russian Enlightenment. His his book Theoria Philosophiae for longitude calculations nearly 30 years the similar law achievements include the (Theory of Natural Philosophy). under all conditions. formulated by French chemist discovery of planet Venus\u2019s Bo\u0161kovi\u0107 suggested that matter Antoine Lavoisier (see 1781\u201382). atmosphere, and devising is built from pointlike particles In Switzerland, the three theories for light waves and interacting in pairs. engineering Grubenmann German philosopher iceberg formation. brothers\u2014Jakob (1694\u20131758), Immanuel Kant (1724\u20131804) In France, astronomer Alexis Johannes (1707\u201371), and Hans developed the idea of the nebular that collapsed inward Destruction of a city Claude Clairaut (1713\u201365), (1709\u201383)\u2014erected the world\u2019s hypothesis, \ufb01rst suggested by under its own gravity, the Over 30,000 people were killed by the who had earlier made a name longest road bridges, including Swedish thinker and visionary matter forming into massive earthquake that rocked for himself with his theory on a 220ft- (67m-) long bridge at Emanuel Swedenborg (1688\u2013 the Sun and planets. the Portuguese city of Lisbon in why Earth must be \ufb02attened at Reichenau over a tributary of 1772) in the 1730s. This theory the poles, developed a theory the Rhine. postulates that the Solar System November 1755. about comets. He suggested originated in a rotating gas cloud that Halley\u2019s comet, due to reappear in 1759, might be subject to unknown gravitational forces, such as another comet. Clairaut also compiled lunar tables, but they were not as important or as accurate as those made in G\u00f6ttingen, in Germany, by astronomer Tobias Moon map German astronomer Tobias Mayer\u2019s close study of the Moon resulted in the \ufb01rst maps to show accurately the positions of the craters on the lunar surface. 17M5i6pkrhRcoaouvineslsssLeitoarhmnveapoltoaniolwoynsmooofavftmh atter 17c5lo7HcaEhkrnimrsgisaHlioks3nehcrchJoromohnpnolemteester 17s5c8BieoChn\u0161ritskiosoaatvttRiio\u0107aumnp\u0111uiecbrtlhisehoersy Sm1e7neg5ait6noweBneardritteeiJvsroehschleoontnptcisnregte aasctc1rou7Mnr5ao7atmyeGeeMterraropbmTorloeenabss\u2019niseaonmsfttsohteion suagsgteros1Ctn7slmo5aHm8uaadyeFlerrlbeaeCAeynnll\u2019ssocaethtixCehrieaoserumretcdeotbmyet 1758 SwthbiersosGtherwenuorgbrsielnrdneeo\u2019rmseaerdalcsotnbntnrhgieedsgtes 145","1543\u20131788 THE AGE OF DISCOVERY graph Barograph paper on 20th century rotating As the barometer reacts to air pressure, by either expanding or contracting, the drum movement causes the marker pen attached to the lid of the barometer to move over the graph paper on the revolving drum. pen attached to lid of barometer aneroid barometer vane veers to show wind direction rotors turn vane into the wind METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS ACCURATE METEOROLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS PAVED THE WAY FOR WEATHER FORECASTING People have always sought ways to understand and re\ufb02ective surface predict the changes to the weather around them, and of glass ball this led to the development of devices to investigate the focuses Sun\u2019s rays properties of air, such as its temperature and pressure. focused rays The \ufb01rst meteorological instruments were made in 17th-century Italy. Parheliometer scorched onto At \ufb01rst, tools were created simply to learn about the atmosphere. 1881 strip of card Thermometers measured changes in temperature; barometers revealed Hours of sunshine held here can be recorded on variations in air pressure; anemometers registered a parheliometer, in drum held paper on wind strength; and hygrometers showed humidity. which a glass ball which wind speed Gradually, it was realized that these measurements focuses the Sun\u2019s was recorded could be used to help predict the weather, and rays onto card so that the Sun\u2019s Spinning-cup anemograph now countless readings from weather stations all passage leaves 20th century around the world are fed into powerful computers a scorch trace. The spinning-cup anemometer was invented to build up weather forecasts. in 1846 by Irish astronomer John Robinson to measure wind speed. This \u201canemograph\u201d records mercury Aneroid barometer wind speed continuously on a cylindrical chart. thermometer 20th century Air pressure changes, shown on the dial of an aneroid barometer, are a good indicator of weather to come. Falling pressure suggests stormy weather, and steady high pressure heralds clear weather. air pressure in millibars Aneroid barometer\/thermometer 20th century In the 19th century, before broadcast weather reports, a combined thermometer and aneroid barometer, typically housed in a case shaped like a banjo, helped householders make their own weather predictions. 146","wind speed METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS indicated by how Weather calculator fast cup spins 1920s British meteorologist Lewis Soil thermometers Richardson helped develop 1990s numeric weather prediction by Right-angled thermometers are used creating special calculators. to measure soil temperature at varying depths. This is done to see how deeply frost has penetrated the ground. Glass thermometer Thermometer Cotton-reel thermometer 1700s 1990s c.1855\u201377 This beautiful Maximum and This desk-top combination thermometer was minimum temperatures instrument features a made by Italian glass reached each day are mercury thermometer blowers. It is \ufb01lled recorded on either arm and a compass. with alcohol that of a double-ended expands and climbs thermometer. the spiral when the temperature rises. collection funnel water runs down antenna propeller funnel and collects wind vane in cylinder Sea thermometer measures c.1870 speed and Rain gauge This thermometer for direction 1980s measuring sea temperature of wind Rainfall can be was used on the HMS recorded simply by Challenger oceanographic the depth of water expedition of 1872\u201376. funnelled down inside a rain gauge, typically sensor mounted 8 in (20 cm) measures air above the ground to temperature avoid splashes. dry bulb wet cloth keeps bulb moist scale shows vane to Ocean weather humidity orient buoy station into the wind 1980s Hair hygrometer Since the 1970s, c.1830 sensor measures This simple way of temperature of \ufb02oating weather measuring humidity sea\u2019s surface buoys have been depended on the ability used to monitor of a human hair to stretch in moist air weather conditions and shrink in dry at sea. They move air in a regular and freely with ocean predictable way. currents and beam strands of back continual human hair measurements via satellite links. Hygrometer 1836 Evaporation causes cooling, so the temperature difference between two bulbs of a thermometer, one kept wet, one dry, can be compared to calculate humidity. 147","1759\u201360 30,000 THE NUMBER OF PLANT SPECIES IN THE LIVING COLLECTIONS AT KEW GARDENS In 1760, the botanic gardens at Kew in London were enlarged to accommodate the many exotic plants brought back from distant lands. This is Kew\u2019s great Palm House of 1848. H4 chronometer THE PROBLEM OF CALCULATING ,, THE THEATER The \ufb01rst practical device for LONGITUDE AT SEA WAS \ufb01nally OF THE MIND COULD calculating longitude at sea, solved in 1759 with a highly Harrison\u2019s H4 chronometer was like accurate clock, or chronometer. ,,BE GENERATED BY a large pocket watch, 5in (13cm) Most people had assumed that across and weighing 3.2lb (1.45kg). such a clock would be large and THE MACHINERY OF complex. Between 1730 and THE BRAIN. 1759, English clockmaker John Charles Bonnet, Swiss scientist, from Essai Analytique sur les Facult\u00e9s Harrison had built three de L\u2019\u00e2me (Analytical Essay on the Powers of the Soul), 1760 chronometers, all very accurate but not accurate enough. Then of Earth\u2019s landscapes must be In 1760, Charles Bonnet Harrison realized the clock did long and complex, not simply the described what came to be known not have to be big. In 1760, he result of a few brief catastrophes. as Charles Bonnet syndrome, a built a chronometer the size condition in which people with of a pocket watch. Called H4, One year previously, Italian poor eyesight are af\ufb02icted with it worked astonishingly well, geologist Giovanni Arduino hallucinations. He observed the (1714\u201395) suggested that the symptoms in his grandfather and losing just 5.1 seconds in a geological history of Earth suggested that the visualizations two-month journey across could be divided into four periods: that the mind sees are generated the Atlantic in 1761. Primitive, Secondary, Tertiary, and by the physical brain. Volcanic or Quaternary. As mariners sailed farther, they brought exotic plants CHARLES BONNET (1720\u201393) to Europe from across the globe. These were planted Born near Geneva, Charles in newly created botanical Bonnet lived all his life in his gardens, such as Kew hometown. His studies included Gardens in London, which research on parthenogenesis was greatly enlarged in 1760 in insects (reproduction by Augusta of Saxe-Coburg, without sex) and the discovery dowager Princess of Wales. that caterpillars breathe Mariners sailing through the through pores. A naturalist Southern Ocean brought back as well as a philosopher, he tales of giant icebergs. Russian also pioneered the idea that polymath Mikhail Lomonosov the mind is the product of the suggested that they must physical brain. have formed on dry land, on a continent as yet undiscovered, which later proved to be Antarctica. He also suggested that some rocks were much older than others and that the history 17A5r9pdruGtohiipnoheoovigssianetentosonorlidyofoigvouiifdcrEaipnalegrrtihods 17L6o0bnyKdSAoeaunwxge, Geu-Cnsatolraadbreuognfregsd, 17s6u0lgagMnseldioskswthcsaantiplhaeLatutoisrmEacalorrenptaorhots\u2019secodevsbsyelsong, 17J6o0hcEannuMgseliicsohhfegelleasorutlohggqgiuessattkses 1c7o6mcH0hparJloroernhtieosnsomnHe4ter 148"]
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