["931\u2013999 A 14th-century manuscript shows two innovative surgical instruments introduced by Spanish\u2013Arab physician al-Zahrawi (Albucasis). THE APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF NEW SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS 200INTRODUCED BY AL-ZAHRAWI THE MODERN Abacus treatises by ancient scholars also known as Albucasis. He was NUMERALS for This is a modern such as Boethius, studied the court surgeon to al-Hakam, the expressing the example of an work of Islamic mathematicians, Umayyad Caliph of Cordoba. His decimal system \ufb01rst abacus, a counting and introduced the abacus to Kitab al-Tasrif (The Method of appeared in Europe device that appeared Europe, giving instructions for its Medicine)\u2014containing detailed in 976 in a treatise in Mesopotamia use in multiplication and division. descriptions of human anatomy written by the monk around 2700 BCE. and the pathology of diseases\u2014 Vigila in the northern It was introduced The greatest Arab surgeon of became the main textbook for Spanish convent of to medieval Europe medieval times was Abu al- medieval European physicians. Albelda (although by Gerbert in Qasim al-Zahrawi (c.936\u20131013), he included only the around 990 CE. symbols for 1 to 9 and not zero). the astronomer Zhang Sixun Ancient Ancient Ancient Ancient Modern This number system, now known in 979. It was powered by a out by mechanical jacks that Babylonian Egyptian Greek Roman Chinese Mayan Hindu\u2013Arabic as Hindu\u2013Arabic, had originated waterwheel with scoops that emerged to strike bells and in the numerical notation of the deposited the liquid into a drums, or to display the time on a Brahmi script used in India in clepsydra (a device that measures tablet. The clock also showed the the mid-3rd century BCE, which time by the \ufb02ow of liquid through position of the Sun, Moon, and then spread westward after the a small hole) as it turned around, \ufb01ve planets on a celestial globe, Arabs came in contact with India which in turn regulated the and was said to be so advanced in the early 8th century CE. measurement of the hours. In that after Sixun\u2019s death no one order to avoid the liquid freezing could keep it in working order. Although mechanical in winter\u2014a problem that had armillary spheres and af\ufb02icted earlier such clocks\u2014Yi In 984, Persian mathematician mechanical escapements for Xing had substituted mercury for Ibn Sahl (c.940\u20131000) wrote clocks had been devised in water. Zhang Sixun\u2019s improved On the Burning Instruments, a version made one complete treatise in which he examined the China by Zhang Heng in the revolution each day, with each bending of light by lenses and 2nd century and Yi Xing in quarter-hour and hour sounded curved mirrors. He was the \ufb01rst the 8th century, a superior to express a geometric theory of version was constructed by refraction. He suggested that the amount of light that is de\ufb02ected ,, \u2026HE WHO DEVOTES when it enters another medium DEVELOPMENT OF NUMBERS (such as glass) varies, depending ,,HIMSELF TO SURGERY on the refractive index (see Many early number systems, such as the Egyptian, were additive\u2014 1621\u201324) of the substance. the value of the number symbol did not depend on its position; to MUST BE VERSED IN\u2026 make 20, the symbol for 10 would be written twice. Around 2000BCE, ANATOMY. Christian monastic scholar the Babylonians began to use a partly positional system\u2014where the Gerbert (c.943\u20131003), who order of magnitude depends on the position in which the symbol Al-Zahrawi (Albucasis), in Kitab al-Tasrif, c.990 became Pope in 999, was one appears. Positional systems using 10 as the base developed in India, of the \ufb01rst Western European and gradually evolved into the modern Hindu\u2013Arabic numerals. mathematicians of the Middle Ages. He sought to recover mathematical and astronomical c.9p3hp2yhsSJiilcoeomilwsaoaonimslpaahohrnneidardlIesfseacvarecirbbeesn c.9p5rmo0d\u2013auk6ci0ensgAbtaausbtalrelo-slKafhobraezdinisi ks 97b9uciZllodhbcsayknamgpmeoSrweicxcueuhrrneaydnical 97p9rr\u2013oe9pfo8rsa4ecIstbionthnSeoalfhallwigohft c.9in9tt0rhomeGdaeeubrdcbaeieecsvruatsl Etourope c.950\u2013w7r9itIebsngstaerleelr-eaiJatpaitsrzdeizicsassoroarndnedrs 9w69orAkl-oSnijtzhieprtorofidsauenccetaisonngle c.980 AAbbubiabsn)oawnlm-reAiteoebdfsbimacAsala-l(iMHnteaaAxllrtyikbaibo,iocks 994 Pael-rtKshhiaautnjEaanasdrttrihodis\u2019nissodacmeoxcveiraerelrastsilitng 49","1000\u20131029 ,, NOW IT IS ESTABLISHED IN THE SCIENCES THAT NO A page from Avicenna\u2019s Canon of Medicine shows the heart and skull as part of an illustration explaining the theory of the four humors. ,,KNOWLEDGE IS ACQUIRED SAVE THROUGH THE STUDY OF ITS CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Arab polymath, from Canon of Medicine, c.1005 AROUND 1005, THE ARAB The Persian astronomer and HOW LENSES WORK MEDICAL SCHOLAR and polymath mathematician Abu Sahl al-Quhi Ibn Sina (known as Avicenna (c.940\u20131000) was head of the A convex lens is thicker in the ray of light focal length in Europe) wrote the Canon of observatory founded by Sharaf middle than at the sides. When principal axis Medicine, a major compendium al-Dawla in Baghdad in 988, but light rays strike the lens they are CONVEX (CONVERGING) LENS converging principal that sought to provide a he was particularly noted for his diffracted and converge behind principal focus rays of light focus systematic understanding of work in solving equations of the lens at a single point called medical knowledge of the time. greater than the second degree the principal focus. Convex CONCAVE (DIVERGING) LENS focal length Avicenna tried to reconcile (in which the highest power of a lenses are used to treat far- theories of four humors variable is more than two). He sightedness because they bring virtual ray (blood, yellow bile, black bile, employed a geometrical method objects that are closer, into focus. and phlegm; see 100\u2013250) with of intersecting curved lines to A concave lens is thinner in the diverging Aristotle\u2019s idea of three life achieve this. Around 1000, he middle than at the sides. Light rays of light forces (psychic, natural, and wrote On the Construction of an rays diverge and seem to focus human). Avicenna\u2019s careful and Equilateral Pentagon in a Known in front of the lens. These lenses comprehensive account in \ufb01ve Square, in which he demonstrated address near-sightedness. volumes of physiology, diagnosis, the solution by solving an therapy, the pathology of diseases, equation to the fourth degree. from Islamic philosophy and and 1021. He proposed that the the eye\u2019s physiology, describing and pharmacology made it an law to physics and astronomy, blinding effect of bright light and it as being made up of various extremely valuable medical In 1005, the Fatimid caliph it became a center for the existence of after-images humors and separated into handbook. It was commented al-Hakim founded the House philosophers and theologians. proved that vision was caused sections by spherical sheaths. on by many subsequent Arabic of Knowledge (Dar al-\u2018ilm) At \ufb01rst, the House of Knowledge by light coming into the eye. He physicians and was printed as in Cairo. Equipped with a vast also developed a new theory of Latin translations 36 times. library covering subjects ranging hosted a series of public lectures, but these Alhazen\u2019s eye ended in 1015 IBN SINA (980\u20131037) Shown here is a after fears diagrammatic eye from that religious Born near Bukhara, Uzbekistan, a 1575 Latin translation of dissidents were Ibn Sina (Avicenna) was a Alhazen\u2019s Book of Optics. establishing a medical prodigy. He claimed presence there. to have successfully treated The Arabic patients by age 16. He served sage Abu \u2018Ali ibn the Samanid rulers of Bukhara, al-Haytham but their overthrow in 999 led (c.965\u20131039), also to his exile. He ended up at the known as Alhazen, is court of Shams al-Dawla of best known for his Kitab Hamadan, where he wrote his great Canon of Medicine. al-Munazir (Book of Optics), which he wrote between 1011 10d0es0socAelruqli-tbtuhQieaoeustnhsitooiehnfcesonbdeydoengdree 10f0ouK4nnCdoaswlitplhehedagHle-oHuinaskeCiaomifro 10A0ld6i iebMsncurRsilipidmtwioaannsotgrfoivaneossmu\ufb01perersrtnova 10A1r5Mabapsrpewehlsiemyjcascr\u2014haitciudbaitaaeeol-nrsoMcyftu\u2014ahgrreeariongmpudeainemsdltaegnecmhosl\u00a0ia 100c5omIbnpMoSseiendsaict(ihAneevci,Ccoaeamnmnnpoeaend)noidcfiaulm 1011\u201321 AhlhisazthienenoBproryoookpfoovsfiesOsipotnics 50","1030\u20131049 The earliest movable type in China was made of clay, and later of wood. Metal movable type such as these blocks did not become common until the Ming dynasty in the 17th century. IN THE EARLY 11TH CENTURY, carved for each individual page. weather using an \u201ciron \ufb01sh.\u201d The Anatomy of a crossbow \ufb02ight Spanish\u2013Arab astronomer Abu Around 1040, a commoner needle of this early compass This 16th-century German Abdallah ibn Mu\u2019adh al-Jayyani named Pi Sheng developed probably \ufb02oated on top of a bowl crossbow could not be used without stirrup (989\u20131079) carried out work a form of movable type by of water and the technique was a crannequin\u2014a toothed wheel bolt integrating trigonometry and creating thin strips of clay, later adapted for navigation at attached to a crank\u2014which was optics. His Book of Unknown each impressed with a single sea. One document referring to used to bend the crossbow. wooden tiller Arcs of a Sphere was the \ufb01rst character, which he baked in a veneered comprehensive work on spherical \ufb01re. He then placed these on an crannequin curved claws with bone trigonometry. Around 1030, iron tray to compose the page to grip bowstring al-Jayyani used this work in his be printed. The clay letters could 5 1writcet.r1se0Tai5mati0qspweIobidremntimeaBatnpulach-tesnlaaidshonihfhzaigynoggoiedne Book on Twilight to calculate be rearranged as desired to cord loops toothed the angle of the Sun below the create a new page. The method onto tiller pins rack horizon at the end of evening fell into disuse after Pi Sheng\u2019s twilight to be 18 degrees. By death until its revival in the rotating pin taking this as the lowest angle mid-13th century. By then, far released by trigger at which the Sun\u2019s rays can more durable type made of iron meet the upper edge of the atmosphere, steel pin to engage composite lathe of he worked out the spanning mechanism bone, sinew, and wood height of Earth\u2019s atmosphere as 64 miles (103km).NUMBER OR ARROWS PER MINUTE had been invented in Korea, the period around 1086 tells of their power was limited by the where it was \ufb01rst used in 1234. a \u201csouth-pointing needle\u201d used ability of the user to pull back Printing using carved wooden for \ufb01nding bearings at night. the bowstring by hand. By the blocks had appeared in China The Chinese had understood In 1123, an account of a mid-11th century, a stirrup around the 6th century, but the the properties of magnetic diplomatic mission to South was placed at the end of the process was cumbersome, lodestones in transferring Korea describes the sailors\u2019 stock, so that the user could requiring a new block to be polarity to a needle several use of the compass. It would push against this with his legs centuries earlier (see 300\u2013 be another 67 years, however, while pulling the string back. 12 250BCE), but no real application before such knowledge spread Mechanical cranks were also was made. In 1044, the \ufb01rst to Europe. invented that could be turned 10 mention is made of a \u201csouth- to tighten the string. By the pointing carriage\u201d used to \ufb01nd Crossbows had made an early 13th century, complex 8 directions on land during gloomy appearance in China as early windlasses (contraptions as the 8th century BCE and are used to move heavy objects) 6 The deadliest weapon? recorded in Greece in the early were devised, which imparted Medieval crossbowmen \ufb01red at as 3rd century BCE. Hand-held high tensile strength to the 4 little as a tenth the rate of longbow crossbows came into use in crossbow bolt. archers, although their bolts had France in the 10th century, but 2 more power. 0 Longbow Crossbow WEAPON c.1a0sAt3rl0Eo-BnaPtorihertmceurhasneSnmiiarunsnanouy,tgbrpgouretotsavsttesaeyitatshrahoteund c.1s0uE3ml0emmmAoealeft-rhncNizouteasdbssaefaoEnwrrduoiecodxlteitsdrs\u2019acscritbioens c.1m0uo4vs0ainPbgliecSlthayeypnebglfooincrkvpesrnitnsting c.1d0e3vmi0sueGssudicniedaevolewnldoot\u2019Aphtasreetoshizoryezynsxotaoeacfmnhdoorfds 1044muFasiregsdntefmotirecnnctaoiovmnigpioanaftsCioshni,na","1050\u201369,, THEN WAS ALL OVER ENGLAND SUCH A TOKEN SEEN AS NO MAN ,,EVER SAW BEFORE\u2026 From The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, describing the comet of 1066 IN THE 11TH CENTURY, Chinese 22THE NUMBER mathematician Jia Xian described OF MONTHS THAT a method of calculating square and cubic roots using numbers THE SUPERNOVA arranged in rows. Each row WAS VISIBLE contained one more number FROM 1054 TO 1055 than the row above it, to form a Nebula) was visible from Earth. by European astronomers. triangle in which each number It was observed by Arabic and Astrologers viewed the comet as is the sum of the two directly Chinese astronomers, who an omen, and found it especially above it. Known as the Jia described it as a \u201cguest star,\u201d signi\ufb01cant in the year of the Xian triangle, it is also often but its signi\ufb01cance was not Norman invasion of England. referred to in the West as realized by observers in Europe. Pascal\u2019s triangle, after French The Bayeux tapestry mathematician Blaise Pascal, In 1066, the comet now called This embroidered record of the who described it 600 years later. Halley\u2019s Comet made one of events surrounding the Battle its regular 76-year periodic of Hastings in 1066 shows the In 1054, the massive explosion appearances and was described appearance of Halley\u2019s Comet. of a supernova (which formed what we now know as the Crab outward pressure fusion inward pressure compressed shock wave neutron of gas and radiation creates of gravity balances core implodes blows star apart star or outward pressure black hole supports star iron neutrinos material exhausted released thrown out hydrogen core by explosion envelope active CORE heavy DETONATION core COLLAPSES elements DYING SUPERGIANT form in FORMATION OF A SUPERNOVA outer IMPLOSION layers OCCURS A supernova is an explosion of a massive supergiant Subatomic particles called neutrinos are released star at the last stage of its life. Over a long period of as implosion occurs. Now out of control, the star time, a star builds up a core of iron, which eventually explodes with a huge amount of energy\u2014billions collapses in on itself as the star runs out of fuel for of times more than the Sun, which is also a star\u2014 fusion. This results in an implosion that rapidly shining brighter than other stars and scattering reheats the star and restarts the process of fusion. debris in all directions, over vast distances. c.1X0ita5hn0terdJiJkeaiinasanPocgaXwrlsiienabc,neaalslasttrethiraengle 10A5ro4abbCtshhaeCaisrntrtvaerfeoobsrnetNmhoaeemsnbsedtuhurlepsaernova 52 10a6s6HTahlelecyo\u2019smCeot mlaetetrisksniogwhnted","1070\u201399 ,,BY THE HELP OF GOD AND ,,,,WITH HIS PRECIOUS ASSISTANCE, I SAY THAT ALGEBRA IS A SCIENTIFIC ART. Omar Khayyam, from Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra, 1070 This manuscript is one of the many treatises that Omar Khayyam wrote on mathematics, astronomy, mechanics, and philosophy. PERSIAN MATHEMATICIAN AND At Isfahan, he also worked on OMAR KHAYYAM (1048\u20131131) ASTRONOMER Omar Khayyam his poetry, later collected in began work on his Treatise on The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam. Demonstration of Problems of In 1079, he calculated the length Born in Persia (now Iran), Omar Algebra in 1070, the year that he of a year as 365.24219858156 Khayyam showed a talent for moved to Samarkand, Uzbekistan, days\u2014a greater degree of astronomy and mathematics at and devoted himself to study and precision than ever before, and an early age; he wrote many of writing. In it, he gave a complete remarkably close to the modern his treatises before he was 25 classi\ufb01cation of the types of measurement of 365.242190 years old. In 1073, he was invited cubic equation (an equation days. This led to the introduction by Sultan Malik-Shah to set up involving a term to the power of a new calendar in the Islamic an observatory in Isfahan. Here, of three, such as x+y3=15) and world, which was more accurate he worked on calendar reform described for the \ufb01rst time a than the Julian calendar used and astronomical tables, before general theory for solving them in Europe at the time. returning to his home town. using geometry. The method he Meanwhile, in China, the used involved the use of conic polymath Shen Kuo retired from sections and curves. He realized a successful career as a civil Pool Essays, named after his used in navigation to determine that some equations, such as servant and military leader in garden estate, were \ufb01nished in the direction of North. He also quadratic (involving a squared the court of the Song dynasty, 1088, and included an overview contributed to the \ufb01elds of term) and cubic equations, and devoted his time to study. of the sciences of the time, as paleontology and geology. had more than one solution. He wrote an extraordinarily well as some innovative ideas. Describing the discovery of Khayyam was also wide-ranging collection of For example, Shen was the \ufb01rst the remains of marine an accomplished essays on subjects as diverse to give a description of the creatures in the strata of a astronomer: from 1073 he as politics, divination, music, magnetic compass needle. cliff hundreds of miles from worked at the observatory and the sciences. The Dream He explained how it could be the coast, he suggested that in Isfahan, Iran. Much of these must have been covered his work was concerned UNDER THE GROUND, by silt over a long period of with the time\u2014which would have been compilation A FOREST OF BAMBOO later eroded\u2014and also proposed of astronomical SHOOTS WAS REVEALED\u2026 that the cliff must have at tables, but he THESE WERE SEVERAL some time been a coastal area. also helped improve He described fossilized the accuracy bamboo unearthed by a of the calendar. ,,DOZENS OF FEET BELOW landslide, in an area where bamboo does not grow, and Bamboo THE PRESENT SURFACE came to the conclusion that this Shen\u2019s discovery of fossilized bamboo OF THE GROUND. was the remains of an ancient in a cool, dry area led him to conclude forest from a time when the that the region would have been warm Shen Kuo, from Dream Pool Essays, 1088 climate of the area had been and humid in the past. signi\ufb01cantly different. 10K7h0warODyiytmePianmmragoorbTnblrseeetgmraiantsitssiooefnoAonlfgebra 10c7a9olcfOcuaamlalyetaeenrasdrKatahhrnaerdyelyeefaonnmrgamtbhles 1088 ShenDrKeuaomcPoomopl lEestseasys 53","800\u20131542 THE EUROPEAN AND ISLAMIC RENAISSANCE UNDERSTANDING STARS MASSIVE BALLS OF HOT, IONIZED GAS, STARS ARE POWERED BY NUCLEAR REACTIONS Our galaxy contains hundreds of billions of stars\u2014and there are hundreds of billions of galaxies, each containing similar numbers of these huge balls of plasma (hot, ionized gas). A star glows because it is hot, and most of the heat is generated by nuclear reactions in the star\u2019s core. Around 6,000 stars are visible to the naked eye LIFE CYCLES OF STARS HANS BETHE in the night sky. Apart from the Sun, they are so Stars form in huge masses of gas and dust In the 1930s, German-born physicist far away that, despite their enormous size, they called molecular clouds. Gravity causes matter Hans Bethe (1906\u20132005) worked out appear only as tiny points of light, even through in denser regions of these clouds to clump how nuclear fusion builds elements powerful telescopes. together to form protostars. This gravitational inside stars, for which he was awarded collapse produces heat, which causes atoms to the 1967 Nobel Prize in Physics. THE SUN IS A STAR lose electrons, becoming ions, so the matter in The Sun is by far the closest star: the light and the protostar becomes plasma\u2014a mixture of nuclear fusion reaction releases energy, other radiation it produces takes eight minutes to ions and electrons. At the protostar\u2019s center, the which heats the protostar further: a star is reach Earth, compared with over four years from high temperature and pressure cause nuclei of born. When the hydrogen runs out, nuclear the next nearest star. Like other stars, the Sun is hydrogen atoms to fuse together to form nuclei fusion ends, and the star cools and collapses composed mostly of hydrogen and helium, with of helium and some heavier elements. This under its own gravity. A star\u2019s \ufb01nal destiny small amounts of other elements. Its luminous depends upon its mass; the most massive surface (photosphere) is white hot, with a stars end up as black holes (see opposite). temperature of about 10,000\u00baF (5,500\u00baC), and its outer atmosphere, the corona, is much hotter. The Sun is about 5 billion years old, and is about halfway through its life cycle. 109 STAR BIRTH STAR DEATH The molecular cloud in the Carina Nebula (part of which As stars of low to intermediate mass near the ends of their THE NUMBER OF TIMES is shown in this image from the Hubble Space Telescope) lives, they eject haloes of hot gas, forming objects known as GREATER THE SUN\u2019S is one of the largest known regions of star birth in our planetary nebulae. At the center of each such nebula is a small DIAMETER IS COMPARED galaxy, the Milky Way. remnant of the once much larger star, called a white dwarf. WITH THE EARTH\u2019S STAR SIZES supergiant Sun Stars come in a huge variety of sizes. Supergiants, among the largest stars, large, hydrogen- white dwarf can be over 1,500 times bigger than burning star the Sun. The Sun itself has a neutron diameter of about 870,000 miles red giant Sun star (about 1.4 million km)\u2014roughly average for a star in the main part of Large stars black hole its life. The smallest stars, neutron The main types of large star include supergiants, red stars, are only about 12.5 miles giants, and large hydrogen-burning stars.The Sun is Small stars (20 km) across. an average-sized hydrogen-burning star. Small stars result from the death of larger stars. Stars like the Sun become white dwarfs, while more massive stars become tiny neutron stars or even black holes. 54","radiative zone solar prominence, a loop of plasma sunspot, core, at a temperature a cooler region of of 27 million \u00b0F corona extends millions the photosphere (15 million \u00b0C) of miles into space outward pressure, convection generated by reactions in zone the core, counteracts the inward pull of gravity photosphere, the Sun's luminous visible surface gravity pulls plasma inwards INSIDE THE SUN chromosphere, Nuclear reactions in a layer of the core generate huge atmosphere amounts of energy, which above the passes out through a layered photosphere internal structure and escapes into space. The outward pressure exerted BLACK HOLE by this radiation would blow the star According to the general apart were it not for the force of theory of relativity, gravity gravity acting in opposition. is curvature of spacetime due to mass (see 1916). NEUTRON STARS AND BLACK HOLES star, even this force cannot halt collapse and the A black hole is a region of Toward the end of a star\u2019s life, nuclear fusion spacetime with a central falters. The star starts to cool and collapse under star continues to shrink, eventually becoming a point of in\ufb01nite density\u2014 its own gravity. Inside a star like the Sun, a force a singularity\u2014that called electron degeneracy pressure resists black hole\u2014a region of spacetime so dense that produces an in\ufb01nitely further collapse and the star becomes a white deep well in spacetime. dwarf. However, in some more massive stars, even light cannot escape from it. two-dimensional gravitational collapse overcomes this force and representation of 55 pushes electrons and protons together to form 160,000 four-dimensional neutrons. The result is a neutron star, which is prevented from further collapse by a force called THE NUMBER OF LIGHT- spacetime neutron degeneracy pressure. In a very massive steep-sided gravitational well YEARS FROM EARTH TO THE NEAREST BLACK HOLE singularity","1100\u201349 1150\u201399 16,000 THE NUMBER OF WORKERS ASSEMBLING SAILING SHIPS AT THE VENICE ARSENALE IN THE 17TH CENTURY A 17th-century painting shows workers at Venice\u2019s Arsenale. Innovative construction techniques enabled the Venetians to dominate the seaways for centuries. AROUND 1104, the city authorities the end of the Han Dynasty Raymond of Toledo INDIAN MATHEMATICIAN AND in Venice ordered the construction (220CE), but they began to Archbishop Raymond is ASTRONOMER Bhaskara II of the Arsenale, a state shipyard use multiple colors in the seen standing before King (1114\u201385) described a perpetual and armory, which would employ wooden block printing of Alfonso VII at his coronation motion machine, one that would, 16,000 workers by the 17th pictures c.1107. By 1340, the in 1135, a demonstration once a force was imparted to it, century. The Arsenale pioneered technique was applied to an of the importance of royal continue to work inde\ufb01nitely. new production techniques, edition of the Diamond Sutra patronage. Bhaskara\u2019s device was a wheel producing prefabricated parts and (see 861\u201399), in which the whose spokes were \ufb01lled with Around 1121, in the mercury. He theorized that ,, BECAUSE OF THE FREQUENCY Persian city of Merv, mercury was suf\ufb01ciently heavy OF THE EXPERIENCE, THESE al-Khazini wrote Book of so that as the wheels turned it JUDGMENTS MAY BE REGARDED the Balance of Wisdom in would \ufb02ow to the edge of the AS CERTAIN, EVEN WITHOUT OUR which he put forward a spokes and impel the machine theory of centers of around another part-turn. ,,KNOWING THE REASON. gravity. He suggested gravity varies according Bhaskara II was better known Abu\u2019l Barakat al-Baghdadi, in Kitab al-Mu\u2019tabar, early 12th century to the distance from the for his astronomical and center of the world\u2014 mathematical works, which using a method of frame-building main text is in black, and the because of the mail (inclination, the farther the objects made him one of the most for ships that made it possible to prayers are in red. or motive power) imparted to it are, the heavier they seem. respected Indian mathematicians construct a vessel in a day. by the projector, but said that English philosopher Adelard of the Middle Ages. In Lilavati In the 11th century, Avicenna only one such force could exist of Bath (1080\u20131152) spent (named after his daughter), his The Chinese had started to had theorized that the motion in a body at any time. This was seven years in Salerno and print on silk using stencils before of a projectile continues later con\ufb01rmed by French priest Sicily, where he learned Arabic. In perpetual motion Jean Buridan (see 1350\u201362). His extensive knowledge of This 13th century version of a TRANSLATING ANCIENT MANUSCRIPTS Around 1120, Baghdad Arabic culture and language perpetual motion machine is an philosopher Abu l\u2019Barakat led him in 1126 to translate overbalanced wheel with hinged The works of many classical (c.1080\u20131165) suggested that al-Khwarizmi\u2019s astronomical mallets around its rim. philosophers had been lost in more than one mail could exist work, the Sindhind Zij, the Christian West, but they in a projectile. As it fell, the mail (Astronomical Tables of Sindhind) were preserved through pushing it forward weakened, into Latin, bringing his work translations made into Arabic and another mail took over, to a wider audience. in the 8th and 9th centuries. causing it to accelerate Raymond, Archbishop of Toledo These manuscripts in turn downward. These mail forces in Spain (1126\u201352), encouraged became available in Europe caused acceleration. In this the translation of books from from the 12th century, where way, he expressed the idea of Arabic into Latin. The \ufb01rst they were translated into Latin the relationship between force translators were succeeded by scholars such as Gerard and acceleration. in 1167 by Gerard of Cremona of Cremona. (1114\u201387), who translated more than 80 Arabic works. 11o0f4AthrCseoenVnesatnlreiuccebteiognins 11a2l1-aKnPoheefaragzsrriilnaayivnfpiotsrraocmthpioooonlsfaertsheory 11t2r6aEnlAiesndmltaeoeltaenLrstadstEifonurfocBmliadtA\u2019hsrabic 11d5e0nmuBromohntoabhstseetskrr,oaaohttrhenaaseesIrIttphwnoaesotgitsaaiqvteiuvaearned Europe1p\u2019s1h5\ufb01y0srisTctriakontnusol,wap,Snroaafnlceeetmricnoaefols,eIatat ly c.11m0w7uoloCtidhpbilnleoeccsokelpourrsisentining ex1p1rreef2osl0arsctAeiesobanunnsolh\u2019dtBiioapancrbcaoeekftlawetthreaeetnion 11\ufb022o5aCutihsnievgnsoecymsoaemga\ufb02gepenateoesttsKicoornea 11o2r6d\u2013e5rs1 tRraacynlamsslosanitcidAoarnloasfwbTooiocfrlkmeinsdtaoofnroLymatin ma1th1e4m5 aSqtppiucariaonaddinsruhaSctaeJicvseawewsqioosurrhdakatoionns 56",",, KNOWLEDGE ,,IS THE CONFORMITY OF THE OBJECT AND THE INTELLECT. Ibn Rushd (Averro\u00ebs), from Commentaries on the Physics, late 12th century The philosopher Ibn Rushd (Averro\u00ebs) is banished from the court of the Almohads, after their overthrow of the Almoravids, whom he served as court physician. World\u2019s \ufb01rst striking clock restricted this analysis to celestial stone, which included grid lines An illustration from al-Sa\u2019ati\u2019s treatise on the bodies. Its extension to bodies and an indication of the scale water clock shows the two falcons at each end on Earth would be made only of the map. who would nod forwards every 60 minutes and in the 13th century by Thomas release a pellet onto a cymbal to sound the hour. Aquinas (c.1224\u201374). While waterwheels had long been used in Europe for the most comprehensive treatise, he 2 scope than those In 1154, Arab engineer grinding of grain, around 1180 discussed fractions, algebra and developed by Isaac al-Kaysarani constructed the the idea was adapted to the use algorithms, permutations and THE NUMBER Newton or Gottfried world\u2019s \ufb01rst striking clock, of windpower. Unlike earlier combinations, and the geometry OF SQUARE Leibniz \ufb01ve Persian windmills, which were of triangles and quadrilaterals. ROOTS OF centuries later. near the Umayyad mosque horizontal, the European He also introduced the idea of ANY NUMBER in Damascus. It was vertical mills used a post negative quantities in geometry. The Spanish-born philosopher powered by water and design, with sails mounted on In his Bija-Ganita (Seed Counting), of motion that came close to Ibn Rushd (1126\u201398), known as was described by al- a vertical tower that itself was he concluded that the division an idea of differential calculus, Averro\u00ebs in Europe, commented Kaysarani\u2019s son Ridwan al free to rotate as the wind varied. of a number by zero would which studies the rates at which extensively on Aristotle\u2019s work Sa\u2019ati in his 1203 treatise By the 1190s, windmills had produce in\ufb01nity. He also quantities change. However, his in the 4th century BCE, seeking On the Construction of become so commonplace that became the \ufb01rst mathematician ideas were of much narrower to integrate his ideas with Clocks and their Use. Pope Celestine III imposed a to realize that there are two Islamic theology. Around 1154, Islamic water clocks tax on them. square roots of a number, one in his work on Aristotle\u2019s theory became so sophisticated positive and one negative. In his of motion, Averro\u00ebs made a that in 1235 one was Vane power astronomical work of 1150, the distinction for the \ufb01rst time built in Baghdad that This German windmill shows the Siddhanta-siromani (Head Jewel of between the motive force of told people the times typical arrangement of four sails Accuracy), Bhaskara II performed an object (its weight) and the of prayer, day and night. attached to a vertical post, but unlike calculations on small increments inherent resistance of a body earlier post-mills only the cap of the to motion (its mass), although he The advanced state of both mill rotates to face the wind. cartography and printing in China are indicated by the \ufb01rst printed map, which dates from around 1155 (at least three centuries before its \ufb01rst European counterpart, in 1475). Contained in the Liu Ching Tu (Illustrations of Objects mentioned in the Six Classics), it depicted parts of western China with rivers and provincial names given, and showed the line of the Great Wall. A more grandiose cartographic creation of the Chinese Sung dynasty was the Yu Ji Tu, an 1137 map of the country carved in 11H5i1wld\u2013rme5itg8eeasdAridtbcrbioenefaestBisasinnegdsebonnotany 11R5u4thsIheebxdontprh\u2018rsymaet(osmAaofssvbekosejstirenitrvhtceoehtat\u00ebseitfscohri\u2019srdseac)esveaiests c.1th1oe5fo5wlCoFoahgrrcaeikPacrnsolntcarurehTtenoshctnioweoicnrrfcricctyioerliessnamgtioBolniobgwlyicitahl 11G6e7breIattcrraoadnlmineaosaneflrasCsltyrchieohe9mnoa0ldsoawcnroohafroTkoosll;eitndrtoaonLsalatitnes c.1w1in8no0drmHthoiwlrlseizsoatnpeptranelaEruirnope 11E9m1topSdeaerleocrrlinHnoeeinsorfsymaVceIk,deliedcaabdlyisncghool 11b5u4ildAsslt-rwKikoairynlsdgaD\u2019srcaal\ufb01omnrciasktsicnus 1155 Fmirawspet,spotrfeiprnnaterCtdhoifna Burgucwn.1od1rio8k0sofoItPfaiGlsiaaanletrsnacnihnsotlolaatLreastin 1M19a8impJeoownisiiodsnehsspwahnyrdistiectshiaetnrireMaatonisstieedsoontes 57","1200\u201319 THE IMPACT OF AL-JAZARI\u2019S,, ,,INVENTIONS IS STILL FELT IN MODERN CONTEMPORARY MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. Donald Hill, from Studies in Medieval Islamic Technology, 1998 ITALIAN MATHEMATICIAN that were useful for the Pisan Leonardo Pisano (Fibonacci) merchants of his day, including a published the Liber Abaci (Book method for multiplication using of Calculations) in 1202, the \ufb01rst a grid, advice on the barter of major western European work goods, and the use of alloys popularizing the use of Hindu\u2013 to make coins. The Fibonacci Arabic numerals and place sequence (below) is derived from notation (see 861\u201399). The book a problem that concerned the also presented rules for growth of a rabbit population. algebra, which he probably derived from al-Khwarizmi (see In 1206, Arab engineer Ibn 821\u201360), as well as solutions for Isma\u2019il al-Jazari published the \ufb01nding square and cube roots. Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Fibonacci described techniques and Mechanical Devices, detailing 50 machines, including the \ufb01rst Ingenious devices descriptions of crankshafts This illustration of one of al-Jazari\u2019s and camshafts. The most mechanical devices shows an spectacular of these was a 2m- automaton that pours water from (6.5ft-) high water clock in the a pot, then returns to a chamber form of an elephant with a where it is scooped back up again. phoenix that marked half-hours. each number in sequence continues sequence is sum of in same way two numbers before it inde\ufb01nitely sequence 1+1 1+2 2+3 3+5 starts with 1 1, 1, 2,3,5,8\u2026 FIBONACCI SEQUENCE The Fibonacci sequence is a series of numbers in which each successive number is the sum of the two numbers preceding it. Any number in the series is known as a Fibonacci number. These occur surprisingly often in nature, with the number of petals of many \ufb02owers being Fibonacci numbers (daisies have 13, 21, or 34), while the arrangement of leaves on a plant stem is also determined according to a ratio connected to this sequence. 12p0u2AbbFluiaissbcnheoiueenomsxafptecHhocrieuiannlLdsdiubi\u2013neAgrrabic 12p1h4oyfsIatLiascualiaiacnaoncndnfaaHopunbuustsgsieeshisernvpweitnisinfcereoctleion 1M2i1ch7aaSle-clBoStitctriTosuhthjeit\u2019srsoacrPnhylsoainllnaatetoretaLsraytin 120K6naoAnwldd-lJMeeadsezcgcarehribioa\u2019esfnsIiBacncaongrloedaDknnceiokaovfmsuichsseahsfatsfts 12b1a0wnsAortchkhesuosPrtfcauhArdirssyiysUontfnoottidvhleeerastity 58","1220\u201349 90THOUSAND MILES THE LENGTH OF THE ENTIRE NETWORK OF BLOOD VESSELS IN THE HUMAN BODY A 13th-century illustration shows the \ufb02ow of blood through the body by means of veins. The top of the heart can just be seen. EARLY CHINESE GUNPOWDER Rockets in the making a key role in reconciling axiom that equal weights at FIBONACCI (C.1170\u20131250) WEAPONRY had been relatively Shown here is an early Aristotelian philosophy and equal distances from a fulcrum low powered, in the form of Chinese rocket of the scienti\ufb01c method with Christian are in equilibrium (see pp.34\u201335), Leonardo Pisano (Fibonacci) hand-hurled grenades or kind used at the siege thinking through his commentary Jordanus introduced the idea was born into a wealthy \ufb01re-arrows, with a small charge of Kaifeng in 1232. The on Aristotle\u2019s Posterior Analytics, merchant family in Pisa, Italy. attached to the shaft. In 1231, soldier is about to light published from 1220 to 1235. His of virtual displacement His father was in charge of faced with a Mongol invasion, the the fuse on the bamboo logical method was rigorous, a (which looks at the effects the Pisan trading colony in Chinese defenders of Ho Chung gunpowder container. process he called \u201cresolution and Bugia in Tunisia, and there deployed the \u201cHeaven-Shaking composition,\u201d which involved the of in\ufb01nitesimal changes on Fibonacci came into contact Thunder Crash Bomb,\u201d which explosive charge. Another form of testing, by experiment if possible, a mechanical system) into the with Arabic mathematical contained gunpowder rich the weapon was used as an early of hypotheses, and the rejection of science of mechanics. His De ideas. Aged 32, he published enough in saltpeter to burst form of \ufb02amethrower, which any conclusions that were not Ratione Ponderis (On the Theory the Liber Abaci, which an iron casing. The resulting could shoot \ufb01re up to 6.5ft (2m) based on observation. His theory of Weight) also investigated the brought him great fame and explosion could be heard 31 miles towards an enemy, causing that all changes were caused by problem of downward forces he gave a mathematical (50km) away, and the shrapnel appalling injuries. the action of forces acting acting along the trajectory of a demonstration to King from the explosion was said to through a medium led him to moving body. He demonstrated Frederick II of Sicily. have torn iron armor to pieces. Robert Grosseteste (c.1168\u2013 study optics and to write treatises that the more oblique the object\u2019s In 1232, the Chinese also used an 1253), Bishop of Lincoln, played on rainbows and astronomy. trajectory, the smaller the to the left through pores in the early form of rocket consisting of downward forces (later wall that separated the two a spear with a bamboo container Around 1230, European understood as positional gravity). chambers. However, he did not packed with gunpowder attached mathematician Jordanus de Jordanus also developed proof to explain how the blood then to it. When lit, these \u201c\ufb01re-spears\u201d Nemore produced a new theory show the point at which weights returned from the heart\u2019s left were propeled forward by the of levers in his Elementa Super supported by angled (or bent) ventricle to the right. A full theory Demonstrationem Ponderum levers on a fulcrum will be of blood\u2019s circulation would not ,, THE CONSIDERATION (Elements on the Demonstration in equilibrium (balanced). be formulated until William OF LINES, ANGLES, AND of Weight). Building on Aristotle\u2019s Harvey in the 17th century FIGURES IS OF THE Syrian polymath and anatomist (see 1628\u201330). GREATEST UTILITY SINCE Ibn al-Na\ufb01s (1213\u201388) produced IT IS IMPOSSIBLE FOR a major medical compendium the Sharh Tashrish al-Qanun ,,NATURAL PHILOSOPHY (Commentary on Anatomy in Ibn Sina\u2019s Canon). It contained a host TO BE KNOWN WITHOUT of anatomical discoveries, but THEM. al-Na\ufb01s\u2019s major breakthrough was his discovery of how blood Robert Grosseteste, English philosopher and theologian, in On Lines, circulated between the heart Angles, and Figures, c.1235 and lungs. He showed that blood circulates from the right-hand side of the heart to the left through the lungs, in contrast to the traditional view of Galen (see 100\u2013250), who held that blood seeped in from the right ventricle 12G2r0pousRcbsooelombitnseePmhrAsoettersesintsettraoirtolyre\u2019Asnalytics 12o3n1AtrLhUisienfttoisvotteluferdbsayaittnoyPf aris c.1e2nB3ca0yErc\u2013ntl4hogo0plilesoChdmhmiaeeamwonfictphauelblished c.1Ib2nC4o8aDmlrI-msupBlgreaaesdmyh,tieaietchrvneapsclhiomvAymesorBpisacitboilaeionpnskh\ufb02toauhnreemSnitamicaopl pleeia Neocmf.1oe2rqae3un0didleiJbtvohrereilduoaimpdnseduoaitssfhopldefeloeavvrcieyrertmusaelnt 123m1 oA\ufb01nlr-esDyt atfseokcrahhcewohsoaitlnraegbbxleoicsqflhuummeseiaevdtDenhilctasyimonffeoa,rsicnus A1b2i4U5so\u2013af4yoIn6bffiPo\u2018Sahryhmyrsipaaiucntiiboaplnnihssyoh,sneA\ufb01icstrrhisaaSetbnohCiucIiblrsamcntseoessredysicoifne 1247 S\ufb01ornfsgotrCeeivnpesrriocwdmuoecrkedsiocnine 59","1250\u201368 ,,TO CURE MELANCHOLY, CUT A CROSS-SHAPED HOLE IN ,,THE\u2026 SKULL\u2026 THE PATIENT ,,IS TO BE HELD IN CHAINS. Roger Frugardi, Italian surgeon, from Chirurgia, late 12th century Surgeon Roger Frugardi\u2019s surgical treatise, Chirurgia (Surgery), was one of Europe\u2019s earliest books on surgery. This illustration shows a hernia operation in progress. AROUND 1250, PRIEST AND EXPERIMENTAL (see 1000\u201329). He examined the PHYSICIAN Gilbert the SCIENCE IS properties of differently shaped Englishman completed the THE QUEEN OF lenses, and described the use Compendium Medicinae SCIENCES AND and mathematics behind (Compendium of Medicine). It magnifying lenses\u2014although he became one of the most widely ,,THE GOAL did not, as commonly supposed, used medical works of the actually invent eye glasses. Middle Ages and was translated OF ALL from Latin into German, Hebrew, SPECULATION. Italian surgeons Hugo Catalan, and English. The work (c.1180\u20131258) and Teodorico had separate volumes devoted Roger Bacon, in Opus Tertium, 1267 Borgognoni (1205\u201398) came to the head, heart, respiratory from a family of doctors who organs, fevers, and women\u2019s convince the Church of the practiced in Bologna, a leading diseases. In the books, Gilbert virtues of new learning. It also center of medicine. By the 1260s, also wrote about the diagnosis contained the \ufb01rst description of Teodorico was advocating the of leprosy by its numbing gunpowder in western Europe, cleansing of wounds with wine effect on skin. and ideas for \ufb02ying machines and their rapid closing up. This and steamships. The section on practice was in contrast to In 1266, English friar and scholar optics was particularly important. most contemporary medical Roger Bacon completed his Opus In it, Bacon agreed with Arab practitioners who went along Majus (Greater Work). Ostensibly scholar Alhazen\u2019s view that vision with Greek physician Galen\u2019s a plea for church reform, the is made possible when rays insistence that pus be allowed work included large sections on emanating from the object to form in wounds. The experimental observation and viewed enter into the eye Borgognonis also advocated natural sciences, intended to using dry bandaging for wounds\u2014discarding the salves ROGER BACON (1220\u201392) and poultices used at the time. They also used an early form of Educated at Oxford University, anesthesia by holding sponges England, Roger Bacon soaked with narcotics such as travelled to Paris, where he opium or hemlock near the lectured on Aristotle. In 1247, noses of patients who were he gave up his post to research about to undergo surgery. privately. He joined the Franciscan Order in 1257 in Opus Majus order to continue his studies. This diagram from Roger Bacon\u2019s He was commissioned by Pope major work shows the structure Clement IV to produce a work of the eye, the curvature of its lens, on church reform, which led to and how light rays striking the his Opus Majus in 1267. lens produce vision. 12E5n0ogfGldMisiilaehbgdmenircaotinsnthi\u2019esseiConfocmlleuppdereonssdyium c.1B2oc6rl0gewoaTingnneanseoriodnacnognoirtdoiaiccfduosvwsoieoncuoaonftpedaessnraawetiistohtnhsetic 12B67tahcReeoyonsoegtfderameurnscadctgurtnhirbieefeyopsinfrogthpleeerntsieess 126w0rAitlebsseutrhbtuataestrrvMeroaaclncageaunansunoesedwsibnyds 60","1269\u201379 1280\u201399 ,, YOU WILL BE ABLE TO DIRECT YOUR STEPS TO CITIES AND ISLANDS AND TO ANY PLACE ,,WHATEVER IN THE WORLD. Pierre de Maricourt, French scholar, describing the compass in Epistola de Magnete, 1269 Figures wearing eyeglasses soon found their way into religious art, as is shown here in this 1491 detail from the Betrayal by Judas in Notre Dame, Paris, France. 26SECONDSIN 1280, GUO SHOUJING \ufb01nally completed his calendar. According to his calculations, a year had 365.2425 days. The earliest surviving cannon is from China and was made c.1288. Before cannons were THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GOU\u2019S CALCULATION AND ACTUAL strengthened by the use of cast DAYS IN A YEAR iron barrels, the Chinese had probably used bronze tubes to eject projectiles using gunpowder (c.1260\u20131310), who wrote that he damaged their eyes by viewing explosives. Manuscripts of 1274 had seen them in 1286. Early the Sun directly. In order to and 1277, however, refer to huo glasses were convex (curving prevent this, William used a pa\u2019o\u2014explosive weapons used by out) to correct far-sightedness. camera obscura\u2014a type of Gaocheng observatory the Mongols to demolish the Concave lenses (curving in) for pinhole camera in which light One of its two towers contained an IN 1269, FRENCH SCHOLAR armillary sphere. Between them lay ramparts of Chinese cities\u2014so near-sightedness did not appear goes into a dark chamber and is PIERRE DE MARICOURT a \u201csky-measuring scale\u201d to measure wrote Epistola de magnete (Letter the shadow of the 39-foot gnomon. the invention may have occurred for more than a century. projected through a tiny aperture on the Magnet), the \ufb01rst work to describe the properties of calibrated with a ring representing a little earlier. In 1290, French astronomer onto another surface, such as magnets. In it, he set out the equatorial coordinates, a system laws of magnetic attraction and not used in Europe until the time Although the magnifying William of St. Cloud gave an a card, opposite it. The technique repulsion, and explained how to of Tycho Brahe (see 1565\u201374) identify the poles of compasses. three centuries later. He then properties of glass lenses had account of a solar eclipse had been used by earlier Maricourt\u2019s work led to the established astronomical construction of better magnetic observatories at Peking (Beijing) been studied by English bishop witnessed by him \ufb01ve years astronomers, such as Alhazen in compasses, which became and Gaocheng, near Loyang, invaluable aids in sea navigation. China, between 1279 and 1280. Robert Grosseteste (1175\u20131253) earlier. Many of those who the 11th century, to prove that He also described the operation At the latter, a 39ft- (12m-) high of a perpetual motion machine, gnomon (shaft on a sundial) sat and Roger Bacon earlier in the had observed the eclipse had intersecting rays do not interfere which worked using magnetism. on top of a pyramid, casting shadows, which were measured 13th century, the with each other. William, In 1276, the Mongol ruler of at the time of the Sun\u2019s solstices China, Kublai Khan, asked to help determine the length of \ufb01rst description however, was the \ufb01rst to explain mathematician and engineer the year. Guo used advanced Guo Shoujing (1231\u20131316) to trigonometry to calculate the of eyeglasses its use in solar observation. reform the calendar. To perform length of a year. this task, Guo \ufb01rst had a series was given by a He also calculated an accurate of astronomical instruments constructed. This included a vast Dominican friar value by which the Earth tilts on equatorial armillary sphere \u2014 Giordano da Pisa its axis, by observing the Sun\u2019s position at the solstices. In addition, he produced an Camera obscura almanac with detailed positions This 16th-century of the Sun, Moon, and planets illustration of a at various dates between 1292 camera obscura and 1312. shows how an image of the Sun is reversed after light passes through an aperture onto a surface in a darkened room. 12o6f9tMraWoonfeiislAnrllibtraaocetmehrLskiametwienodrekss 12W70Pit\u2013ee7rlos8ppPeuocbtlilisvisahh,meosnonokpti1c2sS7a5ulisWcreaeittolholfiearsrmeuctrhoogamficnmacleaknundtiesf1rei2zb7ae6ttghioGiennusCohwSionhreoksuetjoincragelfeonrdmar c.1s2uf8rrv8oimvEinaCgrhlihienasant d-cannon 12T9a6tbalUbelssee\u2014s\u2014oafssAtprlorfoennaosdmisniectoalParis pMroapr1ie2cro6tui9erPst idoeefrsrmceradigb1ene2es7t4sofFuirsset oafcccoainunnnCtohnina c.127VP5etroBdleeumrnnydao\u2019erfsdfeetphoniefdcoysrcyles Shou1j2in7go9bc\u2013sao8etn0rPsvtGearkuutGioocnartgosiecashnedng g1iv2e8s6eGairolriedsatnodofeedsyacerPgipilsataisosnes St1.2tCho9lebo0usuWctdshuiedeldrleaouiSasfrtumciconnraigoobmibnfaesdenseirrearevcceltilpyse 61","800\u20131542 EUROPEAN AND ISLAMIC RENAISSANCE coiled springs beneath \u201cprogrammable\u201d gears can chassis store and be set to steer the car release energy tiller alters in a particular direction direction of front wheel for manual steering like a child\u2019s toy brake mechanism keeps car, spinning the the car stationary wheels in reverse until released stores energy in the spring 30 THE NUMBER OF GEAR WHEELS FOUND IN THE REMAINS OF THE ANTIKYTHERA MECHANISM RECOVERED FROM A MEDITERRANEAN SHIPWRECK c.230 BCE South-pointing chariot c.125 BCE 13th century Early gears Zhang Heng\u2019s armillary sphere The Chinese south-pointing Chinese scholar Zhang Heng builds Mechanical clocks in Europe chariot probably uses a an armillary sphere driven by gears gear arrangement that and water. His model, showing the The \ufb01rst mechanical clocks ensures the \ufb01gure at the motions of the Sun, Moon, and stars, front points to the would go on to in\ufb02uence not only using gears to drive the rotation south as the Chinese gear technology, but also wheels turn. later clockmakers (see 700\u2013799). of pointers and to control the striking of chimes are invented. They are powered by the controlled drop of a weight Clock at Salisbury Cathedral attached to a drive chain. c.200 BCE c.7th century 1206 Watermills Persian windmills Greek watermills that use gears to The \ufb01rst functional Book of Ingenious Devices harness hydropower begin to spread windmills, developed throughout the Graeco\u2013Roman world. Arab polymath al-Jazari The Chinese develop their own water in Persia, have wheel technology about 200 years horizontal sails that writes a treatise describing the later, with gearing mechanisms to drive various motions. drive the rotation construction of 100 remarkable of a vertical shaft. machines\u2014including the crankshaft\u2014 many of which rely Al-Jazari\u2019s Chinese watermill Windmill gear on gears. treatise 62","THE STORY OF GEARS THE STORY OF GEARS SIMPLE BUT EFFECTIVE MECHANISMS FOR TRANSMITTING FORCES OF ROTATION, GEARS HAVE A LONG AND COMPLEX HERITAGE The ability to alter the direction of a force, transmit it from one rack and pinion gear axis of rotation to another, or trade force with movement, is converts linear motion to a vital aspect of many modern machines. Yet, such mechanical rotary motion or vice versa functions often rely on gearing techniques that are centuries old. bevel gears, A gear is a wheel mounted on a central In ancient Greece, gear technology reached with their tilted rotating axis, with a series of teeth or its apex with devices such as the Antikythera edge, transmit cogs around its outer edge that can engage mechanism\u2014a complex astronomical calculator rotation from with the cogs of another gear. The teeth allow recovered from a Mediterranean shipwreck one axis to the gear to transmit its angular motion to its around 1900. another neighbor, forming a pairing known as a transmission. The ratio of teeth between the two PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS screwlike spur gears, the wheels determines the speed and force with which More immediate practical applications of gears, helical gear simplest form the second gear rotates, providing a so-called such as their use in harnessing power from engages with a of straight- \u201cmechanical advantage\u201d; a smaller secondary \ufb02owing water and wind, gradually spread worm gear toothed gears gear rotates more rapidly, but with less torque throughout the ancient world. Treadmills powered whose teeth or rotational force. by animals\u2014or even humans\u2014became common. are arranged The earliest speci\ufb01c devices known to Gears found various applications in mills\u2014 at an angle have used gears were the Chinese south- \ufb02our mills are perhaps the most familiar, but pointing chariots\u2014direction-\ufb01nding sawmills also used gears to turn rotating cutting arrangement of spur devices used in the 3rd century BCE. blades, and hammer mills used gearing to lift gears causes the gear and drop heavy hammers for beating metal Leonardo da Vinci\u2019s vehicle or minting coins. with fewer teeth to This model of self-propelled rotate more rapidly automobile was built from New advances led to the development of a Leonardo da Vinci sketch. traditional clockwork in Europe in around bevel and spur The force from the the 13th century, and the Industrial Revolution transmissions change expansion of two wound saw the development of further ingenious springs is transmitted transmissions to harness the power of steam direction of motion through ingenious engines. The use of gears has continued to the gearing to drive present day in modern machines ranging from TYPES OF GEARS the rear wheels. automobiles to inkjet printers. Gears can be designed or arranged in a variety of ways to transmit motion from one direction to another. Complex transmission assemblies can take the motive power from a single rotating drive shaft and apply it to drive a range of linear movements or to propel further rotating shafts at any speed required. 1480 1781 Sun and planet gearing 1835 Plastic gear 1990s Leonardo da Vinci\u2019s work on gears Murdoch\u2019s gearing Gear hobbing proccess Nanotechnology Italian polymath Leonardo da Vinci utilizes Scottish engineer William British engineer Joseph Machines created on a complex gear assemblies in many of his Murdoch\u2019s sun and planet Whitworth invents nanoscale often rely on inventions, such as lens-grinding and gear transmission converts hobbing\u2014the \ufb01rst the same gearing metal-rolling devices, and shows a deep vertical motion, such as process for the principles as larger theoretical understanding of their function. that of a steam-driven production of high devices, except that the beam, into the rotational precision gears, on gear wheels are mere motion of a driveshaft. an industrial scale. micrometers across. 18th century 19th century \u201cSafety\u201d 1950s Industrial Revolution Development of bicycles bicycle Plastic gears The rise of steam power during the Through the 19th century, Gears made from new Industrial Revolution drives advances bicycles gradually develop from plastics materials are in gear technology. The linear motion the scooterlike velocipedes introduced from the 1950s. of steam pistons is applied to the that were invented around They lack the strength of rotation of locomotive wheels. 1817 to pedal-powered properly machined metal machines that use gears gears, but are far more easily Steam locomotive and a drive chain. and cheaply manufactured. 63","1300\u201310 1311\u201316 The search for an explanation of the colors of the rainbow preoccupied medieval The title page of Mondino de Luzzi\u2019s Anatomia shows a corpse on the scholars, including Roger Bacon and Theodoric of Freiberg. dissecting table; it has already been opened up and had organs removed. 0.45 KILOGRAMS THE MODERN EQUIVALENT OF THE AVOIRDUPOIS POUND EARLY MEDIEVAL EUROPE USED supplementary weights The properties of the rainbow A SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS based were added, including the had fascinated philosophers on the Roman pound, which hundredweight (112 pounds), from Aristotle to Roger Bacon, had 12 unciae (or ounces) and de\ufb01ned in an ordinance of 1309. who thought their color was due was mainly used for weighing to the re\ufb02ection of light from pharmaceuticals and coins. spherical raindrops in a cloud. EARLY SURGERY AND DISSECTION A new set of measures suitable for bulky goods, such as wool, Around 1310, the Dominican Surgery took a long time to become established as a separate was introduced in England friar Theodoric of Freiberg discipline, but written records since 1170 indicate a growing medical around 1303 (when it was (c.1250\u20131311) carried out sophistication. By 1200, operations for bladder-stones, hernias, and mentioned in a charter). It scienti\ufb01c experiments to fractures were routine. By the 14th century, surgeons were aware of was called avoirdupois, from determine the origins of the need to avoid infection, sometimes cleaning wounds with wine the Norman French Habur de rainbows by using glass balls and closing them up as soon as possible. Peyse meaning \u201cgoods having \ufb01lled with water through which weight\u201d and was based he passed light, which was THE EARLIEST WRITTEN clock\u2019s mechanism. The \ufb01rst on a 16-ounce pound\u2014a RECORDS OF WEIGHT-DRIVEN clock faces were probably divided measure that would be used then projected onto a screen. CLOCKS feature in the Italian up according to the canonical for the next 700 years, and He concluded that the writer Dante Alighieri\u2019s book hours (seven regulated times of still is in parts of the world. rainbow was caused by light Paradiso (Paradise) (c.1313\u201321), prayer), which punctuated the striking spherical raindrops, although such clocks probably church day. Clocks showing The avoirdupois pound which was \ufb01rst refracted, \ufb01rst appeared decades earlier. 12 equal hours were \ufb01rst probably originated in then re\ufb02ected internally on Weight-driven clocks use recorded in 1330. Florence, where an almost the inner surface of the drop, a weight to act as an energy identical unit was in use for and then refracted again. storage device so that the clock Among the \ufb01rst major surgical the weighing of wool. Soon Theodoric also properly can run for a certain period of writers was Henri de Mondeville described the color time (such as a day or a week). (c.1260\u20131316). A former military Weighty issues spectrum. He discovered Winding such clocks pulls on a surgeon who came to teach This is one of a set of standard that the light that projected cord that lifts the weight, which is medicine at Montpellier, de avoirdupois weights that affected by gravity and falls; the Mondeville had, by 1308, begun were issued by Elizabeth I out of his glass balls clock uses the potential energy to use anatomical charts and a of England in 1582. These produced the same range as the weight falls to drive the model of a skull as aids to his weights were to remain of colors as a rainbow, teaching. Around 1312, he the standard measure and in the same order until the 1820s. (red, yellow, green, and blue). 13s0y3isntAtervmoodiuordcf euwdpeoiingishEtnsgland 13a0d9deHduntodraevdoiwrdeuigphotisissystem 13H1e2pnuForbrnieldinssehuchMergssoeuanrrydmgeeeavnojitolnilrtelemdaSnuuraglery J1o3h0n5toh\u2013fe0G7paeEdlnidcgealfsinosdr,heaenpnxhdtiryneassscitcctrriiuanibmngeetsenetth c.1F3re1eix0bpeTerhrgeicmcooadleoronrrrtiaeisscnspodoeonfcrutatthrinuebmow 1313\u20132m1eDIdntaartilnioivatneensnAbwacolirlowgoitkhceekiiPregarihnirtah-disise 64",",, 1317\u201349 ,, ,,IT IS FUTILE TO DO WITH MORE THINGS THAT WHICH CAN BE DONE WITH FEWER. William of Ockham, Franciscan friar, from Summa Totius Logicae, c.1323 GOD HIMSELF WAS A IN 1323, WILLIAM OF OCKHAM PRACTICING SURGEON produced one of the greatest WHEN HE MADE THE FIRST works of logic of the Middle MAN FROM MUD AND EVE Ages\u2014Summa Logicae (The Logic Handbook)\u2014in which he radically ,,FROM ONE OF HIS RIBS. diverged from traditional Christian philosophy. Most Henri de Mondeville, French surgeon, from Cyrurgia, c.1312 notable in William\u2019s ideas is the idea of economy, that if a cause produced his Cyrurgia (Surgery), Dissections featured regularly or factor is unnecessary to prove WILLIAM OF OCKHAM (C.1285\u20131349) a manual based in part on his in his teaching. In 1316, an argument, then it should be observations of dissected corpses, Mondino completed Anatomia, discarded, a principle that came Franciscan friar William of Ockham studied at Oxford and by 1315 although his de\ufb01nitions were the \ufb01rst textbook speci\ufb01cally to be called Ockham\u2019s razor. He he was lecturing on the Bible. His theories of logic were seen by not always accurate. concerned with anatomy promoted the idea that individual many as attacking Christian tenets, and he was summoned to the (rather than surgery). perception is the foundation of Papal court at Avignon to answer charges of erroneous teaching. The practice of dissection all knowledge about the world, He \ufb02ed before the enquiry was concluded and spent the rest of his was revived by Italian medical An atlas of the body attacking long-held metaphysical life at the court of the Holy Roman Emperor Louis IV of Bavaria. professor Mondino de Luzzi This anatomical drawing from Henri explanations for the order of the (c.1275\u20131326), who taught at de Mondeville\u2019s Cyrurgia shows the Universe. He also advocated Bologna, and who performed lower part of the torso cut away, the separation of secular and a public dissection in 1315. revealing the internal organs. ecclesiastical power. Windmills had been used to analysis. Later, in 1377, he 20 grind \ufb02our since the 12th century proposed the idea in his Livre in Europe, but in 1345 windmills du Ciel et du Monde (Treatise of PERCENT are \ufb01rst recorded as being used the Sky and the World) that the to operate water-pumps to drain Earth was not immobile at THE land in the Netherlands. The the center of the Universe, as resulting reclaimed land, or traditional cosmology held, but PROPORTION polders, ultimately came to that it rotated on its axis. He make up a \ufb01fth of the country, met objections from those OF THE which is still protected from who said birds would simply NETHERLANDS the sea by a system of dikes. \ufb02y off it, by af\ufb01rming that the THAT IS oceans were included in RECLAIMED Around 1349, the French the rotation. LAND scholar Nicholas of Oresme (c.1320\u201382) expounded a system using graphs to represent the growth of a function (such as the velocity of an object), which was a great aid to mathematical 13p1e5drifMsosroemncdstiinothonedin\ufb01erBLsoutlzpozugibnlaic 13c1a9innFnEiorunsrtoappepears c.1E3no4gf0ltDihsaauhrtmmcenobaeofnolnledpirmtJeaoaonrinnhttsshasnaeutoteiogfodrganyed,ssuoputfrabsimvnsigtnoaglnewcceualyes 13f4or5thrWtrehocieunlgadNhimmedtiilhrnlaesgirunllasaanegnddedsin 13m48RatiEphchnrecoagmovrlbneiadsoscthdSieceiwrieqanisunninawegtsiitohmhneousavndeifmoremntvoeflocity 1316 DeAteLnxuatztbzooimopkiuabs, pltoihesnechaie\ufb01\ufb01nsrcasattlolmy y O1c3Lk2oh3gaiOWcmaci\u2019kleslhidaSaemumsmco\u2019srmfirbaaezsor H1ee3sat4al3tbhFliCsirohsmet dPmuinibsVlsieiconnice 1G34io8vaItnanliiacdnoencsDlotorcnukdcpmtiliaboanenkegeotirnfasrhiiusm 6 5cO.1rs3ey4ssm9teNemireceoxhppforogleaurssanepdonhsftiaactailon","1350\u201362 ,, A PROJECTILE WOULD BE MOVED BY AN IMPETUS\u2026 BY THE THROWER ,,AND WOULD CONTINUE TO BE MOVED AS LONG AS THE IMPETUS REMAINED STRONGER THAN THE RESISTANCE. Jean Buridan, French priest, in Questions on the Physics of Aristotle, c.1357 A catapult in the fortress of Edessa hurls a ball at a siege tower. According to Jean Buridan\u2019s theory, the catapult has imparted impetus to the projectile. IN THE LATE 1340S, A NEW AND reached Constantinople in 1347 by humidity or rotting corpses. 200 TERRIBLE DISEASE STRUCK and spread by ship throughout Remedies included controlling Europe, the Middle East, and the Mediterranean, arriving in the body\u2019s heat by avoiding HEIGHT (METERS) 150 North Africa. The Black Death France and England in 1348. The \u201cputrefying\u201d foods, such as meat was an epidemic of bubonic disease began with swellings, or and \ufb01sh, fumigating rooms, and 100 plague that infected humans via buboes, in the groin and armpit, wearing pomanders infused with rat \ufb02eas. It was discovered later followed by the spread of black spices close to the nose. 50 that the cause was a bacterium spots over the body and high called Yersinia pestis. The plague fever. It caused millions of deaths Although doctors had failed to 0 across Europe. control the plague, after its end 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 Plague victims a renewed energy was given to This 15th-century Swiss manuscript Contemporary physicians, who medical science. By 1351, Padova DISTANCE (METERS) shows victims of the plague with the had no cure for the plague, had 12 medical professors (as characteristic swellings, or buboes, believed that it was caused by against three in 1349). Measures also enacted. In 1377, the Free fall covering large parts of their bodies. putrefaction in the air brought on to promote public health were Republic of Ragusa (Dubrovnik) The impetus provided by throwing an ordered a quarantine of 30 days object to a greater height means it for anyone coming from plague- travels farther before downward infected areas, as did Marseilles forces pulls it back to the ground. in 1383. By 1450 Milan would establish a permanent board contact with the thrower. He of health, and health passports theorized that the person throwing were introduced in Italy in 1480. an object imparts a force to it, which he called impetus, and this Aristotle\u2019s explanation of causes it to continue to move, so projectiles in motion had long long as the resistance of the air puzzled scholars. In 1357, the does not stop it. He believed the French priest Jean Buridan amount of impetus in an object (c.1300\u201358) published Questions depended on the amount of matter on the Physics of Aristotle. He in it, so that feathers would not pointed out that a thrown stone move quickly when thrown, continues to move even out of whereas heavier objects would. 50 PERCENT THE PROBABLE DEATH RATE IN EUROPE DURING THE PEAK OF THE BLACK DEATH IN THE MID-14TH CENTURY 13e5p1AidtBaeibltmaEsocuuipkcrteopDa5pek0eet,a\u2019pesittrehpsrhcoaoepdunutktl.aioltlfieodn 66 1357BFurreidnatchnheppourribyelsoistfhJiemesapnheitsus","1363\u201399 ,, A SURGEON WHO DOES ,,NOT KNOW HIS ANATOMY IS LIKE A BLIND MAN CARVING A LOG. Guy de Chauliac, French physician, in Great Surgery, 1363 This illustration from Guy de Chauliac\u2019s Chirurgia Magna shows patients with a variety In 1364, the Italian Making gunpowder of injuries, including a broken arm and an eye wound, visiting a surgeon. clockmaker German legend attributed the invention of gunpowder to alchemist FRENCH PHYSICIAN GUY DE Giovanni de Barthold Schwartz. This woodcut CHAULIAC (c.1300\u201368) was Dondi (1318\u201389) depicts him stirring together the personal surgeon to three published his ingredients for gunpowder. Popes. He remained in Avignon Planetarium, a during the outbreak of the description of unevenly and mostly at the Black Death in 1348, an the complex surface, military technologists experience that led him to astronomical had to devise new techniques. distinguish for the \ufb01rst clock (astrarium) They left a conical hole in the time between pneumonic that he had just centre of the tube, which (affecting the lungs) and completed after encouraged an even burn (and bubonic plague. 16 years of work. suf\ufb01cient thrust), and made the This 1m- (3.3ft-) high, rocket airtight, except for a His Chirurgia Magna (Great weight-driven clock small opening at the rear. These Surgery, 1363), became one with an escapement methods were discussed by the of the medieval world\u2019s most and balance wheel was the most German military engineer Konrad important surgical textbooks. advanced of its time. Its seven Kyeser (1366\u2013after 1405) in his In its seven volumes, he gave dials showed the celestial Bellifortis (War Forti\ufb01cations) advice on the treatment of movements of the Sun, Moon, in 1405. Kyeser also advised fractures, advising extending and \ufb01ve calendars, and it acted the adding of feathers (like the broken limbs with pulleys and as a perpetual calendar, \ufb02etching of an arrow) or weights weights, and noting the loss of including showing the date of to the rear of the rocket to make cerebrospinal \ufb02uid in skull Easter. The clock was regulated its trajectory more even and to fractures. He outlined procedures by a balance that swung 1,800 enable more accurate aiming. such as tracheotomies (cutting times an hour; and the addition open the windpipe) and the or removal of small weights replacement of lost teeth by enabled corrections to be made ox bone. But his over-reliance if the device ran too fast or slow. on the work of Galen (see The \ufb01rst recorded use of 100\u2013250BCE) led him to some rockets in Europe as a military retrograde steps, such as weapon came in 1380 at the abandoning antiseptic Battle of Chioggia, fought between treatment of wounds and the \ufb02eets of Venice and Genoa. encouraging pus to form as Rockets need an ignition that part of the healing process. provides continued and regular thrust as the projectile \ufb02ies Accurate marking of time through the air (unlike cannon This reconstruction of de Dondi\u2019s balls). Since gunpowder 1364 astrarium shows three of its seven dials, as well as the packed into a tube burns balance wheel and weights that regulated its movement. 13p6h3CyhsFhiaricsueianlGincarhceGa\ufb01utnySidsuehregsery 13S6u8inrgFLeeoolnlnodswornseh,cEiopnrodgfeladnd 13s7u0rAgEraednnoegnerlnwiJseohthdypneescorfibseysringe 13R7a7qguRuaesrapaunebtnilaniccetoslfaws 13o8f0trhoFecirBkseatttrstleeicnooEfrduCerhodipouegs,geaiat Gio1v3ca6lnaoc4nsocIitmktradmaapleirfalatieDkuentoermenrs1dc6hilioysecakrs 13c7an7nFoiwrnssatrienfaffEreeucratoitvpOeeuaudnseesnioaefagrede pOhriletohssamot1pet3hh7peer7roEFNparoirecstnhheocosrhnloaiditstaestaeasxis intro1d3u8c3esMqaurreasgreauilnllaetitsnioens 1391 FreircsotrddiesdseinctSiopnain 67","1400\u201321 1422\u201349 Italian artist Masolino da Panicale was an early master of visual perspective. He made good use of the technique The dome of Santa Maria del Fiore cathedral, Florence, is 137.8ft (42m) in diameter in St. Peter Curing a Cripple and the Raising of Tabitha, painted for the Brancacci Chapel , Florence. and 171ft (54m) high and took its architect, Brunelleschi, 16 years to complete. THE PRINCIPLES OF LINEAR 138 Brunelleschi may have been IN 1420, THE MONGOL RULER Zij-i-Sultani, a star catalog PERSPECTIVE were known to taught the technique by ULUGH BEG (1411\u201349) had showing the position of 1,018 the ancient Greeks, particularly Florentine physician Paola established a scienti\ufb01c institute \ufb01xed stars. Euclid who wrote of it in his Toscanelli (1397\u20131482), but at Samarkand, Uzbekistan; in he did not publish his theories 1424, he started to build an Between 1430 and 1440, Ibn Elements, but knowledge of FEET until 1460. The \ufb01rst full account observatory there. It had a huge Ali al-Qalasadi (1412\u201386), a these was lost after the fall of the application of linear sextant that had a radius of 131ft Spanish Muslim mathematician, perspective to painting, (40m). Among the astronomers published a work in which he of the Roman Empire. THE WIDTH OF including the creation of a grid recruited was Jamshid al-Kashi used a series of short words Although Italian artist Giotto THE DOME to organize the placement of (c.1380\u20131429), who produced a and abbreviations to stand for objects in a picture and of the mathematical encyclopedia arithmetical operations in (1266\u20131337) had attempted to principles of the vanishing point with a section on astronomical algebraic equations. He was not and horizon line, was set out by calculations, calculated the the \ufb01rst to do so\u2014such Arabic use algebraic formulas to create OF FLORENCE Leon Battista Alberti (1404\u201372), value of pi to 17 decimal places, abbreviations had appeared a another of Toscanelli\u2019s pupils, and helped produce an extremely century earlier in North Africa, perspective, he had only partially in his On Painting in 1436. accurate set of trigonometric and Diophantus had devised a tables. In 1437, the astronomers form of algebraic notation\u2014but CATHEDRALsucceeded. Renewed efforts to As well as being an innovator at the observatory published the al-Qalasadi\u2019s widely diffused in drawing, Brunelleschi devised works were responsible for achieve true linear perspective advanced machinery for the + popularizing the system. construction of his many building \u2013 included works from 1377 to (1377\u20131446) demonstrated projects in Florence. Among In 1436, Brunelleschi \ufb01nally these was a colla grande (great completed the dome of Florence 1397 by Italian mathematician in public for the \ufb01rst time the crane), a massive barge-based Cathedral after 16 years work. hoist that could lift weights of The dome was the largest Biagio Pelacani (c.1347\u20131416), use of mirrors, by re\ufb02ecting more than one ton, had three unsupported structure yet different lifting velocities, and built, and Brunelleschi solved the who showed how mirrors could an image of the Florence could operate in reverse without problem of its weight by building unhitching the load. In 1421, a lighter inner shell, on which be used as aids to view objects Baptistery onto a 12in- the authorities in Florence was built a tougher outer dome. granted him the \ufb01rst recorded He used a ring and rib pattern at a distance. In 1415\u201316, Italian (30cm-) canvas, which could monopoly patent. The Venetian of stone and timber supports government would go on to between the two shells, and architect Filippo Brunelleschi then be drawn in perspective. regularize the process of devised a herringbone pattern for granting patents, giving inventors the bricks, both of which helped hole in artist\u2019s mirror is moved up and down 10 years\u2019 monopoly rights, as diffuse the weight of the structure. canvas sight line so artist can compare his long as the invention was work with original building properly registered. Nicholas of Cusa (1401\u201364), a German philosopher, wrote a original \u00f7 number of treatises such as building De Docta Ignorantia (On Learned x Ignorance), which included artist looks artist\u2019s advanced astronomical and through small canvas is ARABIC MATHEMATICAL hole in canvas re\ufb02ected in the mirror CHARACTER SYMBOL BRUNELLESCHI\u2019S PERSPECTIVE A new mathematical language The mathematician al-Qalasadi used Florence architect and artist Filippo Brunelleschi used mirrors to short Arabic words for algebraic recreate an accurate depiction of Florence\u2019s Baptistry on canvas. He operations, such as wa (\u201cand\u201d) for realized that linear perspective could be used to give an accurate addition and ala (\u201cover\u201d) for division. impression of a three-dimensional object on a two-dimensional surface. Using a single perspective point (a hole in the canvas) and a mirror, he produced a painting that was identical to the original. 14e2s0itnaUsbtlliuitsguhhteeBsinesgcSieamntai\ufb01rckand 14o2b4seUrlvuagthorByeagtsStaarmtsartokabnudild d1e4mp1e5or\u2013ns1sp6terBacttreiuvsenteihnlleeFuslcoshereionfce 1421gFrairnstterdectoorBdreudninpeaFltlleeosnrcethnice c.14vc2aa5lldcuAueellc-aoiKmtfeapassilhttpiholea1c7es 68",",, WE OUGHT NOT TO SAY THAT ,,BECAUSE THE EARTH IS SMALLER THAN THE SUN AND IS INFLUENCED ,,BY THE SUN, IT IS MORE LOWLY. Nicholas of Cusa, German philosopher, in De Docta Ignorantia, 1440 An early 16th-century woodcut shows Nicholas of Cusa caught between a group advocating church reform (as Nicholas did) and conservative Papal supporters. JOHANNES GUTENBERG (C.1400\u201368) Printing for the masses plate for laying This replica of Gutenberg\u2019s movable type Born in Mainz, Johannes press shows the type of in strips Gutenberg later moved to machinery that he employed Strasbourg where he engaged in Mainz for the production in a mysterious venture he of his 42-line Bible, so called called \u201cadventure and art\u201d\u2014 because of its 42-line columns. perhaps his \ufb01rst experiments in printing. By 1448, he was lever to tighten back in Mainz, where, by plates together 1450, his printing press was to impress ink in operation. The venture did not prosper and by 1459 plate for Gutenberg was bankrupt. placing paper cosmological ideas. He held 1450, he had ink transferred the radical view that Earth established to printing block rotates on its own axis and a printing orbits around the Sun, press that pre\ufb01guring Copernicus\u2019s produced the earliest theory 100 years later. extant printed work in Europe, an edition of the Around 1440, Johannes Ars Grammatica. Gutenberg\u2019s Gutenberg began experiments printing techniques grew more with printing using movable sophisticated and, in 1454, he type. The blocks could be moved published an edition of the Bible. as required and later reused. By IT IS A PRESS\u2026 FROM WHICH SHALL FLOW IN INEXHAUSTIBLE STREAMS\u2026 LIKE A NEW STAR IT SHALL SCATTER THE ,,DARKNESS OF IGNORANCE. Johannes Gutenberg, German printer, c.1450 14A3l0p-Qu\u2013uba4slla0iainslsghgaeedsbsyirmwaiobcrokolpsefroartions 14A3l6dbeeLpsrertciiionr\u2019nsnicbpOiBeapnsialnetPmttsiiansaoitgntafhtpienemgrsaptieccatlive 14a3t7oSbAapsmsueStbrraulvorilasntkathoaonmnrZiydisej-trias-r catalog c.1e4xup4se0irnGigmumteenontvbsaewbrglitehbtepygpriienntsing com14p3Fle6loteBrsernuthcneeeldCleoasmtchheeidorfal 1440tNhSaiucthnEo,alaarntsdhohtmfhaCaovuetvseoiansthhpaearrrboosiputtoenasddresptshlmaenaeyts 69","1450\u201367 1468\u201382 An illuminated page from Gutenberg\u2019s 42-line Bible. The 48 surviving copies are among the most valuable books in the world. 2IN 1454, GERMAN PRINTER D 30 JOHANNES GUTENBERG VXZ1 completed his edition of the Bible EFFLORINS i h f dbaprinted with 42 lines on each np r page. It was the \ufb01rst substantial THE ORIGINAL book printed in Europe and its G COST OF THE 180 or so copies sold out almost t GUTENBERG immediately. The Gutenberg BIBLE T Bible was soon followed by IL q hundreds of works by Gutenberg v z& was that two triangles that have and other printers, allowing theNO P QR sides in similar proportions will Smuch more rapid disseminationx y s om M also have similar angles. He of scienti\ufb01c ideas. relied on the work of Arabic mathematicians. In 1464, German mathematician Johannes M\u00fcller, also known as The \ufb01rst work on cryptography Regiomontanus (1436\u201376), had been written in the 13th completed his De Triangulis century. By the 15th century, Omnimodis (On Triangles), a cyphers were in widespread systematic textbook for use for diplomatic trigonometry. One of his fundamental propositions correspondence. Codes relied on monoalphabetic 3 4 ABC substitution, in which each cegk l letter is transformed into the same encoded letter. Cracking the code In 1466, Italian painter and Alberti\u2019s disk operated by rotating philosopher Leon Battista the inner ring so that an agreed character (such as \u201cg\u201d) lined up Alberti (1404\u201372) devised with the A of the outer ring. a cypher disk that made polyalphabetic substitution possible. Each new rotation of the disk generated an entirely new alphabet for coding. 14G5u4htieJsno4bh2ea-rnlginnepesriBnitbsle 14p5h8NiliGoecsxehvoproepmrloreahsfasseiCnsoroeonfsnoCtefiunatshrualeiytyLaw 14R6ea4gsfiooymrstteormnigtaaotnniucosmtewexrttrbityoeosk 14T7r8tehvPweisuo\ufb01obrrlAksicrtoaiptnthriomimnnteaeottdihfcet,ghmeenaetircasl aTsowtsrcho1ana4anto5semi6slHleIilataroaltlblPeeisaaryeno\u2019ksrlnvoCeooswmnet1sP4ufr6og0lesGponeeurgHmnuednaitnsndrhaieocrsthmcwvryooibnuensds 146w6riLteesontreBaattitsiseatdaceyAsplcbhreeibrrtiindgisk GeoArguPsPltaernNuiaeerntbwsaa\u2014Tcschhaittrrhescopeot1unurr4\ufb01loobia7ernmltiss2oseetohmdrwfepitsichrdaieenlltwyeodrk 70","1483\u201399 ALTHOUGH NATURE COMMENCES WITH REASON AND ENDS IN EXPERIENCE IT IS NECESSARY FOR US TO ,,DO THE OPPOSITE\u2026 ,, ,, Leonardo da Vinci, Italian painter, architect, and engineer, in Notebooks This woodcut shows Columbus\u2019s three ships, the Ni\u00f1a, Pinta, and Santa Maria, on their \ufb01ve-week crossing of the Atlantic Ocean, which ended in the discovery of the Americas. THE LATE 15TH CENTURY subtraction, as well as division THE DEVELOPMENT OF I\u2026 STEERED FOR THE saw the production of the \ufb01rst and \ufb01ve different ways of MATHEMATICAL NOTATION CANARY ISLANDS\u2026 THENCE printed practical mathematical performing multiplication, progressed rapidly during the late textbooks. The Treviso Arithmetic, including cross-multiplication 15th century. The Dresden ,,TO TAKE MY DEPARTURE AND printed in 1478, demonstrated and a \u201cchessboard\u201d technique Manuscript (1461) gave special techniques of addition and similar to modern practice. It symbols for the \ufb01rst four PROCEED TILL I ARRIVED also dealt with the rule of powers of x, and, around 1489, AT THE INDIES. LEONARDO DA VINCI mixtures (for instance, showing the German mathematician (1452\u20131519) the proportions of a precious Johannes Widman (1462\u201398) Christopher Columbus, from Journal of the First Voyage, 1492 metal in alloys) and methods of wrote the \ufb01rst work to use the Born in Tuscany, Leonardo calculating the Golden Number signs \u201c+\u201d and \u201c\u2013\u201d to represent he made the most detailed landed at San Salvador in the da Vinci was the most creative (see 1723\u201324). the operations of addition and anatomical drawings yet seen. Bahamas, the \ufb01rst European to mind of the Renaissance. subtraction. He also used a long reach the Americas since the He became an apprentice In 1483, it was followed by line to represent \u201cequals.\u201d In 1490, Leonardo was the \ufb01rst Vikings in the 11th century. His sculptor before moving to a German counterpart, the person to describe capillary voyage led to an exchange of Milan to work for the ruling Bamberger Rechenbuch Around 1489, Leonardo began action, the ability of water in tiny population, food crops, and Sforza family. A talented (Bamberger Arithmetic), which, as a study of human anatomy, spaces to \u201ccrawl upward,\u201d acting diseases as well as the discovery artist, his paintings include well as setting out \ufb01ve procedures using dissections of animals and contrary to other natural forces of large numbers of hitherto The Last Supper (1495\u201398) for multiplication, gave rules for human corpses (he claimed to (such as gravity). unseen species, such as the and Mona Lisa (c.1503). His the summing of geometrical have dissected 10). He recorded llama and armadillo. scienti\ufb01c interests were vast and arithmetical progressions. his \ufb01ndings in notebooks In October 1492, the Genoese and he produced 13,000 between 1489 and 1507. In these, explorer Christopher Columbus pages of notebooks. The proli\ufb01c scienti\ufb01c interests of the Italian painter, architect, NAVIGATING AND MAPPING THE WORLD Leonardo da Vinci\u2019s notebooks and engineer Leonardo da Vinci This page from Leonardo\u2019s notebooks led him to his studies on the The translation of Ptolemy\u2019s Geography from shows his sketches of \ufb02ying machines. mechanisms of \ufb02ight. He Greek to Latin in 1409 and the Portuguese He used mirror-writing to make notes, considered that \u201cthe bird is an voyages down the west coast of Africa gave an although it is uncertain why he did so. instrument operating through impetus to map-making techniques. mathematical laws\u201d and he worked on designs for \ufb02ying Maps of the 15th century, such as this 1540 machines using birdlike wings. map (left) by Venetian monk and mapmaker Fra Mauro, combined a knowledge derived from In 1481, he also devised a Ptolemy with information sourced from parachute, with a sealed linen mariners\u2019 charts, but did not use a projection cloth supported by wooden poles that portrayed distances accurately. It wasn\u2019t that made a pyramidal shape, until 1569 and Flemish geographer and that would reduce the rate of cartographer Gerardus Mercator\u2019s world acceleration in a fall and cushion map that maps really helped sailors the wearer\u2019s impact. There determine routes at sea more easily. is, however, no evidence that Leonardo actually built any of these fantastic machines. 14b8y9WJAiuodhstmseraienga\u201cannn+tes\u201diisssae\ufb01nrdst\u201c\u2013to\u201d 14d9e0osfcLcreaiobpneilsalratdhroye apcrtiniocniple 14s9c2BhaoIPtrlalabtilnrhiaaitorEaonourn\u2019PsmsaaleCoinnlasdyasus\u2019ostgioggNfaeactstiotousrnrraeelscHtiiosntosry 14m94LatuIthtchaeawelmiaPo\ufb01isanrartkscpictirooiicannloin\u2019ttsmehdAeplrsgeuehbbejrneasc\u2014tiv\u2014e 1481 LeporondaufrodcroesadaapadVreiansccihgi unte 14s8e9riLeesoonfaarndabotadosmaedVicionancl iddbriseasgweinicnstgiosns 1C4o9l2uCmhbrtuhissetolBapnahhdeasrminas 149P6toRleemgioy\u2019msmAotnlahmtkeaiaonngrugeisesh\u2019sstisimEsapopsirttuoerbomalnicesochomeefsdics,aiblle 71","1500\u201316 1517\u201335 ,, FRACASTORO\u2026 ,,DECLARED\u2026 THAT FOSSIL SHELLS HAD ALL BELONGED TO LIVING ANIMALS. Charles Lyell, Scottish geologist, from Principles of Geology, 1830\u201333 Martin Waldseem\u00fcller\u2019s 1507 world map was the \ufb01rst to name America, although much of the coastline of North and South America remained unknown. THE EXPLORATION OF NEW 4 clockmaker Peter Henlein THE MEDIEVAL Portrait of Paracelsus LANDS IN THE LATE 15TH (1485\u20131542) applied this system 13TH-CENTURY Paracelsus was both physician CENTURY, and in particular, YEARS to portable clocks (\u201cwatches\u201d). In SCHOLAR Albertus and chemist, and stressed the Columbus\u2019s discovery of the 1512, Henlein was recorded as Magnus had described importance of using chemical Americas in 1492 and Vasco THE AVERAGE LIFESPAN having made a watch that went stones with the \u201c\ufb01gures techniques in the production da Gama\u2019s circumnavigation OF A SWISS MILITARY for 40 hours and could be of animals,\u201d but Arab of medicines. of Africa en route to India in WATCH BATTERY carried in a pocket. and medieval scholars 1497\u201398, provided much new believed they were polygons and solids and their use material for map-makers. 40 hours The average lifespan of a In 1513, Polish astronomer produced by Earth itself as an aid for artists in producing 16th-century wind-up pocket watch Nicolaus Copernicus (1473\u2013 or were the remains of scienti\ufb01cally accurate images. In 1504, a letter written by 1543) wrote his Commentariolus animals drowned in the Amerigo Vespucci (1454\u20131512) Batteries versus springs (Little Commentary), a preliminary Biblical \ufb02ood. In a debate German chemist and physician detailing his third voyage to Henlein\u2019s \ufb01rst watch would have outline of his revolutionary view in 1517, Italian physician Theophrastus von Hohenheim America came into the hands lasted less than two days before that Earth revolved in orbit Girolamo Fracastoro (1493\u20131541), known as of a group based in St.-Di\u00e9 in needing rewinding, but this was around the Sun. Feeling (1478\u20131553) was the \ufb01rst Paracelsus, devised a new Lorraine (in modern-day a major achievement at the time. dissatis\ufb01ed with the old planetary to publicly express the classi\ufb01cation of chemical France). One of them, Martin theory of Ptolemy, with its view that fossils are substances, rejecting Aristotle Waldseem\u00fcller (c.1470\u20131522), In the late 15th century, multiplicity of celestial spheres, organic matter, and Galen\u2019s four humors. In his produced a globe and world clockmakers learned how to geocentric view, and its originally animals, De Mineralibus (On Minerals), he map in 1507 in which he construct spring-driven clocks anomalies (such as the apparent that has been ossi\ufb01ed over time. divided them instead using the suggested that the new-found in which the gradual uncoiling retrograde motion of some three principal units of sulfur, continent be called America, of the spring operates the planets), Copernicus explained In August 1522, the 18 mercury, and salt. Paracelsus the \ufb01rst occurrence of the term. mechanism. The Nuremberg how a planet\u2019s periodicity varied survivors of Ferdinand Magellan\u2019s spurned the study of anatomy in proportion to its distance from expedition arrived in Spain, and promoted the idea that the In 1508, Waldseem\u00fcller wrote the Sun. Fearing the reaction of having completed the \ufb01rst a treatise on surveying, in which the Church, Copernicus kept his circumnavigation of Earth. The he described the theodolite \ufb01ndings to himself for 30 years. voyage had taken three years, and (which he called polimetrum) more than 230 crew (including for the \ufb01rst time. Using a Around 1500, gunsmiths Magellan) perished. However, it theodolite, surveyors and devised the wheel-lock did de\ufb01nitively prove the size of cartographers could now mechanism for \ufb01rearms. Earth\u2019s circumference to be measure angles of up to It used a serrated metal about 24,800 miles (40,000km). 360 degrees. wheel that rotated rapidly, striking against In 1525, German artist Albrecht First pocket-watch a lump of the mineral D\u00fcrer (1471\u20131528) published The compact workings pyrite, and creating his Instructions for Measuring of Peter Henlein\u2019s portable sparks that lit the with Compass and Ruler, one clock (c.1512) were driven gunpowder charge. of the \ufb01rst works on applied by a slowly uncoiling spring. mathematics, which contained It was the \ufb01rst timepiece detailed accounts of the small enough to be carried properties of curves, spirals, in the user\u2019s pocket. and regular and semiregular 15W0a7plrMdmosdataeuhrpetceimetnhns\u00fcaal\ufb01tmlreusersteAsmerica 15m12pakoPeceksteethtrewH\ufb01aetrncslhet in 15w1h5aepTephlee-al\ufb01orrcisnktGpiesrtmolasny 15o2f2MFSeacrougdcmeriivlrnolpicavafluonenEmrt\u2019dasserne\ufb01tahxrvpsietgdaittiioonn 15p2u5obnAlfiosalbrhpruepesslcieeh\ufb01dtbrsyDmt\u00fcawarrtetohirrsektsmatics 1508 Walddessecermtihb\u00fceelosledtrohleite Coper1nC5ico1hum3easolnNmifwoioteccrhuneoietttlnelaaistsnruroieisholcailosurtfhsshe,yiossrteym e1x5p1rt7ehosaFrstriegafsoisnschaasilsitlloysvrloioiwefrewgearfoenrimc s 152\ufb015rCsthrGiestrompaahnnRdsayuilmndgtoebrloboffdlrapufoirccroedmssuqmacuneaousrdaeelrrnoot 72","1536\u201342 ,, TO KEEP ALIVE THE MEMORY ,,OF OLD KINGDOMS AND EVENTS AND\u2026 MAKE KNOWN TO COMING GENERATIONS OUR TIME. Imperial charter describing Gerardus Mercator\u2019s terrestrial globe, c.1535 Girolamo Fracastoro was one of the \ufb01rst to believe that fossilized shells, such as this fossil of the Archimedes species, had once been animals. body (microcosm) must be in surveyed from an accurately Pictures of Herbs) with 260 De Historia Stirpium (The History balance with nature (macrocosm). measured base line. He went on woodcuts of plants, whose of Plants), in which he described His interest in distilling chemicals in 1547 to suggest a new way of accurate detail set an exacting around 550 plants (mainly led him to use apparently noxious calculating longitude, by using a standard for botanical drawing. medicinal ones), providing their substances such as sulfuric portable clock set to the time of names and therapeutic virtues. acid (which he employed against the point of departure that could In 1530, Gemma Frisius had Its drawings were so clear that it gout), mercury, and arsenic as be compared with a clock compiled a manual explaining became the \ufb01rst botanical work medicines. Some time before showing the time at the point of how to construct a globe showing to be widely used by laymen. 1529 he began to use a pain arrival. The imprecision of clocks, Earth\u2019s geography (a terrestrial reliever he called laudanum. however, rendered the technique GERARDUS MERCATOR globe). In 1541, Flemish of limited practical value. (1512\u201394) cartographer Gerardus Mercator In 1533, Flemish cartographer produced what would become Gemma Frisius (1508\u201355) gave In 1521 Italian surgeon Born in Flanders, Gerardus the \ufb01rst surviving the \ufb01rst full description of the Berengario da Carpi (c.1460\u2013 Mercator embarked on a terrestrial globe. He also method of triangulation, by 1530), who lectured on anatomy career making mathematical included a selection of which a large area could be at the University of Bologna, instruments. He began stars superimposed on producing maps in 1537 and the globe, as well as wrote about the published his \ufb01rst world map rhumb lines (which showed importance of the in 1538. In 1569, he compiled the straightest course anatomy of things another map of the world, between two points on the that can be observed, this time using a projection same latitude); both were which included the that showed constant lines invaluable aids at sea. use of dissection of of course as straight lines, human corpses. He which came to bear his name. In 1542, German used this as the basis botanist Leonhard for his Anatomia Carpi AN IMPETUS TO BOTANY IN THE Fuchs (1501\u201366) (The Anatomy of Carpi), RENAISSANCE had been provided published his which was the \ufb01rst by the desire to illustrate plants anatomical work to found in classical authors\u2019 texts, Botanical drawing use printed \ufb01gures such as those of Roman naturalist Accurate and attractive to illustrate the text. Pliny, and the possibilities illustrations, such as this drawing provided by printed illustrations. of a borage, or star\ufb02ower, made Attention to detail Between 1530 and 1536, German Fuchs\u2019s De Historia Stirpium Drawings from Carthusian monk Otto Brunfels a valued botanical handbook. Anatomia Carpi show (c.1488\u20131534) published his the veins leading into the Herbarum Vivae Iconis (Living heart. These examples show how accurately da Carpi derived his drawings from his program of human corpse dissection. 15n2e7cwhPecamlraaisccsaeil\ufb01lsscuuasbtisdotenavnfiosceress 15m27patrGEhoeeduPrmuramocaspeatcesinact\ufb01lio\u2019asrnsdTtePrwsieacotnrerigkrbleAienpian 15p3u0bbo\u2013lit3sa6hneOicstatiolmhBparonurdntabfenoltosk 15m37NatiIihctsaecs\ufb01lomuiraloes\u00f2anntstTimhbcaiiaraastljnaloNigrsoltmiviacaosSdceirenntwiao,rk 15h4i1s \ufb01Mresrtccaetloersptiraoldgulcoebse 15J3e9roGcmlearhsemseBira\ufb01obnecstsbkr,eopg(etTlraarsanna,sigtosssuretisssn)htaornudbs c.1u5s2e9s lPaaauprdaaaicnne-ulrsmeulsieavser 1533 Peter Ap\ufb01arisntpsuinbelisthabesl1e5s\ufb013r5stDaanaCwtaiotrmhpipicpraiunlbtteelidxsth\ufb01begosuokres 7 3154D2aeLceHcouisnrtaaotrredilayFSudtce5irhs5psc0i\u2019ruspimblaensts","3","THE AGE OF DISCOVERY 1543\u20131788 As international travel increased, greater emphasis was placed on first-hand observations and accurate instruments. Instead of relying on written authority, natural philosophers devised experiments to construct testable theories about the Universe.","1543 ,, ,,AT REST, HOWEVER, IN THE MIDDLE OF EVERYTHING IS THE SUN. Nicolaus Copernicus, Polish astronomer, from De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, 1543 Copernicus\u2019s idea that all the planets revolve around the Sun, rather than Earth being at the center of the Universe, was a departure from conventional astronomy and challenged the authority of the Church. A CENTURY AFTER GUTENBERG 400 THE FIRST PRINT RUN The heliocentric Universe REVOLUTIONIZED PRINTING OF COPERNICUS\u2019S In De Revolutionibus Orbium with the invention of movable DE REVOLUTIONIBUS Coelestium, Copernicus used type (see 1450\u201367), scientists ORBIUM COELESTIUM mathematics and astronomical were able to publish their work observations to show how Earth for a mass readership, giving and the other \ufb01ve planets move new ideas wider in\ufb02uence. The in circular orbits around the Sun. year 1543 was a milestone in scienti\ufb01c publishing, when calculations to support his convention and went against the the \ufb01rst book of human published his translation of several important books \ufb01rst argument. However, he was Church. He was persuaded to anatomy to be fully illustrated, Euclid\u2019s Elements into Italian, the appeared. Two books stood reluctant to publish his theory publish De Revolutionibus by showing in detail what Vesalius \ufb01rst translation of that work into out\u2014Nicolaus Copernicus\u2019s because it challenged Georg Rheticus, an Austrian had discovered in his dissections a modern European language. De Revolutionibus Orbium mathematician who had come of human bodies. Unlike Coelestium (On the Revolutions to study with him. It is said that Copernicus\u2019s work, De Humani Welsh mathematician Robert of Celestial Bodies) and Andreas Copernicus was presented with sold well, and Vesalius published Recorde published The Ground Vesalius\u2019s De Humani Corporis its \ufb01rst edition on his deathbed. a single-volume summary of the of Artes, the \ufb01rst printed book on Fabrica (On the Structure of the book later in 1543. mathematics in English. It was to Human Body). They are often An expensive book, De remain a standard textbook for seen as marking the Revolutionibus sold only a few This year saw groundbreaking more than a century. beginning of a new scienti\ufb01c hundred copies and did not have publications in the \ufb01eld of age, as they called into an immediate impact. However, mathematics as well. Italian question the conventional Copernicus\u2019s mathematical engineer and mathematician authorities on astronomy arguments for a heliocentric Niccol\u00f2 Fontana Tartaglia and anatomy. (sun-centered) Universe were soon accepted by most NICOLAUS COPERNICUS (1473\u20131543) Up to that time, most astronomers, leading to a rift astronomers believed between them and the Church. Born in Torun, Poland, into that Earth was a German family, Nicolaus at the center of the In contrast, Vesalius Copernicus was brought Universe\u2014a view put was 28 years old when he up by his uncle after his forward by Ptolemy published his comprehensive father\u2019s death. He studied law in the 2nd century. seven-volume study of in Bologna and medicine in Copernicus, however, human anatomy, De Humani Padua. Copernicus lectured calculated that Earth, Corporis Fabrica. This was in mathematics in Rome before and all the planets, returning to Poland to work revolved around the De Humani Corporis Fabrica as a physician. He developed Sun. He had been Vesalius\u2019s treatise on human the idea of a heliocentric working on this idea anatomy was lavishly illustrated Universe, but had only just since about 1510, and with detailed drawings of published his work when by the 1530s had put various stages of dissection. he died in 1543. together mathematical The \ufb01gures are drawn in poses similar to the allegorical paintings of the time. MaCyotphNeoeircfSnotuhilcaneuuisUssnsauitvgetghresesectsenter AnpduCrbeolpairsispohhonuVereemsiessDraaFinenlaiguaHbsnrbuiaomctoaoak,mnaoiyn 76","RopbuGebrrlatoisuRgbhnroeeodocsuokonTrfohddAnbeerrmteeaaskt,hinegmatics A PanhMdarebDmdyeMiaScMiacapcor,aahepbtnaeeepiesrilualiiheabSvpleeihsrdhyvsteeoidtcubiasen, TartIatNgaillciiaacEnopulut\u00f2crblaFlindiosn\u2019sshlteaaEstnlieaohmniseonfts 77","1543\u20131788 Anatomy of the shoulder Leonardo da Vinci brought both artistic aptitude and scienti\ufb01c enquiry to his studies of anatomy. He often worked in collaboration with an anatomist to ensure the accuracy of his work. deltoid (shoulder muscle) biceps brachii (biceps) trapezius (neck\u2013shoulder muscle) scapula (shoulder blade) connects the humerus with the clavicle clavicle (collarbone) humerus (upper arm bone) pectoralis (pectoral muscle) ribcage sternum (breast bone) 1600 BCE Canopic jar 12th century Late 15th century Mummi\ufb01cation Islamic physicians refute Galenic wisdom New observations In ancient Egypt, bodies There is no prohibition of human dissection in the medieval With physicians refuting Galen, Leonardo da Vinci are mummi\ufb01ed; the Islamic world, where physicians such as Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) begins his study of human anatomy. Italian internal organs are perform routine autopsies. Ibn Zuhr corrects some of Galen\u2019s physician Jacopo da Carpi\u2019s Anatomia Carpi removed for religious human anatomy\u2014much of it based on the Barbary ape. introduces a new age of original observation. reasons and to help preservation, and are stored in canopic jars. 500 BCE 180 BCE 1300s Early Greek anatomy Galenic circulation Mondino de Liuzzi The Greek physician Greek-born physician Italian physician Mondino Hippocrates promotes Galen concludes that blood de Liuzzi performs the \ufb01rst animal dissection as a is continually made in the public human dissections way of learning about body, an idea not corrected c.1315, but his catalog of the human body. until the 17th century. anatomy perpetuates many erroneous ideas of antiquity. Hippocrates Galen\u2019s anatomy Liuzzi\u2019s Anathomia 78","THE STORY OF ANATOMY THE STORY OF ANATOMY THE SECRETS OF THE LIVING BODY HAVE LONG FASCINATED BOTH SCIENTISTS AND ARTISTS The exploration of biological structure\u2014anatomy\u2014is the basis for understanding how bodies work. Early anatomists had to dissect cadavers to find answers to even simple questions; later, technologies such as the microscope helped physicians chart the body in greater detail. In the ancient world, anatomists dissected the observation. By the Renaissance, artists such as bodies of animals but were forbidden to open Leonardo da Vinci (see 1468\u201382) were illustrating human cadavers, which were considered sacred. bodies with exquisite realism, and each new As a result, Galen (129\u2013200 CE), Rome\u2019s most anatomical publication charted and named new celebrated physician, circulated erroneous ideas structures. Flemish-born anatomist Andreas about the human body Vesalius (see 1543) dominated the scene with that were based on his illustrated De Humani Corporis Fabrica. animal anatomy. When human dissection was DELVING DEEPER PRESERVING ANATOMICAL SPECIMENS sanctioned, Galen\u2019s With the invention of microscopes in the 1600s, Dead body parts decay quickly. Preservation ideas were corrected anatomists could see that organs were made up in alcohol prolongs opportunities for study, but through direct of cellular tissues. By the 1900s, the discovery also dehydrates specimens, causing distortion. Formalin is commonly used as a \ufb01xative to avoid of X-rays heralded new directions for anatomy. this. Some of the most sophisticated modern methods preserve bodies in a dry state, for Anatomical waxwork Today, powerful electron microscopes can probe example, by replacing water and fat with plastic. Three-dimensional \ufb01gures, the detailed structure of cells, and new imaging such as this 19th-century wax fetus, were important tools for techniques reveal internal structures in 3-D teaching medicine. without the need to cut the body open. THE HUMAN FOOT IS A MASTERPIECE ,, ,,OF ENGINEERING AND A WORK OF ART. Leonardo da Vinci, Italian polymath, from his notebooks, 1508\u201318 Vesalius Microtome MRI scan illustration 1770 Microtome 1940s\u20131950 1543 The microtome is invented for MRI scanning Father of anatomy cutting tissue into extremely thin, In 1946, American physicists \ufb01nd Artists attend the dissections almost transparent sections. a way of detecting signals from of Flemish-born Andreas This enables samples to be atoms that enable scientists to Vesalius to draw accurate examined under high-power obtain images of the soft internal illustrations for his De light microscopes. structures of living bodies. Humani Corporis Fabrica. 1665 Mid-19th century 1895 X-ray Compound microscopes Comparative anatomy X-rays of hand Anatomists such as Marcello Directed by Charles Darwin\u2019s German physicist Wilhelm Malpighi, Jan Swammerdam, and evolutionary theory of 1859, R\u00f6ntgen uses his newly 79 Robert Hooke use sophisticated many anatomists seek discovered X-rays to reveal the microscopes to record the structure evidence of common descent bones of his wife\u2019s hand, and of cells, capillaries, and tissues. shows a way of examining among species. internal bony structures Hooke\u2019s microscope Chimpanzee without the need to dissect. skeleton","1544\u201345 1546\u201350 ,, CLOTHES, LINEN, ETC\u2026 NOT ,, THEMSELVES CORRUPT, CAN\u2026 ,,FOSTER THE ESSENTIAL SEEDS OF THE CONTAGION AND THUS CAUSE INFECTION. Girolamo Fracastoro, Italian physician, poet, and geologist, 1546 The Orto Botanico di Padova (Padua Botanical Garden), the oldest existing botanical garden in Europe, continues to be a major center for research in botany and pharmacology even today. GERMAN CLERGYMAN AND MICHAEL SERVETUS (1511\u201353) PHYSICIAN, GEOLOGIST, AND 3.4 INSTRUMENT-MAKER GEORG POET GIROLAMO FRACASTORO HARTMANN (1489\u20131564), was Spanish scientist Miguel (1478\u20131553) published his most BILLION the \ufb01rst to notice and describe, Servet, also known as important work, On Contagion YEARS in 1544, the phenomenon of Michael Servetus, wrote and Contagious Diseases, in Italy magnetic inclination. Also known several treatises on medicine in 1546. Best known at the time THE AGE OF as magnetic dip, this is the and human anatomy. He was for his poem Syphilis, or the THE EARLIEST phenomenon whereby the needle the \ufb01rst European to correctly French Disease in 1530, he FOSSILS, OF of a compass follows the line of explain pulmonary circulation covered his examination of SINGLE CELLS, Earth\u2019s magnetic \ufb01eld, which in Christianismi Restitutio (The diseases in greater depth in DISCOVERED curves around Earth\u2019s surface. Restoration of Christianity). On Contagion, offering an early IN AUSTRALIA As a result, the north-pointing His theological works were explanation of the mechanism end of a compass needle tends considered heretical, and he by which diseases are spread. even through the air. Despite to point slightly downward was burned at the stake in His theory was that each disease being initially accepted by the in the Northern Hemisphere Geneva for his views. is caused by very small bodies, medical establishment, his ideas and upward in the Southern or \u201cspores,\u201d which are carried had little effect on the treatment Hemisphere. Hartmann\u2019s In 1545, Italian mathematician \ufb01rst of its kind and a model for in the body, skin, and clothing and prevention of disease until discovery was not widely known Girolamo Cardano (1501\u201376) subsequent botanical gardens, of the person affected. These until centuries later. In 1581, published Ars Magna (The Great it was established by the Senate minute bodies, he believed, his theory was proven right English instrument-maker Art), an important book on of the Venetian Republic. It was could multiply rapidly, and be by Louis Pasteur (see Robert Norman published his algebra. He presented solutions used for growing and studying transmitted from person to 1857\u201358) and others own account of the phenomenon. to cubic and quartic equations, medicinal plants and person by physical contact by centuries later. involving unknown quantities comprised a circular plot of handling unwashed clothes, or Fracastoro also took MATHEMATICS to the power of three and four land, symbolizing the world, an interest in the IS\u2026 ITS OWN respectively. He drew on his surrounded by water. The EXPLANATION\u2026 own ideas as well as those of \ufb01rst custodian of the Ammonite fossil FOR THE compatriots such as Niccol\u00f2 gardens was Luigi Early scholars believed RECOGNITION Fontana Tartaglia (1499\u20131557), Squalermo (1512\u201370), THAT A FACT IS who translated works of Euclid also known as that fossils were the SO, IS THE CAUSE and Archimedes. Ars Magna Anguillara. He remains of animals made reference for the \ufb01rst time cultivated around laid down in the ,,UPON WHICH to imaginary numbers\u2014those 1,800 species of biblical \ufb02ood. By the numbers that are a multiple of medicinal herbs, 16th century, people WE BASE THE the square root of \u22121. making a signi\ufb01cant were considering PROOF. contribution to the other theories. Italy was also becoming a modern scienti\ufb01c studies Gerolamo Cardano, Italian center for botanical research, of botany, medicine, and mathematician, in De Vita with the opening of the botanical pharmacology. Propria Liber garden in Padua, in 1545. The 15H4am4rtGamgenoaerngtnicddisipcovers 15i4n5PTahdeuaboistaonpiecnael dgarden 15a4cM6oIemlnlreNacaaagogltneruoetterthte,imcprGoeateolnnreatdsirogdaneruseostgdhriafaftperheicnt 15p4u5blGisehraeolslgaehmbisroatCr,eaAarrdtsiasmneoaognna 15p4ub6lGisihroelsCaOomnnotCaFogrniaotucaasgsiDotionsreaoansdes OnAthg1er5iNc4oa6ltauGrpeeuoorbgfliiFsuohssessils 80","1551\u201354 ,, LET THERE BE FOR EVERY ,,PULSE A THANKSGIVING, AND FOR EVERY BREATH A SONG. Konrad Von Gesner, German naturalist, 1550s Fracastoro made major advances in Konrad von Gesner published several volumes of Historia Animalium, illustrated understanding the spread of disease. with dramatic pictures and accurately detailed drawings. emerging study of geology. After ENGLISH SURVEYOR LEONARD Animalium (The History of readers. Despite its popularity bodies of the same material fell examining the fossils of marine DIGGES (1520\u201359) made Animals). This book attempted in northern Europe, the series at the same speed, no matter creatures found by building measurement of distance more to present a comprehensive was banned by the Catholic what their weight, contradicting workers who were excavating a accurate with the invention, in catalog of the real and mythical Church because of von Gesner\u2019s the law proposed by Aristotle. site in Verona, he expressed the 1551, of the theodolite. creatures of the world and Protestant beliefs. In a second edition of the work, controversial idea that they included illustrations and he modi\ufb01ed his theory to account may be the fossilized remains In the same year, German engravings. More importantly, it The anatomical drawings of for air resistance (friction), but of animals that had lived there naturalist Konrad von Gesner introduced exotic and recently Italian physician Bartolomeo maintained that different-sized many years before. (1516\u201365) published the \ufb01rst discovered animals to European Eustachi (c.1520\u201374) , completed bodies would fall at the same of \ufb01ve volumes of his Historia in 1552, were not published speed in a vacuum. This, however, was not the view until 1714 because he feared held by other geologists of the elevation scale excommunication from the deoxygenated time. German scholar Georg Catholic Church. He studied lung blood Pawer, known as Georgius human teeth and was the \ufb01rst Agricola (1494\u20131555), telescope to describe adrenal glands, but dismissed the idea. he is more commonly known for He maintained that his research into the workings of heart oxygenated these were organic the ear, speci\ufb01cally the tube now blood shapes created by known as the Eustachian tube. the action of heat on \u201cfatty PULMONARY matter\u201d within the rocks. Michael Servetus (see panel, CIRCULATION Despite this erroneous opinion, opposite) published his Agricola was among the \ufb01rst to lower plate Christianismi Restitutio The heart pumps lay a scienti\ufb01c foundation for (The Restoration of deoxygenated blood through the study of geology. In his 1546 levelling Christianity) in 1553, but fell the pulmonary artery to publication De Veteribus et Novis screw small capillaries around the Metallis, better known as De foul of both the Catholic and lungs, where carbon dioxide Natura Fossilium, he attempted Protestant authorities is replaced with oxygen. to categorize various minerals in doing so. In it, he included The pulmonary vein returns and rocks according to their the \ufb01rst correct description of this oxygen-rich blood to the characteristics. This, along with pulmonary circulation. heart. Michael Servetus was his earlier text De Re Metallica, Also controversial was the \ufb01rst to describe this provided a comprehensive the theory proposed by system in 1553, but it had overview of mineralogy and Giambattista Benedetti little in\ufb02uence at the time. geology, and was a practical (1530\u201390) concerning \u201cbodies\u201d guide to various mining (objects) in free fall. In his book techniques and machinery used published in 1554, he stated that at the time. It also showed the inadequacy of contemporary Theodolite theories, which had not changed The theodolite is used to measure since the time of the Romans. vertical and horizontal angles. This modern example is equipped with a telescope, which enables surveying over even longer distances. 15C5a0srudGsracevniereooynlopcafeumstbho,leiDsehneaSstuubartaillitate Rerum 15in5v1eLnetsonthaerdodDoigligtees 15E5u2AsnBtaaatcrohtmio\ufb01liocnamilseEhonegsrhaivsings 15B5e4thnGfeeriodeareemytftobaifalplbtrtooisdptioaesseisn des1ig5n5s0apssrtTorawgoqreniaiogammhl-mtiD-cdaainbrlilvceelonck Ges1n5e5vr1oplKuuombnleirsaohdfeAHsvnoii\ufb01smnrtosartliiuam 1553puSbplaMisnihicsehhsapeChlhSyrsiesirctRviiaaeenntsuitsistmuitio 81","1555\u201357 1558\u201359 ,, TO AVOID TEDIOUS REPETITION OF\u2026 \u2018IS EQUAL TO\u2019, I WILL SETTLE\u2026 ON A PAIR OF ,,PARALLELS OF ONE LENGTH\u2026 Robert Recorde, Welsh physician and mathematician, 1557 Robert Recorde was the author of the \ufb01rst Smoking became a fashionable habit books on algebra in English. in 16th-century Europe. De Re Metallica some German mathematicians. Although platinum had already FRENCH DIPLOMAT JEAN NICOT, Georgius Agricola\u2019s It introduced a symbol he been used by the indigenous (1530\u20131600) while ambassador lavishly illustrated book invented: =, the equals sign. people of Central and South in Lisbon, Portugal, was on mining techniques Best known for popularizing America to make jewelry and introduced to tobacco, brought describes the formation mathematics in Britain, Recorde ornaments, it was unknown in by Spanish explorers from of ores in the ground, had originally studied medicine Europe until the 16th century. America. Native Americans and how metal can be and worked as a physician to the The \ufb01rst written reference to the smoked it in religious rituals, extracted from them. Royal family, and for a time was metal came in 1557 in the writings and ingested or made poultices of Julius Caesar Scaliger with its leaves for medicinal descriptions of the 3214\u00b0F (1484\u20131558), an Italian scholar. He purposes. Nicot sent tobacco veins of ores found in described how Spanish explorers plants and snuff to the royal rock, and how metals THE MELTING came across an unknown court in France, where smoking could be extracted POINT OF element, with an unusually high and snuff-taking soon became from them, as well PLATINUM melting point and resistance to fashionable. The tobacco plant as a comprehensive corrosion. Originally known as Nicotiana, and the chemical catalog of the minerals controller of the Royal Mint \u201cwhite gold,\u201d platinum was later nicotine, are named after him. known at that time. supervising the manufacture of recognized as an element which Sometimes referred to coins. Despite fame and standing, occurs naturally in both pure and In the same year, Italian as \u201cthe father of he died in a debtors\u2019 prison a year alloy (combined with another anatomist and surgeon Realdo mineralogy,\u201d Agricola after publishing The Whetstone. element) forms in South America, Colombo (c.1516\u201359) published made contributions to Russia, and South Africa. the emerging \ufb01elds of Nugget of platinum Title page of De Re Anatomica geology, metallurgy, A rare metal, platinum Although Realdo Colombo published and chemistry. is one of the least only one book on anatomy, his reactive discoveries rivaled those of Andreas After his books elements. Vesalius and Gabriele Falloppio. The Ground of Artes GEORGIUS AGRICOLA\u2019S BOOK (1543) on arithmetic, De Re Metallica (On the Nature and The Pathway to of Metals) was published Knowledge (1551) on posthumously in 1556. In it, he geometry, the Welsh described various techniques mathematician for mining minerals, and the Robert Recorde published a machines, especially water mills, companion volume, The used for raising them from the Whetstone of Witte, in 1557, mines. This classic text of probably the \ufb01rst book on mining engineering included algebra in English. As well as presenting the principles of algebra, this book established usage of the symbols + (plus) and \u2212 (minus), which had previously been used only occasionally by 15D5e6pRuGtbehelneMiosarLehmgateatePdiln,laiiGinwczaeeeBodirasr\u2019fgssoeiurlmsuAnodgferhircisola 15E5u7trooFwppirrlCeiastaattineinngsruesemrofeSfirncJeaunllicigueesr in1t5ro5d7uRcfooerbsWe\u201ctehrhtqeeuRtssaeytlocmson,\u201dbredoionelf=TW,hiette 82","1560\u201364 Ambroise Par\u00e9 developed new surgical techniques while working as a battle\ufb01eld surgeon, and demonstrated his ideas to his students. GABRIELE FALLOPPIO (1523\u201362) formal title was the Academia known by the Latinized form Secretorum Naturae (Academy of his name, Fallopius, he made Born in Modena, Italy, Falloppio of Secrets of Nature), considered valuable contributions to the studied medicine in Ferrara, to be the \ufb01rst scienti\ufb01c society. study of the ears, eyes, and and went on to teach anatomy Its membership was open to nose, as well as human and surgery at the Universities anyone who could demonstrate reproduction and sexuality. of Ferrara and Padua. He also having made a new discovery in A nerve canal in the face (the served as superintendent of one of the natural sciences, and aquaeductus Fallopii) and the botanical garden at Padua. meetings were held at della the Fallopian tube connecting Porta\u2019s home until, thanks to the ovaries with the uterus are He is credited with important his interest in occult philosophy, named after him. Falloppio was discoveries in the anatomy Pope Paul V ordered the a respected physician and skillful of the human head and Academy to disband in surgeon as well as an anatomist. reproductive systems. He died, 1578. Della Porta went on He wrote a number of treatises aged only 39, in Padua. to encourage the founding of on surgery, medication, and another society, the Accademia treatments of various kinds, his treatise De Re Anatomica ITALIAN POLYMATH dei Lincei (Academy of Lynxes) although only one, Anatomy, was Prosthetic hand by Par\u00e9 (On Things Anatomical). Colombo\u2019s PLAYWRIGHT GIAMBATTISTA in 1603. published in his lifetime. His Par\u00e9 designed sophisticated practical background in surgery DELLA PORTA (c.1535\u20131615), work complemented the writings prostheses to replace missing led to a sometimes acrimonious particularly interested in the Gabriele Falloppio, who had of his compatriots Vesalius and limbs, such as the hand shown rivalry with his more academic sciences, founded a group of succeeded Realdo Colombo as Colombo, and often quietly in this 1585 drawing. contemporary Andreas Vesalius. like-minded thinkers in Naples, chair of anatomy and surgery corrected their misconceptions. However, he is credited with nicknamed the Otiosi, or men of at Padua University in 1551, amputated limbs with balms advances in anatomy, including leisure, who met to \u201cuncover the published his major work, Meanwhile, Frenchman and ointments rather than work on pulmonary circulation. secrets of nature.\u201d Their more Observationes Anatomicae Ambroise Par\u00e9 (1510\u201390) cauterizing the wounds with (Anatomical Observations), in wrote one of the \ufb01rst manuals boiling oil, which often harmed ,, IT IS GOOD fallopian tube 1561 at the height of what of modern surgery. His the very tissues the surgeon FOR NOTHING uterus in retrospect was a golden age Treatise, written in French rather was attempting to mend. Par\u00e9\u2019s BUT TO CHOKE than Latin, was based on his innovative scienti\ufb01c approach A MAN, AND of anatomical experience as a surgeon on the based on empirical observation discovery. battle\ufb01eld. As well as describing did much to improve the status ,,FILL HIM FULL Sometimes surgical procedures, some of of the \u201cbarber-surgeon,\u201d which his own invention, Par\u00e9\u2019s book was previously considered OF SMOKE AND ovary Fallopian tube proposed the idea of surgery inferior to the medical physician. EMBERS. Also known as the as a restorative procedure, oviducts or salpinges, which should involve minimum Ben Jonson, English playwright, the tubes named after suffering. It stated that pain in Every Man in His Humor, 1598 Falloppio allow the relief, healing, and even eggs to pass from the compassion were essential to ovaries to the uterus. successful surgery. This came from his experience of treating 15in5t9trooJFderuaacnnecNseitcoobtacco 15s6o0bcyiTeGhtyieaim\ufb01srbfsoatutstnicdsiteeadndtiine\ufb01lcNlaaPpolersta 15P6a4Trr\u00e9Aemaptuibsbreloisoishneessuhrgisery 155p9ubRleisahlDedesoRhCeiosAltonrmeaatbotoimseica 1o5va6r1ieGdseat,sbutcrhbrieeeibslueectseFotranhulnelseoh,cpautpinmniodgatnthheem 83","1543\u20131788 THE AGE OF DISCOVERY Roman set square complete circle Brass half-circle theodolite c.1st century BCE scale or brass ring 19th century This bronze instrument would have A theodolite measures horizontal and vertical been important to Roman builders, angles and is an important tool in surveying. The helping them set construction instrument\u2019s telescope is focused on a distant blocks exactly square. object, the position of which is determined with respect to horizontal and vertical scales. straight edges eye-piece set in a right angle rotating base \ufb01xed on tripod Laser spirit level Circumferentor vertical 21st century 1676 half-circle An instrument used Used by surveyors before the graduated in construction for invention of the theodolite, into degrees measuring vertical the circumferentor measured angles, this level de\ufb01nes angles and could be used a level plane along the horizontally and vertically beam of a laser. to calculate distances. MEASURING INSTRUMENTS SIMPLE OR SOPHISTICATED, THERE ARE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS FOR ALL PURPOSES In everyday life, exact measurement is not always important. A wooden cup can be adequate for delivering a fair share of grain, but scientists who want to know the dimensions of microscopic objects need to use precision instruments. In scienti\ufb01c experiments or studies, measurements must be made with an appropriate level of care and accuracy to ensure that results and conclusions are reliable. Scientists require their measuring instruments to give values within an acceptable margin of error, using standard units that are recognized universally. Today, nearly all countries use the Syst\u00e8me Internationale (SI)\u2014the modern form of the metric system\u2014which was introduced in the 1960s. Grain measure Lead weight Jade weight Traditional c.250 BCE Date unknown Fixed quantities of grains, Greek merchants In early Chinese such as wheat or used standard civilizations, precious minerals barley, were once weights\u2014usually made such as jade were used for used as standard from lead, and fashioned standard weights. units of mass. into rectangles. kilogram Standard weights 19th century Conical glass \ufb02ask Many countries today leveling 21st century have replaced the pound plate This \ufb02ask is used as a with the kilogram. Graduated pipette holding container for Nesting cups 21st century chemical reactions in Glass pipettes, graduated in experiments where 19th century fractions of milliliters, can Cuplike standard weights used with measure liquid volumes total volume does not counterbalancing mechanical scales precisely, drop by drop. have to be accurate. could be nested together in multiples. milliliter graduations pound 84","MEASURING INSTRUMENTS measurement read measuring rod dial around movable screw Yardstick from point where 18th century screw touches scale Modern micrometer The Imperial yard 21st century (3 ft or 0.9 m) has long Brass micrometer Most modern micrometers work been a popular unit Early 19th century as calipers that move by tiny of measurement for The \ufb01rst micrometers distances as they close around construction work. opened up the \ufb01eld of an object. Most yardsticks can precision engineering; be used as rulers. these adjustable telescope for screwlike devices enable viewing accurate measurement of small distances. calipers for measuring internal dimension sliding scale Spring balance calipers for Vernier calipers Laser distance meter 18th century measuring 20th century 21st century Originating in the 18th century, external In 1631, Paul Vernier invented a sliding scale This shoots a laser spring balances rely on dimension for taking small measurements with great pulse at a distant object stretching a spring in accuracy. The principle of the Vernier scale and measures the time proportion to an pointer remained in use for modern instruments. taken for the pulse to applied force\u2014the be re\ufb02ected back. weight. The dial cross beam is Cased balance can be calibrated horizontal when 18th century in units of mass weights are equal Beam-balances were used (for example, in science and medicine, but kilograms) or small portable balances were force (Newtons). also used for such purposes as measuring coins. horizontal full central pivot coin circle graduated into degrees with Vernier scale suspended weight Surveyor\u2019s chain Weighing scales Analytical balance 19th century 18th century 21st century Land surveyors began using Scales determine an unknown weight by counterbalancing The most sophisticated modern chains in the 1600s. This it with known weights until equilibrium is achieved. digital balances can weigh minute example is about 66 ft fractions of a gram, and are (20 m) long, and is divided so sensitive that they must be into 100 links. protected from vibrations, dust, and air movements. links at \ufb01xed- distance intervals 85","1565\u201369 1570\u201371 The Exeter Ship Canal reconnected the English inland port of Exeter to the sea, The \ufb01rst modern world atlas, the Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, showed the bypassing the section of the Exe River that was no longer navigable. extent of voyages of discovery in the 16th century. BEGUN IN 1564, the Exeter ,, HE DOES SMILE HIS FACE INTO pinhole Ship Canal was completed or lens in 1566 or 1567. A man- ,,MORE LINES THAN IS IN THE NEW made navigable channel, external it reestablished the town MAP WITH THE AUGMENTATION scene of Exeter in England as a port OF THE INDIES. after centuries of blockages inverted on the Exe River by weirs William Shakespeare, English playwright, Twelfth Night, c.1602 image constructed to power watermills. Probably the UK\u2019s \ufb01rst arti\ufb01cial Maps became increasingly curved surface of Earth when CAMERA OBSCURA waterway, the Exeter Canal important during the 16th designing his paper map of was a forerunner of the proli\ufb01c century, as traders and the world. Now known as A camera obscura (Latin for \u201cdark chamber\u201d) is a simple room or canal-building that came with explorers made voyages around Mercator\u2019s projection, this box with a small hole in one of its walls. Light from outside passes the Industrial Revolution in the the world. While cartographers method shows the lines of through the hole and falls onto the inside of the opposite wall, 18th century. could make accurate globes longitude as equally spaced, projecting an image of the scene outside. The image, which showing oceans and continents, parallel, vertical straight lines, appears upside down, is sharper with a smaller pinhole, or and the lines of latitude as brighter with a larger hole, and can be focused by adding a lens. these were not perpendicular to them\u2014as if convenient for they were projected onto a ENCOURAGED BY HIS FRIEND Italian polymath Giambattista navigation. The cylinder enclosing a globe. AND COLLEAGUE MERCATOR, della Porta (c.1535\u20131615) \ufb01rst problem was how Although this projection the Flemish cartographer published his book Magiae to represent the distorted the shapes and sizes Abraham Ortelius (1527-98) Naturalis (Natural Magic) with three-dimensional of large land masses and oceans, published his Theatrum Orbis descriptions and observations Earth in two it was particularly useful for Terrarum (Theater of the World) of all the sciences in 1558, but dimensions. In navigation, since compass in 1570. He had previously made it proved so popular that it was 1569, Flemish courses could be shown as a large map of the world on revised and expanded in a cartographer straight lines. eight sheets, and several separate Gerardus Mercator maps of various parts of the 53 (1512\u201394), already Although the German\u2013Swiss world, but this collection of 53 famous for his alchemist and physician maps and accompanying text THE NUMBER globes and maps Paracelsus (1493\u20131541) was in book form was the \ufb01rst OF MAPS of Europe, devised a proli\ufb01c writer and notorious modern world atlas\u2014a term IN THE a new way to self-publicist, few of his works suggested by Mercator. After its FIRST WORLD represent the were published during his original publication in Latin, it ATLAS lifetime. One of the most was translated into several Gerardus Mercator in\ufb02uential, Archidoxa, was other languages, and in these Mercator\u2019s projection, published posthumously in later editions Ortelius added a method of showing Krak\u00f3w in 1569. This rejected several more maps and the spherical world the magical elements of corrected inaccuracies. as a two-dimensional alchemy and was important map, enabled accurate in the development of modern nautical navigation and chemistry and medicine. still remains in use. 15E6x6ies\/t6ceo7rmTShpheliepteCdanal 15t6re9maPpetiaudsrbiecalioicnsnehelae,slAducrshpc\u2019oeshsmidthyouxaman,doisusly 15p7u0abtAlTliasebshrr,reaatshhraetuhmmTehO\ufb01erratstetrlumiumosdOerrbnis 1569 GerarduascMompeuorpcfblaeltihttseoehrmewsaoprld c.1570 GianPboartcttaaisamdtnaeeisdrmcaerploilbraboesvsceudra 86","1572\u201374 A supernova is a massive exploding star that shines very brightly, giving the impression that a new star has appeared. Tycho Brahe \ufb01rst described the phenomenon in 1573. number of editions, eventually COMPOSING A BOOK ON ,, IT WAS NOT JUST THE becoming a 20-volume work. ALGEBRA that was both In one of the later editions of comprehensive and intelligible ,,CHURCH THAT RESISTED around 1570, he included a to the nonmathematician, description of the camera Rafael Bombelli (1526\u201372) THE HELIOCENTRISM OF obscura. The principles of this published his treatise simply COPERNICUS. device date back to China and titled Algebra shortly before his Greece around 2,000 years death in 1572. He explained in Tycho Brahe, Danish astronomer, 1587 before, but della Porta was everyday language the algebra the \ufb01rst to suggest the use known at that time and tackled of it, De Nova Stella (On the New as well as to other stars that TYCHO BRAHE of a convex lens rather than a problem barely understood by Star). It was in fact a massive brighten abruptly. Brahe realized (1546\u20131601) a pinhole to focus the image his contemporaries, imaginary stellar explosion, not a new that his \u201cstar\u201d was very distant on the screen inside, allowing numbers: numbers whose star, but the Latin word \u201cnova\u201d from Earth, certainly beyond the Born in Scania, now in more light through the larger square is less than zero. later came to be applied to what orbit of the Moon. Conventional Sweden but then part of aperture without a subsequent These, he explained, cannot is now known as a supernova, wisdom since the time of Denmark, Tycho Brahe loss of clarity. He also used this be dealt with in the same way Aristotle had maintained that became interested in camera obscura with a lens, as other numbers, but are animated anything outside the immediate astronomy while studying an innovation that was of great essential in solving equations \ufb01gures vicinity of Earth was unchanging, law in Copenhagen. Under value to Kepler in the following involving powers of two, three, including the stars of the the patronage of King century in his studies of the or four. Bombelli effectively laid staircase celestial realm, but Brahe\u2019s Frederick II of Denmark he workings of the human eye down the rules for using these observations contradicted the established an observatory (see 1598\u20131604). imaginary numbers for the \ufb01rst idea of the immutability equipped with the \ufb01nest time. Despite his pioneering of the stars. astronomical instruments. Although a successful work, imaginary numbers attorney in Paris, Fran\u00e7ois were not accepted in One of the most elaborate Conrad Dasypodius (1532\u2013 Vi\u00e8te (1540\u20131603), also known mathematics until almost astronomical clocks of the 1600), took over the project. as Franciscus Vieta, was a 200 years later. period was built in the Cathedral The clock was \ufb01nally built by talented mathematician who of Notre Dame in Strasbourg Isaac and Josias Habrecht. It devoted much of his spare time Tycho Brahe had to replace the existing 200-year- incorporated many of the latest to the subject. One of his \ufb01rst observed what appeared to old clock, which had stopped ideas in mathematics and achievements in the \ufb01eld be a bright new star in the working. The new clock was astronomy\u2014as well as was a set of trigonometric constellation of Cassiopeia designed by mathematician clockmaking\u2014into its design, tables to aid calculation, the in 1572, and the following Christian Herlin in the 1540s, which included a celestial globe, Universalium Inspectionum ad year published his account but only the preliminary building an astrolabe, a calendar dial, Canonem Mathematicum Liber had been accomplished in 1547 and automata. Singularis, which he started to Astronomical clock when work was interrupted by publish in 1571. This astronomical clock, Herlin\u2019s death. Political built between 1547 and problems further delayed 1574, stood in Strasbourg work until the 1570s, when Cathedral until the 19th Herlin\u2019s pupil, mathematician century. An 1840s replica now exists in its place. 15b7e1tgriFingrsoannpou\u00e7mobilseictVariti\u00e8ciottneabolfehsis 15B7o2AmlRgbeaebfalrleai lpublishes 15T7h4ieniaSsstcrtoaromsnbpoolmuertiegcdaClactlhoecdkral astr1Bo5nr7aoh3mDeeDepraNunTobiyvslcaihshShoteeslla 87","1575\u201377 1578\u201381 Designed by Taqi al-Din, the observatory at Istanbul was equipped with the latest technology and attracted the \ufb01nest astronomers of the Ottoman Empire. AN INHABITANT OF SICILY, There were many advances to found the botanical garden Stjerneborg observatory IN 1579, HIERONYMUS FABRICIUS Greek mathematician and in botany in the second half at the University of Leiden in The complex of buildings that (1537\u20131619), professor of anatomy astronomer Francesco Maurolico of the 16th century. Emphasis Holland, where his work helped replaced Tycho Brahe\u2019s Uraniborg and surgery at the University of (1494\u20131575) published several moved from the study of plants lay the foundation of the Dutch observatory was equipped with the Padua, noticed in his dissections treatises on mathematics. In for their medicinal properties tulip industry. latest astronomical instruments. folds of tissue on the inside of Arithmeticorum Libri Duo (Two to a more comprehensive study veins. He described these folds Books on Arithmetic), published and classi\ufb01cation of plant life. While Brahe was sponsored in 1577, this was designed to as valves, but did not propose in 1575, he was the \ufb01rst Botanist Charles de l\u2019\u00c9cluse by the King of Denmark, the be the major observatory of any function for them. It was mathematician known to (1526\u20131609), also known as Ottoman Turkish engineer the Islamic world. However, only later that they were found to prove a mathematical statement Carolus Clusius, published the and astronomer Taqi al-Din it existed only brie\ufb02y: after a prevent the back\ufb02ow of blood as explicitly using mathematical \ufb01rst of his studies of the \ufb02ora persuaded Sultan Murad III mistaken astrological prediction it returns to the heart. Fabricius\u2019s induction. This is a method of of Spain in 1576. He went on to fund an equally prestigious of Ottoman victories in battle, treatise on the subject, De proof using a series of successive observatory in Istanbul. Built the Sultan had the observatory Venarum Ostiolis (On the Valves of logical steps. destroyed in 1580. the Veins), particularly in\ufb02uenced one of his later students, William To persuade astronomer Harvey (see 1628\u201330). Tycho Brahe (see 1572\u201374) to return to his native Denmark, Although trained in medicine, King Frederick II offered him Venetian physician Prospero land and funding to establish Alpini (1553\u2013c.1616) was more an observatory in Hven (an interested in botany. In 1580, he island now belonging to Sweden). took up a post as physician to the Work on the building, known Venetian consul in Cairo, Egypt, as Uraniborg, began in 1576. where he studied the plant life. However, the completed structure He also worked as the manager was not considered steady enough of a date palm plantation in for accurate observations. A Egypt. While there, he observed second complex, Stjerneborg, that the pollination of \ufb02owers was built close by in 1584 to house was necessary to produce fruit, the delicate equipment. Together, and deduced that there were two these two complexes formed a sexes of plants. Alpini\u2019s study of major centre for astronomical plants in Egypt inspired him to and scienti\ufb01c research. write several books on exotic plants, including De Plantis Italian polymath Gerolamo Aegypti Liber (Book of Egyptian Cardano trained in medicine Plants), published in Venice in and was a respected physician. 1592, and De Plantis Exoticis He wrote several treatises, (Of Exotic Plants), published including the \ufb01rst description posthumously in 1629. He is also of typhoid fever in 1576. He credited with introducing the was the \ufb01rst to recognize the banana and baobab to Europe. disease\u2019s distinctive symptoms. 15M7a5thuFoerrfo\ufb01iamlnrincdsacotuetckhmstneciaooomkwneansticuasle 15b7u6cialTidlsylselcadahnnoUdorBoabrfnsaHiehbvreoevrnag,tooDrneynthmeark 15b7u7aislTodtarbsGqosainaenaloralmv-taaDit,cionIasrlytainnbul 15F7a9vbarHlivcieeiursosinndyevmseucinrsisbes C1a5r7\ufb01d6arsonGtfoedtrgyeoipsvlhaecmorsiiptdohtfeieovner 15p7u6bhCliiassrhboeolusoskthsCeolu\ufb01nsrbisuotstoafny 88",",, 1582\u201384 ,, \u2026THE FORM AND COLOUR OF EXTERNAL OBJECTS\u2026 [AND] LIGHT ,,ENTER THE EYE THROUGH\u2026 THE PUPIL AND ARE PROJECTED ON [THE OPTIC NERVE] BY THE LENS. Felix Platter, Swiss physician, 1583 While managing date palm plantations in Egypt, Prospero Alpini observed the difference between the sexes of plants. THE MARVELLOUS BY 1582, THE JULIAN 768 PROPERTY OF THE CALENDAR, which had been PENDULUM IS THAT in use in Europe since Roman THE NUMBER IT MAKES ALL ITS times, had become out of step OF PLANTS IN VIBRATIONS\u2026 IN with the times of the equinoxes CESALPINO\u2019S by about ten days, so Pope HERBARIUM ,,EQUAL TIMES. Gregory XIII issued a decree introducing a new calendar. settlement of North America. Galileo Galilei, Italian astronomer and physicist The Julian calendar had In his 1582 publication Divers approximated the year, the time Voyages Touching the Discoverie English explorer and navigator de Albacar. In 1581, Galileo and the pendulum between successive spring of America and other later books, Steven Borough (1525\u201384) had Borough published Galileo \ufb01rst discovered the equinoxes, as 365.25 days. he pointed out the advantages of previously organized the English his own treatise, constancy of a pendulum swing by This led to a discrepancy of colonization, citing the possibility translation of the standard dealing with the observing a swaying chandelier and about three days in 400 years. of establishing plantations for textbook on navigation of the properties of timing its motion against his pulse. The reformed calendar, which time: Breve Compendio (Brief magnetism and its came to be known as the foods and tobacco. Summary) or Arte de Navigar effects on a compass in Pisa Cathedral, he noted Gregorian calendar, worked Italian physician and (Art of Sailing) by Mart\u00edn Cort\u00e9s needle. The treatise, re\ufb02ecting that each swing took the same from a more accurate his experience as a seaman, amount of time, regardless of measurement of the botanist Andrea Cesalpino contributed considerably to the how far it traveled. He then time between the spring (1519\u20131603), who had been understanding and practical use experimented with pendulums equinoxes. It was adopted of the magnetic compass in and found that the rate of swing \ufb01rst by the Catholic director of the botanical navigation and cartography. was constant, no matter how countries and garden connected to wide the swing, and that two gradually elsewhere. the University of Pisa, In 1581, on his father\u2019s pendulums of the same length developed the \ufb01rst insistence, Galileo Galilei would swing in unison even if Colonization of the scienti\ufb01c method (see 1611\u201313) was studying their sweeps were different. New World gained of botanical medicine at Pisa, Italy. However, Galileo later published his pace towards the classi\ufb01cation he already had a fascination observations on the constancy end of the 16th in his De Plantis for mathematics and physics. of pendulum swing. century. Writer Libri XVI (The Book Observing a chandelier swaying Richard Hakluyt of Plants XVI), (1552\u20131616) helped to published in 1583. 16th-century magnetic sundial promote the English Cesalpino classi\ufb01ed This portable sundial has a \ufb02owering plants magnetic compass that is Andrea Cesalpino according to their used to align it in different One of the foremost fruit, seeds, and locations. The gnomon botanists of the roots, rather than (diagonal string) must 16th century, by their medicinal be set north\u2013south. Cesalpino properties. revolutionized the classi\ufb01cation of plants. 15B8o1AroSDVutaiesgrcvihaoetupniorusnbeloiosf hfthteheseCompas 15c8o2SupnCtahtarientiehGasorn,leidicngIcotlaruilady,ninaCgdaolpetndar 15C8e3pslAafarlnnupDdtiisetnr,eoaPsaclecaclenaodrstsidss,iina\ufb01LgniebdstroiroXthoVetIsirin 1580orSduelrtasontbhMseebuIrersvatdaadetnoIsbIrtIuryoltyoed c.1A5l8p0instPiwedrxooeessdspciefrinfirebopreelsanntts o1b5s8e1rpveGensadlciuloelPnuoismsGtaaasnClwicaleyitnhiogefdinral pAuT1omb5ul8eics2rhhiciRensasigce, DhptttharilvoeeredmmDrHsoiestaVncikontoylgvouaefEygrAtneiemgsoleifsrhica 1(o5r8P3sltaFthitemaeltriux)thlsPaeutlaegrtdegtteebisrnytasliigsht 89","1543\u20131788 THE AGE OF DISCOVERY Book of herbs steel 16th century needles Early texts called \u201cherbals\u201d classi\ufb01ed plants according to mahogany their medicinal properties\u2014or case for supposed magical powers. storing needles Acupuncture needles 19th century The earliest evidence of acupuncture dates back to 3000 BCE. Practitioners produced maps of the body to show where the needles would be most effective. MEDICINE Homeopathic pills 19th century Homeopathic ideas\u2014that small amounts of a substance that cause symptoms in healthy people can cure similar symptoms caused by disease\u2014originated in Ancient Greece, but German physician Samuel Hahnermann started the formal practice in the 1790s. MEDICAL CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS HAVE GRADUALLY BEEN SUPPLANTED BY A SCIENTIFIC APPROACH The history of medicine is as old as humanity itself. For thousands of years, breakthroughs in understanding the human body and innovations in technology have improved the way disease is diagnosed and treated. earpiece Evolving from its origins in herbalism and shamanism, medicine \ufb02ourished in the ancient classical world\u2014 where the \ufb01rst physicians assessed patients using pressure scienti\ufb01c judgment. The early study of anatomy, gauge physiology, and diseases, together with its drugs, vaccines, and new instruments, turned medicine into a complex, multifaceted discipline. \u201cear-trumpet\u201d Wooden stethoscope bottle of style ampli\ufb01er 1860s painkilling Invented by French physician tablets Ren\u00e9 Laennec in 1816, the \ufb01rst stethoscope was made from wood. The heart was heard through a funnel, like an ear trumpet. gelatin capsule Early binaural Pills Military tablet tin stethoscope 20th century c.1942 c.1870 Pills accurately deliver a small An armament of drugs was used on the In 1850, American drug dose. They were \ufb01rst made battle\ufb01eld to help deal with injuries and physician George by encasing the active ingredient illness to hasten return to duty. Medical Camman incorporated in hardened glucose syrup. of\ufb01cers had \ufb01rst-aid tablet tins that contained rubber into his binaural painkillers, sedatives, and antiseptics. (two-earpiece) stethoscope to make it easier to use. It was the \ufb01rst commercially successful stethoscope. 90","hypodermic Disposable syringe needle 21st century The modern disposable syringe\u2014made from plastic\u2014reduces the chance of cross-infection. It was patented by New Zealand pharmacist Colin Murdoch in 1956. glass barrel metallic barrel candle funnel for Ophthalmoscope concentrating c.1875 light The \ufb01rst optical devices for examining the back of the eye were made in the 1840s and 1850s. Early models came with a selection of interchangeable lenses. \u201dpiston-type\u201d plunger Brass endoscope viewing Mechanical syringe hollow 19th century lens 18th century needle Invented by German physician Phillip Piston-type syringes have been used Bozzini in 1805, the \ufb01rst rudimentary since antiquity, but metallic non- protective endoscope was illuminated using plunger mechanical syringes were casing a candle. An endoscope is used to developed in the 1600s and 1700s, \u201csee inside\u201d a patient. and used for extracting \ufb02uids. Clinical glass thermometer digital 18th century temperature German physician Hermann Boerhaave began using glass display thermometers in the 1700s. In 1866, British physician Thomas Allbutt designed a portable, 6 in (15 cm) clinical model. reservoir of mercury Sphygmomanometer Digital thermometer Glass syringe 1883 21st century 1940s The \ufb01rst attempts to Invented in the 1950s, The invention of \ufb01ne measure blood pressure electronic thermometers needles in 1853 meant were inaccurate, until measure body syringes could be used Austrian physician Samuel temperature with a to inject drugs. The \ufb01rst Ritter von Basch invented the far greater degree of precision-bore glass sphygmomanometer in 1876. accuracy and use syringes in 1946 were In early models, pressure an unambiguous easier to sterilize en was measured by a digital display. masse because barrels water-\ufb01lled bulb applied and plungers were to the skin, but later X-ray interchangeable. ones used an 20th century in\ufb02atable cuff. German physicist Wilhem metal R\u00f6ntgen produced the \ufb01rst plunger rubber X-ray photograph\u2014of his tubing wife\u2019s hand\u2014in 1895. Today, various scanning techniques are used to examine the interior of the body. 91","1585\u201389 1590\u201393 ,, [THE DECIMAL FRACTION] TEACHES\u2026 ,,THE EASY PERFORMANCE OF ALL RECKONINGS, COMPUTATIONS, AND ACCOUNTS, WITHOUT BROKEN NUMBERS. Simon Stevin, Flemish mathematician and engineer, from De Thiende (The Tenth), 1585 Simon Stevin wrote in Dutch, which he felt Galileo's thermoscope was an early was better suited to technical subjects. device for measuring temperature. DEPTH (IN METERS)FLEMISH MATHEMATICIAN Islamic mathematicians had Knitting machine spring maintains DUTCH LENS-MAKER ZACHARIAS AND ENGINEER SIMON STEVIN used decimal fractions centuries English inventor William Lee tension JANSEN (1580\u20131638) is believed (1548\u20131620) published the booklet before, Stevin presented a improved on his original knitting to have invented the microscope, De Thiende (The Tenth) in 1585. comprehensive case for their machine with more needles per wool or silk initially using a single magnifying It promoted the use of decimal use, citing ease of calculation. inch, which enabled production yarn lens. Around 1590, he combined fractions and predicted the His notation was awkward and of \ufb01ne silk fabrics as well as wool. two lenses to form the \ufb01rst adoption of a decimal system of different from that used today. compound optical microscope, weights and measures. While needles which was capable of magnifying The following year, Stevin images about nine times. Jansen 70 published two works on water knitted is also associated with the 60 and \\\"statics,\\\" in which he showed material development of the telescope, 50 that because of its weight, the an invention credited to his rival 40 pressure of water increases Hans Lippershey in 1608. 30 with depth. His ideas became 20 the foundation for a \ufb01eld of With the publication of the 10 engineering called hydrostatics. ten-part In Artem Analyticien Isagoge (Introduction to the 0 In 1588, Danish astronomer Art of Analysis) in 1591, French 0 1234567 Tycho Brahe published further mathematician Fran\u00e7ois Vi\u00e8te, works, including the second part also known as Vieta, laid the PRESSURE (IN ATMOSPHERES) of his Astronomiae Instauratae foundations for modern Progymnasmata (Introduction to algebra. One of the key Water pressure New Astronomy). He described innovations of his system of Directly proportional to depth, water the observation of comets and analysis\u2014known as \u201cnew pressure increases by 1atmosphere the instruments he used, and algebra\u201d\u2014was the use of letters (atm) for every 10m (33ft) in depth. also included a catalog of the alphabet for parameters of stars, and described a and unknowns in equations. WATER PRESSURE geo-heliocentric universe, Vi\u00e8te thereby created a symbolic in which most of the planets algebra to replace the Classical As an object descends into orbited the Sun, and the Sun and Islamic rhetorical algebra, water, the weight of the and Moon orbited the Earth. which relied on explanation water above it exerts rather than signs and symbols. pressure on it. As a result, In 1589, English inventor water pressure increases William Lee (1563\u20131614) In 1592, Italian mathematician with depth. At a depth of designed the stocking frame Galileo Galilei invented the about 33ft (10m), water machine, which mimicked thermoscope, a tube in which pressure is double the the action of hand-knitters. liquid rises and falls with atmospheric pressure at the Although it had the potential changes in temperature. surface. Water pressure at to revolutionize the textile This was the forerunner of ocean \ufb02oors can be as much industry, fear of upsetting the the liquid thermometer, which as 1,000 atmospheres;1atm hand-knitters kept Lee from was developed later by adding equals 14 lb\/in2 (1kg\/cm2). obtaining a patent in England, a scale to the tube. and he moved to France. 15S8t5DeveSpiniTrmoohpfpiouedonbnesldicinseimgh, eaaslfofrramction 15B8r8tawhTaoyescawtphrcuoooabrntkloaissmlohoygen,soinf csltuadrisng 15L8e9kenWbituitliillnidagsmma achine 15b9u0milZdicasrcoahscacoroimpasepoJuannsden 15V9i\u00e81\\\"ntFeerwianntar\u00e7loogdiesubcreas\\\" 158h6oiSnwtcerwveiaantsederesspwcrreitishbseduserpeth writ1etr5se9Da0teiGsuMeanolo\ufb01itlnune,iomsahnoetdion 159ti2hnevGreamnlitolsestochoepe 92","1594\u201395 1596\u201397 ,, I MUCH PREFER THE SHARPEST CRITICISM OF A SINGLE ,,INTELLIGENT MAN TO THE THOUGHTLESS APPROVAL OF THE MASSES\u2026 Johannes Kepler, German astronomer Designed by Hieronymus Fabricius, the dissection theater in Padua, Italy, An illustration of Kepler\u2019s planetary model offered public demonstrations of anatomical dissections. from Mysterium Cosmographicum. THE UNIVERSITY OF PADUA of Venice. Although some IN 1596, GERMAN ASTRONOMER upon a Stale Subject: The Water closet had been at the forefront of the public dissections had been JOHANNES KEPLER (1571\u20131630) Metamorphosis of Ajax. This text John Harington's \u201cAjax,\u201d the \u201cgolden age\u201d of anatomy since performed before, this was published his \ufb01rst important was part political satire and part prototype of the modern \ufb02ush Andreas Vesalius became the \ufb01rst permanent structure work on astronomy, Mysterium description of his invention, a toilet, was invented with the aim professor of surgery and designed and built especially Cosmographicum (The rudimentary \ufb02ush toilet called of eliminating disease. anatomy there in 1537. The for such demonstrations. He Cosmographic Mystery). As well \u201cAjax.\u201d The name was a pun on university attracted students was succeeded by his students, as defending the heliocentric \u201ca jakes,\u201d contemporary slang for One of the most important from all over Europe, and Julius Casserius, and later model of the universe proposed toilet. The invention was a major textbooks of alchemy, Alchemia, the department was led by Adriaan van der Spiegel, who by Copernicus (see 1543), Kepler step toward modern sanitation. was published in 1597 by a succession of distinguished continued the tradition of explained the orbits of the German metallurgist Andreas surgeons and anatomists. public demonstrations of known planets around the Sun Libavius. Unlike previous books anatomical dissections. in geometric terms in an attempt on alchemy, Alchemia stressed Hieronymus Fabricius was to unravel \\\"God\u2019s mysterious the importance of systematic appointed to the post in 1565, In the same year, Simon Stevin plan of the universe.\\\" To do this, laboratory procedures. It also and became well known for wrote his treatise, Arithmetic. he drew upon the classical notion contained a catalog of various demonstrating the dissection This book dealt with, among of \u201cthe harmony of the spheres,\u201d medicaments and metals, and of both humans and animals, other things, the solution of which he linked to the \ufb01ve Platonic and instituting a new style of quadratic equations\u2014equations solids\u2014octahedron, icosahedron, included the \ufb01rst description investigative anatomy. In order involving a squared quantity\u2014 dodecahedron, tetrahedron, and of the properties of zinc. to make these demonstrations and important concepts in the cube. These, when inscribed in available to a wider audience, \ufb01eld of number theory. spheres and nested inside one Zinc he designed a theater for another in order, corresponded Known in China and India dissections. The theater was to the orbits of the planets since the 14th century, zinc built in 1594 with funds provided Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, was \ufb01rst described in Europe by the Senate of the Republic Jupiter, and Saturn. by 16th-century alchemist Andreas Libavius. HIERONYMUS FABRICIUS (1537\u20131619) In 1596, Flemish cartographer Abraham Ortelius noted that Born in Acquapendente, Italy, the coastlines on either side of the Hieronymus Fabricius studied Atlantic Ocean seemed to \ufb01t like at the University of Padua, pieces of a puzzle. He was the \ufb01rst where he eventually became to suggest that Africa, Europe, and Professor of Anatomy in 1562 the Americas may once have been and Professor of Surgery in connected. Although he attributed 1565. Famous for his public their separation to a major demonstrations of anatomical cataclysm, his ideas anticipated dissections, he is best known the modern theory of continental as a pioneer in the \ufb01eld of drift (see 1914\u201315). embryology and for describing the valves in veins. Also in 1596, English author Sir John Harington (1561\u20131612) published A New Discourse 15H9i4Fear\ufb01obrnrfsoiyctmrdipuipsuesusrsbomeplciaectinnoaesnnnsatthtitoenhmePaiactdaeulra 15K9e6MpJyClesoordthseepamhrfnuieeuonbonlmgfleidiorsspicanhlepagennhsttiehcrtueiacmrCsy,oympsteoertminoincan 15d9e6osfcJtahroniehbnee\u201cAsaHrjhaalyixrs\u201di\ufb02ninugvstoehnnttoioilnet, 15a9s6mtrARoaunthahsoeretmtermiicepauarnutsbia\u2019cslniiastdrnhiegGdoenpooormgstehturmicotuasbllyes p1u5b9l4isShiemsoAnrSitthemvientic co1m5p9cao6trnhAetasbintrteathhnheetascymjooamainOnsadretyltdsiehnulaaiegutvsgseoeonbsfetesteinme 1597 pAunbdlrisehaessLAiblachvieums ia 93","1598 1599\u20131600 THE NUMBER OF STARS CATALOGUED IN TYCHO BRAHE\u2019S ASTRONOMIAE 1,004INSTAURATAE MECHANICA Giordano Bruno, arrested by the Roman Inquisition on charges of heresy, was imprisoned from 1562 until his execution in 1600. IN 1598, DANISH ASTRONOMER Brahe found a new sponsor, Extinct species ITALIAN NATURALIST ULISSE 31\u201334 TYCHO BRAHE published the Holy Roman Emperor The dodo is one of the \ufb01rst recorded ALDROVANDI (1522\u20131605), who Astronomiae Instauratae Rudolf II, and moved to Prague examples of a species\u2019 extinction due MILES \/ YEAR Mechanica (Instruments for (now in the Czech Republic). to human interference. Its last known had founded the botanical THE SPEED AT the Restoration of Astronomy)\u2014a sighting was in 1662. garden of Bologna in 1568, WHICH THE star catalog listing the positions In September, Dutch sailors published the \ufb01rst of three MAGNETIC of more than a thousand stars landed on the island of Mauritius While much ship design was volumes of Ornithologiae\u2014a NORTH POLE he had observed. Brahe had in the Indian Ocean, claiming it geared toward voyages of treatise on birds\u2014in 1599. As IS MOVING recently left his observatories at for the Netherlands. They were discovery and trade, in 1598, Hven, Denmark, after falling out the \ufb01rst to describe the dodo, Admiral Yi Sun-sin of Korea well as designing and Bodies, and the Great Magnet with his patron, King Christian IV, a \ufb02ightless bird related to the turned his attention to the managing the botanical garden, of the Earth). In this treatise, he who did not share his pigeon and unique to Mauritius. design of warships. He Aldrovandi organized expeditions described his experiments with predecessor\u2019s enthusiasm for Within less than a century, the improved on the traditional to collect plants for his magnets, many of which used astronomy. Before leaving, bird had been driven to Korean \u201cturtle ship\u201d by adding herbarium and established a small magnetic spheres called Brahe wrote detailed extinction, hunted by the large collection of \ufb02ora and \u201cterrellae,\u201d to model Earth\u2019s descriptions with metal armor. These \ufb01rst fauna specimens. He also wrote behavior. He concluded that illustrations of the settlers and preyed iron-clad warships were many books covering all aspects Earth behaves as a giant instruments and upon by imported protected by iron of natural history, helping to lay magnet, making compass equipment he had used animals. plates covered the foundations for the modern needles point north, and that the at his observatories. with spikes. study of botany and zoology. center of Earth is made of iron. He included these in mast Astronomiae as well. Korean ship In 1600, English physician In the following year, rigging Admiral Yi and scientist William Gilbert Sun-sin\u2019s redesign (1544\u20131603) published De Magnete, Magneticisque of the Korean Corporibus, et de Magno Magnete \u201cturtle ship\u201d Tellure (On the Magnet, Magnetic was a precursor of the iron-clad EARTH\u2019S MAGNETIC POLES steam warships spiked iron of the 19th century. The Earth\u2019s core\u2014composed magnetic geographic plates of an iron alloy\u2014behaves north pole north pole like a gigantic bar magnet. Magnetic compass needles are attracted to the two poles S of the Earth\u2019s magnetic core, also known as the magnetic N poles. These coincide roughly with the geographical north and south poles. Because the geographic magnetic core is \ufb02uid, the magnetic south south pole poles can shift position. pole TypcuhsbotlaAiBrssIrhtcnareasMohsttneaeatoluchomhregaaiatnaeicea KoSrueanan\u201c-ntsimuAinrdptdmrleoeivvsreeahdlliopYp\u201dis 15U9l9pisuIvstboaellliuAsiamhlndeersnooatvhftaueOnrra\ufb01dnlriiissthttologiae 15b9u9ailtTdBysecahnno\u00e1otBkbrysaenhraevdaJtoizreyrou disDcuotvceohrnstohtahfeileModiraossudlaronitdius M1ap6gu0nb0elitWsichiielslsqiauDmeeMCGMaoeiagrltbgpndenoeererteitMtbeTua,esgl,nluore 94","1601\u201304 THE DISCUSSION OF NATURAL PROBLEMS ,,OUGHT TO BEGIN\u2026 WITH EXPERIMENTS AND DEMONSTRATIONS. Galileo Galilei, Italian astronomer and physicist, from The Authority of Scripture in Philosophical Controversies ,, Galileo demonstrated his \u201claw of falling bodies\u201d by rolling a ball down an inclined ,, plane and measuring its rate of acceleration. De Magnete also claimed that ENGLISH ASTRONOMER AND Accademia dei Lincei (Academy light is focused Human eye magnetism and electricity are MATHEMATICIAN THOMAS of the Lynx-eyed) in Rome\u2014a on the retina The eye sees by two distinct kinds of force. To HARRIOT (1560\u20131621) was successor to the Academia allowing light in show the properties of static fascinated by the behavior Secretorum Naturae (Academy light through a lens near electricity, Gilbert created of light. In 1602, he studied of the Secrets of Nature), which the front. The lens a versorium\u2014the \ufb01rst the relationship between the had been founded in 1560 but lens projects the light electroscope, comprising a different angles produced as forced to disband. The Accademia onto the retina freely rotating unmagnetized light is refracted, or bent, dei Lincei later became the at the back, and needle on a stand. The when passing from one medium national academy of Italy. focuses it to give versorium\u2019s needle was attracted to another, such as from air to a clear though to static-charged amber, as water. Now known as the law The story of Galileo Galilei inverted image. if it were a compass needle of refraction, this phenomenon (see 1611\u201313) dropping balls of moved by magnetism. Gilbert had \ufb01rst been discovered by different weights from the top of that the heavier the object, pinhole camera. He examined incorrectly inferred that gravity Persian mathematician Ibn Sahl the Leaning Tower of Pisa, Italy, the faster it would fall. Galileo the optics of the human eye, was a magnetic force, and that in 984. Unfortunately, Harriot did to ascertain the rate of their fall published the \ufb01nal version of his describing how the lens reverses Earth\u2019s magnetism held the not publish his \ufb01ndings, and the may or may not have been true; law of falling bodies in 1638. and inverts the image projected Moon in its orbit. principle is now known as Snell\u2019s however, it is known that in 1604 onto the retina, and suggested Law, after Willebrord Snellius he hypothesized for the \ufb01rst time Best known as an astronomer, that this is corrected in the brain. In the same year, Italian friar (see 1621\u201324), who rediscovered that bodies made of the same Johannes Kepler was also a and astronomer Giordano Bruno the idea around 20 years later. material and falling through the pioneer in the \ufb01eld of optics, In 1604, Italian surgeon (1548\u20131600) was burned at the same medium would fall at publishing Astronomiae Pars and anatomist Hieronymus stake by the Roman Inquisition The following year, naturalist the same speed, regardless of Optica (The Optical Part of Fabricius (see 1594\u201395) on charges of heresy. It is Federico Cesi (1585\u20131630) their mass. This idea contradicted Astronomy) in 1604. In addition published the results of his possible that he was originally founded a scienti\ufb01c society called the prevalent Aristotelian theory to describing astronomical dissections of various animals\u2019 arrested purely for his instruments, he devoted much fetuses, establishing embryology unconventional theological JOHANNES KEPLER (1571\u20131630) of the text to optical theory, as a new \ufb01eld of study. He beliefs, but it is more likely that including explanations of showed various stages of fetal his scienti\ufb01c views were the Born in Germany, Johannes parallax (the apparent change in development, and combined real reason for the Inquisition\u2019s Kepler studied at the position of a heavenly body when these studies with his work wrath. Bruno\u2019s theory of the University of T\u00fcbingen, where viewed from different points), on the circulation of blood to cosmos went a step further he encountered the ideas of re\ufb02ections in \ufb02at and curved produce one of the \ufb01rst studies than Copernicus\u2019s (see 1543), Copernicus. He worked as mirrors, and the principle of the of embryonic circulation. and was potentially more a teacher in Graz, Austria, threatening to the Church\u2019s before moving to Prague to DISCOVER THE FORCE authority: he believed that the study with Tycho Brahe in 1600. Sun, far from being the center He remained there as Imperial ,,OF THE HEAVENS, O MEN: of the Universe, was just a star Astronomer after Brahe\u2019s like any other, and that it was death, until political and family ONCE RECOGNIZED, possible that Earth was not problems forced him to leave IT CAN BE PUT TO USE. the only world inhabited by 12 years later. intelligent life. Johannes Kepler, German astronomer, from De Fundamentis, 1601 16B0r0tuhGnheoeisoritresadtkbiaceunaroflonvreiedhwiasst 16d0e3iinLTRhinoecmeAeicicsafdoeumndiaed 16F0a4hbiHrsciiicsreicturuuosdlnaybyteoimogf nuibnslisonoedmbryos Ke1p6laae0ssr0sTbiJsyeotcgahhinanotnsBinnwreaoPshrrkaeg\u2019sue 1602 TahrorimveassoafHtratehrfreriaolcattwion be1g6i0nl4aswGtoaolffiolfreamolluiGnlaagltibeleohidisies 160d4eAsJscotrrhiobanenosfnmohecisouawseKeePtshpaellriesgerhOytepitnica 95","1605\u201308 1609\u201310 ,, IF A MAN WILL BEGIN WITH CERTAINTIES, ,,HE SHALL END IN DOUBTS; BUT IF HE WILL BE CONTENT TO BEGIN WITH DOUBTS, HE SHALL END IN CERTAINTIES. Francis Bacon, English philosopher, from The Advancement of Learning, 1605 Around 1,344 light-years away and situated in the constellation of Orion, the Orion nebula is one of the brightest and closest nebulae to Earth. AT THE BEGINNING OF THE 17TH Halley) in 1607, and noted its TELESCOPIC IN 1609, GERMAN ASTRONOMER 4 CENTURY, SCIENCE was still position and path across the night VISION JOHANNES KEPLER\u2019S book known as \u201cNatural Philosophy.\u201d sky. He realized that it was Astronomia Nova (New THE NUMBER In 1605, however, English traveling well outside the orbit of 3x Astronomy) was published, OF MOONS OF philosopher Francis Bacon the Moon. His observations later describing his observations of JUPITER (1561\u20131626) published his \ufb01rst in\ufb02uenced his laws of planetary NORMAL VISION the motion of the planet Mars. OBSERVED work, The Advancement of motion (see pp.100\u2013101). His detailed measurements BY GALILEO Learning, setting out arguments NORMAL and calculations con\ufb01rmed the for using induction\u2014a process The invention of the \ufb01rst VISION theory that the planets revolved to around 30 times magni\ufb01cation. of drawing conclusions from data two-lens telescope is generally around the Sun, and went English astronomer Thomas accumulated by observation\u2014as attributed to Dutch inventor Hans Magni\ufb01cation of early telescopes further in suggesting that they Herriot (1560\u20131621) had used the basis for scienti\ufb01c knowledge. Lippershey (c.1570\u20131619) in The telescopes built by Lippershey did so in elliptical, rather than a telescope to study the Moon in Later known as the Baconian 1608. Unlike later re\ufb02ecting and his contemporaries were circular, orbits. He also pointed 1609, and had produced the \ufb01rst method, or \u201cscienti\ufb01c method,\u201d telescopes that used mirrors, capable of magnifying an image out that the speed at which they drawings of its surface. The induction became important in Lippershey\u2019s refracting telescope to about three times its size. orbited the Sun did not remain following year, Galileo used his modern experimental science. had a lens at each end. Although constant but changed according superior telescope and artistic Lippershey could not obtain a Another invention that was to to their position on the orbit. training to produce detailed German astronomer Johannes patent for it, his invention earned revolutionize military campaigns maps of the lunar landscape, Kepler observed the appearance him money and recognition for was the \ufb02intlock mechanism for These principles formed the clearly showing the irregularities of a comet (now known as Comet its military and commercial uses. basis of the \ufb01rst two of the three to be craters and mountains. So \ufb01rearms. Probably the laws that are now known as accurate were his maps that he work of gunsmith and Kepler\u2019s laws of planetary was even able to estimate the violin-maker Marin le motion (see pp.100\u2013101). The height of the mountains on the Bourgeoys (c.1550\u20131634), \ufb01rst law states that each planet surface of the Moon. the \ufb02intlock appeared has an elliptical orbit with the Sun around 1608 in France. as one of the focuses; the second Galileo was also able to Quicker and more that the speed of a planet is examine other planets, and ef\ufb01cient than previous inversely proportional to its in 1610 turned his attention mechanisms, the \ufb02intlock distance from the Sun\u2014that to Jupiter. He noticed three was also safer because is, a planet moves fastest when it could be locked into it is closest to the Sun. position during reloading. It remained in use for News of the invention of the more than 200 years. refracting telescope reached Italy in 1609, and Galileo Galilei set Lippershey in about building one for himself. his workshop Galileo\u2019s telescope allowed him In creating his refracting to make detailed astronomical telescope, Hans Lippershey observations. His early may have used a combination telescopes had a magni\ufb01cation of of concave and convex about eight times normal vision, lenses, or two convex lenses. but he later improved the design 16B0a5TchFooernfaALpndeucvabiarslnnisicnhegemsent 16K0e7appJolpeofearhaasarrcenCaocnnomoemcresedetsa,tnltHahdtaeemlrleokytnioonwn 16m08\ufb01ercTehhaaernm\ufb02issimn\ufb01tlrfooscrtkappears 16d0e9hmiGsionaenVlasielrtenrlyoaicttGeeesaleloislneceiopoef s 16N0o9KveIa\ufb01np,rplsJAeltosrahttnswrateoonantntaloeaermswyshimsaisooftion 1608 HbuainldssLtaeiplrepesefcrrtosawhpcoeetiylnwegnitshes 160in9vCDeounrttncsehaliisnthvDeerrnemtboobrsetlat 96",",,1611\u201313 IN QUESTIONS OF SCIENCE, THE ,,AUTHORITY OF A THOUSAND IS NOT WORTH THE HUMBLE REASONING OF A SINGLE INDIVIDUAL. Galileo Galilei, Italian mathematician and astronomer, 1632 previously undetected \u201cstars\u201d GALILEO CONTINUED HIS GALILEO GALILEI (1564\u20131642) close to Jupiter. However, their ASTRONOMICAL DISCOVERIES behavior indicated that in 1611, describing temporary Born in Pisa, Italy, Galileo they were, in fact, not stars dark areas seen on the surface Galilei studied medicine and but moons or satellites, of the Sun\u2014now called mathematics at university. In orbiting the planet\u2014a 1592, he took up professorship theory con\ufb01rmed when sunspots. Although he at Padua. His interests one of them disappeared claimed to be the \ufb01rst to have included astronomy and behind Jupiter. In further observed these, others may science of motion. observations, he have done so beforehand. The discovered a fourth importance of their discovery Galileo\u2019s scienti\ufb01c views satellite following a similar lay in the fact that the periodic were seen as heretical by the orbit. These Galilean appearance of sunspots was Catholic Church, and he was satellites, as they were later yet another challenge to the placed under house arrest called, were the four largest Aristotelean notion of the perfect in 1633, where he remained moons of Jupiter, now known immutability of the heavens. until his death. as Io, Europa, Ganymede, In 1611, Kepler published and Callisto, their names Galileo\u2019s moon map a treatise on optics, Dioptrice, described a form of interplanetary the concept of motion, and put being associated with Although not the \ufb01rst maps in which he explained the travel, and attempted to explain forward his principle of inertia, classical myths. of the Moon, Galileo\u2019s detailed workings of the microscope a model of the universe from a which states that \u201ca body moving charts were the \ufb01rst to show the and the refracting telescope. perspective that is not geocentric on a level surface will continue in The telescope also distinctive craters and mountains He also explored the effects (Earth-centred). the same direction at constant led to new discoveries on its surface. of using lenses of different speed unless disturbed.\u201d It elsewhere: French shapes and focal lengths. He Florentine priest and chemist, explained that moving objects astronomer Nicolas- explained the workings of the Antonio Neri (1576\u20131614) retain their velocity unless a force, Claude Fabri de Peiresc Galilean telescope, with its devoted much of his time to the such as friction, acts upon them, (1580\u20131637) acquired convex and concave lenses, study of glassmaking. In 1612, he a principle later important for one in 1610 and saw the and also suggested a way of published a comprehensive book Isaac Newton\u2019s First Law of Galilean satellites for himself. improving Galileo\u2019s design using L\u2019Arte Vetraria (The Art of Glass) Motion (see pp.120\u201321). Later that year, he became the two convex lenses to achieve on the manufacture and uses of \ufb01rst person to observe greater magni\ufb01cation. glass, which remained a standard Galileo\u2019s telescope the Orion Nebula. In the same year, Kepler also textbook until the 19th century. Based only on vague descriptions of wrote an extraordinary \u201cthought Lippershey\u2019s telescope, Galileo made experiment\u201d entitled Somnium Galileo was interested not only a telescope with a combination of (The Dream), which was in astronomy, but also in many convex and concave lenses. published posthumously. In it, he other \ufb01elds. In 1613, he studied 16m10tohuGenatslauiliernfosacdaeensdocfcrtrihbaeetesMrsooonn 16F1a0tbhNreiiOdcoerliaPosne-inrCeelsabcuuddlaeiscovers 16a1n1dGdaelsilceroiboebssesruvnesspots 16N1e2thrAioenpn\ufb01Ltu\u2019ogrAbsnllratiitsostehesVxemetsbatrokaoirnkiga, 1f6o1u0r oGfaJliulepoiteidre\u2019sntmi\ufb01oeosns 1D61io1poKtfretitchpheelee, frotaenpnlutetahbssleciysoohSppeoetsm,icasnnidum 16p1r3inGdceaipslilcleeroiobf\ufb01eirsnshet ristia 97","1614\u201317 1618\u201320 Napier\u2019s Bones, a set of rods inscribed with numbers, provided a quick and simple This reconstruction of Drebbel\u2019s submarine, the \ufb01rst navigable underwater way of multiplying, dividing, and \ufb01nding square and cube roots. craft, is complete with \ufb01ns, a rudder, and watertight portholes for oars. IN 1614, SCOTTISH ,, MY METHOD, THOUGH HARD TO MATHEMATICIAN JOHN NAPIER (1550\u20131617) published CYCLOID CURVE point on wheel rim ,,PRACTICE, IS EASY TO EXPLAIN\u2026 I a description of logarithms (a logarithm is the power to which PROPOSE TO ESTABLISH PROGRESSIVE a base, such as 10, must be raised STAGES OF CERTAINTY. to produce a given number), showing how they could resolve Francis Bacon, English philosopher, from Novum Organum, 1620 \u201cthe tedium of lengthy multiplications and divisions, WHEEL ROLLING IN STRAIGHT LINE Cycloid IN 1619, German astronomer he invented the \ufb01rst navigable the \ufb01nding of ratios, and\u2026 the The curve described by a point on Johannes Kepler (see 1601\u201304) submarine, while in the extraction of square and cube Measurement). Over 30 years, the rim of a circular wheel as it rolls published Harmonices Mundi employment of the British Royal roots.\u201d The logarithm of the he maintained a record of his on a \ufb02at surface, known as a cycloid, (The Harmony of the World). In Navy. It was based on a design product of two numbers weight, and the weights of fascinated mathematicians in the this book, he explained the suggested by British writer multiplied together is equal to the everything he ate and drank, 17th century. structure and proportions of the sum of each number\u2019s logarithms. and of all feces and urine that universe in terms of geometric FRANCIS BACON Using tables that Napier included he passed, and discovered a lecture series he expounded shapes and musical harmonies, (1561\u20131626) in his book, it was possible to discrepancy that he attributed on his theory, but he did not in much the same way as the \ufb01nd the product of two numbers to \u201cinsensible perspiration.\u201d publish a full account until 1628. ancient philosophers Pythagoras Born into an aristocratic by looking up their logarithms, and Ptolemy had done before family, Francis Bacon studied adding them, and then looking In 1615, French mathematician In 1617, Dutch astronomer him. Much of Kepler\u2019s thesis at Trinity College, Cambridge, up the result in a table of and theologian, Marin Mersenne and mathematician Willebrord concerned the harmony of the UK, from age 12. A lawyer antilogarithms. (1588\u20131648), was the \ufb01rst to Snellius (1580\u20131626) published spheres\u2014the idea that each and Member of Parliament, properly de\ufb01ne the cycloid curve his work Eratosthenes Batavus planet produces a unique sound he was knighted by James I, Santorio Santorio (1561\u20131636), traced by a point on the rim of (The Dutch Eratosthenes), in which based on its orbit. It also who appointed him Attorney also known as Sanctorius, a wheel. He also made an he described a new method for discussed the relationships of General (1613) and Lord Professor of Anatomy in Padua, unsuccessful attempt to measuring Earth\u2019s radius, by astrological aspects (the angles Chancellor (1618). In 1621, Italy, described his experiments calculate the area under the \ufb01rst \ufb01nding, using triangulation, between planets) and musical Bacon was found guilty of in the study of metabolism in curve, and so posed a problem the distance between two points tones. More in\ufb02uentially, the corruption. He devoted the De Statica Medicina (On Medical that several 17th-century separated by just one degree of thesis contained in its \ufb01nal rest of his life to writing. mathematicians tried to solve. latitude. His work is seen as the section a statement of Kepler\u2019s 3,959 foundation for modern geodesy\u2014 third law of planetary motion, In April 1616, for the \ufb01rst of surveying and measuring Earth. describing the relationship MILES his annual lectures at the Royal between a planet\u2019s distance College of Physicians in London, This year, Napier presented from the Sun and the time THE MEAN England, William Harvey another aid to calculation in his taken to orbit around it, and the RADIUS OF (1578\u20131657) spoke on the book Rabdologiae (meaning speed of the planet at any time EARTH circulation of blood. He was the measuring rods). This was a set in that orbit (see pp.100\u201301). \ufb01rst to explain the way the heart of rods inscribed with \ufb01gures pumps oxygenated blood around derived from multiplication Dutch inventor Cornelis the body. During this seven-year tables, which became known Drebbel (1572\u20131633) had moved as Napier\u2019s Bones. to England around 1604. In 1620, 16m14JaotSThhchenWoemtNootDainfasetdLphisceoicieragrrfinaupprltiuitCobhanmlnisooshfnethse 16m15MatFadhrreeecismnnycccMarlhitobeicierdissaecntunhrnevee 16m17SatnDmheuelaotmlcndiuhedasrtminpcuiewabanolsirsWukhrioeellnsmebttehhrnoeetr\ufb01sdourfsrEtvaerytihng 16J1o9hhiGasmnetoonrhftmeiirtoshadnKenliaeWanwpsoTlterorhrlofednppHorloamapnremoerstoaenrsyy 9 8 1614 ItapluSiabanlnispthoherywisMsoiitOeoShanlaoodsnMfgeutmisroesecrtdermiiotciapeabtnlioot,lnissm Willia1cm6i1r6HcuaElrnavgtleeilCoyicsnotdhuliolsrepfecghbsueylsasoostioecftdisPhaihetnnhyReshoiicsyiaalns 1617 JhohisncNalNacpauipleairetidrn\u2019egssBdRceroaivbnbidceeeoss\u2014l\u2014oginiae"]
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