Big Ideas Simply Explained - The History Book

1761–62 1763–64 ,, THE HEAT WHICH DISAPPEARS IN THE ,,CONVERSION OF WATER INTO VAPOR, IS NOT LOST. Joseph Black, Scottish chemist, from his Lectures on Elements of Chemistry, 1960 Joseph Black became famous for his groundbreaking lectures Edward Stone’s discovery of the medicinal properties of willow bark on the study of heat at Glasgow University, Scotland. was a great breakthrough in palliative medicine. ONE OF THE MILESTONES on the LATENT HEAT boiling point IN 1763, BRITISH CLERGYMAN worker. The spinning jenny road to the Industrial Revolution EDWARD STONE (1702–68) was hand-driven and required was the establishment in 1761 Substances absorb or release TEMPER AT URE gas discovered the medicinal some skill to operate, but it was of the Soho Manufactory in heat when their physical state properties of willow bark. a key step toward automatic, Birmingham, England. The undergoes change. For a solid liquid Stone found, after careful testing, powered machines that could brainchild of entrepreneur to melt to a liquid, it must that willow bark dramatically turn out cloth in vast quantities. Matthew Boulton, the Soho absorb heat energy; and when solid melting reduced ague, a fever with factory pioneered the assembly a liquid freezes to a solid, it point symptoms similar to malaria. It In 1764, Italian-born French line, with mass-production of loses heat. This energy is called was later found that the active mathematician Joseph Louis cheap items, such as buttons, latent heat. Much more heat ENERGY INPUT ingredient in willow bark is Lagrange (1736–1813) showed buckles, and boxes for the energy is needed to change salicylic acid, which forms the why the Moon oscillates, or general public. It was here that solids to liquids and liquids to condenser—a device to generate basis of aspirin (see 1897). librates, continually. He also British engineer James Watt’s gases than to simply raise the static electricity. explained why the same lunar steam engines (see 1765–66) temperature of a substance. One of the most influential face is always turned toward were built a few years later. In Switzerland, mathematician inventions of 1764 was English Earth. This explanation later of this latent heat, highlighting Johann Heinrich Lambert carpenter and weaver James became the basis of his equations An early patron of James Watt, the difference between heat and (1728–77) published a treatise in Hargreaves’ (1721–78) spinning of motion, which provide a simple Scottish chemist Joseph Black temperature, was fundamental which he put forward his version jenny, which could spin cotton way of calculating the movement (1728–99) discovered one of the to the modern understanding of the nebular hypothesis, eight times faster than a manual within a system. properties of heat. He found that of energy. It also helped Watt the theory that the Solar System much more heat is needed to turn the steam engine from an developed from a cloud of Spinning jenny multiple melt ice than to warm ice-cold inefficient contraption to the interstellar dust. English Hargreaves’ spinning jenny spindles water, just as it takes extra heat powerhouse of the Industrial Age. astronomer Thomas Wright could power multiple spindles, to evaporate water. The discovery and German philosopher which enabled spinners to horizontal wheel In Sweden, chemist Johan Immanuel Kant independently produce cotton much faster. to control spindles 100+ Gottschalk Wallerius (1709–85) proposed a similar theory. showed how science could be Lambert also suggested rightly STARBURST applied to farming as well as that the Sun and nearby stars GALAXY to industry. His pioneering work travel together as a group on agricultural chemistry, through the Milky Way. 1 Agriculturae Fundamenta An ordinary galaxy Chemica (The Natural and Stars made by galaxies per year Chemical Elements of The Milky Way, the only known galaxy Agriculture), discussed the in the 1760s, makes one new star a chemical components most year, compared to hundreds in the conducive to plant growth. “starburst” galaxies now recognized. Meanwhile, another Swede, Johan Carl Wilcke (1732–96) designed a dissectible 17W61aalgJleroirhciuausnltupGirooatnltesccehhresamlkistry JuTnrieasn6ws,ii1dt7eo6lfy1Voebnsuesrved 17H6a4thrgJearsempaevinesnsiningvejenntsny d1i7s6c1ovJeorsselpahteBnltahcekat 1762 JohaenleCcatrrloWstialctkicegdeenseigrnastor 1L7lai6bg4rraaJtnoigosenepsohhf otLhwoeus iMtshoeon 149

1765–66 2.02THE PROPORTION BY WHICH GANYMEDE’S MASS IS GREATER THAN THAT OF EARTH’S MOON Mathematician Joseph Louis Lagrange calculated the motions of the four moons of Jupiter known to 18th-century science: Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. IN 1765, SECLUDED IN HIS small-scale use. In Newcomen’s wasted a great deal of heat, Boulton established the WORKSHOP IN THE UNIVERSITY engine, steam was let into the so Watt added a separate Lunar Society of Birmingham, OF GLASGOW, young Scottish cylinder to push the piston up, component to condense steam a small group of pioneering engineer James Watt (1736– then cold water was sprayed outside the cylinder and avoid thinkers that included Erasmus 1819) was working on improving in and the steam condensed, continuous chilling. When Watt Darwin, Josiah Wedgwood, and Thomas Newcomen’s steam creating a vacuum that pulled teamed up in the 1770s with Joseph Priestley (1733–1804). engine, which was still only in the piston down. The cold water Birmingham industrialist Later Watt, too, joined them. Matthew Boulton (1728–1809) Priestley and chemists Joseph beam Black and Henry Cavendish JAMES WATT to put his improvements (1731–1810) became known as (1736–1819) piston into practice, the “pneumatic chemists” for Watt’s invention their work on air and gases. In Born on January 19, 1736 in cylinder transformed the 1765, Cavendish discovered that Greenock, Scotland, engineer steam engine from hydrogen, which he called James Watt was one of the “inflammable air,” is an element, greatest-ever inventors. His a pump of limited and can be made by dissolving improvements to the steam use to the source of metals in acid. engine transformed it from power that drove the erratic mine pump to factory Industrial Revolution. In 1766, Swiss mathematician powerhouse. His many Leonhard Euler accepted a new other inventions included flywheel post at the Academy of Sciences a machine for duplicating in St. Petersburg, where he sculptures and the world’s had spent much of his earlier first copying machine. career. During this year he Louis Lagrange (1736–1813) developed key equations took over Euler’s position at the for the movement of rigid Prussian Academy of Sciences bodies—that is, any in Berlin, writing a paper on the objects that keep their motion of Jupiter’s moons, only shape, such as a planet. four of which were then known. Italian-born French It was a century later that they mathematician Joseph were given the names Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. Industrial power James Watt’s revolutionary In Kurume, Japan, Arima engine, incorporating a Yoriyuki (1714–83) calculated double-acting cylinder that pi to 29 decimal places. allowed steam to escape to a separate condenser, was a key development for industry. 17J6a5hmiBseexrssittteWeisranahmtaetlndecgenoivgnneidenleoeenprwsseitrh 17m66JaotFLhsraeeetgmhpnrJhecaauhtmLnpicogioitueaveineasrmn’saemlynzotesosnosf 17H6e6dniEsrcynogCvlaeisvrhesnchdhyiedsmhroigsten 150 dmeL1ave7etoho6lnone5ptmhhsSaeawrhtdmiiirsscEisiogtauthinildeoeonrbrsoydoifes maYtoh1rtei7oym6u26ak9tiJidccaeaipaclcanimunAleaarslitmeepslaapcies

1767–68 1769–70 ,, THE ELECTRIC SUBSTANCE WHICH SEPARATES THE TWO CONDUCTORS, ,,POSSESSING THE TWO OPPOSITE KINDS OF ELECTRICITY, IS SAID TO BE CHARGED. Joseph Priestley, English clergyman and scientist, from The History and Present State of Electricity, 1767 French engineer Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot built his steam carriage to haul guns, but it was far too heavy to be practical, and may have crashed into a wall as this old print shows. WHILE A CLERGYMAN IN LEEDS, the credit for this discovery would 30,000 Botany Bay FROM 1667–1773, JOSEPH go to Louis Pasteur (see 1857–58), This 18th-century map PRIESTLEY experimented with who demonstrated the same thing THE NUMBER of Botany Bay was chemistry and electricity, and a century later. OF PLANT engraved from charts published a highly successful SPECIMENS made by James Cook book, The History and Present On a more theoretical level, JOSEPH BANKS during his exploration State of Electricity, in 1767. Leonhard Euler made the DISCOVERED IN of Australia’s east coast. Priestley noticed that carbon insightful suggestion that the BOTANY BAY dioxide, or “fixed air” as it was color of light is determined harbor later called then called, was a by-product of by its wavelength. THE YEAR 1769 SAW THE automatically spin strong cotton Botany Bay. On June the fermenting beer vats of the CREATION OF MACHINES that yarn from frail English thread. 3, 1769, Cook and his local brewery. Experimenting water would lead to the development of Arguably Arkwright’s most crew observed the with making fixed air himself, forced into two key technologies. One could inspired idea was to install transit of Venus—the Priestley discovered that water be called the forerunner of the scores of these machines in a passage of the planet impregnated with bubbles of upper automobile: the steam-carriage specially built factory, where they in front of the Sun—from Tahiti. carbon dioxide was pleasantly vessel built by French military were driven not by manpower The event was also witnessed by tangy. He passed on his discovery engineer Nicolas-Joseph but by water wheels—hence they astronomers all over the world. in the false hope that carbonated carbon Cugnot (1725–1804). The second, were known as water frames. That year, French astronomer water could be used medicinally dioxide full-scale version of Cugnot’s Arkwright’s revolutionary Charles Messier (1730–1817) to prevent scurvy among sailors. passes carriage, built in 1770, had three water-frame mill opened at made the first record of the vast In 1783, Swiss watchmaker into water wheels and a large copper boiler Cromford on the Derwent River cosmic cloud known as the Johann Jacob Schweppe in middle hanging over the front wheel. in Derbyshire, England, in 1771. Orion Nebula, a region in the (1740–1821) used the idea to vessel This machine could run for only constellation of Orion where new launch the world’s carbonated 20 minutes and was so heavy and Across the other side of the stars are formed. drinks industry. base holds so impossible to steer or stop world, British naval officer diluted acid, that it is said to have run out of Captain James Cook (1728–79) 861,030 miles Italian naturalist Lazzaro which gives control and demolished a wall. was commanding HMS Spallanzani (1729–99), the first off carbon Endeavour on the first of his DIAMETER OF to suggest that food might be dioxide The other revolutionary great voyages of discovery. He THE SUN preserved in airtight containers, breakthrough was the powered and his crew became the first discovered in 1767 that microbes factory machine, developed by Europeans to encounter the 7,521 miles are ever-present in the air and Richard Arkwright (1732–92). eastern coastline of Australia. diameter of Venus multiply naturally, instead of It is often said that Arkwright’s On board was botanist Joseph bursting into life spontaneously as spinning machine, which he Banks, who found 30,000 Comparative sizes was commonly believed. Most of commissioned clockmaker specimens of plant life, 1,600 Venus is tiny compared with the Sun, John Kay to build in 1769, was of them unknown to European so when it is observed in transit the Nooth’s apparatus his greatest invention. This could science, when they landed in a planet appears as just a small dark This apparatus was built by John dot crossing the face of the Sun. Mervyn Nooth (1737–1828) in 1774 to make carbonated water for medicinal purposes in the way suggested by Priestley. 17J6o7csaeErpnbhgolPnisarhiteecsdhtlewemyatiinsetvrents 17p6r8oofpLwloeiagsovehnesthldetahenrapgdtetEhtnhudelsecoronlor MaarsMtcrheothsn4eso,im1Oe7rre6ifiro9rnCsFhtNrareeernblcecuohslrads 17R6i9wchBafartrreaidtmris-Aephrokbiwnwuveirelrtingebthdoytr’sJspoihnnniKnagy 17N6i9CcouFslgrtaeensnao-mctJhobcsueaeinlrpdgrhsiinahgeieesr nacthuar1mal7lle6iisncS7trgpoILetabaasslelzplvisazaoineangnwzretoaantnnehieraoatutesly TrJaunnsweito3sor,elfo1deVb7Cwnes6oinebd9ouryekvs,JeiaandnmTdaehsiti 17B7eox0tpaJenadmyitBieoasnyC,laoAnoudks’stsrianlia 151

1771–72 1773–74 ,,I HAVE... DISCOVERED AN AIR FIVE OR SIX TIMES AS ,, ,,GOOD AS COMMON AIR. Joseph Priestley, English chemist, on his discovery of nitrous oxide, in Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air, 1775 Joseph Priestley’s laboratory housed the experimental apparatus he used Swiss physicist Georges-Louis LeSage using for the investigation of gases. his pioneering electric telegraph. IN 1771, GERMAN NATURALIST had been discovered for over Lagrange, began Wild cat SCIENCE HISTORY IS BESET PETER SIMON PALLAS (1741– a century. The proof involved an important work Pallas’s cat is a small, now- WITH DISPUTES over who 1811) started sending reports 372 hand-calculated divisions. on mechanics, endangered wild cat that lives in the discovered things first, and one back from his six-year expedition entitled Mécanique mountains of central Asia. It was one of these disputes involves the to eastern Russia and Siberia, Euler’s fame across Europe Analytique (Analytical of the species first identified by discovery of oxygen. Because of then almost as unknown to was confirmed with the 1772 Mechanics). From 1766 German naturalist Peter Pallas. the part it played in combustion, Europeans as South America. publication of his Letters to a onward, Lagrange also Pallas identified many new German Princess. Apparently produced a series of works It was later used as a sedative, and in particular the widely species of plants and animals, written at a rate of two per week on how astronomical and became known as laughing held phlogiston theory of including what is now known between April 1760 and May movements could be gas because of the euphoric combustion (see 1702–03), as Pallas’s cat. 1763, the letters were lessons calculated using effects of inhaling it. The same in elementary science for the mathematics. In particular, year, Scottish physician Daniel many chemists were In 1772, Swiss physicist and young Prussian Princess Louise he looked at the three-body Rutherford (1749–1819) isolated investigating it in the 1770s. mathematician Leonhard Euler Henriette Wilhelmine of Anhalt problem—how three bodies nitrogen gas in air for the first The first to announce its showed that the number Dessau. This 800-page work moving in space, such as the time. He called it “noxious air” discovery was Joseph Priestley, 2,147,483,647 is a Mersenne covered a wide range of scientific Sun, Earth, and Moon, affect because he found that mice could who in 1775 described an prime number—a number that topics including light, color, each other gravitationally. not survive when confined to a experiment he conducted on is one less than twice any prime gravity, astronomy, magnetism, This was a problem that had space filled with the gas. He August 1,1774 in which he number. It is named after Marin optics, and more. fascinated mathematicians for also discovered that the gas created oxygen gas (which he Mersenne, a French monk who 90 years. Lagrange discovered did not support combustion. called “dephlogisticated air”) by had studied prime numbers in Also this year, Leonhard that there are five places where focusing sunlight on mercuric the 17th century. It was the Euler’s successor at the Berlin a small body (such as the Moon) oxide inside a glass tube. But in largest prime number that Academy, Italian-born French can remain in equilibrium with 1777, Swedish pharmacist Carl mathematician Joseph Louis respect to two larger bodies Wilhelm Scheele (1742–86) (such as the Sun and Earth). described how he had already LEONHARD EULER (1707–83) These are now known as produced oxygen gas by heating Lagrangian points. Born in Basel in Switzerland, DISCOVERY OF OXYGEN Leonhard Euler spent most In England this year, chemist of his life in St. Petersburg Joseph Priestley discovered Oxygen is, with nitrogen, and Berlin. He is credited nitrous oxide, which he called one of two main parts of air, with laying the basis of modern “phlogisticated nitrous air.” vital for human life and for mathematical notation and combustion. Priestley showed made great advances in …NOTHING AT ALL TAKES PLACE that without oxygen candles calculus and graph theory. will not burn and mice cannot His output in all areas of ,,IN THE UNIVERSE IN WHICH SOME breathe. Later, in 1777, science was prodigious. French chemist Antoine Although in later life he was RULE OF MAXIMUM OR MINIMUM Lavoisier went on to prove totally blind, he continued DOES NOT APPEAR. that it was oxygen involved in to perform calculations combustion, not phlogiston mentally. Leonhard Euler, Swiss mathematician, from Methodus Inveniendi as then widely thought. Lineas Curvas (Method for Finding Curved Lines), 1744 17n7a1StuiGomrneaorlSnimsibPtaePanrleilataensrwreipldolriftes 17m72LatoFthuhreieesmntLcahahtrigecreiaa-nnbgoJedoysdepepsrhocbrilbeems 17D7a2idnSeienclotiRtfitueistshhnepirhtfryoosrgidceinan 17m72EatuSthlhweeemrinsfisakntnidcosiawtnnhLeperlaoimrngheeasnrtudmber 17C7a3CpoEtAoannikngtalcJirrsacohtmsicseeCssirtchlee 17p7u2bLlieshoGeneshrmaLreadtntEePurrslientroceass aC1hn7au7rml3ebFserMaretnoetecfshnnstieaeiobsrnuotdrlbtoaiojsneecno,cotdmovsrneeai-rnrwsettdienhlgelasrky 152 17C7a2rdSliswWceoidlvhieserhlsmcohxSeycmgheeisnetlgeas 1sy7n7t2heEJsnoigzseleissphnhictPhrroeiumessitsoltxeiyde

1775–76 26THE NUMBER OF INSULATED WIRES IN LESAGE’S TELEGRAPH Scottish chemist James Keir realized that the strange columns of Northern Ireland’s Giant’s Causeway are made from molten lava. mercuric oxide and various vertical propeller BY 1775, ELECTRICITY was 40,000 nitrates in 1772. French chemist for submerging the subject of numerous Antoine Lavoisier (1743–94) experiments and this THE NUMBER later claimed to have first ventilation year Italian physicist OF BASALT discovered oxygen and gave it its pipe COLUMNS name—but both Priestley and Alessandro Volta (1745–1827) THAT MAKE UP Scheele had already told him hatch developed the electrophorus. It THE GIANT’S about their discoveries. consisted of a metal disk with an CAUSEWAY First submarine insulating handle that could be American inventor David Bushnell’s Turtle given a static charge by holding however, believed that rocks were Bushnell (1742–1824) built an submarine it against a disk of resin that had formed by volcanic processes. underwater explosive device (shown here as already been given a charge by Plutonist James Keir (1735– in 1773 to help the American a model) had a being rubbed with fur or wool. 1820), a Scottish chemist, Revolutionary War effort. trial run in 1775. It was a simple and effective way realized that the interlocking In 1775, he held trials of It successfully laid of magnifying and accumulating basalt columns of formations like the vessel intended to explosives in the an electric charge. the Giant’s Causeway in Northern deliver this device, the Hudson River. Ireland were formed by the world’s first working Also this year, Swedish crystallization of molten lava. submarine. Known as naturalist Peter the Turtle, but shaped Forsskål’s (1732–63) insulating like a lemon, it had an studies of Middle Eastern handle airtight hatch at the top for the submariner and was fauna were published Electrophorus maneuvered by hand-cranked posthumously; Forsskål had Alessandro Volta’s propellers and rudder. died of malaria while device was a simple specimen hunting in Yemen. and convenient way to The following year, In France, future engineer magnify and accumulate Carl Wilhelm Scheele Pierre-Simon Girard electric charge. discovered a gas for which (1765–1836), just ten years old, he is credited—chlorine. invented a water turbine. He metal disk He called his discovery went on to complete important wax or “dephlogisticated muriatic acid work on fluid mechanics. resin dish air” because it came from Another key area of research muriatic acid, now known as was investigating how Earth’s hydrochloric acid. rocks and landscapes were formed. In 1776, German In Geneva, Switzerland, in 1774, geologist Abraham Werner physicist Georges-Louis LeSage (1750–1817) insisted, (1724–1803) created an early incorrectly, that all rocks form of electric telegraph. It had settled out of a ocean a separate wire for each of the 26 that once covered the letters of the alphabet and could Earth—a theory called send messages between rooms. Neptunism. Plutonists, 17in7v3BeuAensxmthopenrloreDsilcailvavbeniuddiledvsicaen 17G7e4corSeregwaleetiecsstss-rLptichoheutyeisfisliercLsgisetrtSaapghe 17P7e5otbeSEsrwaepFsreuotvdebarirlsstinihssohkfnnaeåsaudl’tonsunaraMalriiesdtdle 17A7l5tehsIetsaaelnilaedncrtoprohVpyoshlitocarisuintsvents 17C7ma4rSalnwWdgiesiadlchnioseevhlsemecr,shSaeccnmhhdleiosbertalienrieu,m AEuJngogusliseisstpoh1hla,cPt1her7esi7meo4sixtslytegyen en1g7iGn7ier5eaoFrrlrddPe,,ineaincrghvreeedfn-uS1ttsu0imrayeoewtnauarrstbeirne 1T7u7cro5tmlBepuslseuhtbenmsealtlhriene 177J6amSceosttKisseochimrrycesshtueragomllgciikzesesstdtaslraeva 153

1777–78 1779–80 ,, MY SIGHT BECOMES DISORDERED… LIKE A PERSON WHO HAS LOOKED AT THE SUN… THE PAIN IN MY HEAD COMMENCES… ,,WITH GREAT SEVERITY… Samuel-Auguste Tissot, Swiss physician, record of a patient’s symptoms from Treatise on the Nerves and Nervous Disorders, 1783 Designed by Thomas Pritchard and built by Abraham Derby III, the bridge at Ironbridge, which crosses the Severn River in Shropshire, England, was fabricated entirely from precast pieces of iron. MATHEMATICIANS HAD Swiss physician Samuel-Auguste WITH A SIMPLE EXPERIMENT mouse LONG BEEN BAFFLED BY THE Tissot (1728–97) described IN 1779, Dutchborn physician placed PROBLEM OF finding the roots of migraine. Although Tissot Jan Ingenhousz (1730–99) in inner negative numbers, calling them wrongly thought migraines discovered the essence chamber “imaginary numbers.” Then, in began in the stomach, he of photosynthesis, the 1777, Swiss mathematician described the symptoms very chemical reaction by ice placed Leonhard Euler introduced the accurately—the severity of which plants make in outer imaginary unit, the symbol i, the pain, its recurrence, the food from sunlight chambers which gives −1 when squared. suddenness of onset, the effect (see 1783–88). When Euler’s insight meant the square on vision, and vomiting. Ingenhousz set plants demolished the theory root of any negative number under water in a glass that burning materials could be included in equations Scottish surgeon John Hunter container, he saw gas lose a substance called as i times the square root of (1728–93) wrote an important bubbles form on the phlogiston. By meticulous the number. study of teeth. He also advocated undersides of leaves, which weighing before and after transplanting good teeth from he showed was oxygen. But burning, Lavoisier showed In 1777, London clockmaker donors to replace rotten ones, but the bubbles formed only in that substances can gain John Arnold (1736–99) created transplanted teeth were rejected sunlight, not in darkness. weight when they burn— a watch of unprecedented by the recipient’s immune system. Ingenhousz found that by combining with oxygen accuracy for calculating plants need sunlight for in the air—not lose it. longitude at sea, improving Tooth transplant respiration—when they take Together with Pierre- on Harrison’s H4 of 1759. This cartoon satirizes John Hunter’s in gases from the air to make Simon Laplace Arnold named such practice of buying healthy teeth from glucose for energy—and oxygen (1749–1827), a French timepieces “chronometers.” the poor to implant in place of lost is released as a waste product. mathematician, Lavoisier teeth in the mouths of the rich. invented the ice calorimeter Factory production of cotton for measuring the heat was accelerated in 1779 when outlet for produced by chemical changes. English inventor Samuel meltwater This was the beginning of the Crompton (1753–1827) created science of thermochemistry. With an ingenious hybrid, or mule, Lavoisier–Laplace calorimeter his ice calorimeter, Lavoisier combining a spinning machine Heat produced by a mouse placed in demonstrated that animals with a weaving machine to the inner chamber was measured produce heat without losing produce finished cloth from raw by the volume of water produced by weight, so disproving the thread. Also in 1779, large-scale melted ice in the outer chambers. construction using iron began with the bridge at Ironbridge in England, designed by Thomas Pritchard (c.1723–77) and built by Abraham Derby III (1750–91). In 1780, in the memoir On Combustion in General, French chemist Antoine Lavoisier finally 17E7u7tlheLereiimonntarhgoaidnrudacreysunit i. 17c7h7deimsGceiosrvtmeCraasnr–mlSSowclyhebeddeiselhenum 17A7u8dgeSmusascimtgreirbuaTeeiisnls-esot 17d7is9pchJooavtneorsIsnygpneltahnnehtsoiussz 17C7r9tohmSeapsmtpoiunnenilinnvgenmtsule 17d8e0omxAyongntesontirnianetecLsoamtvhobeiusrsioetlireonof 1 5 41in7t7ro7dJuo“chcehnsrAothnrenoomt1el7derJm7tae8mr”EensgRliesnhAnggeelulolchghraaasprCthsuetrrhreent 1S7a7m8uGeelrvmoann1S2aöicndmraeamtnontemiiafirliresinstnetgrhvees pu1b7l7is8hJeoshTHnhieHHstuuNomnrayttaeuonrrfaTtlheeeth 1779 CfioSbnrhessgtrtorianuplscls-thaiiroitroneInr,ooibfnnrtbhiErdenigdgeglea,nd invPe1ine7rt8rt0eh-eLSaiicmveooicsnaielLorarapinmladeceter

418 1781–82 TONS Macabre by today’s standards, Galvani’s experiments in generating movement in the leg muscles of dead frogs were a key step in the understanding of electricity. THE AMOUNT OF IRON USED TO MAKE THE BRIDGE THE SCIENTIFIC SENSATION OF carrying out experiments showing In 1782, Lavoisier formulated 1781 WAS THE DISCOVERY OF A SIXTH PLANET by German-born that static electricity could cause what is perhaps now regarded British astronomer William Herschel (1738–1822). When 1,788 the muscles of dissected frogs’ as the most important law Herschel first saw the object through the telescope in his MILLION MILES legs to twitch. In April, he in chemistry—that of the garden in Bath in England on March 13, he assumed it was connected the nerves of a dead conservation of matter. This a comet. But its brightness and elliptical orbit soon left frog to a metal wire pointed law shows that in any chemical astronomers in no doubt. Herschel named the new planet 93 skyward in a thunderstorm. In reaction no matter—not even George’s Star in honor of British King George III, but astronomers MILLION MILES this experiment, which inspired the smallest part—is ever lost; eventually decided on Uranus, after Ouranos, the Greek god Mary Shelley’s novel Frankenstein, it is simply rearranged in of the sky. Uranus the frog’s legs jumped with each different combinations. French astronomer Charles JAN INGENHOUSZ Messier (1730–1817) published flash of lightning. In September, (1730–99) the final version of his Catalogue des Nébuleuses et des Amas Earth the legs twitched when just hung Born in Breda in the d’Étoiles (Catalog of Nebulae Distance from the Sun Netherlands, Ingenhousz and Star Clusters) in 1781. This Uranus orbits the Sun at a distance 103on a brass hook over a metal rail. was a physician who had list, which Messier had been of 1,788 million miles, almost 20 wide-ranging interests in compiling since the 1770s, times the distance of Earth from the A fierce argument sprang up other scientific fields, recorded 103 vague, distant Sun. Each orbit takes 84 Earth years. between Galvani and fellow including the study of objects in the night sky, all still Italian experimenter Alessandro electricity. He was one of known to modern astronomers of stars, later known as binaries, Volta over whether the electrical the pioneers of vaccination by the numbers Messier gave that John Michell had argued in effect was intrinsic to muscles against smallpox and them. Also in 1781, another 1767 revolve together and which successfully inoculated the astronomer, the Czech Christian were observed by astronomers and life (animal electricity), as THE NUMBER OF Austrian Empress Maria Mayer (1719–83), published such as Herschel. ASTRONOMICALGalvani claimed, or whether it Theresa and her family. a catalog listing 80 pairs The same year, Italian physician was a chemical reaction, as Volta previously held theory that body Messier’s objects Luigi Galvani (1737–98) began heat comes from phlogiston. Many of the objects in Messier’s list believed. Animal and chemical OBJECTS IN In fact, animals make heat by have been revealed to be distant electricity were later shown to MESSIER’S LIST combustion using oxygen. galaxies far from our own Milky Way, be the same. which in Messier’s time was thought Swiss physicist Almé Argand to comprise the entire Universe. (1750–1803) revolutionized home lighting with the Argand oil lamp, 10 times brighter than a candle. The lamp had a circular wick and a tall glass chimney to improve the airflow. 17a8n0bimyLcaaovlsmoipbsruioesdrtuisochneohwesat JaGnauwlavitarhnyis2tb6aet,gi1cin7es8le1ecxLtprueiicgriiitmy ents 17M8e1hsiCsashnileaidsrrtslpeotuasfbrnlceislbuhuseltsaeers MaHrepcrlhsacn1he3et,lU1d7ria8snc1ouWvseilrlsiatmhe 17f8or2thmLoeuafclvmaootnaiesstsiteeetrrhrveatliaown of 1780 AlmthéeAArgrgaannddinovilenlatms p 17p8u1bClihshriess8ti0aanbciaMntaaarlyoyegsrtoafrs liGgmahAultvnspacirnnliegilss2ahoc6oft,iwav1a7sdt8eeh1asodwthfreog 155

,,1783–86 IF YOU CAN BRING A MOVABLE THRESHING MACHINE… IT WILL BE AMONG THE MOST VALUABLE ,,INSTITUTIONS IN THIS COUNTRY. George Washington, first US president, from a letter to Thomas Jefferson demonstrating the importance of the threshing machine, 1786 THE SENSATION OF 1783 a balloon filled with hydrogen star of sufficient mass would was the first manned flight, in a gas. They achieved much longer, have such a strong gravitational hot-air balloon on November 21, more controlled flights than with field that light could not escape. in Paris. Piloted by Pilâtre de hot air (which quickly cooled). Rozier (1754–85) and the Marquis In London, inventor Joseph d’Arlandes, the balloon was the Also in 1783, Spanish brothers Bramah (1748–1814) patented invention of French papermakers José (1754–96) and Fausto his unpickable security lock, the Montgolfier brothers, Elhuyar (1755–1833) isolated which opened only when the key Joseph-Michel (1740–1810) moved a unique combination of and Étienne (1745–99). The 2,953 sliders into grooves. Montgolfiers had previously discovered that when hot air is FEET The biggest question for trapped inside a bag it causes the geologists in the 1780s was how bag to float upward, since hot air THE HEIGHT marine fossils ended up in rocks is less dense than cold air. REACHED BY high in mountains. German MONTGOLFIER geologist Abraham Werner Ten days later, French physicist BALLOON (1749–1817) believed that a Jacques Charles (1746–1823) IN 1783 single catastrophe, such as an and craftsman Noël Robert almighty flood, had reshaped (1760–1820) flew over Paris in the world dramatically (see 1775–76). But Scottish geologist expansion a new metal element by reacting James Hutton (1726–97) did not chamber for charcoal with tungstic acid. It agree. In his groundbreaking was later named tungsten, one Theory of the Earth, published gases of the toughest of all metals. in 1785, he suggested that landscapes are shaped slowly brass In 1784, English chemist Henry and continually over long periods casing Cavendish (1731–1810) showed by repeating cycles of erosion, that water is composed of two sedimentation, and uplift. Hutton’s Henry Cavendish’s eudiometer theory (now proved correct) meant This eudiometer is a replica of one gases, hydrogen and oxygen. that Earth must be millions of used by Cavendish to measure the Astronomer John Michell years old—not just thousands, volume of gases, such as oxygen, predicted the existence as was thought at the time in air, produced in a reaction. of black holes when he observed that a In France, physicist Charles de Coulomb (1736–1806) inlet for established an important law gas First balloon ascent In this early 19th-century print, Pilâtre de Rozier and the Marquis d’Arlandes acknowledge spectators as they ascend in their Montgolfier hot-air balloon in November 1783. NoFvirMesmottanmbkteegasronln2pfie1lead,rc1fleh7ioig8nth3-Ptaaiinrritbshaelloon JaHneusnhacroroywyamCns1apd5tvrh,oeias1xnte7ydwsg8ise4ahhntyedrrogen 17M8e5thikArlenesdihrneivnwegnmtsatchheine 17p8u5EbaJlsirashtmhhae,pessisnuTgHghgoueeftotslroatyninnodgfstschlaoepwes DecemFbirehsrtyb1dfla,ripglo1llhg7oateco8ienn3nigtnaaakPseasris AugustB2ra1m, 1a7h8sp4eaJctoeusnretitspyhhliosck 1785eCshtaarblleeisslehdceetsrCihcoiasullLocamhwabrogfes 17in8v5enJtesatnhBelpaanrcahcahrudte Cart1w7rt8hig5ehEpt dodmweveuernlodloposm 156

1787–88 Andrew Meikle’s threshing machine brought to an end the age-old practice Swiss naturalist Jean Senebier was one of the first to realize that plants respire. Gases move in and of separating grain from stalks and husks with a hand flail. out of leaves through tiny surface pores (stomata), seen here under an electron microscope. about electrical charges, ,, …LITTLE GERMAN-BORN BRITISH PHOTOSYNTHESIS showing that the force of CAUSES ARE ASTRONOMER WILLIAM attraction or repulsion between CONSIDERED AS HERSCHEL was the greatest Plants take carbon dioxide sunlight oxygen two charges varies in inverse astronomer of his age. He from the air in the process activates released proportion to the square of the ,,BRINGING ABOUT conducted many deep-sky chlorophyll though distance between them. The surveys of objects in space with stomata SI unit of charge, the coulomb, THE GREATEST the powerful telescopes he called photosynthesis. is named after him. CHANGES. designed himself, and made carbon many thousands of discoveries. Sunlight, which is absorbed dioxide Also in France in 1785, aviator James Hutton, Scottish geologist, On January 11, 1787, he from air Jean Blanchard (1753–1809) from Theory of the Earth, 1795 observed that Uranus, the by chlorophyll, the green enters leaf invented the first folded silk planet he had discovered just parachute. Previous parachute and most of their clothes—to six years earlier (see 1781–82), pigment in leaves, fuels the designs usually had a heavy keep the balloon in the air. had two moons, which were wooden frame and failed to named Oberon and Titania, reaction between carbon work. Blanchard used his In the same year, Scottish after the fairy king and queen parachute successfully to drop engineer Andrew Meikle in Shakespeare’s A Midsummer dioxide and water in the leaves a dog in a basket from a balloon (1719–1811) invented a threshing Night’s Dream. high in the air. With American machine, and English inventor to make glucose, the plant’s John Jeffries (1744–1819), Edmund Cartwright (1743–1823) Swiss naturalist Jean Blanchard made the first developed a steam-powered Senebier (1742–1809) built energy food. Oxygen, a waste airborne crossing of the English loom. Both machines dramatically on the discoveries made Channel, in a gas balloon. In reduced the need for manual about photosynthesis by Jan byproduct, is exuded through danger of descending too early, labor, causing protests from Ingenhousz in 1779. Senebier the pair shed all of their ballast— laid-off workers. showed that when plants are pores (stomata) on the water and minerals exposed to light, they take up underside of leaves. sent from roots to cells JAMES HUTTON (1726–97) After inheriting his father’s carbon dioxide from the air and farm in Berwickshire, Scotland, release oxygen (see panel, right). American inventor John Fitch In 1788, French mathematician in 1753, Edinburgh-born (1743–98) launched the Joseph Louis Lagrange James Hutton became Silicon is the second most Perseverance, a boat rowed by (1736–1813) published his fascinated by geology. He abundant element in Earth’s steam-driven oars, on the Mécanique Analytique (Analytic studied rock formations crust after oxygen, but it was Delaware River. Scottish engineer Mechanics), perhaps the greatest and noticed breaks in the not identified until 1787. In that William Symington (1764–1831) work about mechanics (the sequence, which suggested year, French chemist Antoine built a paddle steamer, which science of forces and movement) to him, correctly, that the Lavoisier understood that had its first trial on Dalswinton since Isaac Newton’s Principia landscape is shaped in sand is an oxide (a chemical Loch in Scotland. In West Virginia, (see 1685–89). In this book, repeated cycles over an combination with oxygen) of on the Potomac River, American Lagrange used his own new immensely long time. a hitherto unknown element, engineer James Rumsey method of calculus to reduce which he named silicon. (1743–92) experimented with a mechanics to a few basic boat propelled by a jet of water formulas from which everything Also in this year, various forced out by a steam pump. else could be calculated. inventors were trying to harness steam power to propel boats. 5MILES PER HOUR THE SPEED OF 17s8c6FierAonamftnpitksuehtlrbieBnilciG’essaunhn1jlea7fdm7S0itinrnmethaamep UisS JaHneuUrarsarcnyhue1sl1’d,si1sm7co8oov7enWrssilliam SYMINGTON’S PADDLE STEAMER 17A8n7rteoFecirlnoeegemnnLceihaznevctoshsisteihlimeiecriosnt OcWtoidlbleipemaarmod1ndS4slye,tmr1sa7titne8egas7tmoaner 17L8a8MgérJaocnasngeiepqhupeuLboAlunisiashlyetsique ma1k7ep8sl7adJnisetcaponhveoSrteioensseybanibtehoreust is August 2a2Fs,itt1ec7ah8ml7ar-uopJwnoochwinhnegersbeodat JamDeesaceRjemutm-bpesreroy3pte,r1lile7es8do7buotat 157

4

THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS 1789–1894 While the drive for greater efficiency and power stimulated technological invention and industrial growth, the search to uncover nature’s secrets overturned older beliefs about Earth and its inhabitants. Scientists came to understand that life emerged after an extremely long process of evolutionary development.

,,1789 …WE MUST ADMIT, AS ELE8 MENTS, ALL THE SUBSTANCES INTO WHICH WE ARE CAPABLE, BY ,,ANY MEANS, TO REDUCE BODIES BY DECOMPOSITION. Antoine Lavoisier, French chemist, from Traité élémentaire de chimie (Elements of Chemistry), 1789 AGAINST THE BACKDROP OF ANTOINE LAVOISIER THE FRENCH REVOLUTION, (1743–94) a scientific revolution was underway in 1789. French Born in Paris, France, chemist Antoine Lavoisier Antoine Lavoisier is completed his Elements of sometimes said to be the Chemistry, a book that laid father of chemistry—he the foundations of chemistry proved the role of oxygen as a science. Lavoisier created in combustion, which laid the first table of elements, the foundation for modern which also included heat and chemistry. Lavoisier light. He introduced international established that matter chemical symbols and introduced is neither created nor modern names, such as oxygen destroyed during chemical and hydrogen for gases and changes. A target for sulphates for compounds. revolutionaries, he was guillotined on May 8, 1794. On 28 August, German-born British astronomer William into classes according to the Herschel looked through his number of stamens and pistils. largest telescope for the first This system is still used today. time. He had already built several telescopes, but this In Canada, British explorer 40ft (12m) reflecting telescope Alexander Mackenzie (1764– was the biggest. That night, 1820) set out in his canoe, Herschel discovered a new following the uncharted 1,100 moon of Saturn, Enceladus, mile (1,770km) river—now and three weeks later he spotted known as Mackenzie River— another, Mimas. to the Arctic Ocean. French botanist Antoine Laurent de Jussieu published a system for classifying flowering plants. It used Linnaeus’s two- part Latin naming system (see 1754) and divided flowering plants Herschel’s telescope Astronomer William Herschel took four years to build this giant telescope in his garden in Slough, England. It was paid for by King George III, and dismantled in 1839. FrLeanEvcloheimsciheeenrmtcsoisomtf ACplnhetetomeisnisetry BrEitripasuhspbmonloeiausfmtshtuhe,DresTaahPlhrieslwiastLinnotsves AuagsHutresEortnnsm2occ8meohloeBeanlrdrdiuoWtiifsssi,Schlaloaivatnuemerrwns LauFrerennt acdhesybJsouttesasmniieflsfuotorAwpcunelbtraoilsniissnghiefpeyislnagnts exMpJlauoclryketreh1nA4ezlBAeierxrciartteiniscadhcOehrceesan WSdieilslpicatoemvmeHmrbseeorSrosan1cth7uMerinlm’sas 160

1790–91 1792 The Armagh Observatory, the oldest scientific institution in Northern Ireland, was built A cartoon from 1807 shows the initial mixed reaction in London to the new in 1790 and was one of the largest and most advanced observatories of its day. gas streetlighting, which would soon transform cities at night. IN PHILADELPHIA, AMERICAN system is actually made from THIS YEAR SAW A DISCOVERY pulley for swiveling INVENTOR OLIVER EVANS masses of nerve fibres, or THAT WOULD ONE DAY HELP telegraph arm (1755–1819) developed an idea ganglia. British surgeon James technology transform cities movable signaling that would make powered Parkinson (1755–1824), who across the world—Alessandro transport a reality. The low- lent his name to a devastating Volta’s discovery of chemical panels pressure Watt steam engines of disease of the nervous system, electricity. Previously, static the day (see 1765–66) were too gave the first medical description electricity had been generated pivot big and heavy for land vehicles. of injuries to people struck through friction. Volta found But Evans realized that if the 9:1 Lightning injuries by lightning. that by bringing metals into receiving weight for steam is much hotter, the piston Nine of every ten contact, he could create chemical platform balancing can be driven by steam pressure people struck by Stargazing continued to reactions that generated current alone—so the condensing lightning survive. James Parkinson attract funding from wealthy electricity. He went on to produce signals process needed to create a proposed that survivors suffer patrons, not just because of the first battery (see 1800). vacuum in low-pressure engines from a form of muscle paralysis people’s fascination with it could be dispensed with. This and skin burns. but also because of its potential Another notable development revelation led to Evans’ invention value to shipping. Archbishop of in the field of communication was of high-pressure steam months later by German chemist Armagh, Richard Robinson, French inventor Claude Chappe’s engines, which could give the Martin Klaproth (1743–1817), built an expensive observatory telegraph—a line of towers that same power as Watt engines that who named it titanium. in Armagh, Northern Ireland, could relay messages visually by were 10 times larger. which continues to be one of showing panels at different There were several the leading scientific research angles. It could send a message In Warwickshire, England, developments in the field of pure establishments today. across 137 miles (220km)— inventor John Barber (1734– science too. Swiss physicist from Lille to Paris—in an hour. 1801) was developing an even Pierre Prévost (1751–1839) titanium more revolutionary engine—the proved that all bodies—no Scottish engineer William gas turbine. His idea was to matter how hot or cold—radiate Murdoch (1754–1839) invented Chappe telegraph compress gas made from wood heat. German physiologist gas lighting; his home in This telegraph tower shows or coal, then burn it explosively Franz Joseph Gall Cornwall, England, was the first Chappe’s semaphore system, with to turn the vanes of a paddle (1758–1828) showed gas-lit house. Soon many houses, its mechanism for changing the wheel. Barber never built a that the nervous panels’ angle to pass on messages. prototype, but his ideas re- factories, and city streets emerged centuries later when Titanium would be lit by gas. glow the same color when the jet engine was developed. The metal titanium has The first iron-cased heated to the same temperature. Another discovery, which is now several ores, including rockets—forerunners For example, we know the Sun’s vital for modern aircraft, was ilmenite and rutile, and of modern missiles— surface is 5,800K (9,980°F) titanium. The metal was isolated it also occurs in trace were used in India by because of its color. from the mineral ilmenite in amounts in rocks, water Cornwall, England, by British bodies, soils, and all Tipu Sultan, ruler of geologist Reverend William living things. Mysore, against the British. Gregor (1761–1817). It was One discovery that was little independently discovered a few appreciated at the time was British scientist Thomas Wedgwood’s (1771–1805) observation that all materials 17O9b0issAeNforrouvmrantathdogeerhrdyninIreland 17p9h0PyasBlriircgkiihtiaintsnnshioJnangmdineessjucrriiebses 17J9o1thhBnerBgitaaisrshbteuinrrvbpeiannteteonrts 17g9e1WolBdiolirlgsiitaicsimostvhReGerrsveetgriotaarnndium 17p9h1GyasICtliacvoEliamisfanoftmneinLcpeuMtuniougbtfalsiiErcsyluheloecandtrrtMihceiottyion ItaAlilacehnsespmahnyidcsaricoliesVtloelcttaripcriotyduces FrCenhscaehpmpsaecpibehunoitlridsesttCehlliseaugBrdaerMpithuisrhdoenchgiinneveerntWsigllaiasmlightingAmJaegmrripaceaansttntueRerendubntmiEgfnonisenrgdelweiesnarhter 17i9n0vEeAnvhmationgesrshrtOie-pcpalaairmvnteeesnerstnusgriene Jinuvleyn3t1o,prr1eaS7ctaee9mni0vtpeuAofseomtlrathHesaerhomipficpakrersnitonhtdsoUudSctoifon F1r7a9n1z GJoesrmetphahenaGsnpaehmlrylvasdosioeuslsesocsgsrioyisbsftetfiesbmers 1791 SwbPiosiedssirehprsoehwyrPassridcétiihvasoattest tahlelat ngoltoiTcwheBostrhmtiethaisassshtaaWmamslceleeidmectgnoeawtlmtioseorptroaiedatrlatshtuere TheroficrksettisrMoanrye-scouarsseee,ddInindia 161

1793 1794–95 ,, THE OBJECT OF THIS WORK IS TO EXPLAIN… THE ,,CHANGES OF STRUCTURE ARISING FROM MORBID ACTIONS IN SOME OF THE MOST IMPORTANT PARTS OF THE HUMAN BODY. Matthew Baillie, British physician, in Preface to The Morbid Anatomy of Some of the Most Important Parts of the Human Body, 1793 The limestone rocks of the Jura Mountains on the French–Swiss border formed the basis of the identification of the Jurassic Age. IN REVOLUTIONARY 199MILLION PARIS, the first natural YEARS history museum in France, the Muséum THE AGE national d’Histoire OF THE JURA naturelle (National MOUNTAINS Museum of Natural IN 1794, AMERICAN INVENTOR The increase in cotton production History), was founded on them and in 1793 British chemist Muséum national ELI WHITNEY (1765–1825) was a massive boost to the June 10. It was built in Thomas Charles Hope (1766– d’Histoire naturelle devised a machine for separating growing factory towns the former Jardin Royal 1844) named them strontites The world’s first great natural the seeds from cotton to obtain of northwest England, including des Plantes Médicinales after the village in the Scottish history museum opened in Paris just clean fibers for spinning into Manchester, where in 1794 (Royal Garden of highlands where the mine was a few months after Louis XVI of cloth. His gin, and others like it, John Dalton presented his Medicinal Plants), located. In 1808, British chemist France was guillotined nearby. was soon in use throughout the pioneering studies on color created by King Louis Humphry Davy isolated a new American South, leading to a blindness. Dalton was blind to XIII in 1635. It became the Jardin element from these ores, a huge increase in the production green, and he believed it was des Plantes—a botanical garden soft metal called strontium. of raw cotton after 1800. blue fluid in his and home to one of the world’s first public zoos, founded in 1795. John Dalton (1766–1844), the atomic theory in 1803, published British scientist who proposed an Meteorological Observations On July 22, British explorer and Essays in 1793. In it, Alexander Mackenzie (1764– 400 Dalton wrote on everything 1820) became the first known from barometers to cloud man to cross the continent of YARDS formation, explaining how North America north of Mexico, moisture in the air turns when his Peace River Expedition THE DISTANCE to rain when air cools. finally reached the end of its COVERED BY journey just west of Bella Coola AGUILERA’S British physician Matthew in British Columbia, Canada. GLIDER Baillie (1761–1823) published The Morbid Anatomy of Some A lead mine near the British of the Most Important Parts of village Strontian became the the Human Body. This was the site of the discovery of a new first modern scientific study element, strontium. In 1790, of disease, and showed how Irish chemist Adair Crawford diseases could be better (1748–95) and his British understood by studying their colleague, chemist William effect on organs after death. Cruikshank (d. c.1810) noticed that some local lead ores had an unusual make-up. Various scientists, such as German chemist Martin Klaproth (1743–1817), began investigating BrTithiHsoohm“pscaethsrneoCmanhmtiiasteretlsse”s MaSypDa1infle5igis1eoh,s1Mi8an0avgrefltínind(t3eoA6rrg0uamibleo) ruat JuelxyMp2lato2hcrekBeerrPniAatzilcsieeihfixracenOadcceehraens BrJitoiahsbhnosDucatilemtnoetnitsewtorriotelosgy 17s9c4DieaBanlbrttbioiostlniutisntJwhdcornohitelneossrs 17p9h4CyhsGmilecafeirdrstmonetmioaEsrnrusintpgesagtscecesotms e BriMtisahttphwherywistieBpcsiaaatainlhbliooeluotgy Junenn1aa0ttiuTornheealllMedu’iHssiéfsoutuominnirdPeeadris 17b9eo4cfTotPhhmleeaenfiJstarehrssodtmiipnnuedPbetalosircoisznoeos 179W4hAiintmnveeenyrcitcdooaertntvEoislniegsin 162

1796 An image from the Spitzer space telescope reveals a distant star and planets forming from a spinning gas cloud, in the same way that our Solar System was created billions of years ago. eyes that was robbing him of CARL FRIEDRICH GAUSS (1777–1855) that the Solar System began as a integer is representable as a the ability to see green or red. giant gas cloud (nebula) spinning sum of, at most, three He requested that his eyes be Born in the German Duchy around the Sun. It cooled and triangular numbers. examined after his death to of Brunswick, Gauss was contracted to form planets. prove this thesis, but the fluid a mathematical genius who Since the 1720s, many had was normal and clear. A DNA astonished people with his For 19-year-old German been protected against the deadly test on his preserved eyes in brilliance at an early age. He mathematician, Carl Gauss, 1796 disease smallpox by inoculation, the 1990s showed that he had a grew up to be one of the greatest was a year of breakthroughs. On which involved deliberate infection common genetic deficiency that mathematicians ever, making March 30, he proved that it was with smallpox germs. But the reduced his sensitivity to green, important contributions to the possible to construct certain inoculation had risks and could proving he did indeed have theory of numbers, non- regular polygons, including the kill. In 1796, British country color blindness. Euclidean geometry, planetary 17-sided heptadecagon, with just doctor Edward Jenner (1748– astronomy, probability, and the a compass and a ruler—a 1823) noticed that dairymaids Up to this point in time, theory of functions. problem that had eluded often failed to contract smallpox meteorites were thought to mathematicians since the time and began to wonder if they come from volcanoes, but in Also in France, the naturalist FRENCH MATHEMATICIAN of Pythagoras. On April 8, he gained their immunity through 1794, German physicist Ernst George Cuvier (1769–1832) PIERRE-SIMON LAPLACE made key contributions to exposure to a similar, milder Chladni (1756–1827) made the introduced the idea that Earth’s (1749–1827) published his solving quadratic equations. On disease known as cowpox. He suggestion that they came from past held many species of Exposition du Système du May 31, he created the prime thought it possible that space. The following year a large animal now extinct. This was Monde (The System of the number theorem to show how “vaccination” with cowpox meteorite fell to earth at Wold shocking for some, since many World), which included prime numbers are spread. And, would be safer than inoculation Newton in Yorkshire, England, people in Europe still believed all his theories on orbits with smallpox, and deliberately which was far from any volcano animals were created at the time and tides, and the first July 10, he discovered infected his gardener’s son with and backed up Chladni’s theory. of the Creation. fully scientific that every positive cowpox. Vaccination originally exposition of the nebular meant inoculation with cowpox, In 1795, the French government Fossil hunters found more hypothesis, first suggested but the term is now used for any was championing a new decimal fossils in the Jurakalk rock by Immanuel Kant in inoculation by weak or killed system of measures. They formation in the French Jura 1755, which proposes Mountains. Prussian geographer germs. A few weeks later he decreed that a gram was “the Alexander von Humboldt Edward Jenner attempted to infect the absolute weight of a volume (1769–1859) identified the age of vaccinating his son boy with smallpox, of water equal to the cube of these limestone formations, thus Many people remained who proved to setting a basis for geologists unconvinced about be immune and the hundredth part of the to identify the Jurassic age— vaccination, even after remained so all his meter, at the temperature the age of dinosaurs. it had been successfully life. Vaccination using a of melting ice.” performed in 1796. In 1797, Jenner vaccinated harmless form of a dangerous Dalton’s color his 11-month-old son to disease is now one of the blindness test prove that it was safe. most effective methods of Dalton used this book of colored threads to test disease prevention. his own color blindness. 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1789–1894 THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS Clavilithes shell PLIOCENE: 5.3–1.8 MYA Cyanobacteria Clavilithes is related to PRECAMBRIAN: 4,000–542 MYA Cyanobacteria are among the modern whelk. the oldest and simplest Shell fossils may be organisms alive today. found far from the Sediment has built up in round clusters around a sea, leading cyanobacteria nucleus. Greeks to deduce that land was once covered by water. Stromatolites Calymene trilobite Harpoceras ammonite Pentacrinites crinoid PRECAMBRIAN: 4,000–542 MYA SILURIAN: 444–416 MYA LOWER JURASSIC: 199.6–175.6 MYA PALEOGENE: 65–23 MYA Stromatolites are layers of sediment Early scholars called The Roman naturalist Pliny named that were deposited by microorganisms trilobite fossils “petrified the ammonite fossil after the ram Delicate animals such as crinoids could be in the coastal shallows of ancient seas. insects.” They were horns of the Egyptian god Ammon. beautifully preserved when the soft mud in Living stromatolites still exist today. identified as arthropods in which they lived turned into rock. the eighteenth century. FOSSILS SINCE THE EARLIEST TIMES, FOSSILS HAVE HELPED US UNDERSTAND THE HISTORY OF LIFE ON EARTH Fossils have been known to man since prehistory, but early Christian scholars believed they were the remains of creatures that died in the Biblical flood. We now know they are evidence of evolution on a changing planet. The scientific study of fossils has its roots in the Age of shell Halysites tabulate coral the Enlightenment, when naturalists began to describe spine SILURIAN: 444–416 MYA and classify their finds. By the 1800s, geologists Honeycomb-like tabulate recognized not only that rock layers built up over corals were fossilized in time, but also that each layer had a distinctive set of Silurian rock layers. Tabulate fossil types. Supporting evidence was recovered from corals existed in colonies this fossil record to support Charles Darwin’s theory and were an important of evolution. Today, paleontology component of Silurian routinely uses technology that shallow-water fauna. can determine the age of fossils and even study Hydrophilus their DNA. water beetle PALEOGENE: 65– Temnocidaris sea urchin 23 MYA CRETACEOUS: 145–65 MYA Wet mud is good for Animals with hard parts preserving animals. such as spines or shells The first fossilized beetle can leave abundant fossils. specimens—hard wing By 1850, geologists could cases— were found in assign rock layers to periods the 19th century. Later, entire of time, according to the insects were found too. fossils they contained. solidified Dolomedes spider amber PALEOGENE: 65–23 MYA Today, Dolomedes spiders inhabit wetlands, but fossils in amber show they once lived on trees and were trapped in drops of resin that hardened over time. 164

leaflets joined FOSSILS at central vein feather impression Ichthyosaur Diplomystus dentatus toothed JURASSIC: 200–145 MYA PALEOGENE: 65–23 MYA beak In 1811, fossil hunter Fossils of an early form of Mary Anning collected modern-day herring, from bony tail the first complete Wyoming, were first skeleton of an described in 1877 by Edward Archaeopteryx ichthyosaur, a predatory Drinker Cope, a pioneer of JURASSIC: 200–145 MYA marine reptile. Ten American paleontology. When Archaeopteryx was years later, she found first discovered in 1861, the first plesiosaur. scientists were amazed to see impressions of feathers Pectopteris fern fossilized bark Dinosaur footprints Allosaurus next to sharp teeth and a bony JURASSIC: 200–145 MYA prints tail. It was a missing link CARBONIFEROUS: Fossilized wood Trace fossils, such as footprints, between reptiles and birds. TRIASSIC: 251– can reveal aspects of animal 359–299 MYA 200 MYA behavior. Here, prints skull with Before the evolution of Dead matter, such of the predatory ducklike “bill” flowering plants, as wood, fossilizes Allosaurus record forests abounded with when it is changed into its pursuit spore-bearing species, mineral. The 20th century’s of prey. including ferns like radiometric dating allowed scientists to Pectopteris. determine the age of fossil-bearing rock. strong hindlimbs Edmontosaurus thick skin for walking on CRETACEOUS: 145–65 MYA two legs In the 1800s, dinosaur Young mammoth in permafrost fossils attracted highly PLIOCENE–HOLOCENE: 5.3 MYA–4,500 YA short toe bones competitive “dinosaur- Many mammoths lived comparatively hunters,” especially in recently in cold Siberian landscapes, so North America. Othniel their bodies were sometimes “mummified” Charles Marsh by permafrost. Modern biologists can discovered dozens of extract DNA from such specimens. new kinds, including Edmontosaurus, a plant- heavy brow eating “duck-billed” ridge dinosaur. Today this animal is known from Neanderthal skull numerous specimens. PLEISTOCENE: 2.5 MYA– 12,000 YA Although first unearthed in 1829, this kind of skull was not seen as evidence for another human species until others were found in the Neander Valley, Germany, in 1856. 165

1797 1798–99 760 POUNDS THE WEIGHT OF ROSETTA STONE A wood engraving of a magpie from the first volume The Rosetta Stone is a decree passed on behalf of Egyptian King of Thomas Bewick’s History of British Birds. Ptolemy V in 196BCE. It carries the same text in three scripts. CARBON EXISTS IN THREE out a new approach to calculus. FRENCH PHARMACIST AND metal wire FORMS—as graphite, diamond, Although not widely appreciated CHEMIST LOUIS VAUQUELIN and charcoal. It was only in the at the time, his ideas proved (1763–1829) discovered wooden torsion rod, late 18th century, however, that invaluable in 20th-century beryllium, a metal that melts 6ft (2m) long it was established that they are science, especially in the at 2,349°F (1,287°C), in 1798. all the same substance. In study of quantum mechanics. He used a process of chemical small lead sphere, 1772, French chemist Antoine extraction to obtain beryllium 2in (5cm) wide Lavoisier had burned graphite in Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826), from a variety of emerald oxygen and proved that the only vice-president of the US at the known as beryl. telescope product was carbon dioxide. In time, presented a paper to 1797, British chemist Smithson the American Philosophical British economist and large lead sphere Tennant (1761–1851) repeated Society, Philadelphia, in which demographer Thomas Robert weighing 350lb the experiment, using diamond he described the fossil remains Malthus (1766–1834), then (159 kg) instead of graphite. The product of a creature he named Megalonyx an Anglican priest in Surrey, was carbon dioxide once again, (giant claw). The fossil was that England, anonymously published Cavendish torsion balance the small ball by weighing it. The proving that diamond is an of the extinct ground sloth, now the first edition of An Essay This model of Cavendish’s torsion ratio of these two forces allowed allotrope (form) of carbon. known as Megalonyx jeffersonii. on the Principle of Population. The balance experiment shows the him to calculate the mass and book argued that population arrangement of small and large lead density of Earth. He found the In this year, amid the turmoil British artist and ornithologist growth would ultimately spheres attached to a wooden rod. density to be 5.48 times that of of post-revolutionary France, Thomas Bewick (1753–1828) outstrip the carrying capacity water—the modern estimate is Italian–French mathematician published the first volume of of Earth. It had a profound One of the most important 5.52 times. Cavendish’s careful Joseph Louis Lagrange his History of British Birds. He influence on Charles Darwin experiments in the history of calculation of possible errors and (1736–1813) published Théorie illustrated these volumes using in his development of the idea science was completed in 1798 the painstaking detail of his work des Fonctions Analytiques (Theory the wood-engraving technique— of a struggle for survival by reclusive British physicist arguably make this the first of Analytic Functions), setting an advancement in the printing (see pp.204–05). Henry Cavendish (1731–1810). modern physics experiment. of illustrated books. He used a torsion balance apparatus, designed by British Meticulous experimentation CRYSTALLINE CARBON geologist and astronomer John was also a feature of the work of Michell (1724–93), to measure American-born British physicist A crystalline form of carbon, carbon atom the mass of Earth. The apparatus Benjamin Thompson (1753– diamonds are formed at high had a wooden rod suspended 1814). While working in Bavaria, pressure within the Earth and UNCUT DIAMOND IN ROCK ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF DIAMOND from a wire, with a lead sphere Germany, he investigated the way brought to the surface by attached to each end, and heat was produced by friction tectonic activity. They are found two smaller lead spheres. when cannons were being bored, in up to 3-billion-year-old rock He measured the force or and disproved the idea that heat strata. Carbon atoms are gravitational attraction was a kind of fluid, called caloric. arranged in a crystal structure between the large and small Thompson published these called a diamond lattice (a lead spheres, and calculated the findings in a paper in 1798. face-centered cube). This rigid gravitational force of Earth on structure is why diamonds are hard and also transparent. SmTeitdnhinafsoamornnmotnpodrfoicsvaearsbptouhnraet JoTsheFepuohnrcLytooioufniAssnLiasalygptruiacbnligseh’esd 17V9a8bueqLruoyeullliiisnumd1is7pc9ou8ovbfeCliFrsaslhraoemlsisnuteepedHdae’tsresdsctvhaererlcsaio1tan7Ll9oag8RguérJÉesaoqonsulgeuaepttihipoounLnbsodluNeisissuhmesériques17m98eaHseunrerys Cthaevemnadsisshof Earth 17L9a9opfPlTairceaerirtbéee-dgSeiinmMsoépncuabnliiqcauteioCnéleste iTdheonmtifiaessJMefefegrasloonnyxThomatshHeBisfietwrosritcykvoopfluuBmbriltiesishohef Bshiirsds dFisrLceoonuvceihsrscVhaceuhmqrouimsetliiunm pu1Rb7ol9bis8eohrnTethtsMhooAeamfnlPPtaEhrosiuspnssucailpyalteion 17p9u8bElidswhheaesradtaaJpneadnpnfererircotnion AnThECox1mop7nep9crsie8omorfBnnetEiehnpnnextugacjHbalittlhmeEeiseandihtnqSbewuoysiuhrFriycrcihectision July 1fi7n9d9sPthieerRreoBseotutcahS1at7rod9n9eAalenexdxahpAnliidosmetroérartvBiyooononnfHopSfluoatmhunetdbhonbAlaedmtgtuienrrailca 166

1800 The duck-billed, egg-laying, web-footed platypus, first described by British zoologist George Shaw, is amphibious—capable of living both on land and in water. A year later, a specially made THIS YEAR, ITALIAN SCIENTIST bizzare that, at first, he thought engineer and inventor platinum cylinder with a mass ALESSANDRO VOLTA (1745– it might be a hoax perpetrated Henry Maudslay (1771–1831) equal to 1.000025 liters of water, 1827) wrote to the Royal Society, by an accomplished taxidermist. developed the first practical was legally declared the official London, to report the battery screw-cutting lathe—a prototype of the kilogram. The he had made, which became Another surprise came when machine for accurately cutting modern kilogram is derived from known as a voltaic pile. His British–German astronomer screw threads. this prototype. invention was actually a “wet William Herschel studied cell” battery. In 1799, Volta had the heat associated with the In 1800, the Royal Institution In July 1799, Pierre Bouchard found that stacking disks of zinc, different colors of sunlight, of Great Britain—based (1772–1832), an officer in copper, and cardboard soaked as split into a spectrum by in London—was granted its Napoleon’s French army, found in brine in multiple layers could a prism. Herschel placed charter. Its aim was to provide a black granite stone at Rosetta, generate an electric current. thermometers in different parts a more popular forum for Egypt. The stone carried the Adding more disks increased the of the spectrum and found that science than the established same text in three scripts— amount of electricity generated. the temperatures of the colors Royal Society. Henry Cavendish hieroglyphs, Egyptian demotic increased from the violet part and Benjamin Thompson were script, and ancient Greek. This The year also produced a of the spectrum to the red. He instrumental in founding this provided the key to translating puzzle for scientists, when then placed a thermometer just institution, and Humphry Davy hieroglyphs. The Rosetta Stone, British zoologist George Shaw beyond the red and observed soon became its director. It was among the items captured (1751–1813) published the that this had the highest became a major research by the British in 1801. first scientific description of temperature of all. This invisible center and a center for the a platypus (Ornithorhynchus radiation is now called infrared popularizing of science In the same year, French anatinus Shaw), based on (see pp.234–35). throughout the 19th and into astronomer Pierre-Simon preserved samples and the 20th century. Laplace (1749–1827) published sketches sent from Australia. In industry, an important the first part of his five-volume He considered the creature so step toward the era of precision porous cardboard Traité de Mécanique Céleste engineering came when British soaked in electrolyte (Treatise on Celestial Mechanics). Described as “an encyclopaedia of HOW BATTERIES WORK zinc disk calculations about the six known planets and their satellites, their Batteries contain one or more cathode copper disk shapes, and tides in Earth’s electrochemical cells. Chemical silver plate oceans,” it proved that the Solar reactions encourage electrons Volta’s battery System is stable on timescales to move to the cathode end of zinc plate This “wet cell” battery, invented by that are relevant to humankind. the battery, building up negative Italian scientist Alessandro Volta, charge there. Positive charge blotting paper was made of alternating layers of In 1799, physician Thomas collects at the anode. When the individual zinc and copper separated by Beddoes (1760–1808), established cathode and anode are connected element cardboard disks soaked in the Pneumatic Institution in by an external wire, the electrons anode salt water. Bristol, UK, to research the flow along the wire to produce medical implications of newly an electric current. This is a discovered gases. It was here that simple “wet cell” battery. British chemist Humphry Davy served his apprenticeship. 17e9s9ItnaTsbhtliiotsumhteiaossntBhineedBPdrnoiesetusoml a1ti7ca9r9ngouHcteauasilsmotflr“hpuimachitdrobhytucieaDtoaltnalthev”aidyst it RooyfaisGlrgIenrasattniBtteurdtiitoiatnisncharter AldeesassaclenrtidbtereorstVtoohltethaveoRltoayiaclcSeollciinety Yeaassatagitesfheneurtsmfiienredsbntettiienmrgefor 1799 mPkrialoontguortfayacpmteuirsed aWnddilislAicanomtvheNorniecylheCocaltsrroloinslylesis George Shawthdeespclraitbyepsus William Herinsfcrhaerleddisrcaodvieartison Henry Masutcdhrseelwafiyr-scdtueptvtreianlocgptilscaatlhe 167

,,1801 THE SUPERIORITY OF THE HIGH-PRESSURE ENGINE WILL SERVE TO… HONOR THROUGH ,,ALL TIMES… THE NAME OF TREVITHICK. Michael Williams, Member of Parliament for West Cornwall, 1853 Richard Trevithick’s Puffing Devil—the world’s first passenger-carrying steam road locomotive—ran on the road, not on rails. THOMAS YOUNG (1773–1829) year, German mathematician British scientist William Hyde 380 Johann Georg von Soldner Wollaston (1766–1828) showed A practicing physician and (1776–1833) predicted how that electricity produced by polymath, Thomas Young light traveling as a stream of friction (static electricity) and contributed to understanding particles would be deflected by galvanic electricity produced vision, light, mechanics, and gravity if it passed near the Sun. energy, as well as language, According to his calculation, a by what is now referred to as a MILES music, and Egyptology. He light ray would bend by 0.84 battery, are exactly the same. helped in deciphering the seconds of arc (a unit of angular Rosetta Stone. Elected fellow measurement). More than 100 THE DIAMETERFrench biologist Jean-Baptiste of the Royal Society in London years later, German-American at age 21, he became Professor physicist Albert Einstein Lamarck (1744–1829) published of Natural Philosophy at the (1879–1955) would make a Royal Institution in 1801. different prediction using his his book Système des Animaux OF CERES, general theory of relativity Sans Vertèbres (System of (see pp.244–245). Invertebrate Animals), in which THE FIRST he coined the term invertebrate KNOWN DWARF and developed a system of PLANET classification for this group of animals. The field of engineering was AT THE START OF THE YEAR, pressures—the pressure each different parts light diffracts screen with pattern developing rapidly. Designed by Italian astronomer Giuseppe component gas would exert if it of light and dark Irish–American engineer James Piazzi (1746–1826) discovered occupied the same space alone. of light again, and waves bands caused by Finley (1756–1828), the first Ceres, a celestial body made of So, in a mixture of nitrogen and interference suspension bridge hung from rock and ice that orbits the Sun oxygen, the total pressure is wavefront interfere with every 1,679.819 days. Thought at equal to the partial pressure of the time to be a planet, it is now oxygen plus the partial pressure travel through each other known to be the archetype of a of nitrogen. class of smaller objects known as parallel slits dwarf planets. Ceres is sometimes Since the time of English wrongly referred to as an asteroid physicist and mathematician light passes wrought-iron chains was because its orbit between Mars Isaac Newton (see 1687–89), it through first slit and Jupiter roughly coincides had been widely believed that completed at Jacob’s Creek, with that of a band of rocky rubble light was a stream of particles. and diffracts known as the asteroid belt. In May 1801, British polymath Pennsylvania. It cost $600. Thomas Young (1773–1829) The 19th century witnessed a performed the double slit French inventor Joseph-Marie growing understanding of atoms experiment (see right), and molecules. In 1801, British which demonstrated the Jacquard (1752–1834) developed chemist John Dalton developed wavelike properties of light. his law of partial pressures, It is now known that light a system of controlling textile which stated that the pressure of sometimes behaves like a gas mixture is the sum of its waves and at other times looms using punched cards. This individual components’ partial like particles. The same was the beginning of the era of programmable machines. On Christmas Eve, English double engineer Richard Trevithick slit panel (1771–1833) successfully tested the first successful steam road single Double slit locomotive. It carried several slit panel experiment men up a hill in Camborne in British scientist Cornwall, UK, and traveled at Thomas Young showed approximately 4mph (6.4kmph). that light can exhibit wavelike light properties of interference and source diffraction, like ripples in a pond. JaGniuduiassperclpyaopnv1eeertPsCiatehzrezeisdwarf ThcoomenxdatphuseacYrttoislmuihgneihgsnttdi,sowuahbwilceahvseslihtows WiWlloitahlmlaaantseHdstloteytgahndcateetiplcrvsriaecoanilvmteeiyccestarriecity GainuflAssuriepthnumtbialeilsttihceeaxsltbIhnoivosekstigations ThseuifisnprPseetnnisrnioosnny-lbcvahrniadiiagne opens NoEvnCeghmlaiansborhnlefeolcrtasuhhtnHeeecrmaeetrlisceeshmntheaiestmtndteisdcconoluivoembribyuimum, JodhleanvweDlooapfplrtpsoeanshrsitsuiarles JohaNnenwGtoenoiragtnahvsteohandeseoStflroryeeldatconmtiebcoryaonlfuscoposufelalalasrirtgtiegchlrtea, sv,ity GermCaanrlmFartihecdearmoliccrauhbtliiGcatitaoaeufnssCtsehrees Jean-pBIunabvpletiisrsthteeebsLraSatymesatAernmcikmoafls devJeolospesphth-Me JaariceqJuaacrqduLaorodm TrDeDveeitcvhieli—mcskttbehtaeeemrsfit2srr4oshtaRisdsicuPlhocuaccferofidsmnsgofutilve 168

1802 THE NUMBER OF BINARY STAR SYSTEMS DISCOVERED 800 BYWILLIAM HERSCHEL This artist’s impression shows an unusual binary star system known as J0806, 1,600 light-years away from Earth. In this rare example, two dense white dwarf stars orbit one another. ON MARCH 28, GERMAN While carrying out experiments demonstrated by citing the one weight two weights produce ASTRONOMER WILHELM with glass prisms, William example of the giraffe: a giraffe produces double the pressure OLBERS (1758–1840) discovered Hyde Wollaston noticed dark that stretches its neck to reach pressure in the beaker the asteroid Pallas in an orbit lines in the spectrum of the high branches in the search similar to that of Ceres (see Sun. Although it was not known for food will bear offspring in the beaker heat hot molecules move 1801). He incorrectly thought at the time, these lines indicate that have a longer neck as faster, increasing that Pallas, Ceres, and other the absence of particular colors a consequence (see 1809). cool particles the pressure while asteroids discovered later were in sunlight. They are usually Although incorrect, this move slowly maintaining remnants of an exploded planet. called Fraunhofer lines, after concept was a step toward the volume German physicist Joseph von understanding evolution. THIRD GAS LAW JEAN-BAPTISTE Fraunhofer (1787–1826), who LAMARCK (1744–1829) independently rediscovered British inventor Thomas Described by French chemist Joseph Gay-Lussac, this law the lines and studied them Wedgwood (1771–1805) was states that for a particular mass of gas at a constant volume, Originally a bank worker and in more detail in 1814. In the responsible for an important the pressure and temperature are proportional to each other. army officer, Jean-Baptiste 1860s, German scientists development in the field of In the example shown here, when the pressure on the gas in Lamarck became interested Gustave Robert Kirchhoff photography. Using silver nitrate, the beaker is doubled, the temperature reached by the gas as in botany and published the (1824–87) and Robert Bunsen he made the first permanent it holds up the weights increases proportionately. popular book French Flora (1811–99) showed how such images—photographs in the form in 1773. He also wrote a lines functioned as fingerprints recognized today. British chemist is a system where two stars— According to this law, the history and classification of of different elements. Humphry Davy (1778–1829) referred to as binary stars—orbit pressure of a fixed amount of invertebrates and became a described Wedgwood’s work around each other. These types gas at a fixed volume is directly highly regarded taxonomist. The study of evolution in the Journal of the Royal of stars are distinct from double proportional to its temperature Lamarck is best known for continued at a steady pace. Institution in 1802. stars that, despite being very far (on the scale that is now known his theory that acquired Jean-Baptiste Lamarck apart, lie almost along the same as the Kelvin scale). At first, this traits can be inherited became one of the first to use The term binary stars was line of sight. law was named Gay-Lussac’s by future generations. the word biology in its modern coined by German-born British Law, but because it follows sense. German naturalist and astronomer William Herschel As investigations into directly from earlier work by botanist Gottfried Reinhold (1738–1822) in this year. A binary astronomy gathered pace, French chemist Jacques Charles Treviranus (1776–1837) also French chemist Joseph and Anglo–Irish chemist Robert used this term, independently Boyle, it is now called the Third of Lamarck, in Biologie oder Gay-Lussac (1778–1850) Gas Law (see panel, above). Philosophie der Natur Lebenden described a law that Today, there is another, quite (Biology or Philosophy of Natural concerned the separate, law known as Gay- Living). Both Lamarck and behavior of gases. Lussac’s Law. Treviranus came up with the idea that evolution occurs Devil’s toenail through the inheritance of French biologist Jean-Baptiste acquired characteristics— Lamarck named numerous a concept that came to be species in his lifetime. One known as Lamarckism. of these was the Mesozoic This concept was often fossil oyster Gryphaea arcuata, commonly known as Devil’s Toenail. Wodlalsraoksltaloirnnesdspiesinccottrvhueemrs HudmeWspcechrdrriuebgyasewDitsnioangoTvgdhysp’oislhmvmeoartesontghitroradaptohefs MaOrlabcsehtre2sr8odiWidsciPlohavelellrmassthe BrJitoiIhsllhnTuhsmPtelraaoatrythyfiaoeoinmrfstpahoutefibctEilhaiasenrhHtehusttonian LamRainrechpiknerhoraiomntladdontGTcecreoeththovtafeifrrraiaaiedccndeqtueausriorisfetdics WiflolirtahtmehteotHefiaerarmrsrsstotcabuthriinnmetdahlerauayttsnoersoestrtavheorfeelrvresstar TribgeognionmsoAfweaptirtrbhiicaltsSh1eue0lrimTnvheeeeyansoGeufarrerIenaMmdtiaeadnrtas JuhnoesFTprhiatenaclfieorf,opsortemnnpsetehdrineioasPrtirpatiehrciason,faage JosedpehmGoTanhys-itrLrdautGsesasastchLeaw 169

1789–1894 THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS THE STORY OF THE ENGINE THE DRIVING FORCE BEHIND INDUSTRY, ENGINES POWER AN ARRAY OF MACHINES RANGING FROM CARS TO ROCKETS Engines burn fuel to create hot gases, which expand powerfully to create lever from piston rod the mechanical force needed to make things move. As they have developed crosshead through the centuries, engines have taken on different forms, from steam engines to rotary engines and gas turbines. Greek thinkers noticed 2,400 years ago that heat vacuums. French inventor Denis Papin realized could make things move. In the 1st century CE, they that if steam is trapped in a cylinder, it will created the aeolipile, in which steam jetted out shrink dramatically as it condenses to create from a metal sphere to make it spin on a pivot. It a partial vacuum powerful enough to move was another 1,600 years before the first practical things. In 1698, English inventor Thomas steam engine was built. The breakthrough came Savery built the first full-scale steam engine in the 1670s, with the discovery of the power of using this principle. FROM CARS TO MARS crosshead links For 150 years, engines all depended on steam. piston and flywheel They drove the Industrial Revolution, providing power for everything from machines to ships connecting rod and locomotives. In the mid-19th century, joins crosshead engineers began to develop internal combustion engines based on the rapid expansion of gases and crank burning inside a cylinder. More compact, these HYBRID VEHICLES engines used gasoline—a more concentrated source of fuel, which could be drawn in Heat engines burn a lot of fuel and produce waste automatically, unlike coal, which had to be gases. Fuel shortage and environmental concerns manually added. Internal combustion engines have led to the development of hybrid vehicles that were key to the development of automobiles, combine different power sources, such as internal which transformed mobility in the 20th century. combustion engine and an electric motor, to provide The development of jet and rocket engines a greener, more cost-effective compromise. helped flying machines achieve previously unimaginable speeds, and eventually, propelled spacecraft to the Moon and beyond. 1st century CE 1712 1791 1804 Barber gas turbine Trevithick engine Aeolipile Newcomen engine English inventor John Barber Low-pressure vacuum- patents a gas turbine, intended based engines are big and Alexandrian scholar British inventor Thomas Newcomen to propel a “horseless heavy. English engineer carriage.” In this device, fuel Richard Trevithick’s Hero designs a device in builds a steam engine that avoids is mixed with air and ignited develops a compact and to produce hot gases, which powerful high-pressure which a sphere is spun by the danger of explosion by boiling expand and spin a turbine. steam engine. steam jets. A scientific water separately, and sending curiosity, it has no steam at low pressure apparent practical into a cylinder with Newcomen a piston. engine purpose. Aeolipile 1679 1698 Savery 1774 Watt Savery engine engine Papin’s steam digester Thomas Savery builds the Watt engine engine first steam engine, to pump French inventor Denis Papin water out of mines. It is, Scottish engineer James Watt however, prone to exploding. invents the steam digester, produces an improved steam which traps steam inside engine, which has a separate a cylinder. This creates a condensation chamber, and is powerful vacuum as the more efficient. Steam steam cools, condenses, digester and shrinks. 170

smokestack releases ,, THE STORY OF THE ENGINE exhaust gases JAMES WATT [SAID]… flywheel I DESERVED HANGING regulates speed ,,FOR BRINGING INTO USE large cylindrical THE HIGH-PRESSURE gearwheel boiler ENGINE. Richard Trevithick, English engineer, on Watt’s perception of the high-pressure engine as potentially explosive, 1833 crank First steam locomotive gearwheel Richard Trevithick’s connects driving Penydarren locomotive wheel and axle exhibited the effectiveness of his high-pressure steam driving wheel engine when it made its first journey on February 21, 1804 in Wales. The locomotive’s engine could also be used as a stationary engine. track 1860 1897 1937 Gas engine Diesel engine Invented by Belgian The first diesel engine is built by Diesel Turbojet engine engineer Étienne Lenoir, French–German engineer Rudolf engine the first successful internal Diesel. Despite being heavier, English engineer Frank Whittle combustion engine—the his invention is more efficient gas engine—generates than gasoline engines, and uses and German engineer Hans power by burning gas and the heat of compression, rather air inside a cylinder. than a spark, to ignite fuel. von Ohain independently develop and test engines that burn fuel and use a fan to fire out Étienne Lenoir’s a continuous jet of hot air W2/700 gas engine to thrust a plane forward. Turbojet engine 1816 1876 1926 1956 Closed-cycle steam engine Four-stroke engine Liquid fuel rocket Rotary engine Scottish engineer Robert Stirling German engineer Nikolaus American engineer Robert German engineer invents a steam engine in which Otto’s powerful, four-stroke Goddard’s invents the rocket Felix Wankel creates gases remain within the system, cycle engine fires four engine. Thrust is achieved for a rotary engine that so there is no exhaust and little cylinders in turn, so fuel flight by burning liquid fuel. has a triangular rotor noise from explosions. ignited in each pushes inside an oblong down the piston on every cylinder instead fourth stroke. Four-stroke of pistons. Wankel’s rotary engine Daimler motorcycle 171

1803–04 ,, CONVEX OR CONICAL HEAPS, INCREASING UPWARD FROM A ,,HORIZONTAL BASE. Luke Howard, British meteorologist, describing cumulus clouds in Essay on the Modifications, 1803 British pharmacist and meteorologist Luke Howard derived the term cumulus from the Latin word for “heap.” As seen in this image, cumulus clouds appear cottonlike and tend to have flat bases. ON MARCH 28, 1803, THE that were the largest in the them into three simple Surgical breakthrough CHARLOTTE DUNDAS, designed Hanaoka Seishū carried by British engineer William world at the time. categories—cirrus, cumulus, and out the first successful Symington (1764–1831), became surgery using general the first practical steamboat In October 1803, British stratus—that are still used. anesthesia on a 60-year- when it towed two laden barges old woman who suffered through the Forth and Clyde chemist John Dalton presented On February 21, 1804, 25 years from breast cancer. Canal in Scotland. his atomic theory to an audience before Stephenson’s Rocket mineral composition The following year, another differed from that of British engineer, Thomas in Manchester, UK. He suggested (see 1829), a steam locomotive soil, indicating that Telford (1757–1834), began plants absorbed work on the Caledonian Canal that: all matter is composed designed by British engineer nutrients selectively. in Scotland. When completed in 1822, this canal was 60 miles of atoms; atoms cannot be Richard Trevithick (1771–1833) German pharmacist (100km) long and 101ft (30.5m) Friedrich Sertürner wide, with 28 locks—stretches made or destroyed; all atoms of hauled 70 passengers, 11.2 tons (1783–1841) became of water enclosed by gates— the first person to the same element are identical; (10 tonnes) of iron, and five isolate the active ingredient of a and different elements have wagons from the ironworks at medicinal plant. In experiments starting in 1803 and published different types of atoms. Dalton in 1805, he isolated morphine from opium. This substance 12also stated that chemical would later become invaluable Japanese surgeon Hanaoka in surgery. Seishū (1760–1835) performed reactions occur when atoms are the first successful surgery using rearranged, and that compounds JOHN DALTON (1766–1844) general anesthesia in October. are formed from atoms of The anesthetic was an orally the constituent elements. A Quaker schoolteacher, John administered herbal concoction. Dalton was secretary of the Also in 1803, British Manchester Literary and scientist William PERCENT Philosophical Society, UK, from Hyde Wollaston 1800. Best remembered for his theory of atoms, Dalton also THE AMOUNTadded to the number contributed to meteorology and studied color blindness, from of known elements by which he suffered. He made meteorological observations discovering palladium OF MORPHINE and published scientific papers and rhodium. well into his seventies. British pharmacist THAT OPIUM CAN CONTAIN and meteorologist Luke Howard (1772–1864) published Penydarren to the Merthyr- a description of Cardiff Canal in Wales, a distance clouds. He used Latin of 9 miles (14km). It reached a names to classify speed of nearly 5mph (8kmph). Swiss chemist Nicolas- Dalton’s table Théodore de Saussure (1767– of elements 1845) outlined the process of John Dalton was the photosynthesis (see 1787–88) first to use symbols and proved that both water and for elements, and to carbon dioxide are absorbed by calculate their atomic plants as they grow. Saussure weights. This table shows later analyzed the ashes of his symbols and atomic plants and showed that their weights for 20 elements. MaCrhbcaehrpclr2ooa8tmct,ete1iDsc8aut0lhn3sedtafiesarsmtboat 18p0u3MbolLidsuihkfieecsaHtEoioswsnaasryodof nCltohueds OcJtoohhbinsMeDaratna2olc1mtho, ein1cs8dtt0ehe3res,coUrrKiybeast 18S0em4rtFoürrripnehdeirrnicieshofrlaotmesopium ApTrhmiel ie5Hnt,ieSg1och8ro0iPtt4leoasnfsadillls ApTretilhlfoie1nr8dCS0abc4leoeTgtdlhiaononnsmdiwaanosrCkaonnal 18T0hp4éuoNRbdeilcoissorehelaaerdssce-hCShoaenumVseiscguaerletation 1 7 21803dWisilcloiavmersWaponaldllalrashdtooiudnmium navcigoJamutonpcrelireMc9teua,smt1ct8thonh0enae3wtvifiinBgFrearslniittntitiokdshnneheoroAswnfuatnshmtereaslia 180hi3sRfiorsbtesrbtteoFaaumtltoo-npnotthweiesnetSrsFeerdiannece JohntWBhereidtHiMgsowharotrhioccodhurlte7ticu,sut1rala8tblu0olSri4fsiosLhctoeienstdyon May 14C,l1a8rk04ExTpheedLiteiwonisbaenAgdilnemsx1a8atnhg0dan4etePrtthirvsueomsnisndHitaepeunnocmrlsneeibatsayotsutlooedrfsattEhlfifiaresnortdEmtshq’utshaetor OcStoebissehurūc1cce3as,rs1rgfi8uee0sln4seouHruratagltnehaarenoyekfiusartsshitnegsia

1805–06 1807–08 ,, …IT WOULD BE USELESS TO ,,ATTEMPT TO SPECULATE ON THE REMOTE CAUSE OF THE ELECTRICAL ENERGY… Humphry Davy, British chemist, from On Some Chemical Agencies of Electricity, 1806 A 1920 illustration of the American This engraving shows British chemist Humphry Davy conducting Lewis and Clark Expedition. experiments with metals, such as magnesium and barium. FRENCH CHEMISTS NICOLAS- IN 1807, THE NORTH RIVER First steamboat in the US paddle LOUIS VAUQUELIN (1763–1829) STEAMBOAT, later renamed Robert Fulton’s paddle steamer, wheel and Pierre-Jean Robiquet Clermont, carried passengers later named Clermont, was 133ft (1780–1840) isolated asparagine from New York City to Albany on (41m) long and 12ft (4m) wide. piston chimney from from asparagus in 1805. This was the Hudson River in New York, It had two paddle wheels, each cylinder coal furnace of the first amino acid (the building making it the first commercially 15ft (5m) in diameter. blocks of protein) to be identified. successful steamboat. Designed Swiss engineer François Isaac engine by American engineer Robert onto a drawing surface, de Rivaz (1752–1828) was also The next year, British inventor Fulton (1765–1815), the boat allowing the artist working on an engine design Unaware of earlier work in Ralph Wedgwood (1766–1837) completed the 150 mile (240km) to trace it. and received the patent for a the field in Europe, Irish-born was granted a patent for a type of journey in just over 30 hours. hydrogen-powered internal American mathematician Robert carbon paper. He had originally Another patent combustion engine in 1807. Adrain (1775–1843) published intended it to help visually In Britain, chemist Humphry was granted in This early engine used only two his version of the method of impaired people to write, but he Davy used electrolysis to isolate the same year to strokes. The four-stroke engine least squares in 1808. This later realized it could be used to pure forms of many metals, French inventors and (see panel, below) was not statistical technique minimizes make duplicates of letters. including magnesium, sodium, brothers Nicéphore developed until 1876. the sum of the squares of errors barium, and calcium. The first (1765–1833) and Claude Niépce made in a data set, and is used In September, the Lewis and metal separated in this way (1763–1828) for their invention of to fit curves (graphs) to data. Clark Expedition, commanded was potassium, in 1807. an internal combustion engine by Captain Meriwether Lewis called the pyréolophore (from (1774–1809) and Lieutenant William Hyde Wollaston the Greek words for fire, wind, William Clark (1770–1838) of the patented the camera lucida and bearer). A boat powered by US military, reached the Pacific (light room), a drawing aid for the engine, which burned fine Coast of North America. It had artists, in 1807. This device uses powders such as crushed coal been commissioned by US a four-sided prism to project an dust, was tested on the Seine President Thomas Jefferson to image of the scene to be drawn River in France. explore the Missouri River after the Louisiana Purchase—the US INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE purchase of 828,000 sq miles (2,100,000 sq km) of French Power is generated in an internal inlet valve inlet valve spark plug ignites motion of territory—in 1803. The expedition combustion engine by burning opens; air, shuts mixture, pushing crankshaft discovered several new species of fuel within a cylinder. Four-stroke fuel enter piston down makes plants and animals. engines operate on a four-stroke cylinder air–fuel wheels cycle. First, a valve lets fuel and mixture exhaust valve spin In November, British chemist air into the cylinder. A piston then crankshaft compressed opens, pushing Humphry Davy presented his moves upward in the cylinder, moves work on the electrolysis of compressing the air–fuel mixture. clockwise crankshaft waste out water—breaking down water into A spark plug ignites the mixture, rotates to hydrogen and oxygen by passing making it explode and pushing move piston crankshaft an electric current through it the piston down. The piston then turns (see 1834)—at the Royal Society pushes the exhaust gases out. up-and-down in London, UK. movement of piston into rotary motion INTAKE STROKE COMPRESSION STROKE IGNITION STROKE EXHAUST STROKE 18t0h5iesAfiisrsosptlaaartmeadgininoea, cid, OcRtaoplbappethearnpW7tee,srd1cg8aw0rb6ooond 18H0y7pdaWectaeWimlnloitaesllmratahseltuocnida JuFlryteh2nae0crh,Nae1niigeén8irnpv0npagec7toneneiwntrtebeodndrreatosharltehacpdteoarrmctsueobnnaustlsfootniron Fe1b8Jr0uus8daugAarcemnycttehJ1eheeIe1rnrds,iafdcssucaueeiinsntlFetoreb,ifluawltrlhhnRieicenhAvgombleuectroiiocmnanes 18A0dv8reaRorisfonilboepenaursbottlfissthqheueasmrheeissthod 1808 FrenchLcohuedimsisGicsaotJyv-oeLsrusespbshoarcon 1E8xS0pe6epdTtiehtaiemonCLnbdoetearhCwerselatiasPcorhakfAecNmsifiocertrhica No1vD8e0atm6hvyebHreeuerlmpe2ocp0rthtro,sorfylowynsaister 18D07aisvHoylubmameteegpetishanleelrssvycettuorrsoaillnygsis pa1te8nIp0sctoa7oswamFacerbharduyenesddçtRroiiooinivsgntaeezernnn-gailne Aucgoumssttme1ae7mr,cC1bia8loel0alry7tmi,nsTloauahnuctetegc,reufibsrnreassaglftmiujnolesudritnsey 173

1789–1894 THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS UNDERSTANDING POTASSIUM IN WATER When potassium reacts with water, COMPOUNDS hydrogen gas is released. The reaction also AND REACTIONS produces heat, which ignites the hydrogen. SUBSTANCES CAN CHANGE THEIR FORM IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS A chemical compound is a substance composed of two or more types of atom held together by chemical bonds. Water, for example, is made of hydrogen atoms bonded to oxygen atoms. Chemical reactions involve the breaking or forming of chemical bonds, resulting in new substances. Most solids, liquids, and gases are mixtures COMPOUNDS MOLECULES of compounds or elements (an element is a Any sample of a particular compound always The atoms that make up a molecule are joined substance made of only one kind of atom). Air, has the same ratio of the elements of which together by one or more covalent bonds, rather for example, is a mixture composed mainly of it is composed. For example, if the compound than the ionic bonds that hold atoms together the elements nitrogen and oxygen, with most of methane was broken down into its constituent in nonmolecular compounds such as sodium the rest consisting of the element argon and the atoms and the atoms were counted, the carbon chloride (common salt). The smallest molecules compounds water, carbon dioxide, and methane. (C) and hydrogen (H) atoms would always be in are composed of just two atoms, but some are In some compounds, the atoms bond by sharing the ratio of 1:4. As a result, every compound has much larger; proteins, for example, may consist electrons to form molecules (see right). This a chemical formula—methane's is CH4. of tens of thousands of atoms. Some elements kind of bond is called a covalent bond. In other can also exist as molecules. For instance, pure types of compound, the atoms have lost or gained hydrogen oxygen hydrogen hydrogen and oxygen are typically composed of electrons and are in the form of electrically two-atom (diatomic) molecules—H2 and O2. charged ions. These ions are held together by the electrical forces between them: ionic bonds. HOH covalent bond between 1,000 N nitrogen atom and MILLION MILLION hydrogen atom MILLION—ROUGHLY THE NUMBER OF MOLECULES chemical WATER H H AMMONIA MOLECULE IN ONE DROP OF WATER reaction When hydrogen and H Each molecule of the oxygen atoms react NH3 compound ammonia water together to make the formula is made up is made of one atom compound water, the of the symbols and of nitrogen bound to HO elements always each of three atoms of 2 combine in the ratio 2:1, ratios of the hydrogen by a covalent so the chemical symbol constituent atoms bond, so the formula for water is is H2O. of ammonia is NH3. REACTIONS The elements or compounds that take part in a reaction are called reactants. During a reaction, the bonds of the reactants break and new bonds bonds are broken and may form, producing one or more different new ones are energy released substances—known as the products. For formed example, in the reaction shown on the right, the atoms of two reactants combine to form a single compound as the product. The atoms involved in a reaction do not go out of or come into existence—they are ENERGETIC REACTION REACTANT 1 REACTANT 2 REACTION PRODUCT just rearranged, so Two reactants may react the total mass of the spontaneously when mixed, products is the same forming a new compound. In as the total mass of some reactions, energy may the reactants. be released, as when water and potassium react. 174

UNDERSTANDING COMPOUNDS AND REACTIONS carbon dioxide calcium ion O gas given off TYPES OF REACTION Ca Ca C carbon There are many different types of reaction, calcium carbonate atom including, for example, electrolysis (in which decomposes into C O an electric current splits a compound into its calcium oxide O O constituent parts) and acid–base reactions (in which an acid and base, or alkali, react O O oxygen ion covalent together). In general, however, reactions double can be categorized into three main types DECOMPOSITION REACTION bond according to what happens to the substances Heating the mineral limestone (calcium carbonate) causes involved: decomposition, synthesis, and it to decompose into calcium, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. CaCO3 CaO CO2 displacement (or replacement) reactions. The calcium and oxygen are in the form of ions (charged In a decomposition reaction, a compound particles); they form the ionic solid calcium oxide. The carbon calcium carbonate calcium oxide carbon dioxide breaks up into smaller parts. Synthesis is the dioxide is a gas composed of covalently bonded molecules. opposite: two or more compounds combine to form a single product. In a displacement reaction, part of one compound breaks away and becomes part of another. ,, THE WORLD Ca O O Ca O OF CHEMICAL O HH HH REACTIONS IS LIKE A STAGE, ON WHICH heat generated CaO H2O Ca(OH)2 SCENE AFTER SCENE may make IS CEASELESSLY water boil calcium oxide water calcium hydroxide brackets PLAYED. THE show that ACTORS ON IT ARE solution of calcium SYNTHESIS REACTION there are two hydroxide in water Adding calcium oxide to water produces hydroxides ,,THE ELEMENTS.  calcium hydroxide, which dissolves in the (OH) for every calcium remaining water. This is a synthesis calcium atom Clemens Alexander Winkler, oxide reaction because the product is composed German chemist, 1887 of all the atoms of the two ingredients. O Ca O Ca O C C O O O HH O O carbon dioxide H H added by bubbling it through the water Ca(OH)2 CO2 CaCO3 H2O DISPLACEMENT REACTION When carbon dioxide gas is calcium hydroxide carbon dioxide calcium carbonate water introduced into a solution of calcium hydroxide, the carbon water dioxide displaces the hydroxide in the calcium hydroxide, solid calcium producing calcium carbonate carbonate and water. The calcium carbonate forms solid particles in the solution. 175

1809 1810–11 Later commentators often depicted Lamarckian evolution with the idea that Mary Anning’s discovery of a fossil, later called ichthyosaur, confirmed that the oceans giraffes acquired long necks by stretching to reach high branches. too once held strange creatures that are no longer alive today. IN 1809, French biologist environment can alter genes BRITISH CHEMIST HUMPHRY ,, THE CEREBRUM Jean de Monet, Chevalier de and their expression—the study DAVY (1778–1829) amazed Lamarck (1744–1829) came up of this is know as epigenetics. audiences at his London science ,,I CONSIDER AS THE GRAND with one of the first systematic demonstrations with the glow theories about the evolution In Germany, mathematician from the first electric lamp, the ORGAN BY WHICH THE MIND of life. Lamarck argued that Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777– arc lamp, in which high voltage IS UNITED TO THE BODY. life evolved gradually, from the 1855) laid the foundations of was shot across the gap between simplest to the most complex. astronomical mathematics two carbon electrodes. Although Sir Charles Bell, from Idea of a New Anatomy of the Brain, 1811 He suggested that a change in with his gravitational constant. bright, the arc lamp was not the environment can provoke Newton had shown that there practical to use for everyday In 1811, Italian chemist Amedeo together. From this, Avogadro a change in an organism, and is a single universal figure, lighting. Everyday electric light Avogadro (1776–1856) reconciled deduced his hypothesis that these changes can also or constant, for the power of arrived only when American John Dalton’s atomic theory of that any gas at the same be inherited. According to him, gravitational attraction. Gauss’s inventor Thomas Edison elements (see 1803–04) with temperature and pressure useful characteristics develop insight was to devise a simple (1847–1931) and British physicist Gay-Lussac’s law of 1808, which always contains the same further over the generations, set of three measurements for Joseph Swan (1828–1914) said that when two gases react, number of molecules. and those that are not useful calculating gravity's effects in developed the incandescent lamp the volumes of the reactants fall into disuse and may which masses are measured (see 1878–79). Davy also proved and products are in simple Another milestone in chemistry disappear. Unlike Charles in solar masses (the mass of that chlorine is an element, and whole number ratios. Avogadro was the system of chemical Darwin (see 1859), Lamarck the Sun), distance is measured that muriatic acid is a compound realized the difference between symbols and formulae proposed had no mechanism to explain in terms of the longest diameter of hydrogen and chlorine (now atoms and molecules. So, simple by Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob how these changes occur. of Earth’s orbit, and time is known as hydrochloric acid), gases such as hydrogen and Berzelius (1779–1848) in 1811 One of his ideas was that an measured in days. From disproving French chemist oxygen are made of molecules that is still used today. He organism changes during these measurements he Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier’s theory of two or more atoms joined suggested that every element its life to adapt to its found a constant for gravity of that every acid contained oxygen. be identified simply by its initial environment, and these 0.01720209895. This number The daughter of a poor cabinet letter as a capital. Where two changes are then passed on was fed into calculations MARY ANNING (1799–1847) maker in the British coastal elements begin with the same to its offspring. This idea, called to work out planetary orbits. town of Lyme Regis, Mary letter, he added a second letter Lamarckian inheritance, was We now know that the Anning became the greatest or consonant of the name. To largely ridiculed by followers measurements Gauss used fossil hunter of the age. Among show the number of atoms of of Darwin, but there has were not as invariable as her key finds were the almost an element in a compound, he been renewed interest with originally thought, but despite complete skeletons of marine added a figure to the symbol. recent discoveries that the this his work has been of great reptiles such as the ichthyosaur So the formula for water is value to astronomers. and the plesiosaur. At the time, H2O, indicating there are two Anning was one of the foremost atoms of hydrogen for each 0.01720209895 experts on the anatomy of one of oxygen. these fossil creatures. THE UNIVERSAL CONSTANT Meanwhile, on the south coast FOR GRAVITY, ACCORDING of England, 11-year-old Mary Anning made the first of her TO CARL FRIEDRICH GAUSS many key fossil finds. It was of an ichthyosaur—a marine reptile FrJeenpacunhZbodzlPoieoshliohoLnillgehoaocishmgseqoiraPusaiprehttraahic(lcnyZkot)coseeeoorslpoiopshfgtoiaiieucccssaqilnugirethde GeCramerslagtFnarrabmivleiisadthtarhietceisohmnhGaaisaltiuccsoiasnnstant 18c1h0DeaBmthvriyleisitgtdifisheHrhtmsu:tmtoehnpleeshtcarrtryarcticelasmp 18D1a0cvhHylousrmhionpwehsrisythaantelement18p1h0HaaBrpmsraliraataimcsnihsodtiedJsoschcrnhibizeosphrenia 18f1o1sAsnBiicnlrhihinttuihgsnhyfitoensrdaMsuraanrfyossil PhilipFpreenPcinhsepclhhdiyezssoiccprihaibrneensia neuGroaaollnffpal1uoit8noco1cnamt0eliipoiezsGlnartaesstFciroeimrtnnahsanpeoinncafiidrbtstehricaeauibnlararin 181J1önSswinJestadyrcosisotdhebumccBheeoserfmmzceihosleisdtumyesmrincbaolls 181p1ArImotapeloidsaeenoscAAhvvehoomyggpaiasoddttrrhooe’ssis 176

1812 ,, …RAGE FOR RAILROADS A coal train is hauled by steam locomotive Salamanca at the Middleton ,,IS SO GREAT THAT MANY Colliery Railway, UK, in 1814. WILL BE LAID IN PARTS WHERE THEY WILL NOT PAY. George Stephenson, British civil engineer, in a letter to Joseph Sandars, December 1824 atomic atomic THE FRENCH trains successfully for MOHS SCALE number weight REVOLUTION’S the first time, on an introduction of the metric adapted track initially The scale rates mineral 26 55.845 system in the 1790s built in the 1750s to hardness from 1 to 10 in created chaos, as many enable horses to pull terms of standard minerals. Fe people insisted on wagons full of coal from Geologists use scratch tests continuing to use the the Middleton mine. to identify a mineral—for IRON local units of measure example, one that scratches that existed in different In the 1790s, apatite but is scratched by name chemical towns. So, in 1812, French Frenchman Nicholas quartz is a 6 on the scale. symbol emperor Napoléon Appert had developed Bonaparte introduced sealed glass jars to 1 TALC CHEMICAL SYMBOLS the mesures usuelles preserve food, but the 2 GYPSUM (standard measures), glass was breakable. 3 CALCITE The system of symbols which combined basic New metric system Then in 1810, British 4 FLUORITE devised by Berzelius is used metric units—such as the meter This engraving satirizes the merchant Peter Durand 5 APATITE by chemists even today. Each and kilogram—and old familiar confusion French people had in patented the tin can, which was 6 ORTHOCLASE element is indicated by the measures. This system was adopting the metric system, which made of iron coated with tin to 7 QUARTZ intitial letter or two of its finally replaced in 1840 with is why Napoleon introduced the prevent rusting. In 1812, 8 TOPAZ Latin name—the symbol the full metric system. compromise—mesures usuelles. American engraver Thomas 9 CORUNDUM for iron, Fe, comes from its Kensett (1786–1829) established 10 DIAMOND Latin name, ferrum. The box In this year, German geologist four legs), in which he argued the first food preservation in the periodic table for each Friedrich Mohs (1773–1839) that many more species lived on factory in New York, for element shows its atomic devised a system to identify Earth in the past and that every preserving oysters, meat, fruit, number, its atomic weight, minerals. It was based on the rock bed contains fossils from and vegetables in glass jars. In and the number of protons physical properties, such as a different time in Earth’s past. 1825, Kensett set up the first in the nucleus of each atom. hardness, color, and shape. Mohs In line with geologists who US canning factory. noticed that hard minerals could believed that the landscapes James Barry (c.1792–1865)— shaped like a dolphin—that lived scratch softer ones. He of the world were shaped by a born and raised as Margaret Ann at the time of the dinosaurs. developed a scratch test to series of catastrophes, Cuvier Bulkley—chose to live as a man determine the hardness of argued that the world had been so she could be accepted into Also in Britain, anatomist each mineral and a scale of 10 overcome by past catastrophes university. In 1812, she became Charles Bell published Idea standard minerals—now known or revolutions, which had swept the first woman to qualify as of a New Anatomy of the Brain, as the Mohs scale—on which to away a large number of species. a medical doctor, graduating which distinguished between place each mineral. French from the University of Edinburgh, the sensory and motor nerves paleontologist Georges Cuvier Meanwhile, the first Scotland. She went on to become of the brain. (1769–1832) published the steamboat service in Europe a distinguished surgeon. Discours Préliminaire opened with the paddlesteamer (Preliminary Discourse), an PS Comet plying on the River introduction to his essays on Clyde in Scotland. In Middleton, fossil quadrupeds (animals with West Yorkshire, UK, steam locomotives were used to haul 18n1e1CuhBrdoarisarsittleniiesnnashgstoBoumriesylihlsaetnsdbmetowtoerennerves GeFrrmcierahednaaritrgcedhesnoMehlosiosgshimssstcinaleeral FrpeanGlcaehaeorohrgngauttevehoesseloCbtpgheuaiaesvsttnitesbwrpyiepcceaiedtasosutrtoinphes AuFgisrusesttrhtvsie1intce5ReSaicovmoepbtrelonaCansltydodne MaBruBglakatrhrleerqetyyu——fiAinarnalbsBinseftrycJwiotaaaomsmimnaeeassdnotcotor 1811 FBreerdnnicsahcrodcvhCeeormsuriisototdiisne BFeonbarpuaarrtyem1ine2tsrNuoradepusoculeessoutnehleles AsutegoaunmstthCt1erWo2aMleliFinsieditrrrdsyYulotenlritsnkoesn,inUK ThoAmmaesprtKirhceeaesnnUeserSevnt’satgtsrfiiaeorvtsnsetfrfuaopcotdory 177

1813–14 1815 Fraunhofer lines are dark lines in a light spectrum created by the absorption Mount Tambora on Sumbara Island in Indonesia was the site the largest volcanic events in recorded history. of certain wavelengths by gases. The pattern reveals the identity of the gas. The eruption took 4,593ft (1,400m) in height off the cone of the volcano. ON MARCH 13, 1813, BRITISH colors. When sunlight passed MOUNT TAMBORA ON THE became the model for all ENGINEER William Hedley through the glass, Fraunhofer INDONESIAN ISLAND of geological maps. (1779–1843) patented a design noticed dark lines (Fraunhofer Sumbawa erupted on April 5. It for a steam locomotive known Lines) where color in the was the most powerful volcanic The canals Smith helped as Puffing Billy. It began hauling light spectrum was missing. eruption in recorded history— to build were essential to coal trucks in Northumberland, Fraunhofer was not the first to the explosions could be heard as the accelerating Industrial England, in 1814 and is the notice these lines, but in 1814 he far away as 1,616 miles (2,600km). Revolution in Britain, as were the world’s oldest surviving steam was the first to start an extensive mines that provided coal for fires locomotive. The greatest pioneer study of them, and in doing so The role of fossils in studying and steam engines. Mining was of steam railroads, George provided a basis for the science Earth’s history was revealed dangerous work, however, and Stephenson (1781–1848), also of spectroscopy (see 1884–85). by British geologist William miners lived in constant fear of Smith (1769–1839). hitting pockets of methane or ,, HE [WELLS] DISTINCTLY Working as other flammable gases, known William Smith’s geological map RECOGNIZES THE PRINCIPLE a surveyor, as firedamp, which could This pioneering map of Britain OF NATURAL SELECTION… overseeing the explode if they reached the showed the geological make-up of THIS IS THE FIRST digging of canals, the country and set a precedent for RECOGNITION… BUT HE Smith noticed that naked flame of their geological maps in the future. widely separated candles. British scientist ,,APPLIES IT ONLY TO MAN. outcrops of the same Humphry Davy invented Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937) rock strata could the miners’ safety lamp. named the proton partly in Charles Darwin, British naturalist, The Origin of Species by Means of be identified by the The lamp’s flame was honour of Prout. Natural Selection, 4th edition, 1866 fossils they contain. wrapped in wire mesh He used this to create that reduced the chance In France, scientist Jean- built his first steam locomotive Elsewhere in 1814, news was the first geological of it igniting gases. Baptiste Biot (1774–1862) was in the north of England; it first delivered with the help of map in 1799, and in experimenting with polarized ran on July 25, 1814. steam-powered presses at 1815 he published In chemistry, the atomic light—light vibrating in just The Times newspaper in London. a geological map of theory of elements was a single plane (see panel, In London, in 1813, American Britain. His map gaining supporters. opposite). On October 23, he physician William Wells (1757– In Connecticut, inventor Eli British scientist William shone a beam of polarized light 1817) read a paper to the Royal Terry (1772–1852) developed wire mesh Prout (1785–1850) through a tube of turpentine Society in which he explained a groundbreaking design for a prevents flame concluded from studying and noticed how the plane of racial differences on the basis of mass-produced clock that could tables of atomic weights polarization was rotated. Other a process of evolution involving be made by machines instead from igniting (see 1803–04) that every organic liquids, such as lemon natural selection. of being hand-assembled by mine gasses weight is a multiple of juice, produced the same effect. skilled clockmakers. This the weight of a hydrogen This rotation is at the heart of In Bavaria, German optician made clocks more affordable. Davy lamp atom, and that the the Liquid Crystal Displays Joseph von Fraunhofer was This miner’s safety hydrogen atom is the (LCD) now widely used in making fine optical glass for lamp consisted of display screens. separating light into different a cylinder of wire only fundamental gauze containing particle from which a wick attached all other elements to an oil reservoir. are made up. He was not right, but a century later, in 1920, 18p1h3WysBesiltrclabiistatyiesmnnmhWaa–ektAinuelmltrsiaaaetmlbhrsoieceCuafilhtenraecsrvttlioeoclslnuetairon 18P1u4loffiWcinonitlmgoliBaosmteiilrvlyveHicsegetdoeleaesmy’s 18i1n4vcerAmenmataoteesrrssEi-ctlphairnTeoefidrurryscted clock ApinriIln5doMnoeusniat eTarumpbtsora Jehaonrw-oBtpaaotpeltadisrbitzeyeBldiiqoluitgisdhhstoisws 1 7 8MpaaWrtceilhnloit1asf3mPt,hu1Hef8efid1dne3lgseiyBgnillyJuSlyte2p5ehn,el1gno8iscn1ooeh4nmeisBrionfirGttiirretvoiseosdtr,husgBcteleeuascmher 1814sJpoesccetrpreohastvceoosnptyFFhrreaaansuudcnnidhehinoosTfcfcheeeoerrvoeLlfiirsonsnepNdsrooinnvpteeTrmdeimsbbseyesfrsont2ree9tawh,me1sp8-fida1rpr4sietvrteinme WthoielnlhilayymdfurPnodrgoaeumnt easntuotgamglepissatrtshtiecle WilliamthSemfiitrhsmtpguaepboloilsofhgBeirsciatalin presNHesnoautvfmseetptmyhhelbRrayeommryDiapna9lvetSoyrostc’hieety

1816–17 10 MILES PER HOUR THE AVERAGE SPEED OF DRAIS’S LAUFMASCHINE Karl von Drais’s Laufmaschine (running machine) was a forerunner of the bicycle and the first two-wheeled form of personal transportation. each ring AUGUSTIN-JEAN FRESNEL (1788–1827) polarized light do not create refracts light interference fringes if they are at a different angle polarized in different planes. Fresnel worked as an engineer In 1816, British physicist David during the Napoleonic Wars of Brewster (1781–1868) calculated 1803 to 1815. Afterward, he Brewster’s Angle—the angle at began to research light and which light must strike an object optics, making key contributions at for maximum polarization. to understanding the nature of In 1817, three new elements light waves, diffraction, and were discovered: cadmium polarization. He is best known by German chemist Friedrich for his invention of the stepped Stromeyer (1776–1835); lithium glass Fresnel lens, which is by Swedish chemist Johann commonly used in lighthouses. Arfwedson (1792–1841); and selenium by Swedish chemist Jöns Berzelius (1779–1848). THE THEORY THAT LIGHT 1817 Fresnel began to explore In Germany, Baron Karl von TRAVELS IN WAVES (see 1801) polarization, which was then Drais (1785–1851) invented was backed up in 1816 by a series thought irreconcilable with an early bicycle known as the of precise experiments with wave theory. Polarized light Laufmaschine—propelled by feet diffraction—the way light spills is reflected in just one plane; rather than pedals. His first public around objects into shadows— Fresnel found that beams of ride took place on June 12, 1817. by French engineer Augustin- Jean Fresnel. When Fresnel POLARIZATION shone a light through slits, he detected tiny fringes of light Augustin-Jean Fresnel worked Ordinary light vibrates at every that could only be produced by out that light moves forward in angle or plane, but when it is interference between waves. waves that vibrate transversely— polarized—by passing through a Fresnel backed this up with perpendicularly to the direction polarizing filter—the vibrations detailed calculations of how in which they are traveling. are reduced to a single plane. a light wave might move beam of ordinary polarizing light second filter blocks and produce diffraction. light vibrating on vibrating in one plane polarized light numerous planes Working with French physicist François Arago (1786–1853), in stepped lens Fresnel lighthouse lens focuses the His experiments in light and optics led beam Fresnel to create a special lens for use in lighthouses; it was also sometimes used in theater lights. It focuses the light using multiply polarizing filter stepped glass, rather than a single thick lens. 18D1a6cvaiAldcnuBglraleetweossftBpeorrelawrsiztaetrio’sn 18R1o6pbaBhetreroitnttiStastifhriorreelinnnthgggeiinnoSebetetiarrilninsga 18F1r7AesrAeanuxgepgpolouealbsranetirmidgnizi-FenaJrntetatihoansennçoiornis 18S1t7droiFsmrcioeevydeerrrischcadmium 18J1o7dhiasnconvAerrfsvleidthsiounm sut1hs8ep1eFS6PnapwTshlilidhiisroleeeanord-fifcbBerSalrsrpcbiitddhhleggiuaeey,,loakptilel,ns F1r8ef1os6rneAthluefilginwugdhsasttvineien-vtJidhdeieefaofnnrrcayecotifon Bp1rhte8hyw1se7sicktBieasrrlteiptDiiadsatohvesindctospe Junevo1n2D, 1ra8i1sp7utaBbklaieLcrsoarnutihdfKmeeafioarnrslschthiisne 181d7isJcöonvesrBsesrezleelniuiusm 179

1818 1819 4 FLUID OUNCES THE AMOUNT OF BLOOD BLUNDELL EXTRACTED To perform the first successful blood transfusion, James Blundell took William Parry’s ships HMS Hecla and blood from the arm of his assistant and injected it into the patient. HMS Griper, trapped in the Arctic ice. THE BRITISH PHYSICIST commercial, but they showed the Robert Stirling invented a heat Cuvier studied fossils in hole placed on MICHAEL FARADAY (1791–1867), value of a scientific approach. engine that was intended as an the possession of the British patient’s body later famous for his work on alternative. His engine worked by clergyman William Buckland, electromagnetism, spent the The demands of industry continually compressing and found near Stonesfield in Stethoscope initial years of his career accelerated progress in expanding air or another gas England a few years earlier. Leaennec’s concentrating on chemistry. technology, and the increased in a closed space. The Stirling Cuvier confirmed that these stethoscope allowed Together with the utensil maker status of engineers was reflected engine didn’t catch on at the time fossils belonged to a gigantic doctors to hear James Stodart, Faraday began to in the founding of the Institute of although recently it has excited extinct lizard. murmurs inside experiment with different steel Civil Engineers in London. Steam interest as a simple and low a patient’s chest. alloys to incorporate rare metals locomotives were becoming more maintenance power source for This period also saw the such as platinum. These new than curiosities, but they were everything from use in the Third growing professionalism of earpiece alloys were too expensive to be still expensive to run and liable World to space exploration. surgeons and doctors. London to explode. British engineer doctor James Blundell saved a ANOTHER MEDICAL ADVANCE Stirling hot air engine At the same time, the natural mother from bleeding to death was the simple stethoscope, The Stirling engine world continued to hold after giving birth with the first invented by Parisian physician could alternately fascination for many people. successful blood transfusion. René Laennec (1781–1826) in compress and expand French naturalist Georges He used a syringe to extract 1816 to listen to the heartbeart hot air, making it a blood from the arm of a donor and breathing patterns. It was far quieter and more gas is heated in the hot cylinder, and he injected it into the arm first described in his 1819 book on efficient machine. building pressure to move the piston of the patient. This was before diagnosis, De l’Auscultation doctors realized what caused Mediate (On Mediate Auscultation). conducting pipe cool cylinder where the hot gas blood to clot or knew about blood His stethoscope allowed carries heat to the is cooled, lowering its pressure groups (see 1901). physicians to diagnose diseases sooner and far more accurately. hot cylinder wheel is driven by piston Also in Paris, French physicists cooling pipes Alexis Petit (1791–1820) and draw heat from power meter Pierre Dulong (1785–1838) gas in the cool found a way to verify the atomic weights of elements. In 1803, cylinder British chemist John Dalton had put forward an atomic theory, piston rod driven by stating that each element is pressure changes in the made of atoms of a particular weight, but establishing the hot and cool cylinders BRriottibhseehrSet ntSigrtilirninleignegreningviennets FrpehnLycashheiicnssiantielnne’AtvcMhRuedoenseesnctdcsiuéiooaclntprtaeieobtifeiontsnhDee BMreitixcisphhearesiclmiFseeatnnertteaissldtwaayliltohys BLolunndfidorensltldscouaccrtcroieressJstarofmuaulntebstshlfoueosdion FrenchdJiacshccoqevumeeirssstThLhyoédpunreiasorrgodexnide 180

,,1820 THE EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION BY WHICH ,,AMPÈRE ESTABLISHED THE LAW OF THE MECHANICAL ACTION BETWEEN ELECTRIC CURRENTS IS ONE OF THE MOST BRILLIANT ACHIEVEMENTS IN SCIENCE. James Clerk Maxwell, British theoretical physicist, from A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, 1873 112°51’W DANISH PHYSICIST HANS ANDRÉ-MARIE AMPÈRE (1775–1836) CHRISTIAN ØRSTED (1777–1851) THE LONGITUDE IN THE NORTHWEST revealed the link between Born near Lyon in France, PASSAGE REACHED BY HMS HECLA electricity and magnetism. At André-Marie Ampère was a AND HMS GRIPER a public lecture in Copenhagen, talented mathematician and he astonished the audience by teacher. He laid the foundations weights proved to be a difficult through the Arctic was an showing a compass needle of electromagnetic theory and task. Petit and Dulong found that attractive proposition for move as he brought it near a wire discovered that the magnetic an element’s specific heat (see commercial interests in Europe, conducting electricity. Influenced interaction of two electrical 1761–62)—the amount of heat because the routes to the south by Ørsted’s discovery, French wires is proportional to their required to raise the temperature were long and stormy. British physicist André-Marie length and the strength of the by one degree Celsius—is naval officer William Parry led an Ampère created a theory of current flowing through them. inversely proportional to its expedition to find the Northwest electromagnetism. This showed This is known as Ampère’s Law. atomic weight. By measuring the Passage in 1819 and succeeded. that electric currents flowing in specific heat of an element, Petit He reached Melville Island in the opposite directions create In Paris, French naturalist Also in Paris, chemists Pierre- and Dulong were able to make an Arctic and won the prize offered magnetic fields that cause Georges Cuvier ridiculed Joseph Pelletier (1788–1842) estimate of its atomic weight. by Parliament for crossing a the wires to be attracted, while the ideas of fellow naturalist and Joseph Bienaimé Caventou longitude of 110° West. Parry’s currents flowing the same way Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, (1795–1877) worked on isolating During this period, finding ships, HMS Hecla and HMS Griper, lead to the wires being repelled. who argued that species medically active ingredients a sailing route to the Pacific were trapped by frozen sea until have transformed, or evolved, from plants. In 1820, they the spring of 1820 when the ice British physicist John through time. This idea is now isolated quinine from cinchona 20% of the journey was finally melted. Herapath (1790–1868) explained an accepted part of the theory bark, which later became steam powered how temperature and pressure of evolution. important in treating malaria. Another ship, the SS Savannah, in gas are created by moving 80% of the became the first ship to cross the molecules, an early version of journey was Atlantic using steam engines, the kinetic theory of gases. sail powered sailing from Savannah in the USA on May 22 and arriving in ELECTROMAGNETS Voyage of the SS Savannah Liverpool in England 18 days While the SS Savannah was the first later. This feat was not repeated An electric current creates its own current flows strong magnetic field created ship to cross the Atlantic using for over 20 years. Despite being magnetic field, and this is the basis of through the around the wire by the current steam power, the ship used its equipped with luxury cabins, an electromagnet. These are powerful coiled wire steam engines for only 41½ hours however, no passengers could magnets that can be switched on and iron core during the 207-hour voyage. be persuaded to join the off with an electric current. A solenoid voyage because of the ship’s (coil of wire) is a common form of electric current revolutionary design: a sailing electromagnet. The more coils of provided by the ship that also contained a steam wire, the stronger the magnetic field. engine operated by paddle wheels. Electromagnets are vital to the battery operation of everything from the speaker in a phone to electric motors. JuSnStehS2teao0vfiOcarcrnsoetnsasasnthethiasemAsthlaipntic CaHpatMall1iinnd8tpe1Jeva9orerchrtlhnosiflapHene.gduestahinbegle JaSnigubhyaFtrRainyubg2sies8onifaBAnnesltulainnrcdgtesichraausen JaonfuuAnanBdrtreyaarr3ncE0stidficSweailgadbhrydtiBnrgitish SeApnbtdeertmghéiee-nbMlsbeeaacrwrts2oriieco0rkmAthmtaoegpoenèrseyrtetaoibsf mlish AugWuilsleitlaxoBmpnregidPtiitisauthirdorenAy r1ruce1nta2idcc°eh5r1e’sW DuaFlnroenenglicesahminncedvhneAetrm’lsseexitasoiltstyositPpmsPreiisotceipptrweorficeernitifigdiochnthaelat phyØseicrAisspttberHediatlswn2hse1oaeCwDnnhdsaerntmilhisesteachigatlrninniecktitisym July ØHarapsnatseemoldCepuhcphttrulhriebsoitsltmiissaideahnetgetanisnsegtoinsm NoveAmntbarecrtiN1c7aatSbhiyagnAhimteinlegPriaoclfamner 181

1821–22,, I… FOUND A PORTION OF THE LUNG AS LARGE AS A TURKEY’S EGG, PROTRUDING THROUGH THE EXTERNAL WOUND, ,,LACERATED AND BURNT. William Beaumont, US army surgeon, from Experiments and Observations on the Gastric Juice, and the Physiology of Digestion, 1833 US army surgeon William Beaumont inserted a tube into the stomach of his colleague Alexis St. Martin, who had been injured by a gunshot. BUILDING ON DANISH PHYSICIST slightly different movement freely pivoting Faraday’s experiment the carboniferous (coal-bearing) HANS CHRISTIAN ØRSTED’S of heat through each of the wire A replica of the apparatus Michael strata of northern England . discovery in 1820 that an electric two metals disturbs atoms to Faraday used to demonstrate the current makes a magnet move, generate an electric current, a magnet principle of electromagnetic rotation, The same year, British computer British scientist Michael phenomenom called the Seebeck water completes which is the basis of electric motors. pioneer Charles Babbage Faraday (see 1837) showed or thermoelectric effect. the circuit (1791–1871) proposed his that a wire carrying an electric discovered ancient remains ingenious idea for a Difference current moved in a circle around In the field of geology, Mantell (1790–1852) found of a hyena’s den, with bones of Engine: a calculating machine a fixed magnet, and that a Swiss geologist Ignatz Venetz teeth of a huge reptile he called rhinoceroses, elephants, and built from cogs and rods that suspended magnet moved in (1788–1859) suggested that an iguanadon, which was later lions, showing that wildlife in would work automatically and a circle around a fixed wire in the past, during an ice age, identified as a dinosaur. In the British Isles was once eliminate human error. carrying a current. He had the world was colder and Yorkshire, British naturalist very different. discovered electromagnetic Europe was covered in William Buckland (1784–1856) American army surgeon rotation—the principle of the glaciers that shaped Geologists were starting William Beaumont (1785–1853) electric motor. much of its landscape. to identify the different ages was the first person to observe in Earth’s past from fossils human digestion in the stomach. German-Estonian scientist On the English coast, found in rocks. In 1822, British He performed experiments on a Thomas Seebeck (1770–1831) near Lyme Regis in Dorset, geologists William Phillips soldier who had been shot in the observed that a compass needle fossil collector Mary Anning (1775–1828) and William abdomen, and pioneered gastric wavers when it is close to a loop (see 1810–11) found the first Conybeare (1787–1857) made endoscopy—inserting a tube to of two different metals that are fossil plesiosaur—a huge marine the first identification of a look inside the stomach. cooled in one place and heated reptile that lived 65–195 million geological period. They named in another. This is because the years ago. The following year, it the Carboniferous period after another fossil hunter, Gideon GEOGLOGICAL PERIODS Layers of rock form one on top 542 mya 488 mya 433 mya 416 mya 359 mya 299 mya 251 mya 199 mya 145 mya 65 mya 1.6 mya of the other, with the oldest at Cambrian Ordovician Silurian Devonian Carboniferous Permian Triassic Jurassic Quaternary the bottom, unless they have Period Period Period Period Period Period Period Period Cretaceous Tertiary been disturbed. The sequence Period forms the geological column Period Period and is the basis for dividing Earth’s history into geological periods, identified originally by the fossils found in each rock layer. The oldest, deepest layer is the Cambrian Period 542–488 million years ago— the first era when life left enough fossils to date it. 18p2r1aogpIgeonstaehtsezohVriesyniceetz 18S2e1tehTbeherocmkmodaeislsecJcootvhreiacrnsentfhfeect 18A2u1cgoFuomrnseptntilnhec-ethJepepsoahhlnyaissFriicwrzeiasasttvnieoenlthoefolrigyht 18d2is2ocfGoaivndeerigosunfaoMnssoaidnlottenelelth 18g2e2JoulBioldiegeelinngstitdaifiJ’nOeemsantah-lBeiuaCsprdtei’stHtaeac-lelooyus Period 1822 WilligpaaimosntBreieecraesunmhduoomnsctaonpy JulyB3a,b1b8dap2igrf2oefepCprohuesabnarlclilesfeohserenshgiisne 1821 pMlfiaenrsydiosAstnahnueirnfifgrosstsil Mice1hl8ae2ec1ltrFBoarmritaaidsghanyesdctiiicsecnrootivtseatrtison Wil1li8a2m2CWoCinllayiarbbmeoanPreihfeiidlrleiopnustsiafPynetdhreiod 182

1823–24 ,, BRAILLE IS A B C D E F G H I J KNOWLEDGE; KNOWLEDGE IS ,,POWER. K L M N O P Q R S T Louis Braille, French inventor of Braille writing A simple invention by a blind French boy to help him read, Braille has become a window into the world of books for millions of visually impaired people. DURING 1823–24, SCIENTISTS description of a dinosaur Megalosaurus bones WERE STUDYING THE NIGHT (although the term was not Drawings of megalosaurus sky as well as the history of coined until 1842)—he identified bones from William Earth. Bavarian astronomer some fossils as a giant extinct Buckland’s 1824 paper, Franz von Gruithuisen lizard called megalosaurus. which contained the first (1774–1852) realized craters on scientific description the Moon were formed by past French mathematician Joseph of a dinosaur. meteorite impacts. Another Fourier, calculated that Earth German astronomer, Heinrich is too far from the Sun to be suggested that heat published Reflections on the they lose heat every time hot Olbers (1758–1840), asked why warmed to the temperature it is trapped by Earth’s Motive Power of Fire and on gases are released before the the night sky is dark. Surely, if is by solar radiation alone. He atmosphere. This was Machines Fitted to Develop that next cycle. The Carnot cycle there is an infinite number of the first identification Power. This book contained the shows the maximum theoretical stars, then it should be possible JOSEPH FOURIER of what later became first successful theory of heat efficiency for all engines. Carnot to see a star in every direction (1768–1830) known as the engines, which is now known laid the foundations for the and, as a result, the night sky greenhouse effect. as the Carnot cycle. All heat science of thermodynamics should be bright. Olbers was Joseph Fourier was a brilliant engines are inefficient because (see 1847–48). not the first scientist to ask this mathematician who went with Hungarian question, but it has become Napoleon to Egypt in 1798 mathematician János 700THE NUMBER known as Olbers’ Paradox. to decode hieroglyphs. He Bolyai (1802–60) OF DINOSAUR Today, this paradox is known to studied heat transfer and pioneered a new form SPECIES THAT be the result of space expanding, identified the greenhouse of geometry—non- HAVE BEEN which diminishes the apparent effect. His studies of waves Euclidean geometry. IDENTIFIED brightness of distant stars in led to Fourier analysis, the It breaks away from many directions, causing the mathematical analysis of wave Euclid’s definition of sky to appear dark. forms, now used in everything parallel lines on a flat, from touch screens to two-dimensional surface British naturalist William understanding brain function. (see 400–335BCE), and frees Buckland made two momentous mathematicians to contemplate contributions to the field of abstract multidimensional ideas, geology. The first was his such as the curved nature of discovery, in a cave on the space, time, and the Universe, coast of Wales, UK, of the first and parallel lines fossilized human remains that can actually cross. ever found. Buckland wrongly identified them as being those of A blind 15-year-old French boy a Roman woman. Carbon-dating called Louis Braille (1809–52) (see 1955) has since confirmed invented the six-dot code later they are, in fact, of a 33,000-year- known as Braille. This writing old man. Buckland’s second system enables blind or partially contribution, in 1824, was when sighted people to read and is now he gave the first scientific used in virtually every country. Also in France, engineer Nicolas Sadi Carnot (1796–1832) 18o2u3tlHineeisnrOiclbheOrlsb’eprasradox 18C2h3inaBvrelrenisttissMhwacachitneetrmopsirshotof fabric 18S2a4CdaNitrhCinceaoorrtlmnacosoytcdLelyéesnotaaannmbadlriidscshes 18G2r4curFimatrhtaeeuntriesszoevwrnoeinsmruepgfagocertmsstsedMboyon 1i8s2i3nsTltihagelhletFhdroeiunssnCeeolirnldeFonursaannce 1823diWsciollviaehmrsumBpruaecnhkirlsaetnmodraiicns 182n3onJ-áEnuocsliBdoelaynaigienovemnetstry B1ufi8crk2sl4tandWodefislamlcidaramiiknpeotissoanur 1824 JgorseedepinshhcoFouoveusrersieetrfhfeect 1824 iLnovueinstsBrBariallielle 183

1789–1894 THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS Abacus 1617 Napier’s Bones 1642 Arithmometer Napier’s Bones Pascaline c.2700 BCE Invented by John Napier, Blaise Pascal invents one of 1820 First abacus this set of inscribed rods the first mechanical calculators Arithmometer The abacus is invented in or “bones” provides a capable of simple arithmetic. Thomas de Colmar builds the Sumer (present-day Iraq) quick way of multiplying first commercially successful and is soon widespread. or dividing large numbers. Pascaline mechanical calculating machine. c.100 BCE 1630 1801 Antikythera Slide rule Mechanical loom mechanism Invented by English mathematician William Joseph Marie Jacquard’s This early Greek Oughtred, the slide rule is used to multiply, loom is controlled by device uses bronze divide, and calculate roots and logarithms. cards with punched holes, gears to calculate a system later adopted by astronomical Slide rule early computers. positions. Jacquard loom Antikythera mechanism THE STORY OF CALCULATING MACHINES CALCULATING HAS BEEN IMPORTANT FOR SCIENCE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY The word calculate is derived from the Latin calculus, or “little stone,” referring to the ancient practice of using stones to perform calculations. Since then, increasingly sophisticated devices have been invented to perform the complex calculations demanded by advances in the sciences. The first calculating device, the abacus, evolved cards to control the working of his looms. The BINARY NUMBERS when counting stones were arranged on a frame, idea of a calculating machine capable of carrying and remained the most widely used means of out different programmable functions was Unlike the decimal system, which uses the numbers calculating until the 17th century. A breakthrough originated by British mathematician Ada 0 to 9, the binary numeral system uses only two came with Scottish mathematician John Napier’s Lovelace. The same idea was taken up by British symbols, 0 and 1. In this system, 1 is represented discovery of logarithms (see 1614–17), and his inventor Charles Babbage in his concept of an by 1, 2 by 10, 3 by 11, 4 by 100, and so on. Because invention of the calculating device known as “Analytical Engine.” there are only two symbols, the binary system is Napier’s Bones. The first mechanical calculators ideal for use in digital electronic computers, where also appeared in the 17th century, prompted by The first electrical computers began to appear the two possible states of an electronic circuit, off the need for accurate astronomical tables. in the 1930s, and with the introduction of integrated or on, correspond to the digits 0 and 1. circuits, or chips, smaller and more powerful PROGRAMMABLE MACHINES computers and calculators eventually became During the Industrial Revolution, a French viable. By the mid-1970s, entire processing units weaver, Joseph Marie Jacquard, used punched on silicon chips—microprocessors—enabled the production of personal computers. ,, ALL WHICH IS BEAUTIFUL AND NOBLE IS THE RESULT OF ,,REASON AND CALCULATION. Charles Baudelaire, French poet (1821–67) 184

THE STORY OF CALCULATING MACHINES 1889 Hollerith tabulator 1960s 1970s Electronic calculator Microprocessor chips The electrical tabulating Electronic desktop Integrated circuits calculators emerge in the containing thousands machine invented by Herman 1960s with the invention of transistors become of the transistor. Pocket commercially available Hollerith in the US is the first calculators soon follow. for use in computers. device to use punched cards to store data rather than Hollerith tabulator control a process. Pocket calculator Microchip 1822 1939 1980s–present Babbage’s Difference Engine The Bombe Personal computers Charles Babbage begins work on the design of Based on a Polish design, this electromechanical device The so-called “microcomputer a machine capable of complex calculations. is built in Britain during World War II to decipher codes. revolution” takes off in the 1980s as personal computers become smaller, more powerful, and more affordable. Early Apple computer figures interconnected engraved gear wheels on wheels dial on final column shows result of calculation brass framework Babbage’s Difference Engine Charles Babbage designed the first of his calculating machines in the 1820s to overcome human error in compiling numerical tables. He improved on the design with a second Difference Engine in 1847–49. This demonstration model of Babbage’s first design was built by his son Henry. 185

1825 1826–27 500 THE NUMBER OF BIRD SPECIES PAINTED BY JOHN JAMES AUDUBON Marc Seguin’s bridge across the Rhône between Tournon-sur-Rhône and Tain-l’Hermitage used a pioneering wire cable suspension system. THE OPENING OF THE STOCKTON 8 British scientist Michael Faraday, BROWNIAN MOTION AND DARLINGTON railway on who was another pioneer of September 27 in the north of PERCENT electromagnetism, discovered In 1827, when Robert Brown observed pollen grains in water England marked the beginning benzene in the oil residue that through a microscope, he noticed they moved around at random, of the railroad age. Smaller THE AMOUNT was created from making coal but could offer no explanation for it. In 1905 Albert Einstein steam railways had existed OF ALUMINUM gas for gaslights. Benzene is a (1879–1955) showed that the pollen grains were being knocked before, but this project involved PRESENT IN key ingredient of petroleum and by water molecules, which caused them to move. This map of massive bridges and viaducts. EARTH’S CRUST is used to make plastic. Brownian motion shows the random path of individual grains. The railway was engineered by George Stephenson, who also more than its own weight. Meanwhile, French naturalist IN THE NATURAL WORLD, February 1826, involving designed its first locomotive, Made by British electrical Georges Cuvier published his Russian naturalist Karl von Baer imaginary surfaces and lines. Locomotion No.1. engineer William Sturgeon idea (first proposed in 1812) that (1792–1876) discovered in 1826 (1783–1850), the 7 oz (200 g) large groups of animals had been that mammals start life as eggs Two important developments One early passenger was magnet could lift 9lb (4kg). wiped out by past catastrophes, or ova, and Scottish biologist in engineering also occurred in French engineer Marc Seguin in the book Discourse on the Robert Grant (1793–1874), 1826. American inventor Samuel (1786–1875), whose experience The Danish physicist who Revolutions of the Surface of German naturalist August Morey (1762–1843) patented an inspired him to create his own discovered electromagnetism the Globe. German geologist Schweigger (1782–1821), and early version of the internal steam railways in France. In in 1820, Hans Ørsted, created Christian von Buch (1774–1853) German anatomist Friedrich combustion engine. August, Seguin also opened aluminium in a chemical argued that natural variations Tiedemann (1781–1861) all Europe’s first large wire cable reaction in 1825. between animals led to argued that both plants and In the summer of 1826, French suspension bridge between separate species. animals have a common origin. inventor Joseph Nicéphore Tournon-sur-Rhône and Tain- Niépce (1765–1833) used l’Hermitage, which spanned Stockton and Darlington railway Another Russian, a camera obscura to take almost 298ft (91m). The opening of George Stephenson’s mathematician Nikolai the world’s oldest-known Stockton and Darlington Railway Lobachevsky (1792–1856), photograph on a light-sensitive, Another technological first was a major event, attracting presented his system of bitumen-coated, pewter plate. was an electromagnet that over 40,000 spectators and hyperbolic geometry in was capable of supporting worldwide attention. In nearby Montpellier, French chemist Antoine Balard HaØnrassltCuemhdriiinssoutilmaantemseGteapolurtbhglSeeisusRhrCeefavusocvDeliueiostrifcootnhuserosGefltoohbnee AuTgoRuuhsrbnotrnoi2dne5g-sesuuosrpp-eennssion Thderaafipwrpsnet ahoromsrnsinieb-LuosnedsWoniclrlieeaalmetectSsrtoaumrpgoaewgonenertful OcCtaoYnboareklrct2oo6nL,naEekrceitesENrieew 18B2a6meKramadrimsl cvaoolvniearnsova ApSrapimlac1tuoe,emn1lt8bMs2uao6snrteiioynnteernngailne 18N2i6tcaéJkspouehssroevtrpihevheinNogilédppehcsoettograph iMdeicnhtaifieelsFabreandzaeyne ChrpisrtoinapanoatsvureeorsnaclsrBpevuaaecrtcehiiaedtsiboyns OracnuTglhteeivpafiirrpspistiRnCgicoraohxpwa’psrnldebCyox StocktoSneapntrdeamiDlraborealirdn2go7tpoenns Ba1l8a2rd6 dAbinsrtocoomsivneieeanrwesainter 182S6chRwopebTlieagierngdteteGsrm,raaanannndadtn,acFAonarumriimeggmduuarseloitscnthhhoaartviegin 1826 PidieenrrteifiBesredtiopnhntehaeuria 186

1828 An illustration from Audubon’s book, Originally set up as a place for scientific study, the Gardens of the London Zoological The Birds of America. Society (London Zoo) was eventually opened to the public in 1847. (1802–76) discovered bromine AS THE WESTERN WORLD made by living things, as mineral discovered by the Nottingham, England, self- in seawater. And in Tours, BECAME INCREASINGLY Wöhler’s former tutor Swedish Norweigian geologist Morten taught mathematician George French doctor Pierre URBANIZED, interest turned chemist Jön Jakob Berzelius Esmark (1801–82). Green (1793–1841) published an Bretonneau (1778–1862) toward the natural world and (1779–1848) had insisted. essay in which he outlined the identified diphtheria. botanic gardens and zoos were Berzelius also made a discovery The world’s first electric first mathematical theory of opened to display exotic plants in 1828 when he isolated the motor was made in Budapest electricity and magnetism. This In 1827, English chemist and animals. The first zoo for radioactive element thorium, by Hungarian inventor and was later built on by James Clerk William Prout (1785–1850) scientific study was London a dense metal found in a black Benedictine monk Ányos Maxwell (see 1861–64). classified food into the three Zoo in England, which opened Jedlik (1800–95), and in main divisions known today: on April 27, 1828. carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. wire magnetic wire coil turns The foundations of coil field clockwise as Scottish naturalist Robert embryology (the science of permanent magnet Brown (1773–1858) observed embryo development) were laid north south pole repels wire coil the phenomenon now known by Estonian naturalist Karl Ernst pole as Brownian motion (see panel, von Baer (1792–1876), who brush commutator direction opposite). French–American showed that different animal (rotating of current naturalist John James Audubon species could appear similar STAGE 1 electrical (1785–1851) sold the first prints at early stages of development. switch) commutator of his book, The Birds of America, rotates with a 13-year project that culminated English fossil collector Mary in 1838 with a total of 435 plates. Anning (see 1810–11) had made wire coil a number of important prehistoric THE OBJECTS discoveries on the English coast, STAGE 2 APPEAR WITH but in 1828 she found the fossil ,,ASTONISHING of a pterosaur, a huge flying commutator reverses wire coil SHARPNESS… reptile. It was only the third such connections, switching continues DOWN TO THE fossil to be found and the first to the direction of the electric to rotate SMALLEST be identified. Anning’s pterosaur current to the wire coil DETAILS... was named Dimorphodon by THE EFFECT paleontologist Richard Owen brushes form IS DOWNRIGHT (1804–92) in 1859. circuit connection ,,MAGICAL. In Berlin, German chemist with the Friedrich Wöhler (1800–82) commutator Joseph Nicéphore Niépce, French pioneered organic chemistry— inventor, describing an earlier the chemistry of living things— STAGE 3 STAGE 4 photographic experiment to his with his discovery of what is brother, September 16, 1824 now called Wöhler synthesis. ELECTRIC MOTORS This is a chemical reaction that produces the organic chemical Hungarian inventor Ányos Jedlik showed how an to drive the motor. The coil is therefore connected urea. Its discovery showed that organic chemicals were not only electric motor could be driven by the repulsion to the circuit by contacts called commutators that between the poles of a permanent magnet and allow the circuit to swap direction as each half of an electromagnetic coil. A half turn moves the the coil spins past. This swaps the coil’s polarity like poles of the coil away from each other, which too, so it continually presents like (repelling) poles effectively means that there would be no repulsion to the permanent magnet. 18c2la7csaWasrnibifildoleihapsymrfdoortoPaedrtioneinusstt,ofats, 18A2u7Tdh–ue3b8BoJinrodphsunobJfliaAsmmheeessrica Aporpiienlns2ts7itauLstoiaonndsocnieZnotiofic Beprrziomedolupifucrasoetvsoemadnictawbeleights GetohrtehgfiaeernoGsdrtryemmoeaafngteohnlueeetcmtltiisrnamitecisictayl BBr1ro8ow2wn7noRiabonsbeMerrvotetison FrieWdröihchleWr söyhnlethredsisiscoovfeurrsea Jön JakeolebmiBsoeelnrazttetelhsiuotsrhiuem ÁnycoewrsleeoaJcrtetleddrsi’lscitkhmfierosttor DAennceinmgbfienrdpsMtefaroorsyssailur 187

1829 1830 29mph THE MAXIMUM SPEED REACHED BY THE ROCKET DURING THE LOCOMOTIVE TRIALS AT RAINHILL, LANCASHIRE, UK Civil engineer Robert Stephenson designed the Rocket Metamorphic rocks, such as these, steam locomotive, which gained worldwide fame. were first identified by Charles Lyell. IN NEW YORK, AMERICAN trials were a huge success. smokestack Stephenson’s Rocket IN THE EARLY 19TH CENTURY, SCIENTIST JOSEPH HENRY Although only one of the five The Rocket was the first locomotive to GEOLOGISTS WERE DIVIDED into (1797–1878) was exploring the competing locomotives multitube have a multitube boiler, with 25 tubes two groups. The catastrophists power of electromagnetism completed the event—Robert boiler to carry hot exhaust gas from the claimed that the surface of Earth (see 1820). He found that by Stephenson’s Rocket—the firebox where fuel was burned. This was shaped by a few huge and carefully insulating the wires steam age had arrived. The identification of geological helped generate more steam power. brief catastrophes, such as and winding them closely and periods gathered pace. While floods and earthquakes (see in several layers, he could make As steam engines developed, studying sediments in the Seine driving 1812). The uniformitarians, very strong electromagnets. engineers became interested in valley in France, geologist Jules wheel meanwhile, believed that Earth’s In December 1830, Henry extracting maximum efficiency Desnoyers (1800–87) coined the landscapes were shaped and finally demonstrated the first from them, and theoretical term Quaternary to describe reshaped gradually over very powerful electromagnet, able to scientists began to explore the most recent geological long periods of time by steady hold up 750lb (340kg) of iron. the concept of energy. French period, when loose material processes, such as river erosion. scientist Gustave-Gaspard (gravel, sand, and clay deposits) In October, the directors of Coriolis (1792–1843) was laid down on top of More evidence was being the pioneering Liverpool and published Calcul de l’Effet solid rocks. found confirming the Manchester Railway (L&MR) held des Machines (Calculation of uniformitarian school of locomotive trials at Rainhill in the Effect of Machines), in which In a cave in Engis, Belgium, thought. Scottish geologist Lancashire, UK. The public was he looked at the relationship Dutch–Belgian prehistorian Charles Lyell (1797–1875) yet to be convinced of the merits between energy and work Philippe-Charles Schmerling summarized these findings, of steam locomotives, so the (the effect of energy), and (1791–1836) found a fragment insisting that change was competition was held to generate introduced the concept of of a small child’s skull. This continuous and gradual, in his publicity as well as to choose kinetic energy—energy that was only the second discovery monumental book Principles which experimental locomotive is produced when an object is of a human fossil; British of Geology, which was published would pull L&MR’s trains. The in motion (see 1847–48). geologist William Buckland had in three parts between 1830 discovered the first in 1823. and 1833. Lyell’s text was so ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION Schmerling’s find later proved authoritative and convincing that to be 30,000 to 70,000 years after its publication, few doubted This demonstration of coil of magnetic flow is magnet moves old—the first Neanderthal that the Earth had gone electromagnetic induction conducting lines of force reversed out of the wire remains ever discovered. through many geological ages involves moving a bar magnet over millions of years. It was this in and out of a coil of wire to wire picture of Earth’s vast geological produce an electric current. history that paved the way for The magnet’s field pulls the MAGNET MOVES IN magnet MAGNET MOVES OUT Charles Darwin’s theory of electrons in the wire and moves into evolution (see 1859), which was produces a voltage. If the coil partly influenced by Lyell’s work. is connected to a circuit, an the wire The same year, German electric current will flow. If the astronomer Johann von Mädler magnet is moved in the other (1794–1874) began to make direction, the flow is reversed. drawings of the surface of Mars. These were later Jutlhees tDeermsnoQyueartsecronianrsy Juinlyvpe2ant3etoAnrmtsWeairlitlcyiaapmnewBruitretr Chpauvrbloelolisusf mhGLeyeeesololtlohfgePyrfiinrsctiples OcSttowebpilneohsrceotnRhmsoeobonReti’arvsteinRthoricilakllest JoWhaifilnhrnsetlvmmonaBpMeeoärfdlMmeraarkasendthe GutCesortmraivoekli-isnGecatosiicpnaesrntdehregy ScfhomsPsehirlilliizipnepgdesdN-kiCseuhcaloalnvrfdelreearsrsgtmhaaelnt GeLrumkaasn SpchhyöstineclrieaminnhJceoomhinaosnptnhhielia Giovannti hAemfuicni cctopiononfillreomfntsthuebe 188

1831–32 British botanist Robert Brown was the first to observe and appreciate the significance of a plant cell’s nucleus, orange in this modern colored scanning electron microscope image. filament anther stigma THE STUDY OF ELECTRICITY AND enabling advances such as heat of its constituents. This came Other scientists had seen the ovary style MAGNETISM was proceeding at electric lighting. to be known as Neumann’s Law. nucleus before, but Brown linked such a speed in the early 1830s it to reproduction. In Germany, sepal petal that there were often disputes Less controversially, German Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob astronomer Heinrich Schwabe over who had made a particular mineralogist Franz Ernst Berzelius had already published (1789–1875) made the first PLANT REPRODUCTION discovery first. In 1831, British Neumann (1798–1895) extended a list of atomic weights of 43 detailed drawing of Jupiter’s scientist Michael Faraday and Pierre Dulong and Alexis Petit’s elements in 1825. In 1831, he Great Red Spot (see 1662–64). Flowering plants reproduce his American counterpart Joseph discovery of the inverse introduced the term isomer sexually, and have both male Henry independently found that relationship of specific heat for different compounds with In 1832, French instrument (a stamen, made up of an moving a magnetic field near a to the atomic weight of the same chemical composition. maker Hippolyte Pixii (1808–35) anther and filament) and wire induced an electric current, elements (see 1819) to include invented a magnet-electric female parts (a pistil, made up thereby discovering the principle molecules. Building up the picture In the same year, British machine, which was the first of a stigma, style, and ovary). of electromagnetic induction. In of the relationship between atoms botanist Robert Brown used direct current generator, Fertilization begins when time, this led to the development and molecules and the energy the word nucleus for the first and British physician Thomas pollen from an anther lands of machines that could generate they carry, Neumann showed that time in biology, to describe the Hodgkin (1798–1866) described on the stigma. A tube grows large quantities of electricity, the molecular heat of a compound central globule he saw through Hodgkin’s Lymphoma for the down the style to the ovary to is equal to the sum of the atomic a microscope when he was first time. deliver the male sex cells observing the cells of orchids. to the ovule (female sex cell). Faraday disk driving wheel Also known as the homopolar generator, the Faraday disk was copper disk belt developed by Michael Faraday in 1831. As the disk spins within the magnet’s field, a weak current flows. regarded as the first true maps horseshoe disk drives of the planet. magnet belt Italian microscopist and contact astronomer Giovanni Battista touching Amici (1786–1863) also studied rim of flowers. He first noticed the copper disk pollen tube—a single cell tube that transports male sex cells to the plant’s ovule—in 1824. In 1830, Amici used a microscope to observe the process whereby the pollen tube is formed. ItaMliaathcnteeosdtcmhoieneeniraomtsiMsuotreceolluotepnmlieipnD, evaeHercdaneeeettnulmsverriyccebetcerroremJaotaesgsenpaehtpowerful 18F3a1HraeMddniisaorccyyfhoeaiavnleneedldrcettJprhoeoesnmedppaehhgnentnleoytmiceinno1dn8uB3ce1ttieroJzrneömlniusissJoacmocoeinbrs the 18S3c1JhuHwRpeaeitibdneerrSi’dpcsrhoGatwresat 18in3s2HtirFopurnptemeoonleocgynfhettetnhmePeriaaxfiktireiesritnemlveecantctrhsiciniteys FAoduvnAadnsascteoiomcniaeotnifotBnorffioStircsithehnece DeceemBmbrbiatCerishkrhas2rno7liaen,nts1uhH8DriMs3aa1lvSrioswBtyiaengaegle 183d1isRccooeBbvllerenorrswut ctnhleeus Neu1imDn8c3ual1lnuondFnergea–xmnPtzeoenlEtedircctnsoulsamtltehwpseotaounndds Tho1m83a2sHBHorodidtgigskkhininp’shdyleyssmiccrpiaihbnoems a 189

1833 1834 Louis Agassiz’s work on fossils gave One of the plan drawings for Charles Babbage’s Analytical Engine, which might have impetus to the study of extinct life. been a mechanical forerunner of the computer if it had been completed. BIOCHEMISTRY, THE STUDY BRITISH SCIENTIST MICHAEL began to formulate a third key energy available to make things law of thermodynamics OF THE CHEMISTRY OF LIVING FARADAY had conducted scientific law. Clapeyron took the happen (potential energy) must (see 1849–51). THINGS, can be said to have some brilliant work in 1833 work of fellow French physicist always gradually run down begun in 1833 with the discovery on electrolysis—the chemical Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot unless more energy is put in. Also in 1834, after producing and isolation of the enzyme reactions that occur when an (see 1823–24) on heat engines Burning fuel is an irreversible his mechanical calculator, or diastase by French chemist electric current passes through and presented it in graphic form. process, which is why a car Difference Engine (see 1822), Anselme Payen (1795–1871). a liquid (see panel, opposite). It clarified Carnot’s observation needs continual refueling. This British inventor Charles Babbage Enzymes are produced by living In 1834, he published his two that in energy exchanges, the became the basis of the second (1791–1871) began to work on organisms and act as a catalyst laws relating to it. Faraday’s plans for an Analytical Engine. to bring about biochemical first law of electrolysis states reactions (see 1893–94). Diastase that the amount of chemical memory racks is the enzyme in beer mash that change varies in proportion helps the starch in barley seed to the current. The second metal frame change into soluble sugars. law states that the amount of material deposited on the The term “scientist” was also electrodes by the reaction coined this year by the polymath is proportional to the mass William Whewell (1794–1866). of the material involved Until this time the only terms in in the reactions. use were “natural philosopher” and “man of science.” Another law relating to electricity was developed by British physician and Russian physicist Heinrich physiologist Marshall Hall Lenz (1804–65). Lenz’s law (1790–1857) discovered the stated that an electric current, reflex arc—the primitive part induced by an electromagnetic of the body’s nervous system. It field for example, always takes time for the brain to receive creates a magnetic force sense signals, then process and counter (opposite) to the act on them. Reflex arcs provide force inducing it. a rapid automatic response by short-circuiting the brain. When French engineer Émile the hand, for example, touches Clapeyron (1799–1864) something hot, the sense signal only goes as far as the spinal calculating cord before a message is sent wheels back to move the hand. Charles Babbage’s German mathematician Carl Analytical Engine Friedrich Gauss and physicist Charles Babbage simplified Wilhelm Weber (1804–91) the design of his Analytical developed the first practical Engine and managed to have electromagnetic telegraph. a small part of it built before he died in 1871. AndsiseeclnmionzvyeebmrPeseea,rtyhedmeniaafislrttasste, The cteorinmed“scientist” MipcuhobafleielslhFeaecrstartdohaleyysliasws HelanwryfLoernezleecsttraobmlisohtievseLfoerncze’s GeprhmHyesasilnucmhgiaehggnaoertHsaltctvezsoirtmwatmhtreiaoaostnnnftgarhlolyemcSounntr’asction is 1 9 0MadrisshcoavlrleeHrflsaeltxlhaerCcarlaFnrdedWedeleirelvilcceiathlromiGpcaWttuheeselbesfiegrrrsatph HeMrNsaaGcsrhtCcreho3ln61do34ims0BcesortrivateJirsrohcshlunthseter invpeaJntuetnonertsC2hy1risAumscoCerornircrmaeniacpker Émile CNlaicpoelayCsroaLnrénpoornhte’aessraedwtnoSetrsankdgioinnes

,,1835–36 WE FOUND THE VERY SUPERIOR SPECIES OF THE VESPERTILIO-HOMO… THEY… ,,APPEARED IN OUR EYES SCARCELY LESS LOVELY THAN THE REPRESENTATIONS OF ANGELS BY… PAINTERS. A description of the inhabitants of the moon in the New York Sun, 1835 The Great Moon Hoax in the New York Sun caused a sensation and fooled many with illustrations of people on the Moon. If it had been completed it would A POPULAR SCIENTIFIC STORY rotation of Earth Darwin’s notebook have been a genuine forerunner OF 1835 TURNED OUT TO BE from west to east Darwin recorded his observations to the computer (see pp.184–85), A HOAX. The Great Moon on the Beagle voyage (1831–36) in because it would have been Hoax was a series notebooks. His records of this trip programmable, had a memory, of stories in the New helped him develop his theory of and could have been programmed York Sun newspaper evolution over the next 20 years. to perform many tasks besides that covered the simple calculation. “discoveries” presented their findings the of the famous same year in a joint paper. twice as much hydrogen British astronomer gas as oxygen is produced John Herschel On September 16, 1835, (1792–1871). The Charles Darwin (1809–82) trapped bubbles of gas illustrated articles landed on the Galapagos oxygen battery claimed there was life, Islands for the first time. and even civilizations, on His visit to the islands had a gas the Moon. It was several significant impact on his theory weeks before the joke of evolution (see 1857–58). was revealed. air moving toward air moving from which many positive prints the equator is away from the In England, inventor Henry Fox could be made. In 1835, French engineer deflected from equator is Talbot (1800–77) produced the Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis east to west deflected from world’s first photographic On the other side of the Atlantic, (1792–1843) identified what west to east negative (dark and light reversed). in 1836, American inventor is now known as the Coriolis Although French physicist Louis Samuel Morse (1791–1872) test tubes effect—the effect of Earth’s Coriolis effect Daguerre (1787–1851) went developed a code (later called collect gas rotation on both wind and water Earth’s rotation is the cause of the public with his process known as Morse code) for sending moving across Earth’s surface. Coriolis effect. One of the main daguerreotype first (see 1837), messages by telegraph, with ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER Winds do not follow a straight impacts of it is the deflection of this process produced a one-off each letter of the alphabet path, but veer to the east in winds and currents in the ocean. positive photograph. Talbot’s represented by a unique Electrolysis splits water into the Northern Hemisphere and process, called the calotype, combination of short pulses its component elements to the west in the Southern Cambrian period, naming it produced a negative photograph (dots) and long pulses (dashes). (hydrogen and oxygen) by Hemisphere, sometimes after Cambria, the Latin name for passing an electric current curling around in loops in Wales, where Britain’s Cambrian Another American, Samuel through it. Hydrogen gas clockwise and counterclockwise rocks are best exposed. Scottish Colt (1814–62), was granted a gathers in the test tube circulations. The same is true geologist, Roderick Murchison US patent for the revolver. This above the negatively charged of ocean currents. (1792–1871), proposed the gun could fire six shots in quick electrode and oxygen gas Silurian period in the same year, succession by using a revolving gathers in the test tube Knowledge of the history of naming it after an ancient Celtic cylinder that automatically above the positively charged Earth took a step forward when tribe, the Silures, and the two moved a new bullet into the electrode. Twice as much two geological periods were firing position after each shot. hydrogen is released. identified (see 1821–22). English Talbot exposes photo negatives geologist Adam Sedgwick Fox Talbot’s calotype process (1785–1873) proposed the recorded a negative image, from which a large number of positive prints could be made. ChBaarwbloeAbrsankgaoelynbtihecigasilnEsngine 18G3u5idsGetbaneavttcsheiopfieCmaeCorsedorws-iroihkloiansltioswenffaesct AuTghiuessYpGtourr2ebk5aliS,ts1uhM8neo3dno5einnwHtshopeaaxpNeerw Se1p8nt3ea5DmtuaBGbrrraaweilltriiainssp1thaa6Crg,hroiavsreIlsesslaatntdhse 18g3e5SoelBtodhrggeiitwsiCstiachAmkdpbarmroiapnospeesriod 18p3h6TyhsGideieoeoerlndonmtgoziayirfismneStsech—thwpeaefinprnssitnanimal 18d3e6veSlaompsuMeloMrsoersceode GerFmriaendTrgidireceiohanlsoAtsigfilibicesesptrettihreiod C18ar3ofi5lriBnsRSterooiftHeymisamehelrarsAalvcsesihlttlmrreeoolenbnamoeonmcmbdoeiemMcrrasaselroStyfhotechieety pr1o8d3up5cheHosetotnhgreryawFpoohxriclTdan’slebfigoartstitve Murt1hc8he3iSs5oilnRuorpidraoenpripocsekerisod 18d3i6scIroEivsdehmrcsuhanecdmeDtisyatlveyne 1836isSagmrpaaunteetelndCt ofaroleUrtvStohlever 191

1837 ,, WHAT WAS THE USE OF THIS GREAT ENGINE SET AT WORK AGES AGO TO… FURROW AND KNEAD OVER… THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH? ,,THE GLACIER WAS GOD’S GREAT PLOW. Louis Agassiz, Swiss geologist, in Geological Sketches, 1866 The Marjerie Glacier in Glacier Bay, Alaska, USA, flows out from the mountains to the sea and extends a distance of 21 miles (34km). THIS WAS THE YEAR in which Daguerreotyope camera cirque telecommunications really began. Dating from the 1840s, this is one of ice-fall, where glacier Three men had already been the first cameras made for taking flows over steep gradient working on the idea of an electric photographs. The plate for each telegraph—Samuel Morse in the photo is slotted into the back. crevasse US and William Cooke (1806–79) and Charles Wheatstone successful photographic His first daguerreotype, GLACIER terminus (1802–75) in England. In 1837, it process by French painter taken in 1837, was blurry, but cirque (snout) became a reality. Cooke and Louis-Jacques-Mandé within a few years daguerreotypes Wheatstone were the first to Daguerre (1787–1851). Daguerre were recording photographs of glacial lake succeed with their 1.2mile- had long hunted for a means to astonishing clarity. (2km-) long telegraph from fix the fleeting images he saw tarn (small lake hanging valley Euston to Camden in London. in his artist’s camera obscura. The most extraordinary in scooped-out U-shaped valley In the end, the simplicity of the He finally succeeded with his scientific insight of this year was base of cirque) Morse telegraph’s single wire invention of the process known understood by no one at the time river system and dot–dash code meant as daguerreotyping, which but its creator, British scientist GLACIATION it was adopted as the standard involved capturing a one-off Michael Faraday. This was the moraine- telegraph and the Wheatstone- photograph in chemicals coated idea of fields of force—regions dammed lake Cooke model was discarded. on a silver-plated copper sheet. around magnets and electric An equally momentous currents in which their effects GLACIAL-ERODED breakthrough was the are felt. Faraday argued that in LANDSCAPE development of the first these fields, electric charges are pushed by the movement of MICHAEL FARADAY (1791–1867) invisible lines of force, which can be revealed by the pattern The son of a poor London iron filings make around a Glaciers accumulate such a weight of ice over the years that they blacksmith, Michael magnet. This is why compasses possess an immense power to shape the landscape. They can Faraday was taken swivel in magnetic fields and carve out vast U-shaped valleys, cut-off hillsides, and leave behind on as an assistant to magnets move charged particles piles of rock debris. This process of modifying the landscape is chemist Humphry to create electric currents. known as glaciation and the landscapes left behind by the glaciers Davy at London’s of the ice age are unmistakable to geologists today. Royal Institution in French mathematician Siméon 1813. His discoveries in Denis Poisson (1781–1840) 1817, French physiologist Henri (1807–73) published Études sur electromagnetism gave us developed the valuable statistical Dutrochet (1776–1847) argued les Glaciers (Studies of Glaciers), both the electric motor and the idea of Poisson distribution: that chlorophyll is the key to arguing that the Earth was once generator. He was a visionary the probability of a given number photosynthesis, by which plants subject to an ice age and that theorist who saw the unity of of events occurring in a fix oxygen from the air using traces of ice erosion and natural forces and showed that particular time if they occur at sunlight (see 1787–88). deposition by vast glaciers light is electromagnetic. an average rate. and ice sheets are still evident Meanwhile, in Switzerland, in the landscape today. In Paris, following the discovery geologist Louis Agassiz of the green pigment chlorophyll in plant leaves in SeapnstdetacCmorhttmbeatelhmrerleege6swrracWWopiraihhllldleile’aaisnlmtefisectrCroisniontcoLekoendon MitcohedaleeevcletFrloaoprmatadhgaenyiedbteeiacgifionfeslds AmSaehmriiscuaeenlleMicntovrericsnettoecrloengsrtarpuhcts FrDenadcgahpugheaurorerttreoisr’gstortLfiayorppsuhetis SwAisgsatsghseeiozolropygrooispftogLsloaeucsiiashtiison FDreuntrcohcphheyt srieooalfolicgpzheihslsoot trtHohoesepnyhrnryoitllhel einsis BrIEsunangmelli’bsslahGasruretdeennaKacgtmhiinWnegsedehdesioirnptmeBSrnSrisistol FreSnimchéiomnntarDtohedenumicseadPstiioscPitiosarsiinsbosunotnion 192

1838–40 ,, THE INVENTOR MADE SOME EXPERIMENTS TO ASCERTAIN THE EFFECT OF HEAT… THE SPECIMEN, BEING… BROUGHT INTO CONTACT ,,WITH A HOT STOVE, CHARRED LIKE LEATHER. Charles Goodyear, American inventor, in The Applications and Uses of Vulcanized Gum-Elastic, 1853 American inventor Charles Goodyear’s experiments demonstrated that heating rubber by the right amount and adding sulfur could toughen or “vulcanize” it. EARLY MICROSCOPES had been experimenting with heating made the first accurate WHITE PHOSPHORUS P P plagued by color blurring, or albuminous substances, such as measurements of the solar chromatic aberration. By 1838, egg white, blood, milk solids, and constant (the amount of P MOLECULE achromatic microscopes—solving plant gluten with lye (a strong solar heat received at Earth). this problem—gave scientists a alkali solution), he always ended P P clearer view of living cells. As up with the same material. German astronomer Friedrich P German physiologist Theodor Mulder believed this material Bessel (1784–1846) made the Schwann (1810–82) studied plant was composed of a single large first accurate estimate of the P PP and animal cells through his molecule common to all living distance to a star using the PP P microscope, he realized that all things. It was the Swedish parallax method, which P living things are made of cells chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius depends on slight shifts in the and cell products, and the cell (1779–1848) who suggested the star’s apparent position due to P RED PHOSPHORUS P P is the basic unit of life. name protein for this substance. the movement of the Earth. It is now known there are MOLECULE Dutch chemist Gerardus numerous proteins and they German–Swiss chemist Mulder (1802–80) came to an are the basic chemicals of life. Christian Friedrich Schönbein ALLOTROPY equally important conclusion (1799–1868) developed the idea about the basic material that The same year, French physicist of a fuel cell that converts Some elements come in a number of different physical forms, cells are made of. After Claude Pouillet (1791–1868) chemical energy from a fuel, called allotropes. Each form is made from the same type of atom, such as hydrogen, into electricity. but the atoms link up in different ways. Carbon has eight allotropes, plate electrodes of cells filled In 1839, British physicist William including diamond, graphite, and fullerenes. Phosphorus has at zinc and platinum with acid Grove (1811–96) made the first least twelve, the most common of which are white and red solids. fuel cell. He knew electricity invented that same year, known different chemical and physical could split water into as a Grove cell. properties. Also in 1840, hydrogen and oxygen; Christian Friedrich Schönbein his fuel cell reversed this American inventor Charles discovered an allotrope of process and made Goodyear (1800–60) developed oxygen, which he gave the electricity by a technique for vulcanizing name “ozone.” combining the two rubber, a process that toughened gases to produce it to make it suitable for use such SOLAR CONSTANT (IN CAL / MIN / CM2) 2,000 1952 water. At the time, as in tires. 1,750 though, Grove was 1,500 1760 much better known In 1840, Jacob Berzelius 1,250 for the battery he suggested the word allotrope 1,000 to describe different forms of Grove cell the same element. Allotropes 750 In this battery invented differ from each other as the 500 by William Grove, the charge is result of different bonding 250 generated on zinc and platinum between atoms results in electrodes immersed in acid. 0 Solar constant Claude Pouillet’s 1839 estimate of Pouillet’s modern solar heat radiation, made using estimate value a device called a pyrheliometer, was very close to today’s value. ApTrhtiehl se8St,Sfie1arG8smr3tes8rahetigpWuselaesrrtevtrricnaensstaarttlsantic18a3s8BtredoGsnisespoteraammlrnameaclrneleaFaoxrsfimueardeserttsiahctrohhdbey the 18G3e8driasDcrudotuvceshrMschuperldometeirsitn 18in3v9GeoAvnoumtdolcyeraerCinachirazanierndlveersnutbsber JaSncuTohatutorissymteoh1safmra8stoAsh3emHtle9arpeosphEnnuaaadorrreeCmatrheltlsehnatoreotxnadmtuhirseeittashntoacdre pPho1tyhu8sei3lilcs8eiostFltmraCerenlacacoushnudsreetasnt 1838FcrGhiieeendmrvmreiinscatthnsC–SthShcrwheisöifstnuisabenel icnell 18C3h8aBrrleitsisWh hiniesnvatevetensrntteootosrnstechoepe physiSo1lc8oh3gw9isaGtnTenrhcmeienloailtdnitaohtreeosry 18K3i9rkSpcaotitrntiivcsekhnMitnsavtcehmnetiolpblreaicndyaclle phGy1sr8oic3vi9setfiBmWrrsaiittklilsefiuhasemtlhceell 18J4a0cSowb eBdeitsrhzheeclihidueesmainoistftraoJldöluontcsreospy 184i0soSlcahteösnboezionne 193

1789–1894 THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS UNDERSTANDING Golgi apparatus— used for sorting and CELLS packaging substances, including those for export A CELL HAS COMPLEXITY ON A MINISCULE SCALE AND IS THE SMALLEST THING ALIVE A plant or animal body contains more cells than people who THEODOR SCHWANN have ever lived—hundreds could fit on a pinhead. Within its German scientist Schwann, outer structure, a cell has chemistry of unrivaled intricacy— a founding father of Cell to manage its growth, reproduction, and nourishment. Theory, insisted that cells could be understood in chemical terms with no mysterious \"life force.” The first cells were seen in 1663 when English While some cells, such as those of rough endoplasmic scientist Robert Hooke found cork cells with his reticulum microscope. But it wasn’t until the nineteenth bacteria, are structurally simple, those of mitochondrion century that their significance was better centrosome appreciated and German biologists developed a animals and plants contain even smaller “Cell Theory.” They suggested that cells were the units of all organisms and could arise only from compartments for specific roles. These other cells. In other words, cellular life could not form spontaneously. By 1900, scientists began to so-called organelles enclose the particular see how this reproductive ability was linked to the cell’s nucleus and its chromosomes. This mixture of chemicals needed work would culminate with the discovery that a self-copying chemical inside the nucleus— for a specific job. smooth called DNA—lay at the heart of the process. endoplasmic reticulum ANIMAL CELL Most animal cells are smaller than plant cells because they lack a rigid supporting cell wall. This also makes animal cells less angular in shape. Many organelles found in plant cells (right) are also found in animal cells. 60 TRILLION lysosome THE POSSIBLE NUMBER OF CELLS THAT MAKE cell membrane nucleus UP THE HUMAN BODY Golgi apparatus nucleolus ribosome CELL DIVISION IMMUNOFLUORESCENT MICROGRAPH Today, scientists can reveal aspects of the By the late 1800s, microscopes were good cell that are invisible with conventional microscopy by using fluorescently dyed enough to scrutinize dividing cells. Scientists antibodies that stick to specific structures. Here, the antibodies illuminate the spindle saw threadlike chromosomes moving around fibers (green) that pull chromosomes (blue) around during cell division. in precise ways—chromosomes are bundles of the DNA that carry the information for producing new cells. Just before cell division, the cell’s DNA doubles up by self-copying—so when body cells spindle fibers shorten to cell splits in pull apart chromosomes two, each with divide during growth (mitosis), each daughter cell a full set of chromosomes ends up with a copied set of each chromosome, cell membrane forms across or DNA bundle. During sexual reproduction, the cell a special kind of division (meiosis) halves the chromatids are copies chromosome number to make sperm and eggs; of the same spindle fibers chromosome grow out from the normal number is restored when the egg chromosomes joined together poles to attach (four shown to chromosomes and sperm cells combine during fertilization. nucleus as examples) MITOSIS EARLY PROPHASE LATE PROPHASE METAPHASE ANAPHASE TELOPHASE nucleus forms During growth, this multistage division keeps around the all cells genetically identical. A system of chromosomes protein cables called the spindle pulls in each cell chromosomes in such a way that daughter cells end up with the same chromosome CYTOKINESIS number as the parental cell. 194

UNDERSTANDING CELLS chloroplast—the site MOVEMENT ACROSS CELL MEMBRANES of food-producing Cells and their organelles are bound by oily reactions of membranes that separate watery mixtures of photosynthesis chemicals on either side. Small molecules, or substances that can blend with oil, can penetrate cytoplasm—fluid the membrane—and tend to move from areas between the of high to low concentration by diffusion. Other nucleus and the particles can only get across by special molecular cell membrane “pumps” in a process called active transport. The cell has to use up energy to do this. The energy cell membrane— comes from chemical processes of respiration controls what (see below). Cells take up oxygen and excrete enters and carbon dioxide by diffusion, but need active leaves the cell transport for moving salts and big molecules. cell wall—a rigid energy is needed to pump molecules too layer of cellulose molecules into cell big to cross fibers that supports membrane the cell high concentration of molecules outside cell cell membrane molecules inside cell, present in low concentration vacuole—contains DIFFUSION ACTIVE TRANSPORT stored substances, This moves substances from Here, substances move from pigment, or poisons high to low concentration. low to high concentration, The bigger the difference giving a cell the means to (concentration “gradient”), accumulate a substance in the the more they move. cytoplasm or in an organelle. vesicle—a RELEASING ENERGY fluid-filled sac Cells are driven by energy, which comes from that stores cellular food. Plants make their food by photosynthesis substances during which carbon dioxide and water react with light and chlorophyll. Almost all cells obtain mitochondrion— energy in the same way: by breaking down a generates energy sugar called glucose. The process begins in the for the cell cell’s cytoplasm and finishes in organelles called mitochondria. These “powerhouses” use oxygen ribosome—site to extract energy in a particularly efficient way, where proteins generating a great deal of an energy-rich are made compound called ATP, which powers cellular activities involved in building or movement. rough endoplasmic nucleus— PLANT CELL MITOCHONDRION reticulum (RER) stores genetic The cell membrane of a plant cell is overlain Chemical reactions that has ribosomes material by a porous cell wall. Inside the cell are release most of the for making and membrane-bound organelles that package cell’s energy happen transporting proteins nucleolus—used for the chemicals needed for biological processes, on a mitochondrion’s producing ribosomes such as mitochondria for respiration. internal membranes; smooth endoplasmic reticulum the most active of (SER) used for making and cells have the most transporting lipids membrane-packed mitochondria. 195

1841 1842–1843 Swiss physiologist Albert von Kölliker showed that, like every other living British engineer James Nasmyth’s steam hammer was able to forge large pieces of wrought iron and cell, each sperm is a single cell with its own nucleus. was developed in response to the increased demands of 19th-century engineering. 1-3MILLIMETERS THE DOPPLER EFFECT PER MINUTE The sound of a police siren low-frequency—fewer high-frequency—more THE SPEED A waves per second waves per second SPERMATOZOAN approaching rises in pitch as CAN TRAVEL LOW-FREQUENCY HIGH-FREQUENCY the sound waves are squashed driver of the car listener ahead in front of the moving car. As hears a medium- of car hears a high-pitched the car moves past and away pitched sound sound IN 1841, GERMAN PHYSICIAN In the UK, engineer Joseph from the listener, the pitch listener behind JULIUS VON MAYER (1814–78) Whitworth (1803–87) identified drops as sound waves stretch car hears first proposed that energy could and solved a basic problem out in its wake. This occurs never be created or destroyed. with assembling precision because, as the police car a low-pitched This is now known as the first machines—the variation in sound law of thermodynamics (see screws. Whitworth devised a 1847–48). Von Mayer also system of standardization for approaches, each successive proposed that work and heat screw threads and pitches. are equivalent—a certain amount When several railroad companies sound wave begins closer sound waves of work will always produce decided to adopt it, other to the car. As the police car emanating from a certain amount of heat— organizations quickly followed moves away, each successive the police car’s as English physicist James suit. This system is now known sound wave starts farther Joule (1818–89) discovered as the BSW (British Standard siren independently two years later. Whitworth) system. However, it was some time away from the car. before either von Mayer or In Antarctica, British explorer Joule’s work was acknowledged. James Clark Ross (1800–62) IN 1842, 25 YEARS AFTER THE Previously, iron foundries steam hammer meant that discovered and named the FIRST RECOGNIZED FOSSIL was had shaped iron weakly and such things as railroad wheels In contrast, improvements made Victoria Barrier, later known found, British biologist Richard inaccurately with a pivoting and the first steel hulls for by Swiss physiologist Albert von as the Ross Ice Shelf. Owen (1804–92) first used the tilt-hammer that was lifted ships could be pounded out Kölliker (1817–1905) to word dinosauria to describe mechanically then allowed to of solid steel for the first microscope techniques, Screw threads these “terrible reptiles.” drop. In contrast, Nasmyth’s time, thus revolutionizing such as the staining of Joseph Whitworth set Ironically, Owen had been one vertical steam hammer was the manufacturing process. samples, were soon a standard for screw of the first people to wrongly pour forced down with great power, acknowledged and threads with a fixed angle scorn on British geologist Gideon but could still stop short with British inventors John adopted. Von Kölliker of 55° for the thread. Mantell’s (1790–1852) idea that enough precision to crack an Stringfellow (1799–1883) also confirmed that the Iguanadon fossils he had egg in a wine glass. The power and William Henson each sperm and crest found belonged to an extinct and precision of Nasmyth’s (1812–88) worked egg is a cell with a giant reptile. together on ideas nucleus, adding to the pitch emerging science Meanwhile, a revolution Skeleton of an iguanodon of histology—the thread root in manufacturing was taking This species of dinosaur was discovered science of living cells. place with the help of the steam by British geologist Gideon Mantell in hammer, patented in June 1842 1822, although the term dinosaur was by British engineer coined only in 1842. James Nasmyth (1808–90). JaJnaudmiasMercsoyouvC2enl7artsrEktrheRebouasscstiinveAvnotalcracntioca JoisnetsrpcohrdeWuwchesistywsaotesrmttahndard JaAnmustaeuCrrdliydaceear1ngknn8teet4Wmnam2leielrealdaxikailtcemraasanlcEtath.ieoesntfihuresnttdicer 18t4h2e RnaicmhaerddinOowseanurcioains JuJnapema1het8easn4mNt2smatsehmreysttheam 196 JMwuanoyerekrJusahlnioudwsehsqveouatnhitvaaatrleent Albrecht vtohnatKsöplelirkmerasrheocweslls Marpchhymos3aip0cke,iear1sna8ttC4iho2renaAwfiumrfnosedrtredsiarcuLnagroangeneingsceathrlaeltic Dopb1pe8lec4ra2mdCieshckroDinvsooetpowrppsnlhweaerhsreattfhfeect

1844 28TONS THE MAXIMUM WEIGHT OF NASMYTH’S STEAM HAMMER The star Sirius A and its almost invisible companion, the white dwarf star Sirius B, whose existence was deduced in 1844 by Bessel. for powered flight and, in 1842, Christian Doppler (1803–53) 20 ASTRONOMICAL they designed a large, steam- suggested how the frequency of UNITS powered, passenger plane. sound and light waves vary as They received a patent for it in objects approach and move away THE APPROXIMATE 1843 and launched the Aerial from an observer (see panel, DISTANCE BETWEEN Steam Transit Company, which opposite). This is known as the SIRIUS A AND SIRIUS B they advertised as flying to exotic locations such Doppler effect. It is these ADA LOVELACE (1815–52) IN 1844, GERMAN ASTRONOMER 10 years—later, this cycle was as the pyramids, but so-called Doppler FRIEDRICH BESSEL (1784–1846) shown in fact to be 11 years. the idea was shifts that later The daughter of poet Lord spotted a wobble in the eventually helped reveal Byron, Ada Lovelace was a movement of the stars Sirius Meanwhile, on May 24, abandoned. that the Universe brilliant mathematician. In and Procyon. Isaac Newton’s American inventor Samuel 1843, she began to publicize laws of gravity (see pp.120–21) Morse sent the US’s first In 1842, is expanding (see British inventor Charles allow astronomers to calculate long-distance telegraph Austrian 1929–1930). Babbage’s ideas for his the motions of distant stars with message down a new line scientist Analytical Engine, and wrote such precision that discrepancies from Washington to Baltimore. The world’s first “computer what is called the world’s can be revealed. Bessel deduced It was a Biblical message written ribs program” was written in 1843 first computer program for it. that these stars have dark in his own Morse code, “What by British mathematician Ada She foresaw that Babbage’s companion stars, now known Hath God wrought?”—instant femur Lovelace, daughter of the poet machine would have uses far as Sirius B and Procyon B. communication had arrived. (thighbone) Lord Byron. Lovelace worked beyond mere calculation. with British inventor Charles Another German astronomer, key Babbage (1791–1871) on his be processed by a machine. If Heinrich Schwabe (1789–1875), Analytical Engine (see 1834), the machine had been built, this observed how sunspots vary contact which would have been the algorithm would have been the cyclically over a period of pivot world’s first computer had it ever first computer program. been built. Between 1842 and Morse transmitter 1843 she worked on translating This transmitter an article about the Analytical sends messages Engine by Italian mathematician using the “dot-dash” Luigi Menabrea (1809–96). As she communication of worked through the article Morse code. she added a note that included an encoded algorithm, designed to ,, CREATURES FAR SURPASSING IN ,,SIZE THE LARGEST OF EXISTING REPTILES… I WOULD PROPOSE THE NAME OF DINOSAURIA. Richard Owen, British Biologist, in Report on British Fossil Reptiles, 1842 18S4tt3rhinHpegaierfsnessslteloeonnawgmaepn-radptpoelwnatneered JuolfyiBr1oSr9nuS,-n1hGe8url’4lesl3eaptdLiBoasnrtueientaeacmrihninsgh,ip FrdieeaddnrucidccohemPsrBpoteahcsnyasoitoenSnl ihrsaituvasersdark GearsmStrcavohnanwroiamabtieeornoHbineseisnrurvinecsshpcoytcslic BenrCugonimnMeeLpla’eoslrernTctdMihhooaan2unmr5n,ocdt,efhI1essBe8raTrwm4fiiutar3inbsstneahterrbdlotiurnnednel 184w3riAtedsfiartLhsoetvcweoalomalrgcpleodur’stiethrm Mseanyd2s4thSueasfiminrusgetMlmMoerossrsesaecgoede 197

1845 1846 John Franklin’s doomed expedition to find the elusive Northwest Passage through the Arctic Ocean. The planet Neptune rising over its moon Triton in an image constructed from His two ships HMS Terror and HMS Erebus vanished after entering Baffin Bay. pictures taken by the Voyager space probes. Both were discovered in 1846. ONE OF THE KEY SEARCHES IN 340 that the galaxy M51—now known GENERAL ANESTHESIA SCIENCE TODAY is to discover as the Whirlpool Galaxy—had the underlying unity of forces and TONS a spiral structure. This was The introduction of general matter. In 1845, British physicist the first galaxy observed to anesthetics (substances used Michael Faraday made an early THE WEIGHT be spiral. to render a person unconscious) contribution to this with a series OF THE THREE- transformed surgery. It allowed of experiments in which he STORY-HIGH Other astronomers questioned surgeons to perform all kinds showed that a magnetic field STEAM ENGINE why Uranus kept appearing in of operations painlessly. The could alter the polarization of IN THE SS places that it should not appear term anesthesia means “loss light as it traveled through heavy GREAT BRITAIN according to Kepler’s laws of sensation”: anesthetics lead glass. This finding revealed (pp.100–101) and Newton’s work by blocking signals that a previously unsuspected link Rosse, constructed a huge laws (pp.120–21). British pass along nerves to the brain. between light, magnetism, and reflecting telescope in Ireland mathematician John Couch The earliest anesthetics were electricity, paving the way for dubbed the Leviathan of Adams (1819–1892) suggested ether, laughing gas (nitrous the discovery of the complete Parsonstown. Through its 6ft that there was another planet oxide), and chloroform. spectrum of electromagnetic (1.8m) aperture, Rosse observed beyond Uranus disturbing its radiation (see pp.234–35). orbit. French astronomer Urbain ON SEPTEMBER 23, 1846, John Couch Adams, who had Le Verrier (1811–77) observed German astronomer Johann also predicted its existence the At the same time, astronomers disturbances in Uranus’s orbit to Gottfried Galle (1812–1910) previous year. Most authorities were continuing to scrutinize predict where this planet might be. received a letter from French credit Le Verrier because he the night sky. An English astronomer Urbain Le Verrier. was the one who calculated its astronomer, the 3rd Earl of Another mystery was the It contained instructions telling position accurately enough for disappearance of British him where to look to find the Galle to find it immediately. explorer John Franklin and solar system’s eighth planet, Within 17 days, English his ships HMS Erebus and HMS soon to be called Neptune. A astronomer William Lassell Terror, in Baffin Bay during an long dispute followed over who (1799–1880) found that Neptune expedition to find the Northwest deserved the credit for Neptune’s had a moon. It was named Triton Passage in the Arctic. discovery—Urbain Le Verrier or a century later. The SS Great Britain successfully ,, THIS SIGNIFIES INSENSIBILITY… sailed from Liverpool to New York, TO OBJECTS OF TOUCH. THE becoming the first iron steamship driven by a screw-propeller rather ,,ADJECTIVE WILL BE ANESTHETIC. than paddle wheels to make this journey across the Atlantic. THUS WE MIGHT SAY, THE ‘STATE OF ANESTHESIA’. Lord Rosse’s reflecting telescope The Leviathan of Parsonstown, Oliver Wendell Holmes, US physician, in a letter to Dr. William Morton, 1846 constructed in County Offaly, Ireland in 1845, was the biggest telescope in the world for more than 70 years. EnLgolLrisedthveRilaaeotssshtscraooennpbooeufmiPldeasrrsthoenstown AuBgrKuitisiSnstSgh1dGe0ornmegaiBnt erBuernriteIasli’ansmsctrbeoaasrmsdesshtihpe AtlanGtiecArlmpexuahabnenlaigdspceehcrooroevgusvirondKanteopsoHshfmaeutrhmcoeosbm,Uoinplndriwtveehhriescnehsive CagneGaodelkoisaegnfnruiasoertslAedlanebmverea(plhposaapmrsaffin) to Seapsdtterisomcnobovmeerres2r3NJoeGhpeatrunmnGaeanlle EncMgoilisnicsfihehralmepechlstyFrtsoahimrcaaitsadltgaignyhettic BritisFhremnacthhCLeaoemseutVxcraeiohtsrintcrAeoiieadnmrnacempeJrrooseUhfdarnNnibcedatpitnthuene Lord RossenafiensbdpusilraathlMas5ttr1tuhhceatusre FBrraitniskhlifinen’xsdpetloxhPpreaeeNsrdsoiJtaroigothhennwitsoeslotst asAtrVuoepgnrrouermidseaitrces3trpey1uUedFbtrorlbuiersanbnhidincteihsfsLocehroNivtseehpreteudne astrdoisncoOomcvteeorrsbWeNlarieltl1epir0atumnEnaneLmg’aslesismdsheoTlorlint,on 198