["THE STORY OF SPACE EXPLORATION Lunar 1973 1990 1998 Missions to Mars Space telescope ISS 1971 rover In 1973, Soviet probe Mars 2 Orbiting telescopes The International reaches Mars\u2014one part of it give astronomers a view Space Station is a First Lunar Roving Vehicle sent back pictures from orbit, the of space not in\ufb02uenced by collaboration between other crashed while attempting Earth\u2019s atmosphere. Launched 16 countries. It is American astronauts on the Apollo to land. In 1975, the American in 1990, the Hubble Space launched in 1998 and Viking 1 successfully landed and Telescope (HST) is the most assembled bit by bit 15, 16, and 17 missions explore the sent back data for six years. well-known space telescope. over 14 years. Moon with an electric car called the Lunar Roving Vehicle. Hubble Space Telescope ISS 1969 1971 1981 Space Shuttle 1995 2012 Man on the Moon First space station Space Shuttle Challenger Galileo Mars Curiosity On July 21, Neil Armstrong On April 19, the \ufb01rst The \ufb01rst spacecraft were NASA\u2019s Galileo probe becomes NASA\u2019s Curiosity Rover, a car- becomes the \ufb01rst human space station, the designed to be used only once. the \ufb01rst spacecraft to orbit the sized robot exploration vehicle, to set foot on the Moon. As Salyut\u00a01, is launched by The Space Shuttle is the \ufb01rst Solar System\u2019s largest planet, lands in Gale Crater on Mars on he steps on to the Moon\u2019s the Soviet Union. Later reusable craft, able to land after Jupiter. It beams back many August 6. The latest in a series of surface, he says, \u201cOne in the year, the \ufb01rst crew a mission like an aeroplane. The images of Jupiter\u2019s moons and similar missions, it studies rocks small step for (a) man, one of three stays on board USSR built the similar, though also the impact of comet and climate, and searches for giant leap for mankind.\u201d for 23 days. much less successful, Buran. Shoemaker Levy 9. signs of water and microbial life. 11 in (27 cm) diameter porthole pressurized locking mechanism cabin seal 299","1970 452 The \ufb01rst Boeing 747-100\u2014Clipper Victor\u2014went into commercial service on January 22, THE PASSENGER on a PanAm \ufb02ight from New York to London. CAPACITY OF THE BOEING 747-100 THE AGE OF WIDE-BODY its national space development lift off\u2014more than 200,000 miles LYNN MARGULIS (1938\u20132011) PASSENGER JET TRAVEL began agency (NASDA) launched the (320,000km) from Earth\u2014one when the \ufb01rst Boeing 747 jumbo experimental satellite called of the spacecraft\u2019s two oxygen American biologist Lynn jet made its maiden commercial \u014csumi. China became the \ufb01fth cylinders exploded. Oxygen was Margulis is best known for her voyage in January of 1970. The country to do so, in April, with crucial not only to make the air theory of complex cell evolution, idea of the airliner was conceived the successful launch of its in the spacecraft breathable, but which she \ufb01rst published in in the mid-1960s, partly to ease experimental satellite, Dong also to generate electrical power 1966 when working at Boston congestion at busy airports. By Fang Hong 1. and to make drinking water in University. Origin of Eukaryotic 2013, more than 1,500 Boeing the fuel cells. The mission was Cells (1970), expanded on her 747s had been built. After the successes of its aborted, and the drama of the endosymbiotic theory, but \ufb01rst three manned missions journey back to Earth was played earned criticism within the In February, Japan became to the Moon, NASA\u2019s Apollo out on radio and television. The scienti\ufb01c community. It took 30 the fourth country\u2014after the program suffered a setback in spacecraft splashed down in years before suf\ufb01cient evidence USSR, the US, and France\u2014to April 1970, during the Apollo 13 the South Paci\ufb01c Ocean, \ufb01ve led to the theory\u2019s acceptance. send a rocket into space, when mission. Around 55 hours after days after the incident. Later this year, NASA ,,took place on April 22, and organelles, with speci\ufb01c functions successfully launched Uhuru, the is seen as a major event in the (see pp.194\u201395); for example, \ufb01rst dedicated orbiting X-ray history of environmentalism. It plant cells contain organelles observatory. X-ray astronomy was celebrated with events across called chloroplasts, in which is only possible at high altitude\u2014 the US, but since 1990, Earth Day photosynthesis (see 1787\u201388) ideally, in orbit\u2014because the events have been held worldwide. takes place. Margulis\u2019 idea was atmosphere absorbs most of that organelles were once simple the X-ray radiation from space. In May, American biologist cells in their own right, and that Lynn Margulis (see panel, above) eukaryotic cells evolved as a The \ufb01rst Earth Day\u2014an annual published a book expanding on symbiosis of these subunits. celebration of the world\u2019s natural her endosymbiotic theory of the environment and a call to action origin of eukaryotic cells (cells It was a year of important for environmentalists to protect with complex structures contained breakthroughs in genetics too. it\u2014was observed this year. It within a membrane), which she Genetic information is carried was \ufb01rst proposed in 1969 by \ufb01rst proposed in 1966. Eukaryotic in two similar compounds American peace activist John cells contain structures called inside cells: DNA and RNA McConnell (1915\u20132012), as an (see pp.284\u201385). DNA stores event that would take place on ,,HOUSTON, genetic information, while RNA the spring equinox (Northern transfers this information and Hemisphere) each year\u2014around WE\u2019VE HAD is involved in building protein March 21. The \ufb01rst Earth Day A PROBLEM. molecules. Until 1970, biologists believed that information could Rescue mission John L. \u201cJack\u201d Swigert, US \ufb02ow in only one direction: from Three Apollo 13 astronauts are lifted astronaut, Apollo 13 mission, 1970 DNA to RNA. In June, American aboard a helicopter in a rescue net, after their Lunar Module returned them safely to Earth on April 17. JaJnuucmoambroymj2ee2trceinaltesresrvice Ap\ufb01rrFislat2ns4gatCHehollinnitgae1,laDuonncghes ApEracirlet2lhe2bDFraaiyrtseitsd Jucnoeesnm1fdo9ournTrhawauunomtcseasnreestcpoarcde \ufb02ight 300 JapanFsleaabutrenulclahitreeys, \u014c1\ufb011srsutmi A1p3rrieltth1ue7rmnNsAistSsoAioE\u2019snaAristphoaalblfootretred JuneA2mB7eaHrltiocimwanaorrbdeidoTiilnesodmcgeoiitspvnrteeaaDrnnndarsdeevcvinrdetiplrytsaese",",, ,,WE DECLARE THAT THE PROPER USE OF SCIENCE IS NOT TO CONQUER NATURE BUT TO LIVE IN IT. Professor Barry Commoner, American biologist, Earth Day, 1970 Earth Day protests like this one in New York appealed for changes in government policy that would promote a sustainable way of life. geneticist Howard Temin virus (HIV), which causes AIDS points were discovered. MISSION DURATION (IN DAYS) 25 Space missions (1934\u201394) and American (see 1982). The enzyme involved Restriction enzymes play a Endurance records for biologist David Baltimore in the process is called reverse central role in modern genetic 17 days manned space \ufb02ight (b.1938) independently transcriptase. For their work, technologies, including DNA 20 17 hours steadily improved discovered that some viruses Temin and Baltimore jointly pro\ufb01ling (see 1984), which is between 1963 and carry information in won the 1975 Nobel Prize used in \ufb01elds such as paternity 13 days 1970. The Soyuz 9 RNA, which is then in Physiology or Medicine. testing, criminal investigation, 18 hours record was broken passed to DNA. These and ecological studies. American 15 in 1971, when retroviruses include the In July, Type II restriction microbiologists Hamilton Smith 7 days cosmonauts on board human immunode\ufb01ciency enzymes that cut DNA into (b.1931) and Daniel Nathans 23 hours Soyuz 11 remained in fragments at speci\ufb01c (1928\u201399), along with Swiss 10 4 days orbit for 24 days. microbiologist Werner Arber 23 hours (b.1929), all shared the 1978 Nobel Prize in Physiology or 5 Medicine for this discovery. Lunokhod 1 0 The \ufb01rst lunar The USSR had a particularly Vostok 5 Gemini 5 Gemini 7 Soyuz 9 rover landed on successful year in space the Moon\u2019s surface directional exploration. In June, two of its unmanned lunar probe Luna 16 on November 17, antenna cosmonauts set an endurance drilled into the Moon\u2019s surface aboard the USSR\u2019s record for space \ufb02ight. Their and returned samples to Earth. Luna 17 spacecraft. omnidirectional Soyuz 9 mission lasted 17 days, In November, the unmanned antenna Luna 17 mission put the \ufb01rst 16 hours, and 59 minutes. rover\u2014the Lunakhod\u2014on the In September, the lunar surface. The Lunokhod, spent nearly 11 months television camera analyzing the lunar soil and drive wheels sending back photographs. In December, Venera 7 became the \ufb01rst spacecraft to make a soft landing on another planet, when it touched down on Venus. Engineers back on Earth detected no signals from the probe after its landing and assumed it had been destroyed. Later analysis of their recordings revealed 23 minutes of data, which indicated that the surface temperature was extremely hot at 887\u00baF (475\u00baC). Juolfyrte2hs8etrI\ufb01sircostltiaoTtniyopenenzIIyme NoLvu1en1maemxkbphoeloonrdrt1har7tsoioSvoneof rvluibenetagrins DeScolevaminedtbsVeeornn1e5Vrean7us Declaeumn\ufb01bcrehsret so1r2UbhTiotuhibnresugeU,XrStvh-areatoyry Augustms7caiCeknoeartsinspoitnrpDagtciocGtnailcalKas\ufb01lesbrceekarslity SeLputneam1b6edMrroi2lol0snS\u2019isnotsvoiuetrthfaece 301","1971 NASA\u2019s Apollo Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV) is driven on the surface of the Moon. During the Apollo 15 mission in July, the \ufb01rst LRV traveled a total of nearly 17 miles (28km). THE FIRST ALL-ELECTRONIC about a decade, different users was released\u2014and the \ufb01rst scans CALCULATORS appeared in the of the human brain produced. 1950s, but they were large and logged into the same computer American inventor Raymond expensive. In the 1960s, Damadian published the results calculators became smaller and were able to leave messages for of his experiments into magnetic cheaper, thanks to the use of resonance imaging (MRI, see integrated circuits, or \u201cchips\u201d\u2014 each other. With the creation of 1977). British pharmacologist tiny but complex electronic John Vane published his circuits etched onto a single the US military\u2019s ARPANET research that explained how piece of semiconductor material. the painkiller aspirin works\u2014 In 1968, adding-machine company network in 1969, organizations by blocking the production of Busicom was designing a portable prostaglandins, compounds calculator, and approached two could send information across that play a central role in chip manufacturers: Intel and the mechanism of pain and the Mostek. Intel developed a chip large distances. American body\u2019s in\ufb02ammatory response. with the entire central processing unit of a computer in its tiny COLORED CT SCANS OF THE HUMAN BRAIN computer programmer Ray protective cover circuits. It was the world\u2019s \ufb01rst commercially available Tomlinson designed an e-mail pins connect \u201cmicroprocessor\u201d (see panel, to circuit board right), the Intel 4004. Busicom CT SCANNING system for ARPANET and sent chose not to use the Intel 4004, FIRST MICROPROCESSOR because it would have made the the \ufb01rst true e-mail. cost of producing the calculator A microprocessor is a prohibitively high. It chose a In computed tomography (CT), an X-ray source and a detector are In space, the USSR\u2019s Salyut 1 single-chip central processing unit (CPU). Beneath the cover placed on opposite sides of a rotating drum. A person lies inside the became the \ufb01rst ever orbiting is a single \ufb02at crystal of silicon onto which thousands, drum and an X-ray beam passes through him or her. The signal in space station, remaining in orbit millions, or, more recently, billions of transistors and the detector depends on the average density of the material through for 175 days. The cosmonauts of other components are etched. Microprocessors which the beam passes. As the drum rotates, a computer combines the Soyuz 11 mission were the are one of the de\ufb01ning components of the multiple scans, to produce a 2-D \u201cslice\u201d through the person. \ufb01rst to enter the craft, in June. microelectronics industry. They spent three weeks inside, but all three were killed as they simpler chip, made by Mostek. through the mail. Floppy disks were leaving; they remain the The \ufb01rst truly pocket-sized were thin plastic disks coated only people to have died outside calculator, the LE-120A HANDY, with magnetic particles, and Earth\u2019s atmosphere. went on sale in January 1971. were attached to a spindle inside In July, astronauts from NASA\u2019s In May, US computer company a rigid plastic housing. The \ufb01rst Apollo 15 mission drove around IBM announced a new convenient \ufb02oppy disks were 8in (20.3cm) in the lunar surface in the \ufb01rst data storage device\u2014the \ufb02oppy diameter, and held 80 kB Lunar Roving Vehicle, or Rover. disk. The \ufb02oppy played a key role (kilobytes) of information. In medical science, the \ufb01rst in enabling the development and Another important \ufb01rst in 1971 commercially available CT popularity of personal computers was e-mail (electronic mail). For (computed tomography) scanner because users could store ,, electronic documents, carry I THOUGHT ABOUT OTHER them from computer to computer, and send them ,,SYMBOLS, BUT @ DIDN\u2019T First pocket calculator APPEAR IN ANY NAMES, Busicom\u2019s HANDY LE, had a red SO IT WORKED. LED display. It featured a \ufb01xed decimal point, with a choice of Ray Tomlinson, US computer programmer and inventor of e-mail, 1998 four, two, or no decimal places. It cost $395. JarneupleoaatcrhskyeeesBLtEutchs-ae1ilcc2\ufb01ou0rmlAsattor, Feabrarrisuvgtaerosorlnyfoabn5uaAttlhlpAseoloalMlnnootS1ohh4nee; lpUuhSnearrdshuitrsface Apbreoiclro1bm9iteiSnsagtlyhsuepta\ufb011crestsetavteiron Jutlhyteo3flto0uhunAeraptMrhosolmluooran1fn,a5anc,reerdivmesisosinonthe Oc\u201ctMoubonaleiedtrp,do\u201da4efradmtcoaehfsaetssmhtueairsnSetdmIrayserydnsttue,nmit, NoMva\ufb01errmiisnntbteposerlparo9anr1cbeb4eetictcNMraoaAarmfoSrtseuAtson\u2019sdtghoe NovNeem4w0bs0e4a\ufb01rnrc1nsh5otipumE\u2014nliecctechrtsoerpoIwnrnotoieccrlel\u2019sds\u2019ssor MRaayrmchon1d9 DAmamr(emerasidacuigaalnntnseipntoiimuvcfeb\ufb01arnlergitsssionhtorgenM)saRsncIcaens Aprilm22ucomMmpMlibscR,ienan(amnstdeieodranusinvbleaetshcl,lceai)nUeSA TcshrpeaeawfttcheoerrfceerteJxha-uiefmttinn1Sdeegosmie3yptubh0asezehcreo1Sr1sattllayyutiton Owbcrittahoibnthesercaa1\ufb01vnraFsiiitlsracsbcotalmehrruCmimeTedasrncociuaantllnyer Fall AmerpircToaogn\ufb01mrrcaslomitnm-msepoveunertresRreean-ymdsail 302","1972 Apollo 17 astronauts captured this image\u2014the celebrated \u201cBlue Marble\u201d photograph\u2014on December 7. Seeing our planet from space helped raise concern for the environment. THE LIMITS TO GROWTH KEY gene\u2014the \ufb01rst time this had IT WAS JUST A \u2018EUREKA\u2019. YOU,, Food supply been accomplished. Also in May, A simple graph (right) illustrates GROWTH Population Japanese-born evolutionary ,,KNOW, I LOOK AT THE TV SET AND that while population grows Crisis biologist Susumu Ohno geometrically\u2014the more people introduced the term \u201cjunk SAY TO MYSELF, \u2018WHAT CAN I DO there are, the faster it grows\u2014a TIME DNA.\u201d Geneticists knew that WITH THIS?\u2019 \ufb01nite resource, such as food mutations introduced when supply, can only increase at a In January, the international DNA replicates inside cells Ralph Baer, inventor of Magnavox Odyssey video game console, 2007 steady rate. This inevitably leads think tank The Club of Rome impose a limit on the number of to crisis at some point, showing published The Limits to Growth. It genes a genome can carry. That In October, a team of American from space\u2014providing data on that continued growth cannot set out the results of a computer upper limit is around 30,000. molecular biochemists led by land use, geology, oceans, lakes be sustained inde\ufb01nitely. simulation investigating the Since the amount of DNA in each Paul Berg reported that they and rivers, and pollution. The last possible effects of unbridled human cell could carry 3 million had combined sequences of two Apollo missions, 16 and 17, THE MICROELECTRONICS industrial development and genes, the great majority of DNA from different organisms. took another six astronauts to the INDUSTRY produced a number population growth. The report our genome must have no This process of making Moon. Three further Apollo of advances in 1972. American had many critics at the time, but function\u2014hence the term \u201cjunk \u201crecombinant DNA\u201d is central missions had been planned, but company Magnavox introduced was nonetheless very important DNA.\u201d Most geneticists prefer to to genetic engineering. were canceled, partly because the Odyssey, the world\u2019s \ufb01rst for raising public awareness of use the term \u201cnoncoding DNA\u201d: the budget was cut and partly so home video game console, environmental concerns, such the DNA in genes carry codes In July, NASA launched the that NASA could concentrate on which plugged into televisions. as the affects of economic growth used to build proteins inside Earth Resources Technology developing an orbiting space The popular Pong video game\u2014 on \ufb01nite natural resources. cells, but other DNA may yet be Satellite\u2014the \ufb01rst of the USA\u2019s station. In March, NASA launched a two-dimensional on-screen found to have other functions. Landsat satellites. NASA its Pioneer 10 probe, bound for version of table tennis\u2014was In May, a team led by American launched seven satellites to Jupiter (which it \ufb02ew past in 1974). released by Atari in November. geneticist Walter Fiers revealed gather information about Earth that they had worked out the The \ufb01rst digital watch, the sequence of nucleotide bases 245 Hamilton Watch Company\u2019s along the entire length of a Pulsar, went on sale in the fall. POUNDS The company had announced the Information plaque about Earth watch\u2019s development in 1970 and Pioneer 10 carries this plaque, THE WEIGHT begun producing it in 1971. which aimed to give extraterrestrials an idea of the human form OF MOON ROCKS Computer users had been and planet Earth\u2019s place in COLLECTED able to send information across the Solar System. BY APOLLO 17 the telephone network since the ASTRONAUTS mid-1960s, but in December, Vadic Corporation introduced the \ufb01rst practical modem, the VA3400. It could send data at 1,200 bits per second. FeTbhurenulUmaaSnraySdnsR2n\u2019o1esnd tLhuenMa o2o0n MaofrTcRhhoemTLheiempCiutlsbultbioshGersowth MaraycdAoiomstsrpooaunnraicouents:Ctdyhgisencu\ufb01osrvseXtr-p1tlhahauatsstihbaelehibdldaecnk hole JuolfyE\ufb012ars3rsetthLnLasraiuennnmgdcsohsataettellite AuingtcuroostmhdtuepMcuOaetdgseynrtsahgsveeaoym\ufb01xresst console, Noavnoenfmotuhbneecrveis2d9ethoAegtaraermileeasPeong HMHWasme,al(illplsltr-oteenhvleeiWocPuatusrtcollyshnaiCcr,,otdmhiegpia\ufb01tanrlsy)twristwatch PionMemaerirsc1sh0io2lniNfttAsoSoJAfuf\u2019spointer ALpurnialr2M1 oAdopunolltelholea1nM6doson SJueasvpuoamlnuteuhtiseoOenth\u2013eanAMrrommyaibeyn\u201dirtoj1irucl8oonadgknuisDcteNsA\u201d October 1 APmcaoeumrlibBcaiennregmdaDonlvNneiocAruuuftnlsroaecoregsmbse, ilnttoewhecaathoditceidnhmeigefnifstghehtiraneesenwetariyng laDsetcoAefpmNMobAloleotSohrA1ne\u201917sml1,uAaiTnsprhasroeriilvolseonussr,ofance VadipciDnrCateroccotredipcmuoacrbletahmesteiroo\ufb01VndrAse3tm4,00 303","1973 2,249 THENUMBER OF DAYS SKYLAB WAS IN ORBIT AROUND EARTH THIS YEAR SAW THE LAUNCH Computer touch screen alternative energy device, known of the USSR\u2019s second space Danish electronics engineer Bent as Salter\u2019s duck, which could station, Salyut 2, in April, while Stumpe holds one of the \ufb01rst touch extract energy from water a month later the US launched screens, which he developed with waves. This device could be Skylab. This space station British engineer Frank Beck. used to generate electricity. remained in orbit until 1977. scientists produced the Alto\u2014 Salter\u2019s duck In April, in New York, Motorola the \ufb01rst computer to have a A prototype of the duck generates researcher Martin Cooper graphical user interface (GUI) electric power from waves in a (b.1928) made the \ufb01rst telephone and a mouse. laboratory test. The water behind call from a truly mobile, the duck is \ufb02at because its energy handheld phone\u2014albeit one In November, American has been extracted. that weighed 2.5lb (1.1kg). geneticists Herbert Boyer (b.1936) Around the same time, engineers and Stanley Cohen (b.1935) at the European Organization for announced that they had created Nuclear Research (CERN), on the \ufb01rst-ever transgenic the Swiss\u2013French border, were organism, heralding the dawn developing the world\u2019s \ufb01rst touch of genetic engineering. Boyer screen, which was put to use and Cohen inserted an antibiotic- on computers in a sophisticated resistant gene from one control room. bacterium into the genome of another, endowing the recipient Later in the year, American bacterium with the donor\u2019s computer scientists Vint Cerf resistance against antibiotics. (b.1943) and Robert Kahn (b.1938) drafted the internet protocol Also in November, British suite\u2014a set of networking inventor Stephen Salter (b.1938) standards that enable different applied for a patent for an interconnected computer networks to communicate. The most important components, Transfer Control Protocol and the Internet Protocol (TCP\/IP), are the basis of nearly all traf\ufb01c across the internet today. At Xerox\u2019s Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) in California, computer Skylab in orbit Skylab housed a laboratory, in which astronauts carried out scienti\ufb01c and medical experiments, and carried a telescope for studying the Sun. Apmrfoirlbop3imlheTohatneeehlfea(icpnreshdltholpnehledocnmaelo)lbile MaCyEtoRSucNciehinnsvticesrntestecanotmputerMaoyfsN1p4AacSLeAa\u2019sustnaSctkhioynlab OcRteopsbretoeoadrurhucsXacheeevrrCeo\ufb01iexnarn\u2019stsgetterPrcarfaoap(lmcPoheAipAcR(ualGttCloUe)rI) No\ufb01vroesrtmgtrabanenirssmTghecenriecated AprilU3SSsLRpaau\u2019scnescehsctSooaafntlidoyunt, 2 Ma(ypoPplalyatesetthnicytlgbernoatetnltteee,rdneopfcowhortmhthPameElaoTmtneo)tsytpe SeptceoVKmmianbhptenudCrtrpeeaArrrfofmtsdaoceunfircedptienhcrRateotionhstiboetnsect\ufb01orertlrsnsteutite Octobeapnrhd2yS0stoihRcreiuosossktrssuaeipVatpieoncrrloakgplorovasveity NovemdbSeetevrepic1nhe5eetrnBogrSyaiatbailssntheoderricblnpeovascnetetvneraeintc-ortawtrsliataevinneetorgy 304","1974 The \ufb01rst extreme-loving organisms were discovered in Colorado, in Yellowstone National Park\u2019s sulfur-rich hot springs. In 1974, such organisms were classi\ufb01ed as extremophiles. STEPHEN HAWKING (b.1942) in the Afar Triangle, Ethiopia. The annihilating each Lucy fossils were from a 3.2 million other. Hawking A reconstructed Perhaps best known to the year-old Australopithecus uncovered skull of an public for A Brief History of afarensis\u2014a species of bipedal a strange Australopithecus Time (1988), British theoretical (walked on two legs) hominid. possibility: afarensis, a physicist Stephen Hawking has The \ufb01nd was named \u201cLucy\u201d\u2014 for any virtual species of early made pioneering contributions after the Beatles\u2019 song Lucy in pairs created bipedal apes. to our understanding of black the Sky with Diamonds, which at the event holes, cosmology, and quantum was often played at the camp horizon (boundary) succession of physics. He is almost completely where the bones were found\u2014 of a black hole, one discoveries known paralyzed, a result of the and was by far the oldest such member would as the November degenerative condition known \ufb01nd at the time. disappear inside, while Revolution\u2014which as motor neuron disease, with the other would travel included the discoveries which he was diagnosed when British theoretical physicist out into space, the result of the charm quark and the he was just 21. Stephen Hawking published a being that black holes \u201cradiate\u201d particle called J or psi\u2014gave an revolutionary idea about black particles. At \ufb01rst controversial, enormous boost to the emerging IN JULY, AMERICAN development in genetics caused holes. One of the \ufb01ndings of Hawking radiation is now part understanding of subatomic MICROBIOLOGIST Robert concern in the general public and quantum physics is that empty of mainstream physics, and particles, known as the MacElroy coined the term the scienti\ufb01c community about space is constantly thronging the search is on to detect it. Standard Model of particle \u201cextremophiles\u201d to refer to the possible environmental with pairs of virtual particles, Also in physics, a rapid physics (see panel, below). organisms that thrive in effects of genetic engineering. which exist only \ufb02eetingly, before extremes\u2014of acidity, pressure, or temperature, for example. This More concern about the STANDARD MODEL OF PARTICLE PHYSICS classi\ufb01cation sparked interest environmental effects of scienti\ufb01c from astrobiologists, since such progress arose after scientists The \u201cStandard Model,\u201d developed in the particles that carry force organisms might be found in published their \ufb01ndings about the 1960s and 1970s, is still the best-\ufb01t hostile environments on other dangers of chloro\ufb02uorocarbons explanation of fundamental particles\u2014the particles Quarks Fermions Bosons planets, and from evolutionary (CFCs). These man-made most basic building blocks of matter and of matter biologists, as extremophiles are compounds were widely used as force. The model\u2019s success rests largely on uc t \u03b3 mostly primitive organisms that refrigerants and propellents in its predictions of the existence of particles form evolved early in Earth\u2019s history. aerosol cans. The researchers that have since been observed, including the composite up charm top photon warned that CFCs could deplete charm quark in 1974. According to the theory, German geneticist Rudolf the ozone layer, which protects there are two families of fundamental particles dsb z Force carriers Jaenisch (b.1942) and American the planet from harmful particles: the fermions, which make matter, such as embryologist Beatrice Mintz ultraviolet radiation. and the bosons, which carry force. The protons and down strange bottom Z boson (b.1921) reported that they had fermions are further divided into quarks\u2014 neutrons created the \ufb01rst transgenic In November, American which normally occur in tightly bound twos Leptons ve v\u00b5 vt w animal, by introducing virus DNA anthropologist Donald Johanson or threes to make composite particles such exist in into a mouse embryo. The pace of (b.1943) discovered fossil as the proton and the neutron\u2014and leptons, isolation, not electron muon tau W boson fragments of a hominid skeleton which occur singly and include the electron. in composite neutrino neutrino neutrino g particles e \u00b5 t gluon electron muon tau gives mass to H0 other particles Higgs boson FeMbaprrluaiannreeyrt 51Ve0Nn\ufb02AuiSesAs\u2019spast MaSrttechphsahut1ebbnBalarHtioctakmiswhhikcopinplhegaysrsstriuicacgidlsgeitaestsets Apreripinlotf1rrrtoogStdmechcuinaeracotetnermavttadhitinsreienDtusysogNgsfetAiahnneitmco\ufb01oatrhunsesitme,als JuTnhieets2sUtt5haStiSrioRdnsl,apSuaanclceyhuets3 JumlyMicAratmoecbrEemilorriloceoyaxgnctisroteinmRsoobtpheheritle NosvuiecncmtpehbaserseNtirioconAlveoerpafmhpdbyiidssecircosRv,eecrvaioelllsuedtion DeNcA1eS1mA\ufb02b\u2019sieePrsi2opnaeset rJupiter FUe\ufb02SbSireRus\u2019aspraMysat1rM0s a4rs MariMneaprrac1sh0t 2pM\ufb029lieaernsceutry Jutnhaet2c8(hClSFocrCioest\ufb02)nhumteoisairgtotshmctwaoodraszberopopnnhnleeestrleea\u2019yser suggegJseutnlmyetoGicreaentneotgriiicunimsetesorning reNmoavoielndmshobofemari32n.4i2dD,mdisiulclboiobvnee-dryy\u201ceoLafurc-y\u201d 305","1975 The Mandelbrot set is a simple mathematical formula that, when visualized using computer graphics, reveals intricate beauty at different scales. IN JUNE 1975, Japanese 53MINUTES mass electronics company Sony THE LENGTH OF TIME THE spectrometer released the \ufb01rst home video VENERA 9 LANDER OPERATED helical recorder format, Betamax. ON THE SURFACE OF VENUS antenna Video cassette recorders (VCRs) allowed people to record et Dimension (Fractals: Form, television programs and watch Probability, and Dimension). The mathematics of fractals provided prerecorded \ufb01lms rented or a way of bringing apparently rough, irregular, and chaotic bought from video stores. home use. The following year, VCRs and cassettes phenomena into the domain of mathematics. It allowed Although VCRs had been available another Japanese company, JVC, represented only about mathematicians to understand and model intricate natural forms since the 1960s, they were came out with a rival format\u2014 5 percent of the home video expensive and very few VHS (Video Home System). Over market, although they households owned one. Betamax the next decade, the two systems remained the standard for air brake was inexpensive enough to be competed in a \u201cformat war\u201d; by broadcasters and professional purchased by many families for the end of the 1980s, Betamax video editors until the rise of Venera 9 digital video production. lander This is a model In July, millions of people of the Venera 9 around the world watched a lander probe historic moment live on their that carried out televisions: the docking of a tests and sent Russian Soyuz spacecraft with panoramic an American Apollo module. The photographs two craft were together in orbit from Venus. for more than 40 hours, during which the crews carried out joint experiments, exchanged gifts, and un-docked and re-docked their craft several times. COLLABORATION IN SPACE Farther out in space, the Russian unmanned space Since the 1950s, the US and USSR had been engaged in a \u201cspace probe Venera 9 became the race,\u201d each superpower trying to assert its technological superiority. \ufb01rst spacecraft to orbit Venus. between Venus and astronomers The Russians were the \ufb01rst to put a satellite into orbit, launch a A spherical entry pod detached on Earth. The lander relayed data person into space, and send probes to the Moon. Not far behind, from the orbiter and opened to and images for 53 minutes, after the Americans achieved perhaps the biggest coup, by landing release a lander probe, which which radio contact was lost. astronauts on the Moon\u2019s surface. The docking of the two nations\u2019 descended to the planet\u2019s In November, Polish\u2013French craft in orbit\u2014the Apollo\u2013Soyuz Test Project\u2014was an important surface. It was the \ufb01rst probe mathematician Benoit statement of peace and collaboration between the US and USSR, to send images back from the Mandelbrot (1924\u20132010) coined a re\ufb02ection of the easing of tensions between them. surface of another planet; the word fractal in his book Les the orbiter acted as a relay station Objets Fractals: Forme, Hasard, Aparnoinlfo\ufb01ItBurhasnMevtcaIceBioslMamrbe3mlel8ee0lara0scs,eieathrlleyprinter JurneBelee7artesaScemoosnratdyhxinevgidfeoormat AuggeBuorcstoehtere8cmmkAeigmsrltoecWbroiaiacnlalslwnatcahereming NoBvecenomoinibtseMtrhae1n8dteerlmbrofrt actal Aspatreillolf1it9Ien,LdAaiaru\u2019ysnac\ufb01bhrhsatta Juclyap1sA7umRleeusrsidscioaacnnksaipnnadocrebit laOncdteortbhteeorus2cuh2refVasecdenoeowrfanV9eonnus 306","1976 1,354 MILES PER HOUR THE TOP SPEED OF CONCORDE Concorde could travel at more than twice the speed of sound. such as mountains, clouds, Apple 1 In July and September, NASA\u2019s The \ufb01rst Apple computer came as a single unmanned space probes Viking 1 snow\ufb02akes, plants, and lightning circuit board to which customers would and Viking 2 orbited Mars and connect a keyboard and a video display, dropped lander probes on its bolts as simple repeating patterns surface. The landers sent back and a cassette player to load programs. high resolution images, and also on different scales. Mandelbrot\u2019s carried out chemical analyses motherboard of the soil, partly with the aim of work also fed into the emerging \ufb01nding clues that life had once existed on the planet; however, \ufb01eld of computer graphics, no such evidence was found. enabling computer game RICHARD DAWKINS (b.1941) designers and artists to create cassette board connector British evolutionary biologist stunning virtual worlds with Richard Dawkins was born in Kenya, and graduated with realism. With its strong links a degree in zoology from Oxford University in 1962. For to another emerging discipline, and Steve Wozniak (b.1950), most of the 1960s, he was a and electronics expert Ronald researcher in ethology (the chaos theory, fractal mathematics Wayne (b.1934) founded a new study of animal behavior). company called Apple Computers. He has written a number of helped scientists understand Their \ufb01rst product, simply called in\ufb02uential and hugely popular the Apple Computer (later known books explaining evolution, unpredictable systems, such as THE YEAR DAWNED with the certain behaviors that are as Apple 1), came as a single criticizing creationism, and maiden \ufb02ight of Concorde, otherwise hard to explain; for circuit board. It had 8 kilobytes promoting atheism. stock markets and earthquakes. the \ufb01rst supersonic jet airliner. example, the altruism that of RAM, and sold for $666.66. It was developed jointly by British organisms show toward those A few months later, US In December, US engineer Aerospace (formerly British most closely related (and therefore computer company Cray Aircraft Corporation) and the likely to carry many of the same Research delivered a ground- Steven Sasson (b.1950) took French company A\u00e9rospatiale. genes). Dawkins\u2019 use of the word breaking supercomputer, Cray-1, After more than 10 years of \u201csel\ufb01sh,\u201d although \ufb01gurative, to the Los Alamos National the \ufb01rst digital photograph development and testing, captured the imagination of the Laboratory in New Mexico. Cray-1 Concorde\u2019s \ufb01rst commercial general public and scientists was the brainchild of Seymour with a device he had invented, \ufb02ights took place on January 21, alike. Many consider it to be a Cray (1925\u201396), who had been one from London to Bahrain landmark in the development working since the mid-1960s on which proved to be a prototype and the other from Paris to Rio. of evolutionary biology. Concorde remained in service making processing of the digital camera. Sasson\u2019s until 2003. Only one other In April, American computer units work in supersonic airliner has ever gone scientists Steve Jobs (1955\u20132011) parallel, to increase images had a resolution of just into service: the Russian Tupolev computer power. Tu-144, in 1977. However, it was 0.01 megapixels, and took grounded in 1978 after a crash. 23 seconds to be stored on In March, British evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins magnetic tape. published The Sel\ufb01sh Gene. In it, he suggested that evolution was Also in December, US best understood at the level of genes, and not whole organisms. physicist Martin The gene-centric theory developed in the 1960s, and it accounts for Perl (b.1927) announced the discovery of a gamma-ray subatomic detector particle that he called tau lepton. It was further evidence in favor of the Standard Model of Surface of Mars The Viking landers, fundamental particles (see which spent a combined total of 10 years 1974). In 1995, Perl was awarded studying the Martian surface, sent back many the Nobel Prize in Physics for color pictures to Earth. his discovery. DeacnoenfmotuhbneecrteaMsutalheretpintdoiPsnceorlvery JaFniru\ufb02saigtrhcyot 2mo1fmCeornccioarlde ApmrWoillaes8lcetgBuqeeleuranleFrgoniibmeacirnioenslgooagftnhiansetoveuirnnutcsieres JuNnAeS1A8\u2019sLGaruanvcihtyoPfrobe A JuCloyomnTchposeuamtlAeepp;rupatgelroeoresusnadre2s0o0ld JualpyEpTbeohoafeltraaha\ufb01nanvrtiicsnrhetufaeosscf,tkttihhoileuelescdadtuihssoeeuaSsseaelnapdntesdms obnerM3arVsiking 2SeRpettsheesemauwrpbcoeehrrrlcdd2oe\u2019ms1limvCpeuroratsseytrCsruacyc-e1s,sful takDeescethmeb\ufb01errstSdteigvietnalSpaiscstuornes MarocfhR1ic6ThhPaeurdbSleDicla\ufb01awstihkoinGnes\u2019ne VikinJgu1lyolna2n0Mdasrs SeApstseomciabtee(rt1sh3Sein.h3\ufb01turcrgomsadtd)ru5it1\ufb02sc\u2044eko4 ipdnpryiveSepretelemasbveeisdret9hoeJsVVyCsHtSem 307","1977 ,,1978 447SECONDS IN A WAY, I\u2019M PROUD THE LENGTH OF TIME THE ,,THAT WHAT I WAS HAS GOSSAMER CONDOR FLEW TO WIN THE KREMER PRIZE HELPED OTHER PEOPLE HAVE CHILDREN. Louise Brown, first baby conceived through IVF, 1998 The Gossamer Condor was the \ufb01rst human- powered aircraft to achieve sustained \ufb02ight. IN FEBRUARY, a team of in South Africa. Their \ufb01nd pushed Sanger method remained the MARY LEAKEY (1913\u201396) Earth. A receiver worked out its oceanographers and geologists back the date of the earliest basis of genome sequencing until exact location by triangulating set out to explore the Gal\u00e1pagos known life by several hundred automated techniques became Born in London, Mary Nicol the signals from the satellites. Ridge in the East Paci\ufb01c Ocean, million years. available in the early 2000s. married archaeologist and In 1983, US President Ronald searching for hydrothermal anthropologist Louis Leakey. Reagan announced that the vents\u2014cracks in the ocean \ufb02oor In the same year, the science In August, Jerry Ehman, an The couple spent many years system would be available for where seawater meets hot of genomics\u2014analysis of the American astronomer, detected in Africa, inspired by the idea public use once the \ufb01rst group magma. They found that the sequence of nucleotide bases a remarkably strong and that human origins lay in that of satellites was complete. mineral-rich water gushing out of (genetic material) along the consistent radio signal that continent. In 1959, Mary found A second group of satellites, the the hydrothermal vents supported length of an organism\u2019s DNA\u2014 seemed to have come from an the 1.75 million-year-old \ufb01rst of which was launched in a rich and diverse community of took two major steps forward. extraterrestrial source. The remains of a hominid in 1989, enhanced accuracy. organisms never seen before. First, in February, British signal\u2019s strength, frequency, and Tanzania. Her \ufb01nd contributed Later in the year, American biochemist Frederick Sanger consistency suggested that it to later understanding of Also in February, a team led paleobotanist Elso Barghoorn determined the sequence of the was broadcast on purpose by human evolution. by British paleontologist Mary (1915\u201384) and his Ph.D. student 5,000 or so bases in the genome intelligent extraterrestrial Leakey revealed a set of Andrew Knoll discovered 3.4 of a simple virus. Then, in beings. Ehman used Ohio State THE US AIR FORCE LAUNCHED prehistoric footprints that billion-year-old fossils of simple December, Sanger published University\u2019s \u201cBig Ear\u201d radio the \ufb01rst of 24 NAVSTAR were made by bipedal hominids single-celled organisms in rocks details of a new, rapid method telescope as part of the Search (Navigation System using Timing an estimated 3.4 million years of genome sequencing. The for Extraterrestrial Intelligence And Ranging) satellites for its ago. The 80ft- (24m-) long set of (SETI) project. The signal has Global Positioning System footprints, discovered at Laetoli, HYDROTHERMAL VENTS never been detected again. (GPS) in February. The satellites in Tanzania, were made by three acted as orbiting radio beacons. individuals walking in volcanic A common feature around mid-ocean ridges, hydrothermal vents Also in August, the Gossamer Each one carried an accurate ash. Light rainfall soon cemented are \ufb01ssures in the ocean \ufb02oor from which chemically rich water Condor became the \ufb01rst atomic clock and broadcast the footprints, which were then emerges. They can either be hot \u201cblack smokers,\u201d which form human-powered aircraft to constant signals announcing covered in another layer of ash rocky, chimneylike structures, or cool \u201cwhite smokers.\u201d Some achieve sustained, controlled its position and the exact time. and preserved until erosion biologists believe white smokers to be the site of the origin of life. \ufb02ight, completing a \ufb01gure of Ground-based receivers could revealed them to Leakey and her eight around two markers set detect signals from at least four team. The oldest hominid 0.4 mile (0.8km) apart, at satellites from any point on footprints known before the Minter Field, California. It had discovery at Laetoli were made a mass of just 70lb (32kg) and by Neanderthals just 80,000 was driven by pedal power. years ago. The aircraft\u2019s designer, Paul MacCready, was awarded the In July, the \ufb01rst human baby Kremer Prize (\u00a350,000), which conceived outside a woman\u2019s was set up in 1959 by British body was born. Louise Brown industrialist Henry Kremer to was conceived through in vitro reward innovations in human- fertilization (IVF)\u2014a technique powered \ufb02ight. that was the result of nearly a decade of work by British embryologist Robert Edwards and surgeon Patrick Steptoe. FeSbchrieyunndaetririanosyrttths1hthe7ederiEsmGcaaaoslvlt\u00e1evPperaancgtios\ufb01sc Ridge, Aptrratielnvls2eim2aphToisohpsnteiioec\ufb01nasrlosig\ufb01tf nbaelrss Auragadunisfortuotn1em5elexTosphculoaetepinBreeisgddpeEsataiecgrecntasl OcatnotdhbyeeAeirnra2ddr8r-iesoEcwllodsKvofenoBrosyasllroiglafshn3oon.o4forbubnanilccltieeorni-a FeMbadrriusfyaocLboroeiytvp3pae2e.rkr6d4iyenamyotlsfrihleflmooipomsoansrdiitnyelseidzbaseyrds ago BriDFtirsNpehrAFdob-eedgbirboueaircccnskuheeoseaSdmmrtacehynioessgmtee\ufb01qprrusleettnece RaymthoJneud\ufb01lyrDsa3tmfUuaSlodlrnibeaoasndehcyaourMnmcdRhaueIncrstcbsaAebniuengcgoumste2as3itrhcTerhae\ufb01frtGstotoshasucamhmiaeecnvore-nCptsorouonwsldlteeaordiren\ufb02deidg,ht DeSceannmegwboe,efrqrsaueFnicqrnkeuoedeurennrmcciicenekstghaDodNA F\ufb01erbsrt uNaoArfVytSh2TSe2AyGsRLtlaeosumbanatec(lGhlPlPiootSsef)i,tthnipoeeantriwtnogrk 308","Louise Brown, the \ufb01rst baby conceived through IVF, holds her father\u2019s hand shortly after her birth at Oldham General Hospital, UK. Newspaper reports of the birth of Ancient footprints the \ufb01rst \u201ctest tube baby\u201d caused The footprints at Laetoli, preserved a \ufb02urry of both praise for the in hardened volcanic ash, were made achievement and condemnation by three individuals apparently on for \u201cmeddling with nature.\u201d their way to a watering hole. Since the birth of Louise Brown, several million babies have been (Type I) cannot produce enough conceived through IVF. of this hormone, and at the time, their only source of life-saving In another technological supplementary insulin was from substitute for a natural process, pigs and cattle. The US Food US company Genetech announced and Drug Administration (FDA) that it had managed to genetically approved Genetech\u2019s product engineer E.coli bacteria to in 1982, making it the \ufb01rst produce the hormone insulin. genetically engineered product People suffering from diabetes to gain approval. fallopian tube follicles ovary containing uterus eggs ultrasound tube hollow needle guides needle extracts eggs into ovary IN VITRO FERTILIZATION In this assisted fertilization technique, a woman\u2019s ovaries are stimulated (using drugs) to produce several eggs. The eggs are extracted, and combined with sperm in the laboratory. One or two of the embryos produced are then implanted into the woman\u2019s womb to develop into fetuses. Since \ufb01rst introduced, IVF has become more sophisticated and there are many ways to achieve egg fertilization. JDuanhveaidv1eW9tAirnaetpaeltpaaoenmmddslaaenudcnslbopionyurugodUnvacSoeeflpsasmqihsgtueyahndasrgaien\u2014i\ufb01ntcvtcietueisahtslmtnoewiuptycommiounmletdnhpteuotifng JuBlyrcoo2wn5ncB,etiirvhteehd\ufb01otrfhsLrtoobuuagibshyeIVF NolavuOenbmdcsehbedeerisvcraat1tth3eoedrNyEXA\u2014i-nSrtsAahtyeeit\ufb01nerlestscope SeGpehtnaeebsmtagecbcethenererait6naicnUtaooSlulpyncroceoemndsugpcitanheneaiyetnristeudlin 309","1979 140,000 THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE EVACUATED FROM THE AREA AROUND THREE MILE ISLAND AFTER THE DISASTER An aerial view of the Three Mile Island nuclear power plant, near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, which is considered the site of the US\u2019s worst nuclear accident. AS THE DECADE DREW TO ,, ,,FOR EACH OF OUR \ufb01ssion in nuclear control rods slide steam used to A CLOSE, progress in space fuel heats water down between fuel spin turbines and exploration continued. NASA\u2019s ACTIONS THERE ARE ONLY rods to slow down the drive electricity two Voyager space probes CONSEQUENCES. \ufb01lling reactor rate of \ufb01ssion generators reached their \ufb01rst target, Jupiter, two years after leaving Earth. James Lovelock, British biologist, in Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth, 1979 Voyager 1 made its closest approach in March; Voyager 2 in July. The probes sent back September, NASA\u2019s Pioneer 11 year, the European Space Agency hot water produces steam exceptionally clear photographs became the \ufb01rst space probe launched the \ufb01rst of its highly nuclear in the steam fuel rods generator and data to reveal new to \ufb02y past Saturn, another gas successful Ariane rockets, concrete steam is information about Jupiter giant. Pioneer 11 came as close from French Guyana. dome condensed to water and and its moons, including the as 13,000 miles (21,000km) to In May, astronomers based at returned to steam discovery of volcanoes on the tops of the planet\u2019s deep, Kitt Peak National Observatory, generator the innermost moon, Io. In dense clouds. At the end of the Arizona, discovered two quasars close to each other in the sky; actual position and galaxy cluster as a quasar (quasi-stellar radio source) is the energetic centre of shape of galaxy gravitational lens a distant galaxy. The two quasars appeared so similar that the light path without astronomers concluded they coolant pump circulates gravitational water around reactor lensing were two views of the same object. This was the \ufb01rst example of gravitational NUCLEAR REACTOR Earth lensing (see panel, left): the light from the quasar was bent, as if A nuclear reactor generates electric power by using nuclear \ufb01ssion to heat water. This in turn produces steam, which is used by a lens, due to the distortion of to drive huge turbines. A reactor core contains fuel rods made of radioactive material, and control rods, which limit the rate of apparent position light bent by space-time by a massive galaxy \ufb01ssion. There are two separate cooling circuits, in which water of distorted galaxy cluster cluster that lies between the circulates to carry heat away from the reactor core. galaxies quasar and Earth. GRAVITATIONAL LENSING On March 28, the US suffered its worst-ever nuclear power The gravitational \ufb01eld of matter present in space acts as a plant accident. In the early lens, causing light to be de\ufb02ected. As a result, people viewing hours of the morning, one of the reactor core then leaked out women within an 5 mile- (8km-) into a containment building. radius to evacuate; two days after a celestial object from Earth may see multiple distorted images the reactors at the Three Mile Although the reactor was the accident, the radius was stabilized by the evening, extended to 20 miles (32km). of it. This phenomenon, known as gravitational lensing, was \ufb01rst Island nuclear power plant, concern over rising radiation Radiation levels around the levels caused local of\ufb01cials to power plant did not rise proposed in 1936 by German\u2013American physicist Albert Einstein. Pennsylvania, went into partial advise children and pregnant signi\ufb01cantly, and nuclear The \ufb01rst example of gravitational lensing was discovered in 1979, meltdown after a valve failed to when astronomers observed two views of the same quasar. operate correctly. A large amount of pressurized water circulating JaBneurlealolrLefyaoatspbheeoesrrUaaVttNeionIrrXgsieiscosoynsmt7epmuter MaMreTclhhtnrdu2eoce8wleMnaiarletpItoshwleaenrdplant JupnoGewo1cesr2rsCoeaHshdtmsuahaemenfeiosrrnKraptAenrlhtllahe-,ebnmewaEetsiernnerogncsPliosnirsngihdzetime JuVloycyl9aotogSseepJrsautc2peaimtppeparrrokobeaescihts Mapmaprropacbkrheoeas5VcoiShtyspatacoglceoJeruse1psitter pMubalyigs3rha1\ufb01vAirtssatttreioovnnidoaemlnleecrenssoifng aWudianJilotkurmcloyadas1unscSepeotostnertythpaelbaleyer SepPtioetnmheebeet\ufb01rorr1s\ufb0211tyNbspepAacaSoscAtme\u2019sScerasatuftrn 310","1980 Erosion has revealed the 65-million-year-old Cretaceous\u2013Paleogene boundary\u2014which corresponds to the extinction of the dinosaurs\u2014in these rocks in the Hoodoo Formation, Alberta, Canada. scientists concluded that neither LUIS ALVAREZ (1911\u201388) in an incredibly tiny, hot, dense Mushroom name Mevacor. Lovastatin has people nor the environment had state several billion years ago, The cholesterol-reducing since been discovered in other come to any harm. American physicist Luis and has been expanding ever compound lovastatin fungi, such as oyster mushrooms. Walter Alvarez\u2019s hypothesis since. He suggested that the accounts for around Sony, a Japanese company, about the cause of the universe underwent \u201ccosmic 2 percent of the dry Earlier in the year, the thirty- introduced a revolutionary new extinction of dinosaurs came in\ufb02ation,\u201d expanding by a factor weight of edible oyster third World Health Assembly product in July: the Walkman. near the end of a long and of a trillion trillion trillion trillion mushrooms (Pleurotus declared that smallpox had It was the \ufb01rst truly personal illustrious career in physics. trillion trillion trillion trillion ostreatus), shown here. been eradicated globally. portable audio device, allowing He made many contributions (1 followed by 72 zeroes) in a people to carry their music with to radar technology during tiny fraction of a second. Guth\u2019s hit Earth, throwing up Space probe Voyager 1 made them on audio cassettes and World War II, but his proposition solved many existing dust that blocked out its closest approach to Saturn listen to it on headphones. speciality was subatomic problems with the Big Bang the Sun for thousands in November, \ufb02ying within 77,000 particles. In 1968, he won theory. Evidence in support of of years, and leaving a still-visible miles (124,000km) of the planet\u2019s Earlier in the year, the US the Nobel Prize in Physics. Guth\u2019s theory has since come crater. His hypothesis remained cloud tops. company Bell Laboratories from astronomers and particle controversial until 1990, when a released the seventh, and most IN JANUARY, AMERICAN physicists, and although some huge 65-million-year-old crater survivors fatalities important, version of UNIX\u2014a THEORETICAL PHYSICIST mysteries remain, it is now was discovered off the Yucat\u00e1n computer operating system that Alan Guth (b.1947) proposed almost certain that cosmic peninsula, Mexico. 30% is the direct ancestor of the a re\ufb01nement to the Big Bang in\ufb02ation did occur. popular modern operating theory (see pp.344\u201345), which In the following month, systems Mac OS X and Linux. states that the Universe began In June, Luis Alvarez (see pharmacologists announced the panel, left) put forward a theory isolation of a compound called In October, British biologist to explain the extinction of mevinolin from the mold James Lovelock published Gaia: dinosaurs 65 million years ago. (fungus) Aspergillus terreus. A New Look at Life on Earth. The Geologists had already noticed a Mevinolin was shown to inhibit book set out the Gaia hypothesis. distinct transition in rock layers the production of cholesterol, This states that Earth can be dated to the time of extinction. which is associated with considered a single, self- Alvarez analyzed the rocks at this increased risk of heart disease. regulating, living organism. Cretaceous\u2013Paleogene (K\u2013Pg) It was renamed lovastatin, and Lovelock asserted that Earth\u2019s boundary and found high levels became the \ufb01rst cholesterol- living things interact with the of iridium, an element more reducing \u201cstatin\u201d drug ever physical environment, keeping common in asteroids. He sold. In 1987, the US Food and the oceans and atmosphere suggested that an asteroid Drug Administration (FDA) favorable for life to continue. approved it, under the brand Lovelock had been developing the idea and gathering relevant 84 MINUTES 70% evidence since the early 1960s. THE TIME IT TOOK VOYAGER\u2019S The hypothesis in\ufb02uenced how RADIO SIGNALS FROM SATURN TO Deaths from smallpox many people tend to think REACH ASTRONOMERS ON EARTH Until its global eradication in 1980, about the environment, and smallpox had claimed millions of the interconnectedness and human lives, killing about one-third interdependence of all living of all those af\ufb02icted by it. things in the world. OcbtioopbluoLebgorlioiss4kthBJaeatrsmiLtGiisefaehsiaoL:noAvENealerotwchk JaAnmuphaepyrrusiyIcbnica2l\ufb02iin3ssathtthAeioeslnaohnrtiehsGteiCucotoarhlsymic MaAyses8reaTmdhibeclayWtciooernrltdoi\ufb01fHesesmatlhathlelpox JualnyhnSaocvcuheilenooinclsvAeetaosissslpttathteestaerertyogdinlil-lfruresodmtuecrtirhneegufsungus NoSvpmeamcaaepkbeppesrrrooita1bsc2ehcVltooosyeaSsgateturr1n ThaenEduArorpiaenaeDns\ufb01epSrcapsectamecAeblraieAaurgnne2ecn4hrcotyhckeet JSuSenTae-g5Uat0htSe6eciW\ufb01nohrtmirsnaotprcdd5ahu.ned2cysi5est-sekinrd,crhive phypJsuiucbenilsxeitsph6lLaeoAisnutmhiehseeviAsiredilxtcvehtaanienrncdoeecirztnytioooosnnaoufrs 311","1981 ApsrkiilnTfhoer b\ufb01urrsnt avrictti\ufb01imcisaltested AprerSuilpsi1ana2btcoelNeoSAsrhSbpuAiatt\u2019cstfeloe\ufb01crrrCtsahotfetlu, \ufb01tmhrbsetiat,imgoees MapyhFyAestmyihcndeeimserfqtvoiacuReunaalinnocnldahptayuamstrmideodnnocstowomfnofpruters AthperOils3pbooTrrhtneaebla1leu, ntchocehm\ufb01oprfustter AcptorhmielmXm2ee7orruXcoesixaerl\u201co,Scxicotiaomnrnt,prs\u201dou,dttaheunercde\ufb01wsmristhetnaus July 9 BMrriMetaipcasruohttitrlnhtstuecEtcrwhieveeaalndKltntspatisshfultruaefsonmrymidphaoanemvtmeeonbutrsyeos 312",",, WHAT WE DO IS MAKE A SCAFFOLDING ON WHICH ,,THE CELLS GROW. John Burke, American trauma surgeon, in New York Times, 1981 Arti\ufb01cial human skin, shown here, can be created by culturing human skin cells and growing them around a collagen matrix. IN APRIL, NASA\u2019S REUSABLE IBM-PC system had to be licensed from formed a scaffold onto which SPACECRAFT, the Space Shuttle, One con\ufb01guration of Microsoft\u2014making that company the body could generate its own made its \ufb01rst full, orbital test the IBM 5150 had two extremely successful. collagen, and build up new \ufb02ight. It was the \ufb01rst of 28 \ufb02ights disk drives. There was skin\u2014and the silicone layer made by Space Shuttle Columbia, no mouse, because the In April, Swiss physicist Heinrich could then be removed. which tragically broke up on only interaction with Rohrer and German physicist reentry in 2003. The Shuttle\u2019s the operating system Gerd Binnig succeeded in Two separate teams, one in the main engines lifted the craft into was through typed building the \ufb01rst scanning UK and one in the US, developed orbit, with extra fuel provided tunneling microscope (STM, see the technology to isolate and by an external fuel tank; commands. panel below)\u2014an instrument culture embryonic stem (ES) solid-fuel booster rockets with which scientists can produce cells from mouse embryos. provided extra thrust. Once batteries. Xerox launched the 8010 referred to accurate images of the atoms ES cells are pluripotent\u2014they empty, the boosters and the Information System (\u201cStar\u201d), a as the IBM-PC. that make up solid surfaces. have the potential to develop into fuel tank detached from the workstation computer signi\ufb01cant The computer\u2019s Also in April, American trauma any kind of cell. They can also Shuttle. The boosters were as the \ufb01rst commercially operating system surgeon John Burke and replicate inde\ufb01nitely. Human ES recovered and reused in available computer with \ufb01les was PC-DOS, a Greek-born American chemical cells\u2014\ufb01rst cultured in 1998\u2014 future missions. NASA displayed graphically as icons version of MS-DOS engineer Ioannis Yanas hold great promise for future used \ufb01ve space inside \u201cwindow\u201d folders, and an (Microsoft Disk developed the \ufb01rst successful medical treatments. For shuttles, which made a on-screen pointer controlled by Operating System). arti\ufb01cial skin for patients with example, ES cells could be used total of 135 successful missions, a mouse. The most important Microsoft\u2019s enormously severe burns. Their skin was to generate tissues for transplant, lifting into orbit satellites as development in computer successful Windows made with collagen from sharks or implanted into the body, could well as components for the technology this year was the software (see 1985) was built and cows, sealed with a layer of help repair damage done by International Space Station. release of the IBM 5150, usually around MS-DOS. The IBM-PC silicone rubber. The collagen disease, injury, or aging. had a huge in\ufb02uence on the American company Osborne development of the personal SCANNING TUNNELING MICROSCOPE Computer Corporation released computer. Its success led other the \ufb01rst successful portable companies to make clones\u2014 At the heart of a scanning computer, the Osborne 1. This called IBM compatibles, which tunneling microscope (STM) was followed by Japanese have dominated the personal is an extremely sharp metal tip company Epson\u2019s \ufb01rst laptop computer market ever since. that scans across a surface at computer, the HX-20, which Companies could make IBM very close range, measuring weighed just 3.5lb (1.6kg) and compatibles using off-the-shelf the electric current created by worked on rechargeable hardware, but the operating electrons \u201ctunneling\u201d across the gap between the surface Preparing for launch 256THE MAXIMUM and the tip of the probe. The NASA\u2019s Space Shuttle Columbia NUMBER OF color-enhanced STM image sits on the launch pad at Kennedy KILOBYTES OF to the right shows a clump of Space Center in Florida, US. It RAM MEMORY gold atoms (yellow and brown) is attached to the huge external IN THE IBM-PC on a graphite surface (carbon liquid fuel tank and two slimmer atoms, green). solid-fuel boosters. Au\ufb01grosuptsvevteerarMarswstiicaioinoryngnowcssoaoiytflfhsltMetrtdeShem-elPeDC,IaOBa-sSDMebsOr-aPSnCgdievden Aupgrmoubsaaetpka2eVpnsor6sdoytcSauaslpcongeahsennceritdensos2gtSbiamatcuakrgnes Dehceaeppmaptbritoeivsre-4dBVivnairctuhcisen\ufb01eUrSfsotr Augustth1pe2er\ufb01IBsroMsnt lasaluuccntochcemehspesIBsufuMtel-rP, C NotvheemEbpelsiorgnhLtaHwwuXoen-ric2gldh0h\u2019,cstotoflh\ufb01amerpspttoupter DbeicoelomgbsisheterGcAhealamilldsMecfrraauiocrnlmattduiennrmsmmerhedboeopruplcyoesloorucetinurnseiilspcmathortsbhtatereetnymtotesrc,mells 313","1982 10 BILLION DOLLARS THE COST OF DAMAGE CAUSED BY EL NINO IN 1982\u201383 In 1982, El Ni\u00f1o caused sustained high rainfall, resulting in the raised water level in the San Lorenzo River, California. AN IMPORTANT DEVELOPMENT free HIV infected CD4 AIDS PATIENTS (IN THOUSANDS) 1,000 970 In May, Taiwanese biologist IN DIGITAL SOUND reproduction, particle lymphocyte 800 700 Chiaho Shih (b.1950) and the compact disk (CD), became binding and 600 American biologist Robert available in October this year. cell DNA Weinberg (b.1942) reported injection cell nucleus 400 that they had isolated a human The CD, developed jointly cytoplasm 200 180 oncogene, which is a genetic by Philips and Sony, is a insertion of viral DNA cause of cancer. polycarbonate disk with a thin layer of aluminum inside. The creation of proteins infected 0 In December, American aluminum is pitted with millions CD4 1982 1992 2002 surgeon William DeVries (b.1943) of tiny indentations, arranged new HIV created lymphocyte performed surgery on retired as a spiral track more than 3 YEAR dentist Barney Clark to implant miles (5km) long. The pits free \ufb02oating mature HIV the \ufb01rst permanent arti\ufb01cial represent binary digits, which in mature HIV particle Living with AIDS human heart, the Jarvik-7. turn represent the original This graph shows the number of The arti\ufb01cial heart, designed sound. A laser inside the CD particle people living with AIDS in the USA. by American inventor Robert player re\ufb02ects light off the pits Worldwide, 30 million people were Jarvik (b.1946), kept Clark alive as the disk spins, and a HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS (HIV) living with the disease by 2002. for 112 days. microprocessor reconstructs the original sound wave from the The cause of AIDS was identi\ufb01ed as a virus in 1984, and that virus winds (the prevailing easterly pattern of re\ufb02ected light. Within was given the name human immunode\ufb01ciency virus (HIV) in 1986. winds found in the tropics). El a few years, CDs became the HIV is transmitted in bodily \ufb02uids and infects cells crucial to the Ni\u00f1o events happen occasionally, most popular format for buying body\u2019s immune system\u2014in particular, CD4 cells\u2014and uses them and typically last for several recorded music. The compact to reproduce. The cells may die as a result or be destroyed by months. This year\u2019s El Ni\u00f1o, disk was adapted as a medium other immune system cells. one of the most devastating for read-only computer data on record, began in July storage (CD-ROM), and later, as samples, giving musicians con\ufb01ned to the gay community. and lasted into the next writeable data disks (CDRs). great \ufb02exibility in composition, The rapid spread of the disease year. It decimated \ufb01sh recording, and performance. led to major health campaigns, stocks in Peru, brought Also in October, American encouraging people to use drought and bush \ufb01res synthesizer pioneer Robert In July, a recently identi\ufb01ed condoms during intercourse, to Australia and parts Moog announced the Musical disease was given its name: and intravenous drug users to of Africa, and extreme Instrument Digital Interface acquired immunode\ufb01ciency avoid sharing needles. rainfall in California (MIDI), a new way of recording syndrome (AIDS). The disease and Peru\u2014causing an and playing back musical had claimed many lives in the Widespread extreme weather estimated 2,000 deaths. performances. MIDI consists of gay community in New York alerted the general public to simple messages that relate to and California. However, it had the existence of the El Ni\u00f1o Arti\ufb01cial heart the notes played; the messages become clear that, while the phenomenon\u2014in which the A Jarvik-7 arti\ufb01cial heart like this can be produced by playing MIDI disease spread easily among Paci\ufb01c Ocean remains warmer was given to Barney Clark at the instruments such as keyboards, homosexual men via sexual for longer than usual because University of Utah. Clark lived for or by manipulating software. contact, it was by no means of a change in the world\u2019s trade 112 days after the operation. MIDI messages trigger sound Jacnouimnatsprruoay6cdn4cUuyepScCseescorsfomsutmohlmnepCaouohldtmuceoogrrmmeeolpyduotreer ApArmSilteta9rhnietclheatieynenrPnfcnmeareecuuwu\\\"tssripliooeynrluieodsosrgcnisipdrsscaea\\\"top\ufb01rtviotneeiecd,rsleBeesdSscErthi,baaetnd CJD JuinlydW2isAa7eIsDaAhsStienaggnamtooinwenseDktiintCnso,gwnthanemaes Februtahrey\ufb011rsIwtnimttehhliucminrnodottprrrroreeadodntcuhsteciahssenostsouoorsrnsaenodn it huMmcaaayun1sionInsgocoglagetenionen)eao(ncfan\ufb01norcusentrc-ed weatheJkrunpolyhweOnnnaossmeEtelonNfoni\u00f1o lauOn\ufb01ccrdhtsroiesetbsklceetophramles1aemywSdeeoorcrrn,olcydtmiha\u2019sCelplDaySPcot-n1y01 314","1983 ,, I DRANK IT DOWN IN ONE GO AND THEN FASTED FOR THE REST OF THE Rod-shaped, helical bacteria, known as Helicobacter pylori, attached to the stomach lining. These bacteria cause stomach ulcers. ,,DAY. A FEW STOMACH GURGLES OCCURRED, WAS IT THE BACTERIA OR WAS I JUST HUNGRY? Barry Marshall, Australian physician, from Nobel Lecture, December 8, 2005 Full orchestra THIS YEAR, THREE Physicists at the European Apple Lisa stomach and the duodenum (part A MIDI controller keyboard came IMPORTANT DEVELOPMENTS Organization for Nuclear The Apple Lisa, the \ufb01rst of the small intestine), leading to with a standard set of MIDI in consumer electronics Research (CERN) discovered personal computer in\ufb02ammation and causing the instruments, but MIDI messages re\ufb02ected advances made three particles whose existence with a graphical user ulcers. Marshall realized he can play any sounds. exactly 10 years earlier. The \ufb01rst gave more weight to the Standard interface, and the team needed to carry out a de\ufb01nitive day of the year was the deadline Model (see 1974). The W+, W\u2013, that designed it. test of the hypothesis on a openings connect to for all computers connected to and Z bosons carry the \\\"weak human subject\u2014and he decided major arteries and veins the worldwide network known as interaction,\\\" which is involved in Measures de\ufb01ned the meter as to use himself as the subject. ARPANET to be using the internet radioactive decay (see pp.266\u201367). equal to the length of the path After making sure the bacteria polyester shell protocol, TCP\/IP (see 1973). Many The existence of these particles traveled by light in a vacuum were not present in his stomach, computer historians consider had been predicted in 1968, during a time interval of one he prepared a culture, mixed it that day as the switching on as a result of a uni\ufb01ed theory 299,792,458ths of a second. with chicken broth, and drank it. of the modern internet. Until of the weak interaction and the Marshall\u2019s stomach lining became then, some computers were electromagnetic force. Their At the University of Western in\ufb02amed, and the hypothesis was still using a different protocol to discovery was only possible Australia, in Perth, physician soon proven. The link between the communicate, but TCP\/IP has because of CERN\u2019s powerful new Barry Marshall (b.1951) and new species of bacteria\u2014later formed the basis of all internet particle accelerator, the Super pathologist Robin Warren named Helicobacter pylori\u2014and traf\ufb01c ever since. The \ufb01rst Proton Synchrotron, which had (b.1937) identi\ufb01ed the most stomach ulcers meant that most computer to have a graphical been operational since 1976. common cause of stomach user interface (GUI) was the Alto, ulcers\u2014a common condition ulcers can be treated using developed at Xerox\u2019s research In October, the 17th General that can lead to death by antibiotics, saving hundreds center in California (see 1973). Conference on Weights and gastrointestinal bleeding or of thousands of lives. In Ten years later, Apple Computer stomach cancer. Their work recognition of their discovery, Inc. launched the \ufb01rst personal began when Warren became Marshall and Warren were computer with a GUI. curious about large numbers awarded the 2005 Nobel In October, American of a new species of bacteria Prize in Physiology businessman David Meilahn he had found in patients\u2019 made the \ufb01rst commercial stomachs. At the time, no or Medicine. mobile phone call, over a one expected bacteria to be cell-based wireless network\u2014 present inside the stomach, Mobile phone 10 years after the \ufb01rst call on because of the strong acid The world\u2019s \ufb01rst a prototype device (see 1973). there. After \ufb01nding the commercially available bacteria in patients with mobile phone, Motorola\u2019s 7.5 THE NUMBER stomach ulcers, Warren and DynaTAC 8000x. Early OF TIMES LIGHT Marshall hypothesized that CAN TRAVEL these organisms were mobile phones like this AROUND EARTH infecting the lining of the were affectionately IN A SECOND known as \\\"bricks.\\\" OcMtoIDDbiIge(irtMaIlunIstnriocteadrlufIcantcsieot)rnuomf ent JaAnpuLpiasl\ufb01erarywrscet1ioitln9hhemtoaeapmsrugefetasreaccirepto,shmt(hGicpeUauIlt)eurser MaatyoCPtfhEaoeRrrtrthNitcephdlaeeZirswtpbcihcoeolysavesokeirncrneitusshtpcseolenasribfolerce, OcFtiomrbsDatedwyrweni1o,arp3reoTolnlArdetC\u2019asassb8M\ufb01l0ceroa0stm0ltolxcro,oobtlmhialeempehrocinael DeBcaermnthebeye\ufb01Cgrril2vasetrAnkpmeabaererpsrtceioioc\ufb01rnammcntieoaaslnbheeenatrt JunneeFwirsstpedHwceehislseiicctcsrohoiompbsftaauibcocratsnhvectiorovtaeemfpnrsaydailaiconc,hratiu,huselceesrs tThheemdoJadateiensroun\\\"natiurwnrythne1iercdnheotn\\\" JanuatatCrhpyEearRPwtNiaecrladteikiscslncreuoepvcshelperyoasttnrwihcsefoiiosb\ufb01tWrlsercsebft,ootrshoens aOsc teoqbuteraarl vt2eo1ltedhTduehrbeilneymgnligeagtthhesteroitdfntetiahm\ufb01evneapeciadnuttuhemrval 315","1946\u20132013 THE INFORMATION AGE Early mail 1635 For centuries, messages were sent either through traders or by special courier. In 1635, King Charles\u00a0I of Great Britain opened up his postal service to the public for the \ufb01rst time. earpiece Cuneiform inscription Message carrier Semaphore \ufb02ags c.3200 BCE Early 20th century 1792 The earliest written language The idea of using The \ufb01rst semaphore system was cuneiform\u2014a set of specially trained pigeons (visual signaling using \ufb02ags) symbols inscribed on wet to carry mail originated in was developed by French clay with a stylus. Persia. Messages would engineer Claude Chappe. be placed inside metal Signals could be sent across carriers and attached a network of towers but were to pigeons\u2019 legs. limited by the weather. COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY FOR TALKING AND SENDING MESSAGES OVER LONG DISTANCES HAS SHAPED THE MODERN WORLD The ability to communicate complex ideas through Bell\u2019s electric telephone language is a key trait separating humans from animals. 1876 In recent years, technological advances have enabled us Alexander Graham Bell\u2019s to send messages faster than a person can travel. telephone transmitted sound using electrical signals. As the signal reached the receiver, a metallic disk would vibrate, producing soundwaves. Most prehistoric cultures communicated solely through the spoken word, winding the handle relying on an oral tradition to pass on or record important information. sends a high- The appearance of writing in the 4th century BCE transformed human voltage signal to society forever. However, written messages still had to be delivered by the exchange hand. It was only in the 19th century that the harnessing of electricity paved the way for modern forms of instantaneous communication. tickertape key to send Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph display shows records electrical 1837 20 most widely received pulses This telegraph used electricity used letters messages for to send signals. Messages were decoding composed using the \ufb01ve needles Early payphone across the middle of the grid; 1905 de\ufb02ecting any two would point By the 20th century, to speci\ufb01c letters. \u201cpayphones\u201d were installed in public places. Several phones would be connected, with calls being directed by operators at a single exchange. Morse telegraph 1836 American inventor Samuel Morse designed a telegraph that could send signals over long distances along a single wire. His colleague Alfred Vail devised a code that used short and long pulses (\u201cdots\u201d and \u201cdashes\u201d) to represent letters of the alphabet. 316","COMMUNICATION iPhone Webcam 2012 2000s Digital technology has The development changed cellphones of webcams has beyond all recognition. enabled video The Apple iPhone, calling over launched in 2007, the Internet, brought together and much computer and communication phone technology. has now been transferred to Mobile telephone computers. 1983 integrated speaker and Cellphones use radio mouthpiece unit waves to make wireless telephone calls via local Ericsson table phone antennae that form a 1890 cellular telephone This design was one of the \ufb01rst to network. The Motorola have an integrated speaker and DynaTAC 8000x was the mouthpiece unit. Winding the handle \ufb01rst truly hand-held alerted the operator at a telephone cellular phone. exchange to \u201copen the line\u201d for a call. photoelectric sensors convert image on paper into electric signals bell rings to indicate keyboard incoming signal from exchange Facsimilie telegraph 1956 Pictures were transmitted via the telegraph system as early as 1865, but the \ufb01rst device to use telephone lines for this was patented by Xerox in 1964. Once popular, faxes have now largely been superseded by e-mail. numbered dial Rotary dial phone Walkie talkie 1931 1940 Popular during the Compact short-distance mid-20th century, wireless \u201ctelephones\u201d rotary telephones used developed rapidly during a numbered dial to send a World War II. Signals were series of electrical pulses typically sent using AM along the line. Switches at (amplitude modulated) the exchange connected radio waves. calls automatically. 317","1984 512\u00d7342 PIXELS THE RESOLUTION OF THE SCREEN OF THE FIRST MACINTOSH COMPUTER A worker on Apple\u2019s assembly line in Fremont, California checks and cleans a Macintosh computer. FOLLOWING ON FROM THEIR a graphical user interface, ventured nearly 328ft (100m) ,, BEGINNING WITH A SINGLE SUCCESS with the Apple Lisa strengthening that dominance. away from the spacecraft. computer the previous year, ,,MOLECULE OF\u2026 DNA, THE PCR CAN Apple Computer Inc. launched a In February, American US secretary of Health and groundbreaking new personal astronauts Bruce McCandless Human Services, Margaret GENERATE 100 BILLION SIMILAR computer: the Macintosh. Easy to and Robert Stewart made MOLECULES IN AN AFTERNOON. use, with a modern design, and a the \ufb01rst ever untethered Heckler, announced that high-pro\ufb01le advertising campaign, spacewalk. They were strapped American virologist Kary Mullis, American biochemist, in Scientific American, 1990 the Macintosh was aimed at into Manned Maneuvering Units Robert Gallo (b.1937) breaking the growing dominance (MMUs), which could move and had discovered the AIDS (see 1982). Gallo had been announced that the two new of IBM-compatible computers orient in space thanks to probable cause of collaborating with a team in viruses were one and the same; (see 1981). The following year, 24 small retro France, led by French virologist the virus eventually gained its Microsoft would launch the rockets that Luc Montagnier (b.1932), who had name, human immunode\ufb01ciency Windows operating system, which emitted jets of also discovered a new virus that virus (HIV), in 1986. gave users of IBM-compatibles nitrogen gas. seemed to be related to AIDS. McCandless In June, Gallo and Montagnier This year, two independent teams of geneticists reported the same discovery\u2014the genetic code in the DNA of the fruit \ufb02y (Drosophila melanogaster) that control the development of the insect\u2019s major anatomical features. These so-called homeobox sequences code for proteins that switch other genes on or off during the insect\u2019s embryonic stage. Homeobox genes have since been found in nearly all types of living organism, from yeasts to humans. In September, British geneticist Alec Jeffreys (b.1950) developed DNA pro\ufb01ling\u2014a tool that can be used to identify individuals from samples containing their Untethered space walk American astronaut Bruce McCandless II became the world\u2019s \ufb01rst human satellite, when he performed the untethered spacewalk, in February. JaAnpuInpalcJer.o\u2019ytsCbhs2oCMe4miEacnOocptrmiunSotdttpeeouarvsnceheys\u2019cso\ufb01mrpstuter FeMbcurCnutatahenretdyhSlee7prsaBescrdeIuIsScmpehaauckteetlwseatChlkhe,a\ufb01ollruesnttsgidere ApSrctiihlere2nei3trhsisupdvtmiosisrncupasonrsiveb(iesHmlreeIymnVfoot)ufrnvAoirIdDueSs\ufb01:ctiheency JuInlydreiSaopcnfoieahrntoUtmtinhsietevsoeirbarsdotiixtsysc, oeUvqSeuArey,nces 25coJSsuamltvyhoiwetSnsoa\ufb01akvlurakisetytiatSnwvbseoeptmclaaocanmenaetso JupnoaelymKmaereeyrtiaMnsgue\ufb01lorlcifmshtahpCierneebtrsuieeosantecCttcsoihortnhpnooe, lraoatgtiyon UniversMitay rroecfhphBDooSarmNcst iAeoetehlron,tgebhtSiaioarswnxttdiisdtssizseemaecqttroe\u2019ustlvrhaeedamennrnedcyivan,eeotesofls\u2014ompaimncaelnt 10 SeptdeemvebloeprsADleNcAJepfrfor\ufb01eylisng 318","1985 66 THE PERCENTAGE BY WHICH OZONE IS DEPLETED EACH SPRING OVER ANTARCTICA An image, constructed from satellite data, shows the ozone \u201chole\u201d over Antarctica, in October 1985. DNA PROFILING UNTIL THE 1980S, scientists Alzheimer\u2019s protein twisted at Sussex University, UK, and had made very little progress A beta-amyloid protein structure Rice University, Texas, found Although DNA differs in understanding Alzheimer\u2019s molecule shows how evidence of a stable allotrope minimally between any two disease\u2014an age-related disorder the twisted structure of used in refrigerators and as individuals, some sections affecting nerve cells in the brain these molecules helps propellants in aerosol cans of carbon consisting of of the genome do vary. In \ufb01rst described in 1906 by German make them clump (see 1986\u201387). molecules with 60 atoms. DNA pro\ufb01ling, these sections psychiatrist Alois Alzheimer. One together, forming The scientists quickly worked can be cut and then be phenomenon that seemed to be plaques. The element carbon is out the molecules\u2019 structure: arranged, in a gel, according common in sufferers\u2019 brains was extremely versatile, forming the carbon atoms are joined to length. Photographs of the build-up of proteins that ozone is found in a layer between chains and rings in countless in hexagons and pentagons. these fragments resemble form \u201cplaques\u201d in the spaces 12 and 18 miles (20 and 30km) compounds. Even when pure, this The structure is similar barcodes and can be used to between neurons. This year, a above ground, and is greatest versatility is apparent: two of its to that of a geodesic dome identify an individual with a team headed by Australian above the poles. The ozone layer best known allotropes (forms) are designed by American architect high degree of certainty. neuropathologist Colin plays a vital role in protecting diamond, in which carbon atoms Richard Buckminster Fuller, so Masters (b.1947) life on Earth, blocking out are arranged in tetrahedrons (see the new allotrope was named DNA, such as blood or saliva. He published the \ufb01rst clear potentially harmful ultraviolet 1797), and graphite, in which they buckminsterfullerene. The new later improved the sensitivity of analysis of the protein present radiation. Within two years, the form \ufb02at planes of hexagons. In allotrope had been predicted by his new procedure, by employing a in these plaques. The protein, main cause of the depletion September of this year, chemists other chemists, and it has since technique called the polymerase called A-Beta amyloid, had \ufb01rst of atmospheric ozone was been found occurring naturally. It chain reaction (PCR), which was been described by American con\ufb01rmed: synthetic compounds Buckyball spawned interest in an important \ufb01rst reported in June by American pathologist George Glenner called chloro\ufb02uorocarbons A buckminsterfullerene, new class of materials, called biochemist Kary Mullis (b.1944). (1927\u201395) just a year earlier. (CFCs), which were widely also known as a buckyball, fullerenes (see 1990\u201391). This process enables molecular Within two years, another protein, has a structure of biochemists to multiply small called tubulin associated unit alternating pentagons carbon sections of DNA almost (tau), would also be implicated and hexagons, like atom inde\ufb01nitely. PCR is a crucial in the disease (see 1986\u201387). the sections of a element in many important soccer ball. DNA technologies, including DNA In May, scientists from the sequencing, cloning, and pro\ufb01ling. British Antarctic Survey (BAS) announced they had discovered a downward trend in the concentration of ozone above the Antarctic. Most atmospheric 60 THE NUMBER OF CARBON ATOMS IN EACH MOLECULE OF BUCKMINSTERFULLERENE MaSyucr1ova6nebcyBoerrvneiettpirstoahhrtetiAsoAnnantoatdarfercocctziltciioncnineg OcctaoDsbeNiemAirnmpvTorhigolevr\ufb01ai\ufb01nltirginsogtn\u2014daisnpute NoSvcteihemfenotbdbrisemiustrcscoko1afmv4necinarnyorsbutoeonfrncafe\u2014unltleehwreene anparlJoyuzttehneAieenlbz,deShitecmeavii-empeanllmioetciprsay\u2019mtsltsoedeiddinsitneoafse OctoCbbaeiroruct1hh8aeesmArewsqmiasuayetneroMnnifcocabaeurnusvniiclnodetfoisDnogNrAder NoveMmibcoerforovsp2eoe0rftrs\u2019LaisoatWniunn1ignc.0sdhyooswftesm 319",",,1986\u201387 CHERNOBYL\u2026 SHOWED US A WORLD IN WHICH THE VERY EARTH AND AIR AND WATER FROM WHICH WE ,,DRAW SUSTENANCE LIES POISONED. Satya Das, Canadian author, in speech at the University of Alberta, 1986 Repairs are carried out on the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, after what most consider as the world\u2019s worst ever nuclear accident. TWO DISASTERS DOMINATED later, the Chernobyl nuclear technology news in 1986. In reactor in Ukraine, USSR, January, NASA\u2019s Space Shuttle exploded after a power surge Challenger broke apart as a result during a routine test. Two of a catastrophic explosion soon workers died immediately, and a after lift-off. All seven astronauts further 28 in the following few on board were killed\u2014including a weeks. The area around the civilian, schoolteacher Christine reactor was highly contaminated McAuliffe\u2014and the Space Shuttle by radioactive material. Around program was halted for more \ufb01ve percent of the obliterated than two years. Three months reactor core was carried high into the air after the explosion 73 and the resulting \ufb01res spread contamination over a wide area THE NUMBER far beyond Ukraine. The accident OF SECONDS was attributed to design \ufb02aws and AFTER LIFT inadequate personnel training. OFF BEFORE SPACE SHUTTLE Above Earth\u2019s atmosphere, a CHALLENGER Russian Proton-K rocket lifted EXPLODED the \ufb01rst element of the USSR\u2019s modular space station Mir into orbit. Over the next decade, another six modules were attached, and a wide range of scienti\ufb01c experiments were conducted in them\u2014including research into the effects of long periods spent in space. Mir was more or less permanently inhabited, by successive crews of astronauts and Space shuttle tragedy NASA\u2019s space shuttle Challenger disintegrates after an explosion shortly after lift-off. All seven astronauts on board the shuttle died. JaSnpu2a\u2019asctroecylUpo2rrso4aeb,nse1ut9sVa8op6ypargoearch FeInb-orofurMabriitryas2sp0sa,ec1me9bs8tl6aytion begins MaprrHocbhael1lse9yi8n\u2019s6veCFsoitvmiegeasttpeace SeIBphtMeigsmduhepb-vteeeerrlmoc1opp9nse8drt6uhaectut\ufb01orrrest DeceIBminMbfvoeerrenrcst5eet,hma1er9icca8hrt6eoorsmscoicpe JaCnhuaalSrleypna2gc8ee,rS1dh9ius8at6tsleter Marcohf g1e9n8e6tiFciarplslltya\ufb01neetnlsgd,iintnreiFaelrrsaendce Apraiclnc2uid6ce,len1tah9tre8aptU6oCkNwhrueaecrirnlnpeeola,abrRnyutlsinsia cMoamyipd5oe,nnt1aet9inn\ufb018gte6loAedfTlszanahasueseutpsihrmoroeoc\ufb01etmibare\u2019rtaisenijloddlariwsryeitahse 320","This image shows a \ufb01eld of rapeseed that has been genetically modi\ufb01ed to be resistant to herbicides. In some countries, as much as 90 percent of all rapeseed is genetically modi\ufb01ed. Mir Space Station 41.6 Laser eye surgery The Soviet space station Mir in orbit An ophthalmologist prepares to about 223 miles (360km) above MPH carry out laser eye surgery by \ufb01rst the Paci\ufb01c Ocean. This photograph measuring the curvature of the was taken in 1995, from NASA\u2019s THE AVERAGE patient\u2019s eye. space shuttle Discovery. SPEED OF THE SUNRAYCER explosive death throes of a giant Corrective eye surgery began in (PRK), that Seiler was using. cosmonauts from 12 different SOLAR CAR star\u2014and was labeled SN\u00a01987a. the 1970s, with the introduction of A more sophisticated procedure, countries, for most of its The explosion happened in a radial keratotomy, in which radial called LASIK (laser in-situ 15-year lifetime. that gave them resistance to nearby galaxy, the Large lines are cut into the cornea, keratomileusis) was patented in herbicides. Since 1986, many Magellanic Cloud, nearly 170,000 changing its shape. In 1983, 1989 and available commercially Also up in space, \ufb01ve probes GM crops have been produced, light-years away. It was the \ufb01rst American ophthalmologist from 1991. \ufb02ew close to Halley\u2019s comet, including cotton, potatoes, and naked-eye supernova for more Stephen Trokel (b.1934) which was venturing in toward rapeseed. From the outset, the than 300 years. developed a way of changing the In November, the \ufb01rst World the inner Solar System. The production of GM crops has been cornea\u2019s shape by burning away Solar Challenge\u2014a race held European Space Agency\u2019s Giotto controversial, with concerns The discovery of the ozone hole corneal tissue with an ultraviolet to promote research into solar probe passed within 373 miles about the unpredictable over Antarctica (see 1985) led to laser. It was this method, called technology for cars\u2014was held (600km) of the centre of the consequences of GM organisms more research into the effects of photo-refractive keratectomy in Australia. The race was won comet, capturing the \ufb01rst ever on the environment and some chloro\ufb02uorocarbons (CFCs) on the by General Motors\u2019 Sunraycer. images of a comet\u2019s nucleus. people simply opposed to ozone layer. The United Nations \u201ctampering\u201d with nature. proposed an international treaty to Researchers attempting to limit the production of CFCs, and unravel the mystery of In February 1987, astronomers the Montreal Protocol was opened Alzheimer\u2019s disease discovered in the Southern Hemisphere for signature in September 1987, the nature of the neuro\ufb01brillary observed a new source of light and came into force in 1989. tangles (NFTs) found inside in the sky, as bright as many of neurones in the brains of people the stars visible to the naked In Berlin, German ophthalmic with the disease. They found that eye. It turned out to be surgeon Theo Seiler (b.1949) NFTs are made of Tau (tubule a supernova\u2014the carried out the \ufb01rst laser eye associated unit) proteins, which surgery on a human patient. stabilize microtubules\u2014vital for Solar car maintaining cell structure. This General Motors\u2019 car Sunraycer was the second major beat the competition in the \ufb01rst breakthrough in understanding ever Solar Challenge, a race for Alzheimer\u2019s disease since the solar powered vehicles across characterization of beta-amyloid Australia at the height of summer. protein (see 1985) that makes up plaques between neurons in Alzheimer\u2019s sufferers. The \ufb01rst \ufb01eld trials of genetically modi\ufb01ed (GM) plants began in France and the USA: tobacco plants with altered DNA Fe1b9Sr8uN7ea1nrwS9oy8uiut27pgha3eht,,rhtnboeroibvngaeahktoebdseeryveed MalircAceZhnTs1,e9ids8A7apITDphSreotv\ufb01reerdsattinmtehnet,US NoSvu\ufb01enrmrCsathbsyeaeocvlelrleaer1rrnw-9Wgp8ineoo7swrfoltedrhreeSdolcaarrs oMbAsalerzrhcvheei1mdt9heea8fret7\u2019scbtSrpiavcaieitneieTncnateiutslsltspshriaonvteein AmeOBrciecCtraohtnbiFnebueirnosg1teee9ne-crb8gnomoi7ginnri\u201cennsteeitrsehsreuineg\u201d NWoovrelmde\u2019spbyeee\ufb01rrrsfsohu1trur9lmgma8ese7arednyroibsneaing 321","1988\u201389 A culture of the bacterium Clostridium botulinum, which produces the botulinum toxin. The toxin was approved for medical use in the USA in 1988. IN JUNE 1988, JAMES HANSEN being enhanced by the enormous ,, \u2026GLOBAL WARMING HAS REACHED (b.1941) the director of NASA\u2019s amounts of carbon dioxide A LEVEL SUCH THAT WE CAN ASCRIBE\u2026 Goddard Institute for Space released into the atmosphere Studies, in New York, reported to by the burning of fossil fuels. ,,A CAUSE AND EFFECT RELATIONSHIP the US Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources Climate scientists were already BETWEEN THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT that the average global well aware of global warming, AND THE OBSERVED WARMING. temperature was increasing and the possible challenges the above what would be expected world might face if the warming James Hansen, American climate scientist, testifying before the US Senate Committee by normal climate variation. continued. In 1986, the World on Energy and Natural Resources, 1988 He noted that the world\u2019s Meteorological Organization and temperature was greater than it the United Nations Environment In November, Dutch computer organizations in the Netherlands initially a US military enterprise, had ever been since systematic Program had set up a body to scientist Piet Beertema (b.1943) and across Europe became access to highly accurate GPS recording had begun about a examine the phenomenon: the initiated a connection to the US connected soon afterward. signals was restricted to the hundred years earlier. He said Advisory Group on Greenhouse National Science Foundation Fortunately for computer armed services\u2014mainly to raised temperatures would Gases. This small group was Network (NSFnet). The scientists in the Netherlands, ensure that military enemies probably cause an increase in superseded by the UN\u2019s NSFnet was a nationwide set their connection to NSFnet was would not be able to bene\ufb01t. heat waves and other extreme Intergovernmental Panel on of interconnected computer made two weeks after the \ufb01rst By the end of the 1990s, this weather events. Importantly, he Climate Change (IPCC), which networks for academics. It internet worm was released. restriction was lifted, and the suggested that the main cause of was formed in late 1988. The formed the backbone of The Morris worm\u2014written by general public was given access the warming was the greenhouse IPCC\u2019s \ufb01rst assessment report the early Internet. Other student Robert Morris at Cornell to the full service, opening up effect (see pp.326\u201327), which was would be published two years University, Ithaca, New York\u2014 a new market in navigational later (see 1990). satellite infected several thousand devices\u2014including in-car transmits computers across NSFnet, \u201csatellite navigation\u201d devices HOW SATELLITE NAVIGATION WORKS signals to slowing them down. The cost in and GPS-enabled mobile phones. receiver terms of downtime and the effort Russia has a similar satellite Satellite navigation (sat-nav) sat-nav involved in removing the worm navigation system\u2014the devices pick up signals sent receiver signal to from infected computers is not Globalnaya Navigatsionnaya out by satellites in orbit around receiver is known, but is estimated to be Sputnikovaya Sistema Earth. Each satellite carries receiver calculates delayed by around $1 million. Morris was (GLONASS), whose roots also a very accurate atomic clock. its position in distance convicted under the US Computer lie in the 1970s. It became fully From the difference between the Fraud and Abuse Act. operational in 1993. Since the time signals that are received relation to satellites late 2000s, many satellite from three or more satellites, In February 1989, the \ufb01rst in navigation devices use both a sat-nav device can calculate a new phase of satellites was GPS and GLONASS. how far it is from each satellite. launched to modernize the Using those distances, the Global Positioning System In December, botulinum toxin, device can work out its (GPS, see 1978). Over the next better known as \u201cbotox,\u201d was geographic position with decade, 18 new satellites were approved in the US for problems great accuracy. placed in orbit. Since GPS was associated with eye muscles. The AporfhiSlutA1eg,peB1hlry9eie8pnf8oHHpPiuasuwltabokrlriiycbnaogotof\u2019isokTnime JuJnaaemw2\u201ceag3srl,eoH1nba9ean8sls8sweonafrrtmahieisnetges\u201drm NoTvhbeeemcNcoobteuometnhrtethers1rey9ltaIch8nnoe8tdnessnrenececottnedd MaSyudre1gc6elh,aao1ersn9reaoG8sdi8enndniUoicecSrorttiacviloneceaasine DeIcnetNemragbtioeoCvrnleis6mrn,eam1st9teea8nbC8lthiaUsalhnnPeigatseentdeh(IlePoCnC) The MtNohorervi\ufb01sermtsWotboaicnercomfrrmeo2csbpt,seuc1ctto9ehom8rme8vpIeinurstuteesrrnset 322","8 THE TYPICAL NUMBER OF CELLS IN AN EMBRYO BEFORE REMOVING A CELL FOR GENETIC DIAGNOSIS A single cell is removed from an embryo, the \ufb01rst stage of preimplantation genetic diagnosis. The embryo can continue to develop unharmed\u2014the removed cell is subjected to genetic testing. deuterium 2 hydrogen nuclei fuse to form a fusion (see 1978), the technology of chemical reactions alone. In August, NASA\u2019s Voyager 2 (hydrogen helium nucleus (2 protons, releases assisted reproduction advanced They claimed that the extra made its closest approach to 2 neutrons) energy greatly. The fact that embryos are energy had come from nuclear Neptune, capturing the \ufb01rst isotope, created outside the body (and fusion\u2014normally only possible at detailed images of the planet. 1 proton, typically implanted after three extremely high temperatures It was Voyager 2\u2019s last visit to 1 neutron) days\u2019 growth) opened up the and pressures (see panel, left). any planet or moon before possibility of genetic testing on There was great interest in this it headed toward the outer \u201ccold fusion,\u201d but many scientists reaches of the Solar System. tritium excess neutron embryos from parents with were sceptical, and no one could (hydrogen is released and certain genetic diseases. Since repeat the experiment with Neptune may react with a cycle of IVF creates several the same result\u2014leading the NASA\u2019s Voyager 2 spacecraft isotope, other nuclei embryos, any that carried the scienti\ufb01c community to conclude captured images of the gas giant 1 proton, genes giving rise to the disease Pons\u2019 and Fleischmann\u2019s claim Neptune\u2019s clouds, whose blue color 2 neutrons) was almost certainly incorrect. is due to the presence of methane. would be discarded. A team NUCLEAR FUSION headed by British IVF doctors Alan Handyside (b.1951) and Robert Fusion is the process of joining together atomic nuclei, most Winston (b.1940) carried out the commonly deuterium and tritium (heavy hydrogen) nuclei fusing \ufb01rst human preimplantation to form a nucleus of helium. This releases a burst of energy and is genetic diagnosis (PGD). The the power source deep inside stars. Fusion has been achieved in procedure was controversial, experiments but, so far, the amount of energy input to create the with some disability rights groups heat and pressure is much greater than the energy released. claiming it was a high-tech version of eugenics. There was also controversy toxin, produced by bacteria in Some began receiving the surrounding a claim made by the genus Clostridium, can be treatment for cosmetic reasons American physicist Stanley lethal even in tiny amounts. Upon only, illegally at \ufb01rst; botox Pons (b.1943) and British physicist injection, it causes paralysis injections were approved for Martin Fleischmann (1927\u20132012), of facial muscles for around cosmetic use in the US in who were at the University of three months. In the same 2002, and shortly afterward Utah. The pair announced they year, American plastic surgeon in other countries. had conducted an experiment in Richard Clark reported that In the 11 years since the birth which more energy was produced injections of botox had removed of the \ufb01rst baby conceived by IVF than could be explained by unwanted wrinkling above one eye in a patient who had paralysis YEARSin the facial nerve on one side. The fact that botox injections can reduce wrinkles\u2014one of the most visible signs of aging\u2014 was of great interest to many 12customers of cosmetic surgeons. THE TIME VOYAGER 2 TOOK TO REACH THE PLANET NEPTUNE FeTbh(reBull\ufb01aaorurcskyntc1IoIh4f)e,aod1fn9Ge8Pw9Ssseattellites Maofrecgfhifbaee1nc,tts,1tmwo9ra8heg9idcnDheaitatsolchrlooeigvwsheissrdtydaeanntcaseittoies ApArmBileed1rri4itsoc,cVfas1oopnu9vg5eop8e3rnp9l,sscrtteohtehlseioensgtiufniusmgnt pcotrrio-otnein Aupgraoupbscpetarop2Vofto5auty,hcra1heign9tepg8orl9asN2tnSu\u2019esepnptcantlcuionensgee,ismt ages annouMnacyes1tmh1ite,isl1l\ufb018i9or08sn4t98ttr6Ionacthnehaslivipse,toars getnHhOeeatcin\ufb01ctIdoVrdysbFistaeiepgdrmrne1eob9cismra8iyrs9pdor,liisAsaesclnesfaoratonearismutegeitnopsenilnnbaegentftiocarteion Marchswc1ire9itn8et9sisBtthrTeiitmibslhuWBeceooprrmnrlidenprtWusft-ioeLdrreetehWeeb March 2ca3lnaa,ncim1ho9iule8anv9tceeeRdretschshoaeoltadwtrnhfcuhetsoyeirohbsnea\u2014dfaalse 323","1990\u201391 110 MILES THE DIAMETER OF THE CHICXULUB CRATER This radar image shows a small portion of the Chicxulub crater, Mexico. The crater was \ufb01rst discovered nearly 20 years before geologists realized it was caused by the object that probably contributed to the demise of the dinosaurs. THE INTERGOVERNMENTAL It set out some of the potential 180 WEBSITES (IN MILLIONS) Rise in number of websites PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE impacts of global warming, 160 1990 The number of websites rose (see 1988) published its \ufb01rst such as rising sea levels and 140 1992 steeply after the internet became assessment report in 1990. threats to biodiversity. Further 120 1994 commonplace among businesses The report suggested that the assessment reports have 100 1995 and home users. average global temperature maintained and re\ufb01ned the 1997 was increasing by about 32\u02daF scienti\ufb01c conclusions. 80 1999 could differentiate between (0.3\u02daC) per year due largely 60 2000 oxygenated and deoxygenated to man-made emissions of British computer scientist 40 2002 blood. Ogawa realized that this greenhouse gases, such as Tim Berners-Lee created the 20 2004 could reveal which regions of carbon dioxide (see pp.326\u201327). world\u2019s \ufb01rst Web browser\u2014 2005 a brain are most active. His called WorldWideWeb. At the 0 2007 technique forms the basis of TIM BERNERS-LEE time, the internet was growing functional MRI (fMRI), which (b.1955) rapidly, but was mainly used by In April 1990, NASA\u2019s Space YEARS is used to measure brain activity. academics, communicating via Shuttle Discovery carried the He produced fMRI images of rats British computer scientist typed commands on bulletin Hubble Space Telescope (HST) Space Telescope has produced in 1990; the \ufb01rst human fMRI Tim Berners-Lee earned a boards\u2014systems that allowed into a low-Earth orbit. The stunning images of a wide range imaging was carried out in 1992. physics degree from Oxford users to exchange software and telescope, named after the of objects in space, and has University. While working at post messages. There were American astronomer Edwin provided huge amounts of In June 1990, researchers the European Organization several different operating Hubble (see 1923), carries a information for astronomers, in the US began the world\u2019s for Nuclear Research (CERN) systems in use, and few common range of instruments that can astrophysicists, and cosmologists. \ufb01rst clinical trial to use gene he developed the concept of programs or document formats. detect infrared, ultraviolet, therapy. A gene was inserted the Web. In 1994, Berners- Berners-Lee devised a computer and visible light. The Hubble Japanese biological physicist into white blood cells, and the Lee founded the World Wide language\u2014hypertext markup Seiji Ogawa (b.1934) developed resulting transgenic cells were Web Consortium (W3C), the language (html)\u2014that could be an extension of magnetic injected into a girl suffering from international organization used on any computer, to create resonance imaging (MRI) that a severe immune disorder. that develops Web standards. pages of information. Crucially, these pages could contain links Hydrogen fueled car to pages on other, specially In 1991, the Japanese \ufb01rm Mazda programmed, internet-linked revealed its \ufb01rst HR-X concept computers called servers. The result would be a \u201cweb\u201d of car, which has an internal information\u2014hence the combustion engine that name of the software, burns hydrogen. and eventually the World Wide Web itself. Berners-Lee created the \ufb01rst web server at CERN, in Switzerland, where he was working at the time. FeVboaryrauPogauoeernrrxytdc1r1eats4opipt,t\u201dta1aMco9keef9era0pctlrhulToerthbhyee\u201ceaFtnpaudlmranMnisleyatrss ApHruTilbe2blel4es,cS1o9ppa9ec0elaunched SeTphsteeeA\ufb01marrrcbcshhetirieen,1ntre0ger,ilnne1eea9,st9ce0adlled SeNpAsteSpdamAec\u2019osbtefaeMctirrlhaeae1gdft5es3b,lul-e1raDfg9naa9mcn0eapofpVinegnus DeTcefecMmhpRnrbioIon,elcowrregeh1syais9clue9htns0imadtleoleor,blwyiesisnidmgberavaegilneodped Decembe\ufb01rWr2sot5rw,ld1eW9b9idb0eroTWwheesbew, rios, rccladrle\u2019sleadted April 1G9oe9fn0tohLmeaHeuunPmcrhoajnect JuneG1e9nd9eig0riatUaliSnlItnthecrsiologtemdrhvuu-ipmscdaieeoens\ufb01nny\ufb01ntssriytsistotnem 19St9he0eprTtaehpmey\ufb01bcreasrrtr1gie4ed,noeut OIPcCtAoCsbspeeursb2slmi6s,hec1enl9ditm9Ri0taestTpeFhoicerrhstatonnge 324","In 1991, Canadian geophysicist Alan Hildebrand (b.1955) announced that the Chicxulub crater, centered on the coast of the Yucat\u00e1n Peninsula, Mexico, was almost certainly created by the impact that American physicist Luis Alvarez had hypothesized as the cause of the extinction of the dinosaurs (see 1980). The ages of the rocks and the size of the object that would have made the crater tallied well with Alvarez\u2019s hypothesis. In November, Japanese physicist Sumio Iijima (b.1939) published his research into nanoscale tubes of pure carbon, known as carbon nanotubes. Although these tubes had been observed before, Iijima\u2019s work was inspired by the growing interest in carbon allotropes called fullerenes (see 1985) and helped develop it further. American inventor Roger Billings (b.1948) revealed the \ufb01rst electric vehicle powered by a hydrogen fuel cell. In the same year, Japanese \ufb01rm Mazda announced a concept hydrogen car with an internal combustion engine that burns hydrogen. Global connections This image represents a map of computer networks in the early 2000s. The World Wide Web is the sum of interconnected information that is stored on servers throughout this complex interconnected network. Maayndn1iog9ui9tna1clSeasounMdyiionifDorismcat Juinnvueen1onv9nteo,ihrl1sy9Rdt9ohr1goeegA\ufb01remrnBsetiflrucliicaenarlgnctsoelrlusn AuTghwuesel\ufb01itbvrie6nsp,,taSa1egwt9veC9ietgE1zroeRerNlsa,nd Septeomf btheerC1h9cir9ca1xtaeDlruisabcnoinmvoepuraynccted June 1991naCdniasorctbouovbneersed July 1m,\ufb011ro9sbt9ilc1eaTlplhhoeonnwaeodrnliedgt\u2019iswtaolrk 325","1946\u20132013 THE INFORMATION AGE UNDERSTANDING GLOBAL WARMING HUMAN ACTIVITY IS ENHANCING THE EARTH\u2019S GREENHOUSE EFFECT AND WARMING ITS ATMOSPHERE Over the past 200 years, Earth\u2019s average temperature has risen rapidly against a prevailing trend of cooling. Evidence suggests that this global warming is not the result of natural climate variation but is due largely to human activity\u2014and it could have disastrous consequences. Energy from the Sun reaches Earth in the form the surface below. As a result, the equilibrium JOHN TYNDALL of electromagnetic radiation\u2014mostly visible light temperature is higher\u2014around 59\u00baF (14\u00baC). This Irish physicist John Tyndall and infrared and ultraviolet radiation. Some of phenomenon is known as the greenhouse effect, (1820\u201393) studied magnetism the energy is absorbed, with the rest re\ufb02ected since a greenhouse also \u201ctraps\u201d heat, making it and atmospheric physics. He was back into space. The absorbed energy heats warmer than it would otherwise be. a great popularizer of science. the planet\u2014and since any warm object emits infrared radiation, Earth also loses heat to space. GREENHOUSE GASES total of 30 percent 4 percent of At a certain temperature, the planet radiates The \ufb01rst experimental evidence for the of incoming energy energy re\ufb02ected energy at the same rate as it absorbs it. greenhouse effect came from Irish physicist John Tyndall. In the 1850s, Tyndall measured (52 PW) re\ufb02ected by atmosphere GREENHOUSE EFFECT how much infrared radiation various gases without being absorbed With no atmosphere, Earth\u2019s equilibrium absorb. The strongest \u201cgreenhouse gas\u201d is water temperature would be around \u20131\u00baF (\u221218\u00baC). vapor, but methane, carbon dioxide, and ozone However, the atmosphere absorbs some of the also contribute signi\ufb01cantly. In the 20th century, incoming and outgoing radiation, and it warms climate scientists found that the concentration up. The warmed atmosphere produces its own of carbon dioxide is increasing, enhancing the infrared radiation, some of which is absorbed by greenhouse effect and raising the equilibrium ,, GLOBAL WARMING MUST BE SEEN AS AN ECONOMIC ,,AND SECURITY THREAT. Kofi Annan, former United Nations Secretary General, 2009 390 F-gases carbon dioxide 1% (fossil fuels) CARBON DIOXIDE CONCENTRATION 380 nitrous oxide (PARTS PER MILLION) 8% 57% 20 percent of 6 percent of 370 methane energy re\ufb02ected energy re\ufb02ected 14% from Earth's surface 360 annual by clouds \ufb02uctuation 350 340 mean carbon dioxide carbon dioxide amount of re\ufb02ection (other) 3% depends on land 330 concentration carbon dioxide covering\u2014snow re\ufb02ects 320 (deforestation, more than soil biomass decay) 310 atmosphere 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 17% and clouds YEAR Emissions by greenhouse gases These gases are released as a result Keeling curve of human activity. Carbon dioxide In 1958, American scientist Charles Keeling began a program to monitor contributes most to global warming. atmospheric carbon dioxide. The concentration has now reached 400 parts per million, compared with 280 before the Industrial Revolution. 326","temperature. The increase in carbon dioxide UNDERSTANDING GLOBAL WARMING concentration is largely the result of burning fossil fuels in vehicles and power stations. THE PREDICTED RISE IN SEA LEVEL BY THE EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING END OF THE CENTURY There is consensus among climate scientists that global warming is anthropogenic (caused by EXTREME WEATHER human activity). International agreements such Global warming appears to be as the Kyoto Protocol represent efforts to curb increasing the frequency and severity greenhouse gas emissions. Rising temperatures of hurricanes, as the warmer atmosphere will have drastic consequences\u2014meltwater will injects more energy and moisture raise the sea level and increase \ufb02ooding, while into the climate system. extreme weather events are likely to increase. overall, 122 PW radiated to space EARTH\u2019S ENERGY BUDGET from the atmosphere and surface Earth receives 174 PW (petawatts), which means it receives (equal to the total absorbed) energy at 174 trillion joules per second. About 30 percent total of 112 PW radiated re\ufb02ects back into space. The rest warms the surface and by warmed atmosphere atmosphere, which produce energy as infrared radiation. Overall, the system is balanced\u2014but the balance shifts as the concentration of greenhouse gases increases. INECNOMERINGGY Earth receives 174 PW atmosphere energy lost from surface atmosphere radiates (174 trillion joules of absorbs 33 PW, is \u201ctrapped,\u201d warming \u201ctrapped\u201d energy\u2014some energy per second) about 20 percent the atmosphere of it escapes to space of incident energy incoming energy (incident \u201ctrapped\u201d energy energy) is electromagnetic ultimately makes radiation from the Sun it out to space surface and 10 PW radiates atmosphere absorb directly out to space a total of 122 PW from the surface (about 70 percent of incident energy) surface absorbs surface loses energy atmosphere 89 PW, about as infrared radiation, by radiates \u201ctrapped\u201d 50 percent of warming the air directly energy\u2014some of it incident energy (convection), and through warms the surface the evaporation of water atmosphere acts as a secondary heat source for the surface incoming radiation heats the surface","1992\u201393 1CELL THE NUMBER OF SPERM CELLS INJECTED DIRECTLY INTO AN EGG DURING AN INTRACYTOPLASMIC SPERM INJECTION During intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ISCI), a single sperm cell is placed directly inside an ovum via an extremely \ufb01ne glass needle. ASTRONOMERS HAD ASSUMED signi\ufb01cant development in sperm injection (ICSI)\u2014was developed mainly to address for decades that there existed cosmology since the discovery male infertility. This revolutionary technique involves injecting a extrasolar planets\u2014planets of cosmic background radiation single sperm into an ovum (egg cell) to overcome problems arising outside our Solar System. They (CMB, see 1964). COBE carried from low sperm count or low sperm motility (ability to move had found several possible out an extremely sensitive toward the ovum). It was developed by Italian fertility candidates, but no de\ufb01nitive all-sky survey of the CMB, and specialist Gianpiero Palermo and Belgian doctor Andr\u00e9 van proof. Con\ufb01rmation came at last detected slight variations in the Steirteghem at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel in Belgium. in 1992, with the detection of a radiation, which correspond to The \ufb01rst births resulting from the technique were con\ufb01rmed in 1992. planet orbiting a pulsar\u2014which Small, simple liquid crystal MERRY CHRISTMAS. ,,is a rotating neutron star that displays (LCDs) had been slight variations in temperature available since the 1970s and in the early Universe. These were incorporated into consumer electronics devices such as Neil Papworth, British engineer, first SMS, 1992,, COSMIC BACKGROUND RADIATION calculators, digital watches, and video cassette emits beams of radio waves. temperature variations in turn The cosmic background radiation (CMB) is the heat radiation that recorders. In Within three years, astronomers represent variations in density. \ufb01lled the Universe 380,000 years after the Big Bang (see pp.342\u201343), 1992, the had detected a planet in orbit The density variations are and it provides a record of the temperature of the Universe at that around an ordinary star\u2014one important\u2014if the density had time. The CMB is remarkably isotropic\u2014the same in every direction. hydraulic that is in the main part of its been perfectly uniform, matter Slight variations, or anisotropies, in the CMB are shown in the suspension lifetime (see 1995). would never have clumped false-colour map above\u2014red areas are slightly warmer than blue. together to form stars, galaxies, carbon \ufb01ber Data collected by the Cosmic and galaxy clusters. Environment and Development (UNFCCC). An ambitious initiative lower leg Background Explorer satellite in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, aimed at combatting climate (COBE) led to the most In June 1992, representatives commonly referred to as the change\u2014called the Kyoto Prosthetic knee of governments and non- Earth Summit. The main goal of Protocol (see 1997)\u2014arose from This microprocessor- governmental organizations the conference was to discuss the UNFCCC, and came into controlled knee issues concerning the force in 2005. prosthesis (NGOs) attended the sustainable use of Earth\u2019s automatically adjusts UN Conference on natural resources in an At the end of September 1992, to the wearer\u2019s gait. increasingly industrialized and atmospheric scientists reported hole in ozone above highly populated world. Two that the ozone hole over the Antarctica major conventions came out of Antarctic (see 1985) had grown by the summit. The \ufb01rst was the 15 percent in a single year\u2014and Ozone hole Convention on Biological was the size of North America. At the end of Diversity in 1993 (see opposite); September 1992, the second convention was the In vitro fertilization (see 1978) atmospheric scientists United Nations Framework had been developed mainly to reported that the ozone Convention on Climate Change overcome female infertility; in the hole over the Antarctic early 1990s, an extension of the (see 1985) had grown by technology\u2014intracytoplasmic 15 percent in a single year. Jadnisuocuaotrvsyeidr9e,th1o9eu9\ufb01r2rSsAotslcatorronSn\ufb01yorsmmteeemrdsplanets JuSnuBemr3tamo,zgd1iieilt9s,tic9ohnu2peRserTsin1ohss7ed,u2ebEscrtaJaoirnaiutngnhnaietnbrigriileoist,yto 19d9e2\ufb01vreHhsliotigLtppahCscrc-Dahrrtycshiestes(itlcoaiaqllulud,tiidisopnlays) Demceesmsbageer 3se, n19t 9ov2eTrhaeG\ufb01SrMstnSeMtwSork 19t9h3\ufb01erIBmsnlttapiecctrlroclooimhgspfetomrhnoretedctPreirccrseioaslkeslonltaryhes-eeaecsvosiasni,tlarthobelleled Apr\ufb01inlUd2nf3toihv,ree1mr9ssa9eeCt2e,ioodiSsnnsmcdioieniEafcntxtgatBhpiaselaflortacoserkxemagyrrrl(toyChueOnBdE) SNepAAtSenAmtarrbecoeptziorcor2antds9egu,trrh1heio9anwlt9gert2thoahevpeeidryleyar 199c2hFidlidirsrspcetoecbntrimcirnethjiienvocetotfdiaoabnnyoefgg 328","1994 These fragments of comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 were photographed by the Hubble Space Telescope two months before their collisions with Jupiter. Shoemaker-Levy 9 was the \ufb01rst comet ever observed in orbit around anything other than the Sun. 298,000 611,000 EIGHT YEARS AFTER THE FIRST of the planet. The comet had with appetite and therefore with discovered in 1950. Injecting fungi plant FIELD TRIALS of genetically been captured by Jupiter\u2019s obesity. The hormone, named leptin into the blood of the obese species modi\ufb01ed crops (see 1986), the gravitational in\ufb02uence, and leptin from the Greek word mice caused the mice to eat species \ufb01rst commercially available had probably been in orbit around leptos, meaning thin, acts on much less and lose weight genetically modi\ufb01ed food the planet for more than 20 years. the brain\u2019s hunger center in the rapidly. Medical researchers 7,700,000 became available this year, when It was discovered in 1993, by hypothalamus (see panel, below). hoped that leptin might form American company Calgene\u2019s American astronomers Eugene The discovery was made after the basis of a cure for morbid ANIMAL SPECIES Flavr Savr tomato was approved Shoemaker (1928\u201397), Friedman\u2019s team studied mice obesity in humans, but it remains for sale by the US Food and Carolyn Shoemaker (b.1929), with a mutant gene that gave an elusive hope. Biodiversity Drug Administration. Calgene and Canadian astronomer David them a voracious appetite. The More than eight million plant, animal, had inserted a gene into the Levy (b.1948). The comet had mutant obese mice were \ufb01rst and fungal species are known\u2014 genome of the tomato that broken into fragments after there are many more undiscovered. hindered the production of an passing close to the huge planet FOOD INTAKE UP FOOD INTAKE DOWN enzyme normally involved in some time in 1992, and the pieces AND ENERGY AND ENERGY Japanese company Hitachi breaking down of cell walls and formed a chain about 6,000 miles developed a new technology, softening of the fruit. The result (10,000km) long. The impacts EXPENDITURE DOWN EXPENDITURE UP which was called in-plane was a tomato that could stay produced explosions that left switching, making it possible \ufb01rm and fresh for longer. The scars in the atmosphere. The BRAIN to use large LCDs as television Flavr Savr was discontinued in Galileo space probe (see 1995), hypothalamus screens. By 2007, LCD televisions 1997, after initial commercial en route to Jupiter, was well were outselling those with success waned. placed to gather data and images fat cell cathode ray tube screens. of the collisions. Astronomers around the In 1993, the UN Convention world had their telescopes In December, a team led by on Biological Diversity came \ufb01xed on Jupiter in July, when American medical researcher into force. This treaty, which 21 mountain-sized fragments Jeffrey Friedman (b.1954) opened for signatures at the of comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 reported the discovery of a Earth Summit, aims to conserve plunged into the atmosphere hormone that is closely involved biodiversity and encourage the sharing of pro\ufb01ts made utilizing GM food WEIGHT LOSS ADIPOSE (FAT) TISSUE WEIGHT GAIN traditional knowledge. Firm, fresh-looking leptin level falls leptin level rises genetically modi\ufb01ed The British company Blatchford Flavr Savr tomatoes LEPTIN AND APPETITE unveiled their \ufb01rst prosthesis (right) and three that was controlled by ordinary tomatoes, The energy-regulating hormone leptin is produced by adipocytes (fat a microchip. This knee which have begun cells). Leptin levels are controlled by an area of the brain called the prosthesis could hypothalamus. A person gains weight when the adipocytes in their automatically adjust to the softening. All six are at the body fat store more fat. In this state, adipocytes produce more leptin, wearer\u2019s gait and became same stage of ripening. and the hypothalamus reduces appetite, leading to weight loss. If commercially available in 1993. person\u2019s weight reduces, leptin level falls, and appetite increases. genetically modi\ufb01ed organic MaLrinrcehuflxue1apl14lso.vc0epeo.du0rm\u2014slaipotruhnoteepo\ufb01rfertnoshp-teseoruarticneg system MaFylba2vec1rcooSgTmmaehmvneeresettrotihccmaiealalfltyliorymsatvoadiil\ufb01aebdlefood JuFlrysaoGudfentigrlwhamiotayafearelernra3frcuoeod(rmlmieoepapni3snace)notfyhdoeirnmmgapteg DecTeBhmieobCloeocgrnoi2cvmae9len, Ds1ti9ioivn9net3orosnfiotryce FramMeaowrncohCrklc2ioCm1moaTnethveseeCinUnhttNiaoonnfgoerce JCuolmy eLtaSrgchoeoleflrimdaegamkweeirtnh-tLsJeuovpyfi9ter 3 2 9Decermelebaelsreep1dtiDbnciy,soacfnaothtrvooecrlresmyllaoospfntpheeattite","1995\u201396 7,000 THE DISTANCE IN LIGHT-YEARS TO THE EAGLE NEBULA IN APRIL 1995, NASA Pillars of Creation AMALGAMATED 32 individual In this dramatic composite image, Hubble Space Telescope areas of star birth in the Eagle photographs to produce an Nebula can be seen in the tiny image known as The Pillars of globules at the tops of the pillars. Creation. It shows immense clouds of interstellar gas and In October 1995, astronomers dust several light-years long, detected a planet orbiting the shaped by intense ultraviolet star 51 Pegasi, by measuring radiation from nearby stars, in the wobble in the star\u2019s motion which new stars are forming. caused by the planet\u2019s presence. It was the \ufb01rst con\ufb01rmed planet Also in space, NASA\u2019s Galileo around an ordinary star other spacecraft dropped a probe into than the Sun. Jupiter\u2019s atmosphere. Analysis of meteorite ALH84001, which Israeli inventor Gavriel Iddan originated from Mars and was patented the PillCam in 1995. It discovered in Antarctica in 1984, is a small capsule that a patient revealed tiny structures that swallows, and which then passes resembled fossilized bacteria. The through the digestive tract taking discovery prompted speculation pictures and sending them that these were the \ufb01rst de\ufb01nitive wirelessly to a receiver. The signs of extraterrestrial life. PillCam gave gastroenterologists However, further analysis has a new, safe, low-cost window on since shown that the structures processes and problems in the are almost certainly not of large section of the digestive biological origin. system where endoscopes cannot reach. Wireless endoscopy The PillCam is a swallowable capsule There were three important that contains a tiny camera, a advances in modern physics in \ufb02ashing light, and a radio transmitter 1995. At the time, theoretical to send images to a receiver. physicists had developed \ufb01ve separate superstring theories, which propose that the particles of matter and force are actually tiny vibrating one-dimensional objects (strings). Each theory assumed the existence of several dimensions in addition to the three space dimensions with which we are familiar in everyday life. The extra dimensions are Ja\ufb01nleuednasdrfwoyoars1lcwl7oo,iwpr1eya9,lbe9ilns5evsPo\u201ccplavaitilpenlsngcutaalme era\u201d Madyeuv1nea9iltn9oidnp5gssEusMdpu-Weptrehistretyseomtnrrimyn,gebtytrhyeory JuslpyJa1uc3pe,itp1er9ro9\u2019bs5eaAdtmeNsoAcseSpnAhdesreinto JuTlhyRe2e\ufb01I8snr,ebss1aatti9rctscut9ehet5qerauiAafneolntnregocaGeuimnennngocaoemotmftehaice SeCpE\ufb01tRercNsmotanbpanserndiorstdiat1aiunn9tctog9ieem5oslefstc:ahtanerttooinpmsros(tpoonssitrons) DeNcAepSrmsoApbb\u2019saeecGrbea8ecl,cril1oae9mfot9ets5ospaothcreebi\ufb01t rJsutpiter Aprreivle1Sa,lp1sa9insc9tepa5TrrHoefglEuoerbrasembgcsllosaeeptiNeinoenthbeula Junoef \ufb015r,Cs1ot9nB9do5essneCtsa\u2013rateEetaiento,isfoatnmeninaetwter plcOaocnnte\ufb01otrsbmotearerrbdio6ttid,nh1ege9tera9ctn5htiaooFnrnirdstoihntfeaarSyun HDuHebcubcaelbpembtuSlebrpeeaDsrceei1ets9pTe9cFle5eileseTlcbhdorepiamteeadge 330","71THE NUMBER OF STATES THAT SIGNED THE TREATY TO BAN NUCLEAR MISSILE TESTS Delegates at the United Nations observe the result of their voting on the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty\u2014an outright ban on all nuclear explosions. rolled up tightly and cannot CLONING donor of skin cell containing nucleus donor egg combined embryo be perceived directly. All the skin cells genetic material of taken from with nucleus from skin implanted in theories had inconsistencies, but The process that created donor sheep skin cell cell of genetic parent a foster sheep at a conference at the University Dolly the sheep began with of Southern California, American the removal of the nucleus nucleus theoretical physicist Ed Witten (enucleation) of a cell taken (b.1951) proposed a way of from an adult sheep. The egg from donor eggs arti\ufb01cial cell division of zygote lamb, a combining them into a single, nucleus, containing the egg-donor sheep donor sheep from nucleus zygote creates embryo, clone of super-theory, which became animal\u2019s DNA, was inserted into removed created genetically identical its genetic known as M-theory. To date, it an enucleated egg cell from and grown to skin-cell nucleus parent is the most complete \u201ctheory another sheep. The egg was of everything,\u201d explaining the fertilized and then grew into a organism whose cells have a commercial DVD players became wavelength than the red light existence of the particles in the sheep with a genome identical nucleus). Another signi\ufb01cant available in Japan. In November used in DVD players, Nakamura\u2019s Standard Model (see 1974), but to that of the original sheep. breakthrough in genome science 1996, Japanese inventor Shuji invention allows much more it is hard to test its validity. and technology was the creation Nakamura (b.1954) invented a information to be carried on In 1995, molecular biologists at of a cloned sheep, which was continuous, low-power blue light DVD-like disks. In June 1995, physicists at the The Institute for Genomic named Dolly, at the Roslin LED (light emitting diode) laser. the University of Colorado Research in Maryland Institute, Scotland. Clones Since blue light has a shorter created an unusual state of completed the \ufb01rst genome of many animals, including matter called a Bose\u2013Einstein sequence of a bacterium. mammals, had been carried out SHUJI NAKAMURA (b.1954) condensate (BEC), predicted before, but Dolly was the result in the 1920s, in which several ,, In 1996, a global collaboration of transferring DNA from a cell Born in Ikata, Japan, Shuji particles at a temperature just among biologists around the taken from an adult sheep into Nakamura studied electronic above absolute zero (see 1847\u201348) world resulted in the \ufb01rst an egg\u2014a procedure known as engineering at the University of attain exactly the same quantum complete sequencing of the somatic cell nuclear transfer Tokushima. He made the \ufb01rst state, and act as a single system. genome of a eukaryote (an (see panel, above). practical LEDs (light emitting diodes) to use gallium nitride, In September, physicists at LIKE AN ICE In September, the UN adopted resulting in brighter LEDs, the European Organization for CREAM CONE, the Comprehensive Nuclear- and the \ufb01rst LEDs to produce Nuclear Research (CERN), on WITH A NEWLY Test-Ban Treaty, which places blue light. Nakamura\u2019s the border of Switzerland and UNCOVERED a ban on all nuclear explosions. development of the blue LED France, created antiatoms\u2014 It has still not been fully rati\ufb01ed. laser represents a milestone composed of antiprotons and ,,STAR PLAYING\u2026 In technology, the Universal in consumer electronics. positrons (antielectrons). Serial Bus (USB) connection was Antimatter particles are THE CHERRY launched in 1996, and the \ufb01rst created naturally, in cosmic ray ON TOP. collisions, for example, but when an antiparticle meets a particle, Jeff Hester, US physicist, 1995 both are annihilated. Modern physics has not explained why matter, rather than antimatter, dominates the Universe. Jacnoufnoanrereqcycuot1imipo9mpn9u6e(tUneUtSrSiBnBt1r.o0d)uced ApFrirsisleot2qrg4unge,euan1ncno9cliesme9um6eosfwiasintrhelaeaceselld AusgcAiueLsnMHttaio68srf,4tss1M0,90cma9l,ra6oatimiryNaigcnAmoinSlneiaAfttelaelyionrfrietoevmidence NoNvacekombanlmtbuineeuurrloaaSushinseuvrljeoi nwt-spaower 19t9hF6meeBbsahrmireutmehbapyrao,yclftflp2Dhorro3enoom,ild\ufb01nlyurgascncteedaldlsult PublicAaCptAhirosainlsn1eIogP9sfeC,sC1Cm1l99i\u2019sme99n5S6at,etteRchoeenpdort Juneim19p9la6tonTttaahlteiaowrntoii\ufb01rslcdci\u2019aaslr\ufb01rhireesdatrotut adSoeNpptustcetlhemeabrCe-oTrme1sp0tr-TeBhhaeennUTsNrieveaty cNomovmeDemVrcDbieadrlpilsyTlkahayseveaa\ufb01rinslradsobtDnleVsDale 331","1997 6THE NUMBER OF FATALITIES IN THE 18 PEOPLE INFECTED WITH BIRD FLU IN 1997 Journalists in Hong Kong wear face masks to reduce the risk of airborne infection by the H5N1 virus, commonly known as bird \ufb02u. CHESS-PLAYING COMPUTER their emissions of greenhouse ,, DEEP BLUE WAS ONLY PROGRAMS \ufb01rst appeared gases\u2014most importantly, carbon INTELLIGENT THE WAY YOUR in the late 1950s. Increases in dioxide released by burning fossil PROGRAMMABLE ALARM CLOCK computing power led to more fuels (see pp.326\u201327). Each powerful programs. In 1997, for participating nation had a target: ,,IS INTELLIGENT. NOT THAT LOSING the \ufb01rst time, a computer won a its emissions for the period match against the reigning world 2008\u201312 had to be reduced by TO A $10 MILLION ALARM CLOCK chess champion. IBM\u2019s Deep a certain percentage compared MADE ME FEEL ANY BETTER. Blue computer won two of the six with the emissions in a base games of the match, with three year (in most cases, 1990). The Garry Kasparov, Russian chess grandmaster, 1997 draws, while its human opponent, targets did not take into account Russian grandmaster Garry Green \ufb02uorescent protein emissions from aviation and produce a green glow under into a part of the genomes of Kasparov, won only one game. A micrograph shows a cell taken international shipping. At a ultraviolet light. The glow is other organisms, researchers from a mouse\u2019s brain. The cell is conference at Doha, Qatar, in produced by a compound called can tell when and whether that The popular Internet search producing green \ufb02uorescent protein December 2012, parties to the green \ufb02uorescent protein (GFP), part of the genome is being engine Google\u2014originally called (GFP), a substance used to track UNFCCC agreed to new targets which exists naturally in certain activated. Okabe injected the BackRub\u2014got its name this year. gene expression. for the second assessment jelly\ufb01sh. The gene that codes for gene into mouse embryos with This new name was derived from period\u20142013 to 2020. GFP was \ufb01rst sequenced in 1994, the hope of tracking the the word googol\u2014a mathematical travelers and to people working in and the protein is now an development of the mice\u2019s sperm term for the number represented the poultry trade. Although other A team led by Japanese important tool in molecular cells, but instead, the protein by 1 followed by one hundred bird \ufb02u outbreaks have occurred geneticist Masaru Okabe hit the biology. By inserting the GFP- was produced in nearly every zeroes. The creators of Google\u2014 since then, fears of a pandemic headlines when they produced coding gene from the jelly\ufb01sh type of cell in the mice\u2019s bodies. American computer scientist have not been realized. genetically modi\ufb01ed mice that Larry Page (b.1973) and Russian-born computer scientist At a conference in December in 10 Sergey Brin (b.1973)\u2014were still Kyoto, Japan, the United Nations developing the search engine at reached an agreement called the TARGET CHANGE IN CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS (%) 8 10 KEY Stanford University, California. Kyoto Protocol that relates to 8 They incorporated the company, the UN Framework Convention Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Google Inc., in 1998. on Climate Change (UNFCCC, 6 Republic, Denmark, Estonia, see 1992). The countries that Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, A particularly virulent in\ufb02uenza signed and rati\ufb01ed the agreement 4 Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, virus known as H5N1, which had were committed to reducing Lithuania, Luxembourg, Monaco, affected birds since the 1950s, 2 Netherlands, Portugal, Romania, crossed the species barrier Kyoto Protocol emission targets 1 Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, into humans. An outbreak of the Emissions targets are shown for the Sweden, Switzerland, United disease it causes, nicknamed \ufb01rst assessment period (2008\u201312) of 0 Kingdom of Great Britain and bird \ufb02u, killed six people in Hong the Kyoto Protocol. Most countries 0 Northern Ireland Kong. Health authorities were had to reduce their emissions by the concerned that the disease could end of this period; some had leeway \u22122 United States of America become a pandemic and issued to increase them. The US signed the hygiene advice to international protocol but did not ratify it. \u22124 Canada, Hungary, Japan, Poland \u22126 \u22125 Croatia \u22126 New Zealand, Russian Federation, \u22128 \u22128 \u22127 Ukraine \u221210 Norway Australia Iceland MapurmcbhlboirsdSohetaeamddnbsdfaoatnhrrdadctiangbtielverenet access MawyhgoGrbseloreeewncdien\ufb02flogulsromp\ufb01reirrcossedtc\u2014eutincmetedprotein\u00a0\u2013 SeGpottoheggemloedbooIgenmlrcea.1.icr5noemgniasmteers DePcrKeomytcooobtcnooeflgrealr1oed1bnoaTcplehtweedaKraymtotitnhoge May b1ce1aocImaBwmMpoure\u2019sltdtecDhrcheetheeo\ufb01asprbmssetppalitaoyner ne8t0w2Jfo.ur1ron1kme,indW1gu9ibpr9ber9eol,edtrsoeWscleoi-alFsied Octopboeasrfst9eibrWlethah\ufb02erunu\ufb01minprsaagtnnswcdsoaeifitsnmhaefeisbcciortfded\ufb02u Blue 332","1998 ,, THERE IS AN INCREDIBLE ,,AMOUNT OF MATTER BETWEEN US AND THE CENTER OF THE MILKY WAY TO OBSCURE OUR VIEW. Terry Oswalt, National Science Foundation program manager for Stellar Astronomy and Astrophysics, 1998 This color-enhanced X-ray image shows the region around Sagittarius A*, the supermassive black hole at the galactic center that produces regular X-ray \ufb02ares as a result of vaporizing asteroids and other matter. INTERNET USE BEGAN TO Robotic surgery Station (ISS), into orbit. The ISS harvested from human Thomson later managed to GROW steeply this year. A new, The da Vinci Surgical System has been inhabited continuously embryos\u2014a fact that raised create induced stem cells\u2014 high speed internet connection has four robot arms, which are since November 2000. The signi\ufb01cant ethical concerns, similar to hESCs, but created through telephone lines became controlled by the surgeon. One of project involves \ufb01ve space since the technique led to the from reprogrammed adult available in 1998. With the arms carries a high de\ufb01nition, agencies representing a total destruction of human embryos. cells, not taken from embryos asymmetric digital subscriber 3-D vision system. of 16 countries. (see 2007). line (ADSL), users could receive information from the internet some kind of repulsive agent, A team led by American cell In another milestone in at 8 megabits (8 million bits) also known as dark energy biologist James Thomson genomics (see 1977 and 1995), per second. The previous year, (see pp.344\u201345), that drives the (b.1958) created a culture of a nematode worm became the another broadband technology expansion of space-time ever human embryonic stem cells \ufb01rst multicellular organism had its debut for home users: the faster. Dark energy probably (hESCs). These cells can develop to have its genome sequenced. cable modem, which connected accounts for around three- into any kind of tissue, and Within two years, the draft to the internet via existing coaxial quarters of the mass-energy have the potential of creating sequence of the human genome cables that also delivered in the Universe. donor-matched organs for was complete (see 2000). television signals. These new transplantation. The cultures, technologies allowed users to In November, a Russian Proton or lines, began with cells In May, German surgeon easily download larger \ufb01les, rocket launched the \ufb01rst module Friedrich-Wilhelm Mohr (b.1951) such as mp3 music \ufb01les, more of the International Space performed the \ufb01rst robotically easily. The world\u2019s \ufb01rst portable assisted heart surgery. In mp3 player, the MPMan F10, robotic surgery, the surgeon was released this year, by bene\ufb01ts from the assistance of SaeHan Information Systems computer-controlled instruments, from South Korean. which do not suffer from vibration or fatigue. With information and In September, American images relayed via the internet, astronomer Andrea Ghez (b.1965) an expert surgeon can carry out reported that she had detected operations in distant locations the presence of a supermassive using surgical robots remotely. black hole at the center of our galaxy. Astronomers have since Worm genome found evidence that supermassive Caenorhabditis black holes are present in most, elegans was the if not all, galactic centers. \ufb01rst multicellular organism to have Astrophysicists studying its genome supernovas in distant galaxies sequenced. This came to the conclusion that the nematode worm expansion of the Universe is lives in soil and accelerating; this was the \ufb01rst grows to about concrete evidence of the existence 1\u204432 in (1 mm) of a cosmological constant\u2014 in length. ApdreqimluFoainnrsstuttrmeaxticpooenmriompfueatnetral SeApsctteorionmsncbabolluesmcaduerceepnk8rettshehromraltoeatfshaosetiurvterehegalaxy NoTvheeommmlibnbsreoeysnro(6nccriuJcelaastmutteeresemssh)cuemllan Degcefenomoromrabgeemarnsui1esl1tqmicuFeerirlenlsupctolianrrgted Mthaerc\ufb01hmrsRpte3cloepnaMlassPyeueMmoraf,entrhFe10 roboticaMlhlyaeayarsFtsibirssyttpeadss SaenpntoeumncbeetrhAaosttftrhtohepeheUyxaspnciaiccvnieessltreissorenatiisng OctobetedrcigAhtihDntaeoSllL\ufb01osrgu(saybtsistnycimmtrriombedeieunrtcrlteiihncdeef)UorSA 20 NovoefSmtthbaeteiIronnFteilrarsuntnactcoihomendpaolinnSteponaotcrebit 333","1946\u20132013 THE INFORMATION AGE THE STORY OF ROBOTICS ROBOTS HAVE DEVELOPED FROM BASIC MECHANICAL TOOLS AND TOYS TO PLAYING AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN MODERN SOCIETY Robots are built in a wide range of forms, and there is no single definition of a robotic device that encompasses all its aspects. However, the vast majority are electromechanical machines that can perform tasks and manipulate their environment in accordance with a set of preestablished instructions. Robots vary hugely in form and function. R.U.R. (Rossum\u2019s Universal Robots), and derives ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE Physically, they range from a jointed arm with from the Czech term for forced labor\u2014indeed, tools at the end to the human-shaped \u201candroid\u201d most robots do perform their tasks by obeying For many robotics enthusiasts, the ultimate goal beloved of science \ufb01ction enthusiasts. instructions either embedded in their design, or of computing is to develop a form of intelligence Operationally, they are just as diverse and include passed on to them by a governing computerized capable of mimicking human behavior. Most forms machines whose function is de\ufb01ned by their controller in the form of software. Such robots of arti\ufb01cial intelligence (AI) used in robots so far form\u2014such as ancient Egyptian water clocks, excel at carrying out repetitive, complex, or have involved the machine recognizing and reacting or clepsydra, and Jacquard looms that could detailed tasks at high speed and without fatigue. to scenarios according to a set of preprogrammed weave textile patterns based on instructions More versatile robots, such as the da Vinci rules that its computer can understand. AI research stored on punched cards. There are also robots surgical robot, often function under the direct has made its greatest advances in applications such that are versatile devices capable of performing command of a human operator\u2014a technique as chess computers. a wide range of tasks and reacting to external known as telepresence, which may use cameras stimuli, such as robot space probes. or more complex technology to relay the robot\u2019s \u201cview\u201d of a hostile, dangerous, or complex MODERN ROBOTS environment. Increasing numbers of robots are The word \u201crobot\u201d was \ufb01rst used by Czech writer being equipped with arti\ufb01cial intelligence, which Karel \u010capek in his 1920 science \ufb01ction play allows them to make decisions of their own. ,, ROBOTICS HAS BECOME A SUFFICIENTLY WELL DEVELOPED TECHNOLOGY TO WARRANT ARTICLES AND BOOKS ON ITS HISTORY AND I HAVE WATCHED THIS IN AMAZEMENT, AND IN SOME DISBELIEF, ,,BECAUSE I INVENTED IT. NO, NOT THE TECHNOLOGY; THE WORD. Isaac Asimov, US writer, from Counting the Eons, 1983 Turtle c.250 BCE 1801 1942 1949 robot Early robotics Programmable loom Asimov\u2019s laws Automated machinery, The Jacquard loom, a In his book I, Robot, US writer Educational robot such as Egyptian water programmable device Isaac Asimov devises three laws clocks, are considered that can weave textile to govern his \ufb01ctional robots. The highly popular Turtle by some to be an early patterns automatically, These go on to in\ufb02uence form of robotics. is developed. real-life robot builders. design developed by William Grey Walter is equipped with a variety of sensors that allow it Clesibius\u2019s clepsydra Jacquard loom to react to its environment. c.1206 19th century 1961 Al-Jazari\u2019s automata Mechanical toy Industrial robot One of Arabic inventor From the European The \ufb01rst commercial al-Jazari\u2019s many Renaissance onward, manufacturing robot, a achievements is a band robotic \ufb01gures, called robotic arm called of automata that can automata, are collected Unimate, enters service be commanded to play as playthings and curios at a General Motors different pieces of music. by the wealthy. plant in the US. Al-Jazari\u2019s band Drum automaton Robotic arm 334","hands mimic UNITS (IN THOUSANDS) THE STORY OF ROBOTICS 2011 human hands, with four \ufb01ngers and 1801996 a thumb 160 1997 140 face plate conceals 120 1998 stereo cameras for 100 1999 object recognition and 2000 distance calculation 80 2001 60 40 2002 20 2003 2004 0 2005 YEAR 2006 2007 Annual supply of robots 2008 There has been a steady increase in the annual supply 2009 of robots worldwide. Experts predict this will rise 2010 exponentially in the future. Honda ASIMO Launched in 2000, this 4 ft- (130 cm-) tall humanoid robot is capable of performing a variety of complex tasks, such as walking over uneven surfaces and recognizing and picking up objects. on-board computers allow ASIMO to recognize and interpret movement and gestures 1966 Shakey 1970 Lunokhod I 2000 Arti\ufb01cially intelligent Moon rover Humanoid robot Designed at Stanford USSR\u2019s remote-controlled Japanese Research Institute, Lunokhod 1 becomes the engineering Califonia, \u201cShakey\u201d is the \ufb01rst robot to operate on company Honda \ufb01rst robot to use arti\ufb01cial the surface of the Moon, unveils ASIMO, intelligence to make paving the way for later the world\u2019s most independent decisions. Mars rovers. advanced humanoid robot to date. Aibo 1999 2000 2010 Robot dog Telepresence Robonaut II Aibo, a doglike toy robot The da Vinci robot surgeon This humanoid robot, carried developed by the Sony is a telepresence device that aboard the International Corporation, is capable of uses robotic technology Space Station, tests the responding to a range (with a skilled human controller) potential for the use of stimuli, displaying to operate on a \ufb01ner level than of telepresence on future arti\ufb01cial intelligence and can be achieved by human hands. space missions. developing a \u201cpersonality.\u201d Da Vinci robot 335 surgeon","1999 2000 ,, IN THIS FIVE-YEAR JOURNEY WE REACHED BACK IN TIME ,,TO COLLECT PARTICLES THAT HAVEN\u2019T BEEN CHANGED IN 4.6 BILLION YEARS. Tom Duxbury, Project Manager, Stardust project, 2004 NASA\u2019s Stardust probe \ufb02ew past comet Wild 2 and a retractable aerogel panel collected the dust from the comet\u2019s coma (dust cloud). IN FEBRUARY, NASA\u2019S blood clotting factor that could TEMPERATURE CHANGE (\u02daC) 1.0 Hockey-stick IN THE MONTHS LEADING UP TO STARDUST PROBE BEGAN be harvested from their milk and graph THE TURN OF THE MILLENNIUM, an unprecedented mission: to used in human medicines. 0.5 1200 1400 1600 1800 A simpli\ufb01ed people were warned of the collect samples from the dust YEAR version (without possibility that electronic cloud (coma) surrounding a The increasing number of 0.0 error bars) of the devices and systems could fail, comet\u2019s nucleus. As it traveled, digital gadgets around the home controversial as computer operating systems it also collected interstellar dust. encouraged the development of -0.5 graph that shows used two digits to represent When Stardust \ufb02ew past Earth in wireless data connections. The estimated years and internal clocks would 2006, it released a sample-return most widely used wireless -1.0 average global revert to the year 1900. In a world capsule, which returned to Earth. networking protocol\u2014IEEE 802.11 1000 temperature in which people\u2019s livelihoods and (see 1997)\u2014was given a user- over the past even their safety increasingly Scientists created three friendly name this year: Wi-Fi. thousand years. rely upon computerized systems, identical goats by transferring For one-to-one connections this possibility\u2014known as the the contents of embryo cells into between various types of device, 2000 Y2K problem or the Millennium empty egg cells. The embryonic a new protocol was released: Bug\u2014led to widespread panic. cells had an extra gene, which Bluetooth. Developed by Swedish most popular use for Bluetooth reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Software engineers worked hard caused the goats to produce a company Ericsson in 1994, the is sending digital audio signals to However, many who were opposed to ensure that the fears would wireless headphones or speakers. to the idea that human activity is turn out to be unfounded, and 3 THE NUMBER OF American climatologists Michael causing global warming disputed indeed only a small number of IDENTICAL GOATS Mann (b.1965) and Raymond the accuracy of the graph. systems were affected. PRODUCED BY CLONING Bradley (b.1948) and American AN ADULT ANIMAL dendrochronologist (studies tree Researchers studying growth Fruit \ufb02y METAMATERIALS rings) Malcolm Hughes (b.1943) hormones discovered a protein, The fruit \ufb02y has been used as a model constructed a graph of the which they called ghrelin, that is organism in genetic research since Metamaterials are man-made estimated average global secreted by cells in the stomach 1910, and so was a natural choice to materials that have properties temperature over the past lining. Ghrelin acts on the have its genome sequenced. not found in naturally occurring thousand years. The data were appetite center in the brain (see materials. One example (right) derived from meteorological leptin, 1994). The release of is this material with tiny metal readings, with older estimates ghrelin into the bloodstream is coils embedded within it, which based on historical records and determined by stretch receptors in can divert microwaves around tree rings. The graphs showed a the stomach lining: when the itself. This makes the material gradual cooling, with a rapid rise stomach is full, less ghrelin is invisible to the microwaves. in temperature corresponding to produced, but as the stomach A metamaterial that does the the rise in global population and empties between meals, more same to visible light could act industrialization. The graph\u2019s ghrelin is produced, leading to as an invisibility cloak. shape reminded American the sensation of hunger. climate scientist Jerry Mahlman (1940\u20132012) of a hockey stick. To Also this year, British physicist climate scientists, the graph is a John Pendry (b.1943) described symbol of the effect of human a new class of materials with activity on the climate\u2014and a unusual properties, called stark reminder of the need to metamaterials. One metamaterial in particular held the promise of invisibility (see panel, left). Jabnioualnaoonrgfoybibsur2ltano2AiconneIdtsgsactelteeilhaolmenlsVcccefreerselloclalmostvioiinnmice Apthrseilhca2oov3wneiPtrnrauoggbvteelhircgesalirotaiebolcangelrnoattfeprmhispeeirnattuhree JuLluydn3eai1lnribtpNPoeoAirrltnoeShast,eAthper\u2019sleeeluyvccnetcooaarlrrllaiinissnsihgooernwdthadteebrriicse NopvumebmlpeistobahsemsdriaebPttiealhiriytliyssailocosfif,sitotnhspveeisn\ufb01iirbnsigtlituypctlhoDeaeAkcpihenpomgderitbmsiteceoor-nvr9eeerggehudrlaetliinng 3 3 6 LauSFntaectorhbdarouAusfsntatNenrmrAceyooSfiisr7mdAas\u2019esi5not5knW3a5nildd 2 pArpodriulc2eo7tfhSarcneieeandctulisolttnsgeosat Decembtephrreo1wtoEicrreoitcllhesBessylosuninnerevtoeetlwonettoahers,dkewiisnnhgi1c9h94 of vitaJmaninuAa-rryicr1hi4cteCraarennasntgoioeunnnicced","Seeds are shown after they have been collected and sorted as part of the Millennium Seed Bank BILLION Partnership. The project aims to store seeds of 25 percent of the world\u2019s plants by 2020. THE NUMBER OF SEEDS CONSERVED 1.8IN THE MILLENNIUM SEED BANK The cells inside a developing color of the beta carotene. underground freezers. Climate Biotechnology companies agreed change and changes in land use embryo have the potential to to give the rice seeds free to could put many plant species at farmers who made less than risk of extinction, and protecting develop into any kind of cell $10,000 per year, and the project the seeds means that extinct was supported by various species could be reintroduced. (see 1981). There are similar humanitarian organizations. However, the project has In November, engineers at the stem cells in other tissues, but attracted resistance from Japanese car manufacturer anti-GM protesters (and Honda revealed the \ufb01rst model they only differentiate (develop) anti-capitalists), who fear that of their humanoid robot ASIMO multinational food companies (Advanced Step in Innovative into a limited number of different will have an economic hold on Mobility), a popular humanlike poor farmers. Controversy robot that can talk, walk, and run. cell types. In 1999, a team led by delayed \ufb01eld trials and approval, but in 2013, golden rice seeds Italian researcher Angelo Vescovi were given to farmers in the Philippines\u2014with several (b.1962) took stem cells from other nations considering following suit. mouse brains, injected them into In November, plant mouse blood, and found they conservationists at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK, developed into various types of HUMAN GENOME PROJECT launched the Millennium Seed Bank Partnership\u2014 blood cell. This year, the same a project involving more than 50 countries that team took stem cells from Of\ufb01cially launched in 1990, the human genome project was an aims to collect and preserve the seeds of mouse brains and found they international effort to determine all 3 billion DNA base pairs along tens of thousands of plants. Seeds are sorted, developed into muscle cells just the length of the human genome and identify all the 25,000 or so cleaned and dried, then stored in cold, dry conditions in large by being in contact with muscle genes the genome contains. This knowledge holds great bene\ufb01ts ASIMO cells in laboratory glassware. for medical science as well as studies of human evolution and The \ufb01rst version of Japanese car manufacturer Honda\u2019s These experiments proved that genetics in general. The project was declared complete in 2003. humanoid ASIMO robot was just 4ft (1.2m) tall and weighed non-embryonic stem cells 106 lb (48kg). are more \ufb02exible than was believed\u2014a boon to stem cell the draft sequence of the entire melanogaster), was also research since it avoids the human genome. Thale cress sequenced this year. harvesting of embryonic stem (Arabidopsis thaliana), a model German biotechnologist Ingo cells, which involves the organism widely used in genetic Potrykus (b.1933) and German destruction of the embryo. experiments, became the cell biologist Peter Beyer (b.1952) After a huge international \ufb01rst plant to have its genome announced that they had created effort, scientists involved in the sequence completed. The a genetically modi\ufb01ed (GM) Human Genome Project genome of another model variety of rice. The new rice announced the completion of organism, the fruit \ufb02y (Drosophila plant produced beta carotene, the precursor to vitamin A, in the ,, WE ARE HERE TODAY TO edible grain. Vitamin A de\ufb01ciency is commonplace in many CELEBRATE A MILESTONE ALONG A developing countries, causing TRULY UNPRECEDENTED VOYAGE, an estimated two million deaths every year, and is a major, ,,THIS ONE INTO OURSELVES. preventable cause of blindness. The rice earned the nickname Francis Collins, American geneticist, June 26, 2000 \u201cgolden rice,\u201d because of the Juonfgeteh2Hne6uoemmRnoateiunrageGnhhneduonrmuoanmaftcneedPrboyjethcet OcrteotpuboirernntrtesoAdtmnhmgauetosluhcoseleVehecsasetscelolmsvi cells NodvehebumumtbsaeAnrlSi2kIM0e OHro,obanodptaopular ScietnhteissMtseaqcruootchemfhentphc2glie4eentnfgerouomfite\ufb02y NovemobSfeetrheGe2da0MrBdOaielpnlneeksnn,iniannitugtKhmeewUK Dgeesconeeroqgmmuabeenneioscrfmin1thg4tihseoTacmfhloeteohmcderpeellestsed 337","2001\u20132002 The third IPCC report contained detailed analysis of the shrinking of glaciers and icecaps over the past hundred years\u2014a clear sign of global warming. THE INTERGOVERNMENTAL One of the early indications of the SARS virus PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE emerging Web 2.0\u2014in which This electron microscope image or IPCC (see 1988) published its users create content on the shows the corona virus\u2014the virus third major report into climate world wide web\u2014was the launch found to be the cause of the change in 2001. The document of the online encyclopedia mysterious respiratory illness supported and extended the Wikipedia. Supported by the known as SARS. conclusions of the organization\u2019s non-pro\ufb01t-making Wikimedia previous reports (see 1990, 1995) Foundation, Wikipedia can be Researchers at the Sudbury In 2002, NASA\u2019s Mars Odyssey illness that gave people trouble and provided more detailed written and edited by anyone. Neutrino Observatory, Canada, space probe detected huge breathing and, in some cases, projections of climate change for In 2007, it became the largest detected de\ufb01nitive evidence of amounts of water on Mars, just led to their death. Treatment with the decades ahead. The report encyclopedia ever written, with neutrino oscillation. Neutrinos below the surface in the planet\u2019s antibiotics was ineffective, and included the hockey stick graph, more than two million articles. are fundamental particles Arctic region. Much of the water researchers found none of the produced by climate scientists produced in nuclear reactions. was locked in claylike minerals. bacteria or viruses known to two years earlier (see 1999). In October, Apple Inc. launched There are three types, or \ufb02avors, NASA\u2019s Phoenix lander probe cause pneumonia. The number its portable digital music player, of neutrino: muon, tau, and visited that region in 2008 and of cases increased rapidly and it Water on Mars the iPod. Similar products already electron. According to the con\ufb01rmed Odyssey\u2019s observations. became clear that SARS (severe This polar icecap is made of water existed, but sleek design and an Standard Model (see 1974), acute respiratory syndrome) ice covered with a layer of carbon intuitive user interface, coupled neutrinos should have no mass. In Guandong Province, China, was highly infective. The disease dioxide ice. NASA\u2019s Mars Odyssey with Apple\u2019s music library and In the 1960s, American physicist doctors became aware of an began to spread and risked also found evidence of huge iTunes software, made the iPod Raymond Davis had studied outbreak of a pneumonialike becoming a major pandemic. amounts of underground water. a landmark consumer product. solar neutrinos (see 1968), but A combination of quarantines detected one-third as many as and the screening of airline was predicted. Davis\u2019 experiment passengers curbed the spread of could only detect electron the disease, and the last known neutrinos. One way to explain the case occurred in May 2004. In all, de\ufb01cit was that neutrinos change there were 8,273 reported cases, \ufb02avor, or oscillate, and this is what with 775 deaths\u2014most of them the Sudbury experiment found. in China and Hong Kong. Neutrino oscillation is only possible if neutrinos have mass\u2014 ,, IMAGINE A WORLD something the Standard Model IN WHICH EVERY SINGLE has yet to account for. PERSON\u2026 IS GIVEN FREE ,,ACCESS TO\u2026 ALL HUMAN KNOWLEDGE. THAT\u2019S WHAT WE\u2019RE DOING. Jimmy Wales, founder of Wikipedia, 2004 JaLnauounanelrcniynhce1yoc5ufl,sot2hep0ere-0dfgr1ieeaneWe, rikaitpeeddia Matarrtcrghacesot1tem5ud,zpc2ulaem0nt0eac1sbeTra(Hhtsheeuer\ufb01crccraesepptsyts,infu),l trial JuTnhOeeb1tShs8ueha,drta2vbvn0aueet0roum1yrtyrNaisdnesiuosstcrominveoarys OcAtpopbleerla2u3n,c2h0e0s1the iPod Apdreiitnle1yace5tga,oa2rrss0g0aac2nwloiAacusydctor2om6n,po0om0u0enrldisgsht NoSvAbeRemPSgrbieonepvsriindi2nce0eGm0,uCi2cahnigndaong 3 3 8FebruSahNroyeAmoS1n2Aa,\u2019ksa2enN0ra0Els1aAtnRedrosidApDrieln2n8is, 2T\ufb010itr0os1btAescpmoaemcreeicMtsaotnauhyrei2s0t200101AC,sltismheesasItPemCCeChins\u2019astpnRTugehbepilroidsrht,ed NTJOaTcptDthaooenb3Ce\ufb01eGosrrMesm1tco,ocolo2bmam0iulp0enma1cnneheyretcwsiaolrk MayO2d8yse, sv2ei0dy0ep2nrcNoebiAceoeSf\ufb01Aown\u2019nsdaMstearrs Decembgeerno5m, 2e0i0s2pMuboluissheed","2003 13.75BILLION YEARS THE AGE OF OUR UNIVERSE This super computer simulation of the structure of the Universe from 2005, created at the Max Planck Institute in Germany, shows the distribution of dark matter in part of the Universe. IN THIS YEAR, THE CHINESE as long as the gap in the background radiation (CMB) model of the Universe, the 22.5% 4.5% NATIONAL SPACE administration program caused by the loss re\ufb02ect variations in the density of Lambda-Cold Dark Matter model dark matter matter launched its \ufb01rst manned space of the Challenger (see 1986). the early Universe, which in turn (see p.345). The lambda part is mission, Shenzhou 5. Astronaut caused matter to clump together, the cosmological constant\u2014 73% Yang Liwei spent 21 hours and The same month, cosmologists forming galaxies and galaxy a repulsive force that is 23 minutes in space, orbiting and astrophysicists published clusters. The map produced by accelerating the Universe\u2019s DARK ENERGY Earth 14 times. the \ufb01rst year\u2019s observations WMAP also re\ufb01ned an emerging expansion. Evidence for the of the Wilkinson Microwave existence of the cosmological Composition of the Universe In February, the US space Anisotropy Probe (WMAP). One Yang Lewei in space constant\u2014or dark energy\u2014came According to WMAP observations, shuttle Columbia disintegrated of the aims of the program was to Chinese astronaut, Yang Liwei, is from studies of supernovas in ordinary matter accounts for only while it was reentering Earth\u2019s provide a more detailed map of shown aboard the Shenzhou 5 other galaxies (see 1998). Cold a small percentage of the Universe\u2019s atmosphere. The incident resulted the cosmic background radiation capsule. China became only the dark matter is matter that neither total mass-energy. in the halting of the space shuttle than the COBE satellite did (see third nation to send humans into produces nor interacts with program for two years\u2014almost 1992). Variations in the cosmic space, joining the US and Russia. electromagnetic radiation. The billion DNA base pairs that presence of cold dark matter can make up the human genome. A be inferred only by its gravitational draft of the chimpanzee genome, interaction with ordinary matter. which is nearly 99 percent WMAP\u2019s observations also identical to the human genome, enabled scientists to put the was also published in 2003. Universe\u2019s age, with a high The chimpanzee is the closest degree of accuracy, at 13.7 billion living relative to humans, and years (it has since been updated comparisons between the two to closer to 13.82 billion years). genomes give biologists an unprecedented opportunity to Three years after the draft study primate evolution. version of the human genome was published, the International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium \ufb01nally completed the full sequencing of all 3 ,, I\u2019M FEELING VERY GOOD ,,IN SPACE, AND IT LOOKS EXTREMELY SPLENDID AROUND HERE. Yang Liwei, Chinese astronaut, on the telephone to his wife from space, 2003 FesbhdruiutsataaslrestrytCoe1noralSkuupimltalssbcoieaanllbsoeavredn Maforu3cn5ht0dhF,oe0ionf0oodI0lttdpiaryerleeyis,cnatdttrksashntuaeomgdwoant,onaforaoentcpersintotsrs OcLtiowabsetetihrrieos1nSC5ahhYueiatnnn,azga\u2019hsboo\ufb01uarrs5dtmission DeTchoeefmg\ufb01tehbrnesetorcdmh1rie2amfitpssapenuqzbueleeisnhceed MicFreobwrauv(WaebrMAayncA1ikPs1go)rWtmoroiualpknpyidnsPsrcroaoondsbimaetiicon Acpormilp1le4tiTohneGosefuntchoceimseHsaesunPfmnuroolaujnenccted Europ\ufb01DeEreasxcntpeMrSmepasbarssec,erprerA2oa0gbceTehnh,ecMesy\u2019aMsrasrs 339","2004 10,000 THE NUMBER OF GALAXIES VISIBLE IN THE HUBBLE ULTRA DEEP FIELD Part of the Hubble Ultra Deep Field, showing some of the farthest galaxies ever seen. The entire image contains about 10,000 individual galaxies, some of which are seen by light that left them 13 billion years ago. IN MARCH, NASA RELEASED A time of nearly 280 hours\u2014 ago, when the Universe was very GRAPHENE Graphene takes its name from REMARKABLE IMAGE of a tiny captured by an instrument called young. Astronomers are still graphite, which is composed part of the sky taken by the the Advanced Camera for studying the image, which Island of Flores, east of Bali, of layers of carbon atoms. In Hubble Space Telescope (HST): Surveys, which was installed provides new information about Indonesia, together with graphite, the layers move over the Hubble Ultra Deep Field, a on the HST in 2002. The image galaxy formation. In 2012, the sophisticated tools and the each other easily, which is why follow-up to the Hubble Deep showed thousands of faint HST produced an even more remains of animals. The skeletal it is slippery, but they are Field of 1995. This new image galaxies, many of which are so detailed view of the same part of remains were around 18,000 extremely robust because the was the result of 800 long far away that their light would the sky. Called the eXtreme Deep years old, and the researchers atoms form strong hexagonal exposures\u2014with a total exposure have left them billions of years Field, the 2012 image revealed con\ufb01rmed them as being from a bonds, as shown in this about 5,500 galaxies more than new species in the genus Homo, color-enhanced electron cranium has a volume shown in the Ultra Deep Field. which includes our closest micrograph; graphene is simply about a quarter that of ancestors, such as Homo a single layer of graphite. In October, Australian erectus, as well as our own a modern human palaeoanthropologists unveiled species, Homo sapiens. The Remains of a total of seven researchers called the new individuals were found Homo \ufb02oriensis skull the partial remains of an ,,species Homo \ufb02oriensis. altogether. The indigenous This skull of the recently extinct, newly unusual humanlike people of Flores have ancient discovered species of human, Homo skeleton: a 3ft- (1m-) THIS CANNOT but detailed legends about \ufb02oriensis, is from a female who would tall adult with a race of small, hairy people have been about 3ft (1m) tall. The a small skull that ,,BE A PECULIAR who murmured in their own small, human features led to this would have housed language, and so it is likely that species being nicknamed the \u201cHobbit.\u201d a very small brain. MODERN Homo \ufb02oriensis lived side-by- Australian and HUMAN. side with modern humans. Indonesian archaeologists Chris Stringer, British Also in October, scientists at discovered the anthropologist, 2004 Manchester University, UK, specimen in succeeded in producing samples a cave on the of graphene (see panel, above), a form of pure carbon not maxilla previously produced in bulk. (upper jaw) The new material was just one atom thick but remarkably mandible strong, transparent, and was (lower jaw) later found to conduct electricity at room temperature. MapruUcbhlltisr9ahNeDsAeStehApeFHieulbdble JuSnpbeaec2pce1rotSiomvharietpeseOatscnhpheeasc\ufb01peracscrteaft SeSpuStpeynemsretanebuomstervuri,anpLfoeoEarrabunrdunolerycvstaheWtsceoatxftirhpntnahlgoitenssgioignnal Oc1t8or,eb0rm0ee0rula-ani2yntve8isoeanoirl,-feoHadlodcbmlyfooosps\ufb02easolihleruoiemnntasonilso,gists 340 ConvMceonamtyiOcoe1ernsg7ritoanaSnndtitonaioPcmfeceoPnkrraovhcsgieloirilsn,olutmbgnetamancnnhtentensimntagilclyals bJeucponametihnie2eats2nevttUrehfMSaaeactb\ufb01etertcr,thasoreeiatnnnwppta\u2013rleeobcNrogllsaimianocggnclpebohutmyoitmetphrutootuegrht OpchtoybsKiecoriss2ttys2aAsRNnhuodesvresoetissaGenoel-foibmvgorcraarnnpedahteene","2005 ,, ,,A NEW PAGE OF AERONAUTICAL HISTORY HAS BEEN WRITTEN. Jacques Chirac, French politician, 2005 The Airbus A380 takes off from its production site in Toulouse, France, on its maiden \ufb02ight on 27 April 2005. The world\u2019s largest passenger airliner, the A380 can carry up to 853 people. IN THE FIRST-EVER LANDING OF astronomers on Earth. Titan In the following month, are completely mineralized. Facing the press A SPACECRAFT in the outer had long been of interest to an international team of However, with this specimen the The \ufb01rst person to receive a partial Solar System\u2014and only the astrobiologists, as its astronomers released their process revealed a soft, elastic face transplant, Isabelle Dinoire second landing on any moon\u2014 atmosphere was known to analysis of a huge, galaxy-sized bone matrix made mostly of what gave a press conference in February the European Space Agency\u2019s contain organic compounds\u2014 mass of hydrogen known as seemed like collagen. Viewing 2006, only three months after her (ESA\u2019s) Huygens probe carbon-rich compounds that VIRGOHI21, which lies about 50 this matrix under a microscope, pioneering operation. parachuted on to the surface of could form the basis of life (see million light years away and had Schweitzer found what appeared Saturn\u2019s largest moon, Titan, in panel, below). The Huygens been discovered by radio to be blood vessels and bone (see 1970) as the world\u2019s January. The probe was part of probe captured more than 300 astronomers in 2004. The motion cells. She saw similar structures largest commercial passenger the joint NASA\u2013ESA Cassini- images of Titan\u2019s surface during of the galaxy suggests that it in soft tissue extracted from the aircraft. Designed and built by Huygens mission, and the its descent. Images of the may be composed mostly of femur of a modern ostrich, a European corporation Airbus, spacecraft that carried Huygens surface taken after landing show cold, dark matter\u2014a strange close relative of T. rex. Repeating the wide-bodied A380 has two to Titan, Cassini, remained in rock-shaped objects on \u201csandy\u201d form of matter that does not the procedure on other dinosaur decks and is 239ft (73m) orbit around Titan, gathering ground\u2014although these objects interact with light or other types fossils, Schweitzer found two long. It began commercial data and images and relaying and the sand are both probably of electromagnetic radiation but other samples of soft tissue. service in 2007. signals from Huygens back to mostly frozen water. does have a gravitational effect Many scientists were sceptical of (see 2003). Current astrophysical the analysis, suggesting that the Toward the end of the year, LIFE ON TITAN? theories suggest that all galaxies organic matter was the result of in November, 38-year-old contain dark matter\u2014it is the contamination, but more detailed Frenchwoman Isabelle Dinoire Titan\u2019s atmosphere has clouds that produce rain of the carbon only way to account for the examination in 2008 and 2011 became the \ufb01rst person to compound methane, and the space probe Cassini found lakes of motion and distribution of seemed to support Schweitzer\u2019s have a partial face transplant. methane and ethane (the blue areas in this color-enhanced radar the galaxies\u2019 stars. However, interpretation. She received skin, blood vessels, image) around Titan\u2019s poles. In 2012, NASA also found evidence of VIRGOHI21 was the \ufb01rst strong and muscles after her face had a huge subsurface ocean of water, which led to speculation that candidate for a dark matter In April, a new aircraft made its been badly damaged when she simple life forms may exist on this seemingly inhospitable world. galaxy, a galaxy dominated by maiden \ufb02ight: the Airbus A380, was mauled by a dog six months dark matter. which replaced the Boeing 747 earlier. The \ufb01rst full face transplant was performed in In March, US paleontologist 3,200 Spain in 2010. Mary Schweitzer reported \ufb01nding 68-million-year-old soft MILES tissue, which she had extracted THE DIAMETER from the fossilized femur (thigh OF TITAN, bone) of a Tyrannosaurus rex SATURN\u2019S dinosaur by dissolving away the LARGEST MOON mineral parts of the fossil. This method is commonly used on living bone as a way of extracting soft tissue. The same procedure carried out on a fossil would normally dissolve the whole specimen, since most fossils Jadnisulacarborgevyeyero5rntEAhdrasiNtnsre,oPpanltuorutomnoceekoryrsbbiotidnyg MapraSclech\ufb01oh2rnwts5itsetoUsilrtouezSgeeciorsfvrtreoeMrmpyaoraroytfsdsitnohofetsaur DeSccceioemonmfbtpiteshltreest8edpdougbslegisqehunetohnmecee oHnuySJgaaetnunursnap\u2019rsryomb1o4eoTlnahnTedriFetsaepnobrrtutaahrapytot2sh3segiAybalshleataoxdvnyeao,rlmVkoIceRmarGtsaeOtdtHeIr21 Aprilo2f 7AiMrpbaawuisdossereAnlnd3g\ufb02\u20198sei0glra,hatrthgireelisnter NoveFmrabpneacerrt2pia7elrSffaoucrrmegettrohanenss\ufb01ipnrlsatnt 341","2006 This carrot-shaped track in Stardust\u2019s aerogel collector panel was made by the tiny comet particle\u2014the black speck to the right of this image\u2014which entered the aerogel at a relative speed of several miles per second. AT THE BEGINNING OF 2006, the Pluto\u2019s orbit is inclined at a fairly in doubt. In 2005, astronomers matter, making them very this format war, largely because Solar System of\ufb01cially had nine steep angle to it; Pluto\u2019s orbit is detected a rocky object outside dif\ufb01cult to detect. Every so often, it garnered more support, but planets. The outermost, Pluto, also very eccentric and passes the orbit of Neptune with a mass one will interact with the nucleus also partly as a result of the stood out as being different from inside Neptune\u2019s. When, in greater than Pluto\u2019s. After much of an atom, resulting in a tiny inclusion of a BluRay player in the others. For example, while the 1970s, an object similar to deliberation, the International \ufb02ash of light. The observatory Sony\u2019s popular PlayStation 3 all the other planets\u2019 orbits lie Pluto was discovered, Pluto\u2019s Astronomical Union decided in has strings of detectors in the games console, which was more or less in the same plane, classi\ufb01cation as a planet was 2006 to designate Pluto as a dwarf rock and ice under the ground released in November 2006. planet, one of many similar in Antarctica that pick up the tiny 164 ft \ufb02ashes of light. Neutrinos In August, doctors in Australia (50 m) asteroid-like objects in originating from high-energy administered for the \ufb01rst time below the Kuiper Belt phenomena, such as supernovas a vaccine for the human surface (see 1949). and mysterious gamma-ray papilloma virus (HPV). There bursts, provide astrophysicists are many different strains IceCube lab After seven years in with a unique window on the of HPV; several types are space, NASA\u2019s Stardust probe Universe. Construction of the transmitted during sexual released its sample return observatory began in 2005, contact, and are the most capsule, which parachuted to and was completed in 2010. common cause of genital warts Earth and landed safely in the Just 10 years after the launch and cervical cancer. Medical desert in Utah. The capsule researchers suggested that the contained about a million each detector string specks of dust collected from 8 THE NUMBER OF has 60 sensors Stardust\u2019s encounter with Comet PLANETS IN OUR Wild 2 (see 1999). sensors pick up light SOLAR SYSTEM AFTER \ufb02ashes produced by In January, shortly after it AUGUST 24, 2006 neutrinos interacting became the world\u2019s largest of DVDs (see 1995\u201396), this year vaccine should be given to girls neutrino observatory, the saw the introduction of two and boys routinely, in an effort with atomic nuclei IceCube Neutrino Observatory rival formats for video disks to reduce incidence of cervical detected its \ufb01rst neutrino. designed to carry high de\ufb01nition and other cancers. This idea was 8,038 ft Trillions of neutrinos pass video. HD DVD and BluRay can controversial, with some groups (2,450 m) through the detector every carry around 10 times as much claiming it would encourage second, but these elusive data as DVDs. Each had different underage sex. Nevertheless, the below electronics and entertainment vaccine is now routinely given in surface particles interact only companies bent on promoting it. many countries. very weakly with Japanese company Toshiba was 9,252 ft the main protagonist for HD In the journal Nature, a team (2,820 m) Neutrino observatory DVDs, Sony for BluRay. Within of paleoanthropologists (who The IceCube Neutrino just two years, BluRay had won study hominid history through below Observatory consists of deep fossil evidence) described an surface holes drilled into the Antarctic bedrock rock and ice. Strings of detectors pick up tiny \ufb02ashes as neutrinos interact with atomic nuclei. JaNnAumSasiAsra\u2019syCsmioo1Spmn6tlaererestdtWtuuasrikntledsn2ftroomEarth JaNneupwraorHbyoe1rs9izeoNtnsAsoSfsAfp\u2019sfaocrePluto JuSncreieempnrtosiostugentsrsmeeafermcocdeemntllollosseru\u2014mtmsoebbapyrlsryptooaedssmuscicneeglltshe JuBnlpeulR2aay0eyTrthsitealer\ufb01serasrent ldeased Audgeusisgtn2a4tePdluatsoaisdowfa\ufb01rcfiaplllaynet SeApsbtekomumnlehilblsulaefimofonrrundoa2n-mno0ydteahaianner3crE-.e3otshltdioorpiaare NeutJrtainhnoeuOSaobrusyet2hirt9vsPaIo\ufb01tcolreersC,yt,udnnbeeeetueatcrrtisno April\ufb011lp8mDlaTVythDietelrfeso\ufb01srrf\u00a0mosartrneadHlteDaarseed JulmyIi1nc\ufb018rtroesRplt\u2019wserbcolioIietctlhmalaeinsosmpeisnuuoootmtrrerf,erat2nhtcheshaiispntoars Au(eglusesawtp2hp8erorHevPesdVoaomivnnaicdAacufcitnsoetenrrwtairsaloirvade)r,sy 342","2007 26 GIGAWATT THE GLOBAL WINDPOWER CAPACITY IN 2007 The IPCC stressed the need to increase the proportion of electricity generated by renewable sources, such as wind power, to mitigate climate change. Skull of Selam IN ITS FOURTH ASSESSMENT messages. American company Apple iPhone achieved with cells taken from This well-preserved skull is that of REPORT, the Intergovernmental Apple Inc. revolutionized the The iPhone from Apple introduced mice. Also this year, a team used a human ancestor nicknamed Lucy\u2019s Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) mobile phone industry with the a convenient touch interface, with DNA bases to synthesize a copy Child, who would have walked further re\ufb01ned and extended its introduction of the iPhone. In gestures such as swiping and of a bacterial chromosome. upright on two legs. analysis of global climate change addition to calling and texting, pinching, to mobile phones. presented in its earlier reports users could browse the web, (see 1990, 1995, 2001), while download and use a huge range the UK grew heart tissue from reiterating the same conclusions of apps (applications), listen to bone marrow stem cells in 2007. with still more certainty: that music, watch and record videos, One stumbling block in stem cell human activities\u2014particularly and take pictures. The iPhone research was the fact that only carbon dioxide emissions from was an enormous success, and embryos contain cells that can burning fossil fuels\u2014are other manufacturers soon develop into any kind of cell. producing a greenhouse effect created smartphones with Many people found that idea (see pp.326\u201327), causing a rise similar capabilities. objectionable, because the in average global temperature. embryos were destroyed in Stem cell research promises the process. However, in 2007 While mobile phones were many bene\ufb01ts in medicine\u2014 two teams of scientists becoming commonplace in for example, stem cells could independently managed to developed nations, most devices regenerate brain cells to cure reprogram ordinary cells (see could do little more than make dementia. In an example of this panel, below) to make them into calls and send SMS (text) kind of potential, researchers in stem cells\u2014a feat previously important \ufb01nd: a partial skeleton CELL PROGRAMMING heart muscle ADULT FIBROBLAST reprogramming factor of a bipedal human ancestor who is added to adult cell lived and died around 3.3 million A major breakthrough in stem skeletal pluripotent stem years ago. The fossilized remains cell research involves cells muscle cells cell can become skin cells were of a young female about called \ufb01broblasts, which are of epidermis three years of age, and had been found in skin and connective tubule cell any body cell discovered in 2000, in Dikika, tissue. Fibroblasts are of the kidney neuron cell Ethiopia\u2014close to where the responsible for producing skeleton nicknamed Lucy was collagen and other proteins red blood pigment cell found (see 1974). The individual, that repair the skin. Turning cells from the same species as Lucy these cells into pluripotent (Australopithicus afarensis), stem cells, which have the smooth earned the nickname Lucy\u2019s potential to develop into any muscle (in gut) Child\u2014although she predates kind of cell, involves adding Lucy by around 120,000 years. compounds that switch on certain genes. This causes the cells to revert to the state in lung cell thyroid pancreatic which all cells begin. (alveolar cell) cell cell OcrteoopbforeEretriolnatf6hstaiteAvedismitnotyr,\u2019ousotsbhngtlroeeromniupgeeguorrhrlassoloautbrshseteeorsrvtyaotifons ApvreCirlshI6iPaoRnFCngieCnoep\u2019faso2lCFr0ltoi0miu7sr,apttthhueebAlsissheesdsmAepgnrrmtiolwaHrnurofmrwoamnsthehemuamrctaenvllasblvoene Jutnhseeui2Pc9cheAosnpsepf\u2014uleltrshemelea\ufb01arrstseptshone Notevatehmmsetsybenhoemofarrvsmc2ece0iapelllTnrscowteibdsolyutlsscreerepdprhoougrtrmaamnming OctobStehterer3ne0cRoPenuvoibmelwioicc,faacgtiolofononbsreaeoclfqawuthseatenrocmfeisng Oabncitnooolosbugyentnirschtteeh6sCecArshhmaisirzsiiogeemtmrdeVipcaeoalaemnscntoboehmapracyesteoorffiuam Aepxropiplowl2atea4ntneeDttriiasavlcnaloydpvoheerarvybiodinoetfanabacnleoetohfer JureGnpieggoiar1atn4nt\ufb01tPonrbadailirepndotgolnirfktooeeIsnlrosdnlgiiielanissrnotoeMssfnaoasunirsg,ionlia 343","1946\u20132013 THE INFORMATION AGE UNDERSTANDING COSMOLOGY EARLY 20TH-CENTURY ASTRONOMERS DEVELOPED A THEORY TO EXPLAIN THE ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE Cosmology is the scientific study of the Universe as a whole\u2014the term is derived from the Greek word for Universe, cosmos. Cosmologists are interested in how the Universe began, how it works (particularly on the largest scales), how it will develop in the future, and if and how it will end. It was only in the 1920s that astronomers IN THE BEGINNING GEORGES LEMAITRE discovered other galaxies outside our own. Belgian In 1929, American astronomer Edwin Hubble After a strict Jesuit upbringing, Lema\u00eetre studied astronomer and priest Georges Lema\u00eetre (1894\u2013 discovered that galaxies are moving away in every civil engineering, then physics and mathematics. 1966) applied the equations of Einstein's General direction, suggesting that the Universe is indeed He was ordained as a Jesuit priest in 1923. Relativity to the Universe as a whole; the results expanding\u2014and that Lema\u00eetre\u2019s theory might be suggested that the Universe might be expanding. correct. British astronomer Fred Hoyle rejected He proposed that if that were true, it must long these ideas, but coined the term Big Bang in 1950 ago have been very small, very dense, and very to help explain them. Big Bang theory remains a hot\u2014a state he called the primordial atom. very likely explanation of how the Universe began. THE ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE As the Universe expanded after the Big Bang, it also cooled. Some of its energy turned into fundamental particles, and the basic forces of nature came into existence. DIAMETER 3x10-26ft\/10-26m 33ft\/10m 62miles (105m\/100km) TEMPERATURE 1027k (1,800 trillion trillion\u02daF\/100 trillion trillion\u02daC) 1027k (1,800 trillion trillion\u02daF\/100 trillion trillion\u02daC) 1022k (18 billion\u02daF\/100 billion billion\u02daC) Cosmic in\ufb02ation Particle soup Separation of forces At the moment of the the Big Bang, the When cosmic in\ufb02ation ended, still well within Originally, what we know as electromagnetism, entire Universe was much smaller than an the \ufb01rst second, the Universe was tiny and gravity, and the weak and strong nuclear forces atomic nucleus. Within a tiny fraction of a hot. Energy created pairs of particles and were uni\ufb01ed as a single force. After cosmic second, it underwent an inconceivably rapid antiparticles, which pop into existence in\ufb02ation, the uni\ufb01ed force separated, giving expansion called cosmic in\ufb02ation. \ufb02eetingly before annihilating each other. rise to the laws of nature we know today. TIME A hundred-billionth of a yoctosecond A hundred-millionth of a yoctosecond 1 yoctosecond (10-35 k seconds) (10-32 k seconds) (10-24 k seconds) all time, space, and energy begins as a point of unimaginable density cosmic in\ufb02ation\u2014a early Universe contains a soup of protons and neutrons\u2014compound particles dramatic expansion fundamental particles, such as quarks, made of quarks held together by gluon of the Universe gluons, and force-carrying bosons \ufb01elds\u2014formed nuclei of the lightest elements 344","UNDERSTANDING COSMOLOGY EXPANDING UNIVERSE HUBBLE LAW IN THE END FATE OF THE UNIVERSE The \ufb01rst compelling piece of evidence in favour Edwin Hubble found that the The Universe appears to be dominated by dark Three possible scenarios of the Big Bang theory was the discovery of the further away a galaxy is, the matter and dark energy\u2014forms of matter and for the fate of the Universe cosmic background radiation. This radiation was faster it is receding. The energy that have not been directly observed but are shown here. The produced around 300,000 years after the Big Bang, mathematical relationship whose existence is inferred from their gravitational gravitational in\ufb02uence of and shows that the Universe was much smaller between a galaxy\u2019s distance in\ufb02uence and effect on the Universe's rate of matter and dark matter and hotter than it is now. The Universe's expansion and its speed is called expansion. If this is indeed the case, the fate of could slow the expansion of has stretched the radiation, so that it is now mostly Hubble\u2019s Law. It is best the Universe depends on whether the mutual the Universe, until it reaches long-wavelength microwave radiation. Expanding explained by the fact that gravitational attraction of observable and dark a maximum. It is more likely 3-D space is best visualized as the growing surface space itself is expanding. matter in the Universe is enough to slow and that expansion will reverse of an in\ufb02ating sphere. The relatively recent even reverse the expansion driven by dark energy. or continue forever. increase in the rate of expansion is caused by a space represented by poorly understood form of mass-energy called surface of sphere expansion accelerates dark energy (see right and 1998). Measurements of the expansion and other key parameters suggest galaxies far Universe expansion that the Big Bang occurred 13.8 billion years ago. apart expands slows and and then contracts stops Universe cools, and present dark matter energy density day drives dwindles expansion towards zero galaxies close space between present day present together in early galaxies expanding day Universe Big Big Big Bang Bang Bang EXPANSION REVERSES UNIVERSE CONTINUES FOREVER EXPANSION ACCELERATES 60 billion miles (100 billion km) 1,000 light-years 100 million light-years 1013k (18 trillion\u02daF\/ 10 trillion\u02daC) 108k (180 million\u02daF\/100 million\u02daC) 3,000k (4,900\u02daF\/2,700\u02daC) Protons and neutrons Opaque era Matter era The Universe continued to expand and cool, though For the next 300,000 years, the temperature was As the Universe cooled, electrons began more slowly, and fundamental particles called too high for atoms to form. Charged particles such settling down into orbits around the atomic quarks combined into compound particles called as protons and electrons constantly produced and nuclei. The cosmic background radiation (see baryons. The most important are protons and absorbed photons (particles of electromagnetic above) dates from this time. The Universe neutrons\u2014these later formed the nuclei of atoms. radiation), making the Universe opaque. has continued to expand ever since. 1 microsecond 200 seconds 300,000 years 10-6 seconds (1 millionth of a second) helium-4 nucleus photons produced by Universe is opaque, as the electrons become bound to atoms will eventually clump has two protons charged particles such movement of photons is nuclei, forming atoms together to form stars as protons and electrons constantly restricted and two neutrons 345","2008\u201309 27MILES THE APPROXIMATE CIRCUMFERENCE OF THE LHC The ATLAS detector in the Large Hadron Collider is surrounded by eight huge electromagnets, which de\ufb02ect the particles produced during collisions to that their mass and charge can be determined. IN FEBRUARY 2008, A SECURE The world\u2019s largest and most Darwinius masillae SEED BANK WAS OPENED ON powerful particle accelerator, the Nicknamed \u201cIda,\u201d this fossil of a the island of Spitsbergen in the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), female is the only known example Norwegian archipelago of was turned on for the \ufb01rst time of Darwinius masillae, quite Svalbard in the Arctic Ocean. Seed in September 2008. The LHC possibly a direct human ancestor banks (see 2000) store seeds that is situated in a huge, circular, that lived 47 million years ago. could boost the populations of underground tunnel that important plant species should straddles the border between which, according to theory, is climate change, wars, or natural France and Switzerland, at the responsible for giving particles disasters threaten their survival. European Organization for mass. Scientists have since However, seed banks themselves Nuclear Research (CERN). revealed convincing evidence can also be vulnerable: in 2004, When the LHC is in operation, for the existence of the Higgs war claimed a seed bank at beams of protons (or for some boson, and therefore the Higgs Abu Ghraib in Iraq, while \ufb02oods experiments, ions) circle at \ufb01eld (see 2011\u201312). destroyed one in the Philippines extremely high speeds and are in 2006 after a typhoon hit. The made to collide inside detectors. Several hundred extrasolar Svalbard Global Seed Vault The energy of the collision planets (planets outside our has the capacity to hold up creates new particles, and the Solar System) had been found to 4.5 million seeds and is detectors record the tracks of since the \ufb01rst example was embedded in an icy mountain these particles as they hurtle out detected (see 1992\u201393). In March in a remote location, providing in all directions. These tracks are 2009, NASA launched the Kepler more secure storage. then analyzed by a network of space observatory to \ufb01nd powerful computers to look for Earth-sized planets around Icy seed storage evidence of speci\ufb01c types of relatively nearby stars and to Situated on the Norwegian island of particle\u2014in particular, the help astronomers estimate what Spitsbergen, the Svalbard Global Higgs boson. This particle is proportion of stars have Earth- Seed Vault can hold up to 4.5 million associated with the Higgs \ufb01eld, like planets. By 2012 it had seeds at freezing 0\u00baF (\u221218\u00baC). discovered over 2,000 candidates. In May 2009, Norwegian palaeontologist J\u00f8rn Hurum (b.1967) unveiled a remarkable specimen: an almost complete, fossilized skeleton of a previously unknown species of lemur-like animal that lived 47 million years ago. The specimen was claimed to be a transitional fossil\u2014a missing link between lower primates, such as lemurs, and higher primates such as monkeys, apes, and humans. The fossil was FeObpGreulinosaiblnraaygnl d2oS6feo,tefh2dSe0pV0Siat8vsuabllteboragnredtnh,eNorway SeApcrteeotlnmehsaeboseAretrnsiud2tmrh0oe,li2ed\ufb010dro0sbpt8yevrGeaortsoinigoglnesoyfstem MaKretcophelsex7ert,ars2arpc0saho0cl9faeorLroapbEulsaanernctrehhvt-asoltifkoery JualytcrE2fe0TraoH0tm9ioZSnuacrosiiecfinhnagtatilsrneatnsmnosuoisnletcoceurtlmheeade Maaynn1o9ou,fn2Dc0ae0ratt9whhhnaSeuticumdilseiivsanmecntdoiasavs4tnesi7lcryleymaeseait,lrolsiroango aAcuidgsufsotu2n0d0firn9omAmmaatiencrooimalet SepteTmhebLeCarorl1gl0ied,eH2roa0bpd0eer8ogrnaintison ofOthcetoHbPuermorj7ae,mnc2tMi0ctori0co8irnboSvebetsoiasontrthmitghaeauttmleivaens 346","2010 ,, ,,WE ARE ON THE VERGE OF PERPETUAL FLIGHT. Bertrand Piccard, Swiss co-founder of the Solar Impulse project, 2010 The Solar Impulse used 2,200 sq ft (200 sq m) of solar panels to generate electricity to power the electric motors that drove its propellers. originally found in 1983, in a IN 2010, IBM AND INTEL BEGAN There is a limit to how small CRAIG VENTER (b.1946) disused quarry in Germany; MANUFACTURING CHIPS with conventional transistors can be, Hurum came across it in 2006 and was intrigued by features 32-nanometer transistors. so researchers were looking for that made it stand apart from the lower primates\u2014including Semiconductor manufacturers alternatives to silicon as the US biologist Craig Venter is a humanlike nails and opposable big toes. The species was named had been cramming ever more basis of future electronics. In pioneer in genome studies and Darwinius masillae, in honor of British naturalist and pioneer of transistors on to a single chip February 2010, IBM researchers synthetic biology. In 1998, he the theory of evolution Charles Darwin (see 1859). Later that since the invention of integrated created the \ufb01rst reliable, helped form Celera Genomics, year, in October, scientists announced that the bones of a circuits (see 1958). Advances fast-switching transistor from a private company that helped 4.4-million-year-old hominid fossil, Ardipithecus ramidus, like these helped increase the material graphene (see speed up sequencing of the were the oldest hominid remains ever discovered. the power and portability and 2004). In July 2009, scientists human genome (see 2000). In Meanwhile, two projects began decrease the cost of various at ETH Zurich, Switzerland, had 2006, he founded the J. Craig to increase knowledge of our own species. In October 2008, electronic devices, and the \ufb01rst created a transistor made from a Venter Institute in California, a the Human Microbiome Project was launched. Spearheaded by commercially successful tablet single molecule, and in May 2010 centre of expertise in genomics the US National Institutes of Health, this was an initiative to a team at the University of New that produced the \ufb01rst investigate the microbes that colonize different parts of the South Wales, Australia, made a synthetic life form. body and establish the roles of these organisms in health transistor with just seven atoms, and disease. A year later, the Human Epigenome Project, using phosphorus. an international project to map the epigenome (factors that In May, a team led by US few changes (including adding \u2014for example, by helping clean affect which genes are switched up oil spills or produce biofuels. on and when) published its \ufb01rst biologist Craig Venter (see a kind of \u201cwatermark\u201d), then map of the human epigenome. In July, a solar-powered aircraft panel, right) created the \ufb01rst inserted it into another bacterial called Solar Impulse made a continuous 26-hour \ufb02ight. synthetic life form. Using a cell that had had its DNA Electricity generated by solar panels was stored in batteries technique called oligonucleotide removed. The new genome during the day, allowing the aircraft to \ufb02y through the night. synthesis\u2014in which DNA functioned as required, The project was the brainchild of Swiss balloonist Bertrand Piccard sequences stored in a computer manufacturing proteins and (b.1958) and Swiss entrepreneur Andr\u00e9 Borschberg (b.1958), and Synthetic mycoplasma bacteria are pieced together to order\u2014 causing the cell to reproduce. it aimed to encourage This colored micrograph shows the Venter and his co-workers had Biologists hope to learn a great development of renewable \ufb01rst organisms with a synthetic already created a complete virus deal about living systems by energy. Later in the year, US genome. Nicknamed \u201cSynthia,\u201d the genome (2003) and a synthetic building them themselves, rather company SpaceX launched new species is of\ufb01cially called chromosome (2007). In 2010, than just taking them apart. Dragon, the \ufb01rst commercially Mycoplasma mycoides JCVI-syn1.0. owned spacecraft to go into orbit. In 2012, it completed the they synthesized a copy of the Synthetic life also holds the \ufb01rst of a number of scheduled missions delivering supplies to computer, Apple\u2019s iPad, was genome of a bacterium called promise of designing new life the International Space Station. released in 2010. It was soon Mycoplasma mycoides, made a forms that could be bene\ufb01cial followed by tablet computers 1running the Android operating MILLION system, which had been THE NUMBER OF DNA BASE developed by a consortium PAIRS USED TO MAKE THE headed by Google, and had its FIRST ORGANISM WITH A \ufb01rst release in 2008. Android SYNTHETIC GENOME was already a popular operating OcStcotihbeAanetrtrtdifhs1oieetps,svis2oteaih0llrnde0rnedce9osuimstuscahnoricoavnemmesriioendfduidsraerme ains system for smartphones. DeUcSleamcucoonbmsmcephprmaeac8snee,rytc2chrS0ieaap1fl\ufb01at0lycrtseootXwrenaecdh orbit SthcOeihceu\ufb01tnomrtibssatetnsmrep2apu0pib0gol9eifsnthhome e FeRbecrsruefeaaaasgrrttecyr-ahs2tpehw0hre1iset0\ufb01cnarhetsiInttBrgrMaenlisaibstleor Aprerslielua3cs,cee2ss0st1hf0uelAitPpapabldlee, tthceom\ufb01rpsutter Maaynon7fot,thuh2gene0ecN1sne0eeocqaSmouncmeedienepncrltetiinhstigtaoslnof JuImlyspo8utl,oal2s2rc0e4-o1p-bmh0oeopwcSuloeoermrltae\ufb02eerdiasgahntihtorecnr-\ufb01asrftstotp 347 SAecGpsaltitnreedosmniedoba5met8eree1rfxg2ost,9rrad,aai2pss0hoco1aolsa0bvsreiitbrpallebalneet Marfcuhlpl2ef0raf,coe2r0mtr1ea0dnFsiinprlsSatpnatin traMnasyis2pto0hr1yps0hfirocAoisumsptsshtjruomasrlutaiakssneeavtaeonms Mlcairfyeea2fto1er,mt2h0,ea1\ufb01w0mriSstihtcccrisraeoeynnoantrtatigehsradttesint\ufb01giicsceimnaollmy e","2011\u201313 This image shows the \u201cRocknest,\u201d an area of the Martian surface where Curiosity found mysterious bright objects and where it carried out its \ufb01rst X-ray diffraction experiments. IN MAY 2011, NASA ANNOUNCED antenna sends digital camera Roving over Mars Soon after landing, the rover RESULTS FROM ITS GRAVITY data back to Earth takes NASA\u2019s Curiosity rover is about the began transmitting stunning, PROBE B, which was designed high-resolution size of a family car. It carries an high-resolution panoramas to test Albert Einstein\u2019s general formation, which began about color images array of instruments, including and close-ups from Mars. As theory of relativity, originally 30 million years ago. In August, ones designed to detect chemical well as cameras, Curiosity also published in 1916. Since a team of Australian and British compounds that could support life. carries a number of instruments its launch in 2004, the probe scientists found microfossils to collect and analyze regolith had been measuring the in rocks 3.4 billion years old, result of experiments at the particles, such as quarks and (soil) and rock samples. A laser curvature of space-time pushing back the date of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC, see leptons, their mass. vaporizes any rock samples of in the vicinity of Earth (see earliest known life on Earth by a 2008). The LHC aims to recreate interest and a spectroscope pp.244\u201345), and the extent few million years. The primitive energies and conditions that In August 2012, NASA\u2019s records the spectrum of the to which Earth\u2019s rotation cells\u2019 metabolisms were based existed a tiny fraction of a second Curiosity rover landed in a light emitted by the vapor to drags space-time around on sulfur rather than oxygen. after the Big Bang (see pp.344\u2013 large crater (the Gale crater) determine the rock\u2019s makeup. with it. The results of both 45), when the Universe formed. on Mars, beginning the most Other instruments work out the tests provided the best The following year, 2012, was On July 4, 2012, physicists at comprehensive mission to the crystal structure of minerals con\ufb01rmation to date a momentous one for science as CERN announced that they had planet so far. The landing took using X-ray diffraction, and an of Einstein\u2019s general physicists at CERN announced a found compelling evidence for place autonomously, during a environmental monitoring station theory of relativity. the existence of the Higgs radio black-out that NASA records temperature, wind boson. This particle is a engineers called \u201cseven minutes speed, atmospheric pressure, In June, a team of mainstay of the Standard Model of terror.\u201d In the last stage of and humidity. By the end of 2012, geophysicists presented the of particle physics (see 1974) and descent, four rockets \ufb01red to Curiosity had traveled more \ufb01rst map of the terrain beneath is associated with the Higgs \ufb01eld. slow the craft to almost a hover than 1,650ft (500m) and had the Antarctic ice sheet. Part of According to a theory developed and the rover itself was lowered analyzed regolith from more a long-term project to examine by British physicist Peter Higgs to the surface on cables to than 30 different locations. the geology of Antarctica, the and others in the 1960s, the prevent kicking up dust that map was produced from data Higgs \ufb01eld exists throughout could damage its instruments. provided by several instruments, space, and interaction with including ice-penetrating radar. the Higgs \ufb01eld is responsible PETER HIGGS (b.1929) It revealed various geological for giving fundamental features in glacial landscapes Theoretical physicist Peter and also gave valuable Higgs was born in Newcastle- information about the icecap\u2019s upon-Tyne, UK. In the early 1960s, he developed a 1,982 lb THE MASS theoretical mechanism (which OF CURIOSITY was also proposed by several 9.5 ft THE LENGTH other physicists at around the OF CURIOSITY same time) to explain why 7.2 ft THE HEIGHT particles have mass. In 1964, OF CURIOSITY he predicted the existence of a particle associated with that mechanism: the Higgs boson. MaRyeGs4rus,aul2vtgpsi0etpy1fnor1PeorrrmtoafbloNetrhABEeSioAnpr\u2019srsyotevoiifdnre\u2019selativity Jualnyon8fo(,awu2tnsihn0yced1nep1pttihahpDeteeitoe)ii,ccnmmttto\u2019prsraalsdascetnheteumaastiicnoegnlls SeLpattuhensemcp\ufb01chaborceosmerftpsTm2lti9eaao,ttndii2ogou0nonl1en,i1ngdou2f1e0C, 2hfo0inra\u2019s FeSbcArieuucnsarttmerirsayaattls2idioa0einn1ao2otnfhfnaeaosuUtirnSnacgAnelseatinhsadettoorm JuPnrieost6tpoo,ecI2pnor0rtmleo1vvra2enindreeIesntniomtatenldyord6nrdreee(eItspPslvoe6ys)ed VoMymaagyae2nr0-1m12baedNceoAtmohSbeAej\u2019sSescotpthlrateoorb\ufb01Slereysastvteem Jualyt Ct4hE,e2Ry0Nh1aa2vneePnvfhoeioduyxuseninsinccdtceieseHsnttthisfcrgoaeogrtnsotgfhbteohseon preJsuennuetna1d,em2ra0tph11eofeStachsieet nAtetniirsctrtaeasriscnhtiecet Augthuesdt i2s0c1o1veSr3yc.4ieobnfitlmilsiitocsnrroyefepoaosrrsstilosld 348"]
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