["\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS THE HUMAN FACTOR 249 See also: Endangered habitats 236\u2013239 \u25a0 Pesticides 242\u2013247 \u25a0 Deforestation 254\u2013259 \u25a0 Depletion of natural resources 262\u2013265 \u25a0 Ocean acidification 281 Fossil fuels burned These gases react by industry emit with water in the sulfur dioxide and lower atmosphere to nitrogen oxides produce sulfuric acid into the air. and nitric acid. Plants and The acids fall as rain Gene Likens animals into lakes and rivers, affecting the pH balance Likens was born in Indiana cannot live in in 1935. After earning a Ph.D. the acidic water of the water. in zoology from University of Wisconsin, he was appointed and die off. assistant professor at Dartmouth College. In 1963, Spreading through the lower By the early 1970s, thousands of with fellow scientists F. atmosphere, these gases react with lakes in Scandinavia had lost their Herbert Bormann, Noye water to produce dilute sulfuric fish and were virtually dead. By 1984, Johnson, and Robert Pierce, he acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3). Brooktrout Lake and others in the began research into the water, These weak acids fall as rain and Adirondack Mountains, New York, minerals, and life forms in the enter rivers and lakes, making them were devoid of fish. Acid rain also Hubbard Brook basin. In more acidic. Increased acidity leaches harmful aluminum from the 1968, his studies recorded stresses animals and plants. Water soil, and acidic clouds and fog harm the widespread prevalence snails disappear, fish eggs fail to plants, reducing their ability to of acid rain, the product of hatch, and insects and the frogs photosynthesize, leading to death. emissions from factories in the that eat them die. Eventually, lakes Midwest. The team\u2019s work in will not support any life. Emission control the area over many years was In the 1970s and 1980s, other areas described as one of the world\u2019s We experienced eight badly affected by acid rain most thorough studies of how years of denial, but included the \u201cBlack Triangle\u201d of air pollution and land use has that\u2019s not unusual in Czechoslovakia, Germany, and shaped a drainage basin. Poland, where large areas of forest Likens\u2019s work on deforestation, environmental issues. died. Thanks to Likens\u2019s work, land use, and sustainability Gene Likens stricter controls were brought in led to a change in policy by after 1990. Scrubber systems that the US Forestry Service. It also extract SO2 were fitted to power helped shape the amended station chimneys with great Clean Air Act in 1990. Likens success. Emissions of the gas were was awarded the National cut by almost half in the US, and by Medal of Science in 2001. two thirds in Europe. Fish began to return to lakes and rivers. However, Key works the problem of acid rain still blights parts of Russia, China, and India. \u25a0 1985 An Ecosystem Approach to Aquatic Ecology: Mirror Lake and its Environment 1991 Limnological Analyses","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 250 CAAAFFNIINNSIITTUEEPPPWOOORPRTULLODANTLIYON OVERPOPULATION IN CONTEXT I n 1968, two scientists in the extinction. Hardin himself proposed US issued dire warnings about a controversial solution to the KEY FIGURE overpopulation. Ecologist problem of overpopulation, arguing Garrett Hardin (1915\u20132003) Garrett Hardin predicted that that the government should deny Earth\u2019s resources would soon be welfare assistance to people who BEFORE used up and environmental damage bred \u201cexcessively,\u201d to prevent 1798 Thomas Malthus would increase. In The Tragedy of further births. Biologist Paul Ehrlich forecasts that continued the Commons, he cited examples similarly advocated population population growth will exhaust of several major global crises that control in The Population Bomb, global food supplies by the had been caused by overpopulation: with warnings that human numbers mid-19th century. the destruction of fish stocks by would soon reach a point where overfishing; the draining of lakes mass starvation would ensue. 1833 In Two Lectures on the by over-extraction of groundwater Checks to Population, British for irrigation; deforestation; pollution Growth and decline economist William Forster of air, land, and sea; and species For most of human history, the Lloyd discusses overpopulation, world\u2019s population had grown only using the example of common slowly. It began to increase more land, which is less productive rapidly in Western Europe and the if too many cattle graze it. United States in the early years of the Industrial Revolution, when AFTER British economist Thomas Malthus 1974 A United Nations warned of a future famine. His conference in Bucharest fears, however, proved premature creates the UN\u2019s first World because food production increased Population Plan of Action. more quickly than many expected. Life expectancy also fell in the new 2013 British social geographer industrial cities, due to infectious Danny Dorling outlines in diseases. It rose again with better Population 10 Billion why it is unlikely the world\u2019s population Ragpickers Court (1879) by William will ever reach that number, Allen Rogers shows a poor Italian contrary to UN estimates. neighborhood in New York City. Such overcrowding allowed diseases to spread through poverty-stricken areas.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS THE HUMAN FACTOR 251 See also: Human activity and biodiversity 92\u201395 \u25a0 The Verhulst equation China\u2019s one-child 164\u2013165 \u25a0 Depletion of natural resources 262\u2013265 \u25a0 Urban sprawl 282\u2013283 family planning policy World population growth, 1750\u20132100 Until the 1960s, China encouraged families to have 2.1% 11.2 Billion as many children as possible, and the population rose 2% 9.8 Billion from 540 million in 1949 to 1.8% 940 million in 1976. However, the government soon became 1.6% 8.6 Billion concerned about the demand on resources. In 1978, scientist 1.4% 7.6 Billion and politician Song Jian 1.2% calculated that China\u2019s ideal population was between 650 1% 4.5 Billion and 700 million people, and in 0.8% 1979, his projections led the 0.6% 3 Billion government to create a new 0.4% policy limiting couples to one 0.2% 2 Billion child per family. 1.65 Billion 0% This one-child policy was 0.9 Billion enforced more strictly in urban areas than in the countryside; 0.1% in some regions a second child was permitted if the first was 1760 1780 1800 1820 1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100 a girl. In the cities, however, women were forced to abort This graph plots a comparison Annual growth rate as a percentage second children, and in 1983 between the annual growth rate of the world population alone, 21 million women were of the world population and the total World population in numbers forced to undergo sterilization. population in absolute numbers. The policy was relaxed in 2015, The data for the years after 2017 but the government still only is a projection. allows two children per family. healthcare and nutrition, cleaner still growing quickly in some parts A 1994 poster of a smiling mother water, and more rights for workers. of the developing world, but the and daughter promotes China\u2019s By 1924, there were 2 billion people trend is not as rapid as it once was. one-child policy. Many baby girls in the world, and by 1960 there It took just 11 years for the world\u2019s were abandoned or killed so that were 3 billion, with most growth population to rise from 6 billion their parents could try for a son. occurring in the developing to 7 billion, but the increase to countries of Latin America, Africa, 8 billion is forecast to be 13 years, and South and East Asia. then another 25 years to reach 9 billion. The UN forecasts a peak A slowing birthrate of 11.2 billion in 2100. In Europe and North America in the 20th century, wider access to Despite the slowing growth, birth control, better education, and challenges remain. In 2009, a UN more women entering the labor report warned that the world would market resulted in lower birth rates. need to produce 70 percent more This phenomenon is now being food by 2050 to feed its extra replicated for women everywhere. population, thereby putting more Although the world\u2019s population pressure on land, water, and energy passed 4 billion in 1974, 5 billion in resources. Future population 1987, 6 billion in 2000, and 7 billion growth is also likely to aggravate in 2011, the annual rate of increase many environmental problems, peaked near the end of the 1960s at such as pollution, and rising levels 2.5 percent a year. Populations are of atmospheric greenhouse gases, fueling global climate change. \u25a0","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 252 BDAALROREKTNTOSEWKDIEOSUT LIGHT POLLUTION IN CONTEXT According to some ecologists, A map of light pollution across light pollution\u2014the amount North America (white and red indicate KEY FIGURE of artificially generated light where it is highest, black where it is in the world\u2014could be the most lowest) explains why 99 percent of Franz H\u00f6lker damaging pollutant of all. Around Americans cannot see the Milky Way. 80 percent of humanity lives under BEFORE skies saturated with light. In 2017, intense in industrializing countries 1000 ce The first organized a major German study of light in South America, Africa, and Asia, system of street lighting pollution, carried out by ecologist but it also continues to increase (by oil lamps) is introduced Franz H\u00f6lker and others using in the already well-lit countries in Muslim Spain. satellite data, showed that the area of Europe and in the US. of Earth illuminated artificially 1792 Scottish-born engineer grew 9 percent between 2012 and Astronomers were among the William Murdock invents the 2016. The brightening is most first to notice light pollution because gas light. Over the next half it interfered with their ability to see century, many cities introduce gas street lighting. 1879 American inventor Thomas Edison demonstrates the first commercially viable electric light bulb. 1976 High-brightness, high-efficiency, LED lights are introduced. AFTER 2050 The date by which H\u00f6lker and others predict that, with the global population set to exceed 9 billion, Earth\u2019s total illuminated area will have doubled since 2016.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS THE HUMAN FACTOR 253 See also: Environmental feedback loops 224\u2013225 \u25a0 Spring creep 274\u2013279 The effect on turtles \u25a0 Man and the Biosphere Programme 310\u2013311 Light pollution is a major Dark areas are being lost Artificial light can also damage problem for nesting sea in places where nocturnal birds\u2019 immune systems. Studies turtles, which lay their eggs animals, insects, and plants have found that house sparrows on land because the embryos have adapted to darkness infected with the West Nile virus breathe through the carried the virus twice as long when permeable shells. Females over billions of years. kept under dim light than when kept need dark, sandy beaches for Franz H\u00f6lker in the dark\u2014doubling the time in their nests, and will go which mosquitoes could bite them elsewhere if there are bright celestial objects in the night sky. and pass on the virus. lights from beach resorts, In 1988, American astronomers Tim street lights, or housing. If a Hunter and David Crawford founded Ill-effects on animals can have whole stretch of coastline is the International Dark-Sky a knock-on effect on plants. When illuminated, they may lay their Association to protect the night moths, which are attracted to light, eggs in inferior habitats or skies from light pollution. It was are repeatedly drawn to artificial even deposit their eggs at sea, the first organization of its kind. sources, not only can they be killed where their offspring will die. by exhaustion (because the light is Since then, studies have never extinguished), or by the heat Such problems may be the examined the effects of light generated, but they also become reason for the reduction in sea pollution on plants and animals, more vulnerable to predators, which turtle populations. Scientists which rely on the cycles of light can spot them more easily. believe that hatchlings move and dark to govern life-sustaining toward the brightest light. In behaviors such as nourishment, The decline in moth numbers natural conditions, this will be sleep, protection from predators, has a knock-on effect on the plants moonlight shining on the and even reproduction. Such that they help pollinate, which then ocean, but if there is artificial research reveals a raft of ill-effects. affects seed yield. In some places, lighting inland, the hatchlings One study showed that trees in seed yield has declined by as much wander toward that and get Europe are budding more than a as 30 percent. Researchers who run over by traffic, eaten by week earlier than they were in the studied a Swiss flower meadow predators, or caught in fencing. 1990s; this alters their period of under street lights found that Solutions include getting growth, and may mean that they fail nocturnal visits from pollinators people and businesses to turn to drop their leaves and fruit and declined by two-thirds. \u25a0 off lights at night or use enter the dormant phase in time to \u201cturtle-safe\u201d lighting, which is avoid damage over the winter. The solution is simple\u2014 virtually invisible to turtles. turn off unnecessary lights, Vicious circle use only the amount of light Olive ridley sea turtle Light pollution also has a detrimental needed for the task at hand, hatchlings make their way toward effect on animals. Lights on tall the sea at Boca del Cielo Turtle towers, for example, draw migrating and shield all lighting Research Station, Mexico. birds, causing them to crash into so it shines down the towers and into power lines. where it is needed. Tim Hunter","I \u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS AM HFIUGHMTIANNGIFTOYR DEFORESTATION","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 256 DEFORESTATION Chico Mendes fought Deforestation is the removal to save the tropical of forest or woodland for IN CONTEXT rain forest in Brazil. conversion to nonforest use. This can be conversion to KEY FIGURE His local actions agricultural land, including cattle Chico Mendes (1944\u201388) helped reduce global ranches, or development for housing, industry, or transportation. Forest BEFORE CO2 emissions. may be degraded without being 1100\u20131500 Temperate forest destroyed completely, when valuable is cleared across large parts Mendes mature trees, such as teak, are of western and central Europe. realized that he selectively logged or some trees are had had a global cut down to create a road. This can 1600\u20131900 Forests are cut effect: \u201cI am fighting have a disproportionate negative down in North America to for humanity.\u201d effect on the biodiversity of the make room for agriculture. forest, even though most trees are left standing. Another form of Late 1970s Tropical rain forest deforestation is the clearance of clearance, mostly for ranching, primary forest and its replacement accelerates dramatically. with monoculture plantations, such as palm oil, as has happened AFTER extensively in Indonesia. 2008 The UN launches its Reducing Emissions from Deforestation can impact all Deforestation and Degradation kinds of forest habitat, but tropical (REDD) incentive program. rain forest\u2014tropical moist broadleaf forest that grows between the 2010 The US converts $21 m Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of (\u00a316 m) of Brazil\u2019s debt into a Capricorn\u2014is the most severely fund that will protect Brazil\u2019s coastal rain forest. Polluting smoke swirls up as rain forest burns to make way for agriculture 2015 The UN Paris Agreement in Brazil. It is estimated that Brazil sets targets for planting trees clears 2.7 million acres (1.1 million to offset the threat of climate hectares) of rain forest a year. change and global warming. By felling trees \u2026 men bring upon future generations two calamities at once: want of fuel and scarcity of water. Alexander von Humboldt 19th-century German explorer","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS THE HUMAN FACTOR 257 See also: Biodiversity and ecosystem function 156\u2013157 \u25a0 Climate and vegetation 168\u2013169 \u25a0 Global warming 202\u2013203 \u25a0 A holistic view of Earth 210\u2013211 affected. Concern for the rain forest wood for shipbuilding from the Chico Mendes was first raised in the 1970s when Baltic nations and New England activist Chico Mendes\u2014who went in the US. Born in 1944, the son of one on to become a founding member of of the 50,000-strong \u201cRubber Brazil\u2019s National Council of Rubber Primeval forest clearance Army\u201d who tapped rubber for Tappers\u2014called on the Brazilian accelerated globally between 1850 use in the Allied war effort in government to establish forest and 1920, with the biggest losses in World War II, Mendes started reserves, from which local people North America, the Russian empire, work as a rubber tapper at the could extract natural products, and South Asia. In the 20th century, age of nine. Influenced by such as nuts, fruits, and fibers, the focus shifted to the tropics, priests from the progressive sustainably. Mendes\u2019s campaign, especially to tropical rain forest, Liberation Theology which eventually cost him his life, half of which has been destroyed movement, he helped found a highlighted the ecological damage since 1947, with the proportion of branch of the Workers\u2019 Party wreaked by forest clearance. the land that it covers having fallen and became leader of the from 14 percent to 6 percent. Rubber Tappers\u2019 Union. Human need The human race has used trees from It is estimated that an area As large areas of Brazil\u2019s its earliest days. In Neolithic times, equivalent to 27 soccer fields rain forest were cleared to they were cut down for fuel and is lost from forests globally each make way for cattle ranches, to construct shelters and fencing. minute. Some regions have been Mendes publicized the Five-thousand-year-old stone axes hit harder than others. In the tappers\u2019 fight to save the for chopping wood have been Philippines, for instance, 93 percent forest. He went to found, as well as ax factories from of tropical broadleaf forest Washington, D.C., to persuade the same era in Europe and North has been removed; 92 percent Congress and the World Bank America. During the Middle Ages, of Atlantic forest in Brazil has gone; that cattle-ranching projects however, as human populations 92 percent of temperate coniferous should not be funded. Instead, expanded rapidly in western Europe forest in southwest China has hr proposed that forest areas between 1100 and 1500, extensive disappeared; and 90 percent of dry be protected as \u201cextractive deforestation took place. Forests broadleaf forest in California has reserves\u201d\u2014public land were cleared to make way for been cleared. managed by local communities agriculture, and wood was used to with the right to harvest forest build homes and boats, and to make Effects on biodiversity products sustainably. Cattle bows, tools, and other implements. Recent estimates suggest that ranchers saw his movement as almost half of all forest clearance a threat, and one, Darcy Alves, Trees were cut down on an is carried out by subsistence \u276f\u276f shot him dead in 1988. After industrial scale in central Europe his death, the first of many and England to produce charcoal, We are unable to such reserves was established, which became an important fuel remain silent in the face covering 2.5\u00a0million acres (until replaced by coal) because (1\u00a0million hectares) of forest it burns at higher temperatures of so much injustice. around Xapuri. than wood. An early example Chico Mendes of sustainable production was practiced in England, where many woods were managed as coppices whose trees were partially cut back and then allowed to regrow to create a cyclical supply of charcoal. Even so, by the 17th century England had to import","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 258 DEFORESTATION farmers, and a third by commercial I became an ecologist humans\u2014not least because most interests. Urban development, long before I had ever new medicines are derived from logging for the best-quality lumber, plants, and so the eradication of mining and quarrying, and trees heard the word. the rain forest\u2019s rich store destroys cut for firewood account for any Chico Mendes potential cures for disease. remaining deforestation. In every case, the environment suffers. two-thirds of the world\u2019s plants and Rain forests, together with all Biodiversity is particularly impacted, animals live in this environment. other trees and woodland, also because only a small number of Between 1.5 million and 1.8 million act like a sponge for rainfall. mammal, bird, and invertebrate species\u2014mostly insects, followed Tree roots drink up moisture and species can live on grassland or a by plants and vertebrates\u2014have limit surface runoff. When forest palm oil plantation, and even fewer already been identified in rain is cut or burned, the soil is leached in industrial or urban settings. forests, and many others have yet of many of its nutrients. If it covers Human conflicts also blight forest, to be discovered and described. In a slope, the soil will wash away, the worst example being the Agent Borneo, Indonesia, for example, an leaving the land unfit for growing Orange chemical used to defoliate area of just 0.2 sq mile (0.5 sq km) any kind of plants. Deep gullies trees during the Vietnam War. may contain more species of tree may undermine trees that have than the combined landmass of not been cut, bringing them down. The rain forest Europe and North America. Such After heavy rains, catastrophic Destruction of the rain forest biodiversity is vitally important to mudslides, which happen with poses a severe threat to global increasing frequency, sweep down biodiversity because it has been the slope, destroying everything estimated that between half and in their path\u2014including human settlements. In May 2014, for Replacing trees with human example, heavy rainfall on the settlements destabilizes the soil on deforested slopes of the Caribbean slopes, and mudslides, such as this island of Hispaniola caused catastrophic event in Sierra Leone mudslides and floods that killed in 2017, are more likely to occur. more than 2,000 people. Conversely, in extended periods of dry weather,","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS THE HUMAN FACTOR 259 Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon Reforesting the Amazon 30000 About 17 percent of rain forest in the Amazon Basin has AREA DEFORESTED, IN SQ KM 25000 been lost since the mid-1970s. At the United Nations Paris 20000 Climate Summit in 2015, Brazil pledged to restore 15000 nearly 30 million acres (12 million hectares) by the year 10000 2030. In 2017, Conservation International, in partnership 5000 with the Brazilian government, launched the area\u2019s biggest 0 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 reforestation program to date, 1990 under which Amazonas state will gain 73 million trees The depleting rainforest cover in the Amazon Basin is a through seeding and planting. global concern. The land is now being stripped of trees at a rate of 8,000 sq km (3,000 sq miles) annually. Local communities are being enrolled to implement exposed soil dries out faster than for conserving forest, and the the program, using a tree-covered areas, making it more creation of extractive reserves, technique called muvuca. This prone to wind erosion. where local people can harvest involves spreading the seeds products sustainably. of more than 200 native forest Fueling global warming species over every square yard Burning wood or forests adds Globally, alternative sources of land. Less labor-intensive carbon dioxide (CO2) to the of fuel need to be found, along than traditional tree-planting, atmosphere. By contrast, living with new ways to develop less the method can reforest land plants of all kinds reduce CO2, land-hungry forms of agriculture. quickly, delivering around as they absorb carbon, taking up A few nations are taking the lead 6,000 plants per acre. In the greenhouse gas to perform in reforestation programs. For addition to the seeding photosynthesis, thus countering example, a project in which people program some planting will the damaging impact of human from 500 villages have planted 150 enrich secondary forest and activities. Globally, forests suck up million mangrove trees on the coast return pasture land to forest. 2.65\u00a0billion tons (2.4\u00a0billion tonnes) of Senegal will restore mangrove of CO2 every year. Environmentalists forests to boost fishing and shield and climatologists worry that rice paddies from the influx of salt removing large tracts of tropical water. The Chinese aimed to plant forest could be disastrous. 16.3\u00a0million acres (6.6\u00a0million hectares) in 2018, equal to the area Reforesting Earth of Ireland; in 2000, the proportion of Currently, about 31 percent China covered by forest had fallen of Earth\u2019s land surface is covered to 19 percent, but the target is to by forests, but that figure is rapidly increase this to 23 percent by 2020 decreasing in some parts of the and 26 percent in 2035. \u25a0 world. However, there are regions, including Europe, where forest The first African woman to win areas are gradually expanding. a Nobel Peace Prize (2004), Wangari Measures to restrict deforestation Maathai initiated a community-based include payments to communities tree planting program to reverse erosion and desertification in Kenya.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 260 KOTHIZNOEDNHEOOFLLAESYKIENYRWTIHSREIATING OZONE DEPLETION IN CONTEXT I n 1982, a team of scientists in spring. Over Antarctica, ozone working for the British Antarctic measurements have been down KEY FIGURE Survey (BAS) discovered that by 70 percent compared with 1975. Joseph Farman (1930\u20132013) ozone levels above the Antarctic had Over the Arctic, levels have fallen fallen dramatically. Ozone (O3, a by nearly 30 percent. This effect BEFORE colorless gas in the stratosphere, became known as \u201cthe ozone hole,\u201d 1974 American chemists 12\u201318 miles (20\u201330 km) above Earth\u2019s although it is better described as Frank \u201cSherry\u201d Rowland and surface, forms the \u201cozone layer,\u201d a \u201cthe ozone depression,\u201d since it is Mario Molina suggest that protective shield that absorbs most a thinning of the ozone layer rather chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) of the Sun\u2019s ultraviolet (UV) radiation. than a complete hole. destroy atmospheric ozone. Without it, more of the Sun's harmful radiation would reach the surface. Antarctic discovery 1976 The US National British geophysicist Joe Farman Academy of Sciences declares Since the mid-1970s, there has was one of the team who made that ozone depletion is a reality. been a 4-percent decrease in the the discovery in 1982. BAS teams amount of ozone in the stratosphere. had been collecting atmospheric AFTER An even bigger decrease has been data at the Halley Research Station 1987 The Montreal Protocol seen above the poles, particularly in Antarctica since 1957. Their on Substances that Deplete work was poorly funded, and they the Ozone Layer, a global Joe Farman [made] relied on dated instruments such as treaty to phase out CFCs and one of the most important the Dobson meter\u2014a rudimentary similar chemicals, is agreed. geophysical discoveries of machine that worked properly only when wrapped in a duvet. 1989 Montreal\u2019s worldwide the 20th century. ban on the production of CFCs John Pyle and Neil Harris When Farman first noticed the comes into effect (ratified by drop in ozone levels, he found it the EU and 196 states to date). Atmospheric scientists, hard to believe, and thought there University of Cambridge must be a problem with his Dobson 2050 The year in which ozone meter. He ordered a new instrument over the Antarctic is predicted for the next year\u2014and it recorded to return to pre-1980 levels; an even bigger dip. The following however, other harmful year, the dip was bigger again. emissions may delay recovery. The year after, his team took their measurements 620 miles (1,000 km) from Halley. Again, there was a","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS THE HUMAN FACTOR 261 See also: Global warming 202\u2013203 \u25a0 Environmental feedback loops 224\u2013225 CFCs \u25a0 Pollution 230\u2013235 \u25a0 The Keeling Curve 240\u2013241 \u25a0 Environmental ethics 306\u2013307 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) A NASA image of the \u201cozone hole\u201d scientists Frank Rowland and are chemicals made up of over Antarctica in 2014. The blue area Mario Molina. They had concluded carbon, chlorine, and fluorine shows where there is least ozone. The that gases containing chlorine\u2014 atoms. They are non-toxic, amount of ozone in Earth\u2019s stratosphere including the chlorofluorocarbons nonflammable, and extremely overall has stabilized since about 2000. (CFCs) used in aerosol sprays and stable. Their low reactivity halogen refrigerants\u2014were, in makes them very useful, but large dip. Farman decided it was the presence of UV light, reacting is also the reason why they time to publish, and a paper written with ozone in the stratosphere and are so destructive. They can by him and his colleagues Brian breaking down the gas. A few survive for over 100 years, Gardiner and Jon Shanklin appeared countries, including the US, banned which gives them time to in the journal Nature in 1985. the use of these products, but most diffuse into the stratosphere. were yet to be convinced. There, they are broken down Reaction and response by the intense UV light to Most scientists greeted Farman\u2019s When ozone levels continued release chlorine, which reacts discovery with alarm: the potential to fall throughout the 1980s, opinion with ozone to form oxygen. increase in UV radiation would make gradually changed. Consequently, skin cancers, cataracts, and sunburn in 1987, the Montreal Protocol for CFCs were first produced far more prevalent. a global ban was agreed. The ozone in 1928, and were used as layer is showing signs of recovery, coolants for refrigerators. They What could be done? One and it is hoped that by 2075, were later used in a wide reason for ozone depletion had been stratospheric ozone will return range of aerosol products, for identified in 1974 by American to 1975 levels. \u25a0 example insect sprays, hair conditioners, and spray paints. The replacements for CFCs were hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), which also deplete the ozone layer, although to a much lesser extent, and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). HCFCs will be phased out by 2020. HFCs do not harm the ozone layer at all\u2014but they are very powerful greenhouse gases, and so in 2016 it was agreed that, from 2019, they too would be phased out. Aerosol products such as insect repellents were widely available from the 1950s. The damaging effects of the CFCs they contained were not known until the 1970s.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 262 FWAOMERANCNEHDEAADNTEGEDE IN CONTEXT DEPLETION OF NATURAL RESOURCES KEY FIGURE Naomi Klein (1970\u2013) BEFORE 1972 The UN\u2019s Conference on the Human Environment calls for an international approach to environmental protection. 1980 The World Conservation Strategy, launched in 35 countries, introduces the concept of sustainability. 1992 At the UN Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, member states produce \u201cAgenda 21,\u201d which outlines plans for managing resources in the 21st century. AFTER 2015 The UN Sustainable Development Summit sets out 17 sustainable development goals and launches a bold global agenda, adopted by 193 member states. I n This Changes Everything (2014), Naomi Klein railed against the way that governments and corporations deplete natural resources. \u201cEthical oil,\u201d she maintains, is not just a contradiction in terms, \u201cit\u2019s an outrage.\u201d A Canadian citizen, Klein has campaigned against the exploitation of the Athabasca tar sands, the largest of three major oil sand deposits in western Canada. The oil sand deposits lie under thousands of square miles of coniferous forests. The open-pit extraction of oil from tar sands is particularly harmful to the environment. Vast acres of forest are cleared, and ponds of pollutants","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS THE HUMAN FACTOR 263 See also: Deforestation 254\u2013259 \u25a0 Overfishing 266\u2013269 \u25a0 The water crisis 288\u2013291 \u25a0 Humankind\u2019s dominance over nature 296 \u25a0 Human devastation of Earth 299 Extracting crude oil from Canada\u2019s in a way that was sustainable and Naomi Klein tar sands is notoriously harmful to fair for all nations around the world. the environment. It accounts for a Key areas in the struggle for a Born in Montreal, Canada, in tenth of Canada\u2019s annual greenhouse sustainably managed Earth are 1970 to politically active gas emissions. use of fossil fuels, deforestation, parents, Klein developed a and water management. sophisticated understanding are left behind. These can leak into of the way the world works the land, rivers, and groundwater, Five years later, at the 1992 while still young. Her first job killing fish, migrating birds, and Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, was on a Toronto newspaper, other animals. 172 nations signed environmental The Globe and Mail. Her debut resolutions. Among them was book No Logo, criticizing Global action Agenda 21, a plan for governments globalization and corporate By the 1980s, the environmental to work together to protect natural greed, was a bestseller. Her effects of industrialization and resources and the environment. second, The Shock Doctrine, depletion of the Earth\u2019s resources However, implementing changes attacked neoliberalism. Klein were already becoming a matter of has proved difficult, and subsequent then began campaigning concern. The United Nations (UN) Earth summits have called for against corporate interests created a World Commission on better international cooperation taking priority over the Environment and Development, in order to achieve goals set. environment and the interests which published a report in 1987 of humanity. Her book This called \u201cOur Common Future.\u201d Peak oil Changes Everything was later Contributing experts, including Fossil fuels are among the world\u2019s made into a film. Klein\u2019s many scientists, agriculturalists, foreign most highly prized resources. campaigns included a protest ministers, technologists, and People have become increasingly against the construction of the economists, made it clear that reliant on oil, squandering it to Keystone XL pipeline\u2014a the future of humans relied on create a lifestyle that is ultimately symbol in the battle against balancing ecology and economics unsustainable. The oil crises of the fossil fuel use and climate 1970s highlighted how dependent \u276f\u276f change. In November 2016, she was awarded Australia\u2019s Sydney Peace Prize. Key works 2000 No Logo 2007 The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism 2014 This Changes Everything: Capitalism vs The Climate","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 264 DEPLETION OF NATURAL RESOURCES \u2026 the conservation of yet to be discovered. In the early loss of forests worldwide directly natural resources is the 21st century, new dates were given, causes 15 percent of global fundamental problem. some extending the timeline for greenhouse gas emissions. oil to 2030 or beyond. In 2011, Unless we solve that however, US environmentalist Bill Rain forests, estimated to problem it will avail us McKibben declared that calculating contain 50 percent of the world\u2019s little to solve all others. a peak oil date was pointless; if all species, are particularly vulnerable Theodore Roosevelt known oil reserves were burned, to deforestation. Around 17 percent the carbon produced would be of the Amazon rain forest alone has industrialized nations were on an five times the amount required been lost in the past 50 years. As economically viable supply. With to heat the planet by 3.6\u00b0F (2\u00b0C)\u2014 \u201cOur Common Future\u201d suggested, this came, too, the realization that the \u201csafe\u201d temperature limit that part of the problem is that oil is a finite resource. Scientists climatologists had worked out in developing countries can earn had already considered the problem 2009. The science has evolved, money from large corporations if and calculated the date when the but the predicted risks of burning they clear rain forests for mining, supply of oil would peak, before it fossil fuels remain dire. logging, and cash crops. In ran out or became uneconomical to Indonesia, for example, intensive extract. In 1974 the peak oil date Saving trees deforestation took place to make was predicted to be 1995, with the Forests are a valuable natural asset way for palm oil plantations. caveat that there were several that Earth cannot afford to lose. Greenpeace reports that the amount potential variables and unknowns Their diminished numbers pose a of Indonesian rain forest logged, such as consumption rates, significant threat for the climate; burned, or degraded in the last 50 available technology, and reserves trees are \u201ccarbon sinks,\u201d meaning years is equivalent in area to twice they take in carbon dioxide and use the size of Germany. The UN and it to fuel growth. This then prevents other bodies now offer developing carbon from contributing to global countries technical advice and warming. Trees are a renewable financial incentives to manage their resource, and people, businesses, forests in a more sustainable way. and nations often plant them to offset fossil fuel use, but not in Deteriorating soil sufficient numbers. According to Topsoil is perhaps one of the Friends of the Earth, the annual world\u2019s most undervalued resources. This vast ecosystem, Easter Island stone, but logs were needed Some 887 moai cover the slopes of as rollers to transport them from Rano Raraku, Easter Island\u2019s volcanic The fate of the ancient people the quarries to ceremonial sites. crater, the source of the stones from of Easter Island illustrates As the island\u2019s many palms were which the statues were carved. the importance of managing cut down, there was no wood natural resources. Once a left for fishing canoes, which thriving community of 12,000 led to many people starving people who erected enormous to death. stone monuments, they had dwindled to just a couple of The final tragedy came in thousand by the time Europeans 1862, with the arrival of slave discovered the island in 1722. traders, who captured 1,500 islanders and took them to Peru, Mismanagement of a fragile where almost all of them died. ecosystem, especially mass The 15 islanders who eventually deforestation, and warring managed to make it home between tribes, had been the unwittingly introduced smallpox cause of their demise. The giant to the island. By 1877, only 111 heads, or moai, are made of inhabitants survived.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS THE HUMAN FACTOR 265 Thick forests like the one in this locked away in glaciers or in deep innovative ways to minimize 15th-century painting by Italian artist underground aquifers. Only one- environmental impacts and Paolo Uccello are returning to Europe, hundredth of 1 percent of all the manage resources. where they have grown by 42 million water in the world is readily acres (17 million ha) since the 1990s. available for human use. Drinking Some progress is being made, water is also not distributed in part thanks to campaigning by composed of animals, microbes, equally, being naturally scarcer in people like Naomi Klein. A number plant roots, and minerals, is a hot, arid areas of the world than of European and Asian countries, complex and delicate structure that in temperate zones. including the UK, have decided is slow to form and easily lost. The to phase out fossil-fuel vehicles. World Wildlife Fund estimates that Population pressures and wealth In other areas, however, socio- half of the world\u2019s topsoil has been also have an impact on water economic and political problems eroded by wind and rain in the last supplies. The UN believes everyone remain obstacles to reform. As \u201cOur 150 years. Particles then collect in should have access to at least 88 Common Future\u201d stated, meeting streams and rivers, clogging them pints (50\u00a0liters) of freshwater a day, humanity\u2019s goals and aspirations with sediment. Soil loss occurs but people in sub-Saharan Africa responsibly \u201cwill require the active due to overgrazing, removal of manage on 21 pints (10\u00a0liters) a day, support of us all.\u201d \u25a0 hedges, and use of agrochemicals while the average American enjoys that affect the soil structure. almost 740 pints (350\u00a0liters). You have to Meaures such as resting the soil, think in terms of the terracing, dams, and strategic Around the world, water sources planting can help. In the village of are also being bought up by large survival of human Aamdanda in Nepal, for example, corporations. Some scientists warn society \u2026 it is not only steep-sided slopes are stabilized that, if our current usage patterns with broom grass. The plant binds continue and population rates grow the magnitude of the soil; it is also a fodder crop at their current rate, by 2030 global change, it\u2019s the pace and is used to make brooms, demand for clean water will exceed at which it changes. which the villagers sell. supply by 40 percent. Benjamin Horton Water pressures Future plans British geographer Clean drinking water is a limited New strategies are evidently resource. Water covers around 75 required to save the world from percent of Earth\u2019s surface, but human destruction. Transition 97.5 percent of it is salt water. Of engineering, an emerging multi- the remaining 2.5 percent, most is disciplinary field, may help. It aims to use existing businesses, organizations, and systems to find","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 266 BFNBSEIOOMGWWAAGTLEESYLRROECFUARHIN\u2019SAVADHSENIBDGNIOGGTGER IN CONTEXT OVERFISHING KEY FIGURE John Crosbie (1931\u2013) BEFORE 1946 The International Whaling Commission is set up to review and control whaling, reversing a dramatic decline after centuries of hunting. 1972 Overfishing and a strong El Ni\u00f1o cause Peru\u2019s coastal anchovy fisheries to crash\u2014a blow to the national economy. AFTER 2000 The World Wildlife Fund places cod on its endangered species list and launches a UK Oceans Recovery Campaign. 2001 Jeremy Jackson and other marine biologists trace the history of overfishing. 2010 The UNESCO Aichi Biodiversity Target 11 calls for a tenth of coastal and marine areas to be protected by 2020. I n 1992, one piece of legislation changed the ecological, socioeconomic, and cultural structure of Canada\u2019s Atlantic Maritime provinces. John Crosbie, the Federal Minister of Fisheries and Oceans, placed a moratorium on the Atlantic cod fishery; no further cod could be harvested from the ocean. His ruling was a necessity; the volume of northern cod was down to 1 percent of previous levels. The region had been overfished to the point where recovery could not occur if fishing were allowed to continue. Crosbie called it the toughest political moment of his career. The decision put thousands of Canadians out of","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS THE HUMAN FACTOR 267 See also: A holistic view of Earth 210\u2013211 \u25a0 Pollution 230\u2013235 \u25a0 Human Marine reserves devastation of Earth 299 \u25a0 Sustainable Biosphere Initiative 322\u2013323 A promising tool for fish Trawlers catch too many fish management is the creation of marine protected areas Immature fish Mature fish Large predator (MPAs), which legally protect Do not live to Loss of breeding fish fish stocks and ecosystems. reproduce MPAs cover around 3.5 stock Changes balance percent of the world\u2019s oceans, of species in but only 1.6 percent of MPAs ecosystem are the strongest \u201cno-take zones\u201d where fishing, Fish stocks decline or become unsustainable extraction of materials, dumping, drilling, and Solution: Solution: Solution: dredging are banned. One Set minimum Set quotas and\/ Institute lengthy meta-analysis of scientific studies showed that the size limits or institute moratoriums volume of fish species is on moratoriums average 670 percent greater in fully protected \u201cno-take\u201d jobs. For 500 years, the cod fishery conditions in which both the cod marine reserves than in areas had supported Maritime residents, and its food sources struggle to that have no protection, and particularly in Newfoundland. survive. A further blow to 343 percent greater than in Newfoundland\u2019s fishermen\u2014who partially protected MPAs. The 1992 moratorium was largely turned to catching shrimp No-take zones effectively initially supposed to last only two and crab\u2014is that where cod preserve and restore damaged years, but, with the stocks not yet numbers improved, cod began ecosystems, too; coral reefs in recovered, it is still largely in place. eating the shrimp. The ecosystem protected zones of the Pacific From around 2005 to 2015, the cannot support both a large-scale Line Islands recovered from an volume of northern cod rose by shrimp and crustacean industry, El Ni\u00f1o event within a decade, about 30 percent each year along and large-scale cod fishing. but those in unprotected areas Newfoundland\u2019s northeast coast, did not. Some studies suggest although stocks further south did A sustainable harvest that legally enforced reserves not recover as fast. In 2017 and The Newfoundland problem may even help replenish 2018, however, cod numbers demonstrates the complexities of fisheries outside their borders. declined sharply, and the overall fishery management, which often stocks are still too low to support relies on the concept of maximum Bigeye trevallies are among the large-scale fishing. Climate change sustainable yield: the volume of fish many species in the Malpelo Fauna has contributed to the problem: harvested from the sea should be \u276f\u276f and Flora Sanctuary, the biggest higher temperatures have created no-fishing zone in the Eastern Tropical Pacific, noted for its sharks.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 268 OVERFISHING AND THE GLOBAL MARINE FISHERIES CRISIS Disrupting the ecosystem I didn\u2019t take the fish from the Large-scale fishing goddamn water. operations disturb the balance John Crosbie of marine ecosystems in various ways, depleting the target fish species, upsetting the food chain, and damaging the marine environment. Bycatch Physical impact of fishing gear Harvest Incidental demand. mortality mortality The management strategies adopted depend on the nature of Habitat the problem. If fish are being taken modification before they are mature, this will or destruction Discarded limit the stock\u2019s future ability to bycatch reproduce at a maximum level and and offal keep their numbers replenished. Decline in mean trophic level Placing minimum size limits on fish can help control this type of Biological overfishing. If too many mature fish interactions are being caught, this could leave too few to reproduce and replenish Altered ecosystem structure and function the present population. In this case, moratoriums and quotas are among equal to the volume replenished short-term economic gains of measures that can help. Finally, through reproduction. This is catching more fish rather than on ecosystem overfishing occurs when usually achieved through quotas, long-term sustainability. Fishery a fishery is so depleted that the which limit the number of fish that management can be further ecosystem itself changes and is can be brought in during a season. complicated by factors such as the no longer able to support the fish Quotas can curb unsustainable open access nature of the ocean, stock at a sustainable level. It fishing: for example, 16 percent of illegal fishing, and an absence of generally occurs when large fish stocks in American waters regulation and oversight. predatory fish are overfished, were overfished in 2015, down from allowing populations of smaller 25 percent in 2000. However, the A worldwide crisis forage fish to increase and alter the quota system can encourage Overfishing is now a global issue, entire ecosystem. This happened fishermen to take the largest fish with more than 30 percent of the in the North Atlantic cod fishery: possible, and to throw back smaller world\u2019s fisheries harvested beyond without the cod to keep them in fish, which frequently die from the their biological limits, and 90 check, the cod\u2019s three main food stress of being caught. In many percent of fish stocks currently sources\u2014shrimp, crab and capelin cases, quotas are also not set at a at their limits or overfished. fish\u2014all increased in numbers. truly sustainable limit; commercial Sustainable management is now fishermen often have considerable essential if fisheries are to continue The overfishing problem is now lobbying power, and focus on the to provide jobs and meet consumer compounded by climate change and pollution, which are also affecting ocean ecosystems. The consequences could be dire. If","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS THE HUMAN FACTOR 269 global warming continues, it will annually in the 1960s to more than Effects of pollution cause higher ocean temperatures, 44 lb (20 kg) in 2016. Global demand sea ice will melt further, and wind is predicted to reach around 236 Two main types of pollution and ocean current patterns will million tons by 2030. Aquaculture, damage marine ecosystems. change. As a result, nutrients from the farming of fish and seafood, has Runoff from fertilizers is a the upper ocean will be transferred begun to meet much of the demand common problem: the nitrogen to the deep ocean, starving marine and has the potential to reduce the and phosphorus that many ecosystems and reducing pressures on wild fish stocks. contain produce algal blooms photosynthesis by phytoplankton, However, aquaculture has its own (overgrowths of algae, or which serve as the base food in the problems. Nutrients and solids phytoplankton), which later ocean food chain. Within three added to the water can cause the die. As they decompose, they centuries\u2014by 2300\u2014the world\u2019s environment to degrade. The take up oxygen, creating a fisheries could be 20 percent less buildup of organic matter from \u201cdead zone\u201d in the water that productive, and between 50 to 60 many fish in a farm can change the cannot sustain life. Because percent less productive in the North sediment chemistry, which has an fish must leave such water or Atlantic and western Pacific. The impact on the surrounding water. perish, juvenile fish living predictions, calculated in 2018 by Fish may escape, introducing alien close to the shore are at risk scientists at the University of species or diseases into the outside before they move into the open California, Irvine, are based on freshwater or marine environment. ocean. In 2017, the annual extreme global warming\u2014a 17\u00b0F dead zone in the Gulf of (9.6\u00b0C) increase, but their models While fish farming helps meet Mexico was more than show that it is a possibility. demand, overfishing still poses 8,500sq miles (22,000sq km). huge dangers for the health of the Plastic pollution is another Finding new solutions world\u2019s marine ecosystems, and the threat because fish eat it and Seafood consumption has risen economic future of many nations. get caught in nets and debris. from 21.8 lb (9.9 kg) per capita The Canadian moratorium severely Estimates suggest there are disrupted the economy and culture more than 5 trillion pieces of A deep-sea salmon farm, built in of Newfoundland and neighboring plastic in the ocean, with China, begins its journey to Norway. maritime provinces. To avoid such over 8 million tons added The huge, semi-submersible cylinder crises, more governments will have each year. If plastic pollution aqua-farming platform is designed to to develop sustainable fishing continues unchecked, the produce 1.5 million salmon a year. practices, and protect the health volume of plastic in the of ecosystems and fish stocks. \u25a0 ocean will exceed that of fish by 2050. Thick blooms of phytoplankton appear in red on this satellite image of the Gulf of Mexico. Bacteria break down decaying algae, releasing CO2 and absorbing essential oxygen.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 270 LOCTIHFOTEUTALLIFNDEETDHWROAORRDMAUBCBTIITOSN IN CONTEXT INVASIVE SPECIES KEY FIGURE Ryan M. Keane, Michael J. Crawley (1949\u2013) BEFORE 1951 The International Plant Protection Convention is set up to prevent the introduction and spread of pests of plants and plant products as a result of international trade. It is adopted in many countries. 1958 The Ecology of Invasions by Plants and Animals by British ecologist Charles Elton is the first book to be published on invasion biology. AFTER 2014 Studies of some of the \u201cworld\u2019s worst\u201d invasive species by ecologists at Queen\u2019s University, Belfast, and Stellenbosch University, South Africa, reveal that the ecological impacts of these species could be predicted from their behavior. S ome of the greatest damage to ecosystems is caused by invasive species. These are plants, animals, or other organisms that are not native to an ecosystem but introduced largely through human action, either deliberately or by accident. They can become competitors, predators, parasites, and hybridizers of native plants and animals, ultimately threatening the survival of those species. The rise of the rabbit One of the most notable species invasions has been that of the European rabbit in Australia. It began in 1788, when 11 ships","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS THE HUMAN FACTOR 271 See also: Predator\u2013prey equations 44\u201349 \u25a0 Non-consumptive effects of predators on their prey 76\u201377 \u25a0 Human activity and biodiversity 92\u201395 \u25a0 The food chain 132\u2013133 \u25a0 The ecosystem 134\u2013137 \u25a0 Chaotic population change 184 Spread of rabbits in Australia The harlequin ladybug is the world\u2019s most invasive ladybug. In the UK, where it was first seen in 2004, it is reportedly responsible for the decline of seven native ladybug species. landed at Botany Bay from Britain, Since their arrival KEY 1900\u20131910 to establish the first Australian in Australia, rabbits < 1870 1910\u20131920 penal colony. On board the \u201cFirst have spread throughout 1870\u20131880 > 1920 Fleet,\u201d along with more than 1,000 the country. They have 1880\u20131890 Not included in analysis people, including convicts and contributed to the decline 1890\u20131900 emigrants, were six European of many native plants and rabbits, brought along for food. animals, and may have caused several small By the 1840s, rabbits had mammals to go extinct. become a staple food in Australia, and were contained within stone There have been several attempts without accidentally introducing enclosures. All this changed to control the feral population, from additional ecosystem problems. in 1859 when a settler, Thomas rabbit-proof fences stretching more Despite being hampered by the Austin, imported 12 pairs of than 2,000 miles (3,200 km) to the lack of comparative data on those European rabbits and released more successful introduction of the invasive species that fail to them on his estate near Geelong in myxoma virus and the rabbit succeed, scientists have developed Victoria. Twenty years later, rabbits calicivirus, in 1950 and 1995 a number of theories to explain the had migrated to South Australia respectively. The resulting disease success of certain species in and Queensland, and then in the has proved the most effective way nonnative environments, including next two decades to Western of controlling their numbers and the resource availability hypothesis, Australia. By 1920, the rabbit protecting native species. the evolution of increased population was 10 billion. competitive ability hypothesis, and The secrets of success the enemy release hypothesis. Rabbits appear to be innocuous As invasive species have spread creatures, but they have wreaked throughout the world, scientists In general, species success havoc on Australia\u2019s native species, have tried to determine what depends on a variety of genetic, competing with them for resources makes some of these species so ecological, and demographic such as grass, herbs, roots, and successful, and how to control them factors. The resource availability seeds, and degrading the land. hypothesis, first proposed in 1985 \u276f\u276f They become particularly troublesome during a drought, when they eat anything they can find in order to stay alive.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 272 INVASIVE SPECIES The zebra mussel They have fewer They are well enemies than suited to the new The case of the zebra mussel native species. demonstrates the diverse environment. ways to approach invasive species control, and the Why invasive species succeed challenges that result. Zebra mussels are small, fingernail- They out-compete They are toxic sized mollusks with a dark- native species. to native species. striped shell. The mussel is native to Eurasia but was by the ecologists Phyllis Coley, mustard (Alliara petiolata). Native discovered in the Great Lakes John Bryant, and F. Stuart Chapin, to Europe, western and central area of North America in 1988, argues that an invasive species Asia, and northwestern Africa, probably carried there in thrives because it is already well it was brought to North America ballast water discharged from suited to its new environment by early settlers to use in cooking ships traveling from Europe. and can take advantage of any and medicines, and rapidly spread. Since then, zebra mussels surpluses in resources. The Continued infestation has affected have spread throughout the evolution of increased competitive the growth rate of tree seedlings midwestern United States, ability hypothesis, published by and reduced the native plant and have been found as far ecologists Bernd Blossey and diversity, leading to changes in west as California. Rolf N\u00f6tzold in 1995, suggests the forest ecosystems invaded. that invasive plants facing fewer The zebra mussels attach herbivores in their naturalized In its native range, garlic themselves to clams and other environment can allocate more mustard is consumed by as many mussels, filtering out algae resources to reproduction and as 69 insect species, but none of that the native species need survival and so out-compete the these is present in North America. for food to survive. They also native species. The enemy release This lack of predation and the clog water intake pipes used hypothesis, set out by ecologists plant\u2019s invasive success provide for power plants and drinking Ryan M. Keane and Michael J. water supplies. Current Crawley in their 2002 article \u201cExotic Garlic mustard is highly invasive control mechanisms include Plant Invasions and the Enemy in North America, inhibiting other chemicals, hot water, and Release Hypothesis,\u201d argues that the plants. In its native habitat, it is filtering systems. While each invasive species has fewer enemies considered an attractive wildflower, has had some success, none in its naturalized environments, and although it can have a strong smell. of these solutions has been so can spread farther. The reality is capable of safely eradicating that the success of invasive species the mussels. As a result, they is likely due to many mechanisms continue to spread throughout working together. the waterways of the US. Plant invaders We are seeing one of the great One plant that appears to support historical convulsions in the multiple hypotheses about the success of invasive species is garlic world\u2019s fauna and flora. Charles Elton","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS THE HUMAN FACTOR 273 Since their introduction to Australia in 1935, cane toads have out-competed native frogs because they reproduce far more quickly. support for the enemy release hypothesis. Garlic mustard also successfully competes with native plants for resources, fulfilling the resource availability hypothesis. The plant even exudes secondary compounds that may \u201cattack\u201d native plants by inhibiting their germination and growth. This supports the \u201cnovel weapons\u201d hypothesis, proposed by ecologists Wendy M. Ridenour and Ragan M. Callaway in 2004, which posits that invasive species have biochemical weapons that give them a key advantage over native species. The art of control Not all biological controls are the economy of local communities. Successful invasive species are effective, and some measures have Regulators are, therefore, often extremely difficult to control and had disastrous consequences. For hesitant to support biological almost impossible to eradicate. example, in 1935 cane toads were controls without extensive prior If the species is a plant, the most introduced to Australia to control research. No magic bullet exists obvious way to remove it is to the invasive grayback cane beetle, that can control every invasive pull it up or cut it down, but such which was destroying sugar cane species. They are dependent on methods are highly labor-intensive, fields. The cane toad had been complex ecosystem interactions, especially over a wide area. The effective in controlling beetles and scientists continue to design use of chemicals to destroy in Hawaii, so the assumption was field experiments to test their invasive species is often that it would be equally successful hypotheses of how invasive successful, but it can also kill in Australia. However, grayback species function in the wild. \u25a0 native species and undermine soil cane beetles feed primarily at the health, with the added threat of top of sugar cane stalks, which is Now is the time to take action. harm to humans. out of reach for the cane toads. The costs to habitats and the A lack of understanding of the economy are \u2026 out of control. One frequently used method different environments favored of control, known as biological by the two creatures meant that Bruce Babbitt control, or \u201cbiocontrol,\u201d pits an the cane toad was the wrong invasive species\u2019 own enemies choice as a biological control. By US Secretary of the Interior , against it. In an early success, the time the mistake was realized, (1993\u20132001) the cactus moth was introduced the toad had spread throughout to Australia from South America Australia, poisoning any predator in 1926 to feed on the prickly species that tried to eat the pear. This plant had itself been toxic amphibian. introduced in the 1770s and was choking farmland in New South Even when biological controls Wales and Queensland. By the curb an invasive species, they may early 1930s, most prickly pears create imbalances in ecosystems or had been eradicated.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS TASHTEEMPDEREATLURIECSAINTCREELASYE, DFBAAILSLANLACESRD SIRNYSATTEYOM SPRING CREEP","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 276 SPRING CREEP M ost scientists now agree may be triggered by temperature, that climate change, rainfall, or the length of daylight, IN CONTEXT driven by an increase but temperature is probably the in greenhouse gases, is raising single most important factor in KEY FIGURE the global mean temperature. The Earth\u2019s temperate and polar regions, Camille Parmesan (1961\u2013) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate whereas rainfall is the key factor in Change (IPCC) cites an increase the tropics. In 2003, climate change BEFORE of 1.8\u00b0F (1\u00b0C) since 1880, although scientists Camille Parmesan and 1997 A group of American in some regions the warming has Gary Yohe proved that spring scientists publishes evidence been even more marked. This change is now happening earlier\u2014 of a longer plant growing warming has affected both plant a phenomenon called spring creep. season at northern high and animal behavior, and the IPCC latitudes in 1981\u201391. forecasts a further increase Season creep of 2.5\u20139.9 \u00b0F (1.4\u20135.5\u00b0C) during the For several decades, people have 2002 Naturalist Richard Fitter next 100 years. observed leaves and flowers reveals that the first flowering appearing earlier in spring. In date of 385 plant species in the The life cycles of plants and the past, these claims were often UK has advanced by 4.5 days animals change in line with the dismissed as lacking \u201chard science,\u201d in the previous decade. seasons. Phenology is the study such as facts, figures, or datasets. of these seasonal changes. They AFTER 2006 Jonathan Banks, from The impact of seasonal the American Clean Air Task changes on plants and animals Force, is the first person to use the term \u201cseason creep\u201d to describe the increasingly early onset of the seasons as a result of climate change. 2014 In the US, the National Plants grow leaves, Mammals breed and raise Climate Assessment confirms produce flowers and fruit, young. Some mammals go into long-term trends toward and shed their leaves. hibernation over the winter. shorter, milder winters and earlier spring thaws. Seasonal changes in the weather We are seeing Birds nest and breed. Many birds After hatching, amphibians, insects, and change happen (and some other animals) make some other animals metamorphose from much faster than long-distance migrations. one body form into another. I thought it would 10 years ago. Camille Parmesan All life forms respond to changes in weather brought about by the seasonal cycle. Migration, breeding, flowering, hibernation, and metamorphosis are some of the events affected by this cycle.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS THE HUMAN FACTOR 277 See also: Animal ecology 106\u2013113 \u25a0 Animal behavior 116\u2013117 \u25a0 The foundations of plant ecology 167 \u25a0 Global warming 202\u2013203 \u25a0 Endangered habitats 236\u2013239 \u25a0 Halting climate change 316\u2013321 When Camille Parmesan and Gary than before, providing a longer The leaves of some oak species Yohe published evidence in 2003\u2014 growing season for plants. As turn red shortly before they fall in fall. based on an analysis of more than some regions become drier and Comparing the date on which this 1,700 species\u2014they demonstrated some wetter, bouts of extremely occurs from year to year can provide that change was very real. Their heavy rainfall and flooding have evidence for climate change. data showed that spring change become more common. Toxic algal was indeed taking place earlier\u2014by blooms in lakes are occurring more In Spain, botanists studied data for an average of 2.3 days per decade. frequently. Ice cover in polar regions 29 species of plants. They found Studies by other scientists in recent is also decreasing. All these changes that in 2003, leaves first appeared years have supported their findings. have affected and will continue to 4.8 days earlier on average than affect animal and plant behavior. in 1943; flowers first bloomed Many of the changes that take 5.9 days earlier; trees produced place in plants are governed by Since 1993, the European fruit 3.2 days earlier; and leaves temperature, including growth Environmental Agency (EEA) has died 1.2 days later. In the UK, the \u276f\u276f spurts; the appearance of leaves, worked in earnest to pull together flowers, and fruit; and leaves dying data from thousands of studies\u2014 in fall. Most food chains start with dating back to at least 1943\u2014to plants, so these changes affect create a picture of spring creep in grazers and browsers, from rabbits Europe. The EEA\u2019s evidence shows to deer, and pollinators, including earlier dates for plants producing bees and butterflies. All of these pollen, frogs spawning, and birds are at the bottom of the food chain nesting. According to their data, (primary consumers). If they many insects whose life cycles struggle to find food, those that prey are governed by air temperature on them (secondary consumers) also (thermophilic insects, such as suffer from the absence of prey. butterflies and bark beetles) now have a longer breeding season, Effects of climate change enabling them to produce extra A warmer Earth produces many generations each year. For example, effects. In most cooler parts of the some butterflies that previously had world, the frost-free season is longer two generations now have three. Camille Parmesan Born in 1961, Professor Camille figure in the IPCC and her work Parmesan is an American has won her many accolades academic who has established and has been cited in hundreds a reputation as one of the leading of academic papers. She is climate change scientists. She professor in Integrative Biology received her Ph.D. in biological at the University of Texas at sciences from the University of Austin and advises international Texas at Austin in 1995 and her conservation bodies. early research concerned the evolution of insect\u2013plant Key works interactions. For the best part of 20 years, she has focused on 2003 \u201cA globally coherent documenting the shifting fingerprint of climate change geographical ranges of butterflies impacts,\u201d Nature across North America and Europe, 2015 \u201cPlants and climate linking these to climate change. change: complexities and Parmesan has been a leading surprises,\u201d Annals of Botany","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 278 SPRING CREEP evidence was even more dramatic: undergo explosive population their destination 25 days sooner across 53 plant species, leaves, increases and produce damaging than previously. However, there is flowers, and fruits appeared almost infestations. Warmer springs allow evidence that birds migrating from six days earlier in 2005 than they pine sawflies, whose larvae eat Central America to New England in had done in 1976. Similarly, the pine needles, to develop too rapidly the US have declined faster than fruiting season of 315 different for the birds and parasites that feed birds that remain in New England kinds of fungi studied in Britain on them to keep their numbers in all year. This is probably because lengthened from 33 to 75 days in check. Out of control, the sawflies the migrant birds have been unable the second half of the 20th century. strip trees of their needles and to adjust their departure dates from stunt their growth. Central America to arrive in time to Longer plant growing seasons benefit from the earlier abundance sound like good news, but warmer Migration and hibernation of insects the way local birds do. temperatures create problems as Birds that migrate in spring to well as advantages. Not all insects reach rich food sources also face Climate change also appears are welcome, and shorter, milder problems. Some have adjusted their to have changed the behavior of winters kill fewer dormant insects, flight schedules to benefit from the hibernating mammals. Zoologists some of which may consequently earlier abundance of insects. After at the Rocky Mountain Biological making the long journey from sub- Laboratory found that yellow- Some bee species now emerge earlier Saharan Africa, the first swallows bellied marmots living in Colorado in spring, in line with earlier flowering arrive in the UK about 20 days emerged 38 days earlier in 1999 dates for the plants that they pollinate. earlier than they did in the 1970s, than they had done in 1975. In Other bees, though, have not been able and the first Bank Swallows reach 2012, scientists at the University to synchronize their emergence. of Alberta found that in the last two decades, late snowfall has delayed the emergence of the Rocky Mountain ground squirrel from hibernation by 10 days. This has cut down the already short active period in which they mate, give birth, and feed to prepare for the next hibernation cycle. Decoupling Some organisms\u2019 survival could be threatened by the \u201cdecoupling\u201d of interactions between species. This We are now sure of what we only suspected years ago. Policy needs to catch up with science. Camille Parmesan","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS THE HUMAN FACTOR 279 Wall butterflies and climate change A Great Tit feeds its chicks. If a problem for birds that depend Climate change sometimes breeding takes place after the peak on peaks in insect abundance. For produces unexpected results. period for spring caterpillars, there example, Pied Flycatchers and For example, in the UK, the life will be less food for the young birds, Great Tits feed their chicks on cycle of the wall butterfly has and fewer will survive to breed. caterpillars that are abundant for a been disrupted by changing short period in spring. Due to climatic conditions. Previously, could seriously upset the balance climate change, the caterpillar the butterfly produced two of ecosystems. If flowers appear peak is now earlier, but the birds generations every summer. earlier, the bees that pollinate them have not been able to advance The late-summer adults would can respond in one of two ways: their egg-laying dates enough to mate, the females lay eggs, they can emerge earlier; or they can take advantage of the glut of food. and the eggs then developed move to a higher latitude to match Studies show that fewer Pied into caterpillars. In September, later flower emergence farther from Flycatcher and Great Tit chicks these caterpillars found the equator. Studies of 10 wild bee are surviving. Pied Flycatcher sufficient food to grow large species in northeast North America numbers have declined in Dutch and sustain themselves in have shown that their behavior woodlands, possibly as a result of hibernation through winter. has changed in line with earlier climate change. In spring, the caterpillars flowering. However, bumblebees in metamorphosed into pupae, Colorado have not matched the Taking action and then became adults. changes and their population has All of this disturbing evidence Warmer weather has allowed fallen. If pollinators decline, so may has prompted climate scientists a third generation to develop the plants that they pollinate. worldwide to lobby governments in fall, with adults flying as and demand policy change. Spring late as mid-October. By There is evidence that many creep has been used by scientists the time the third generation primary consumers have adjusted as a definitive piece of proof that caterpillars hatch there is to changed natural phenomena, but climate change is occurring, and little food, so most starve species higher in the food chain researchers have called upon policy and die. Scientists call this seem to find it harder to make the makers to fight global warming to a \u201cdevelopmental trap\u201d and it change. Although birds are now save the familiar species that find is probably responsible for the nesting earlier than they once did, their very existence threatened decline in wall butterflies. the timing of insect emergence has by phenological changes. \u25a0 advanced more rapidly. This is This butterfly I was studying shifted its entire range across half a continent\u2014 I said this is big \u2026 Everything since then has just confirmed it. Camille Parmesan","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 280 IBOTNHINFOREEDECOIAVTFTEIOSTRHUSTESIOTMDYIAISSIENASES AMPHIBIAN VIRUSES IN CONTEXT Since the 1980s, hundreds of The North American bullfrog is species of amphibians have resistant to the chytrid fungus, but KEY FIGURE suffered population crashes acts as a deadly carrier of the infection Malcolm McCallum and localized extinctions\u2014at a rate to other species of amphibians. (1968\u2013) thought to be more than 200 times the natural, \u201cbackground\u201d extinction they are not able to breathe, hydrate, BEFORE rate unaffected by modern human or regulate their temperature. The 1989 The formerly common activity. This alarming phenomenon exact origin of the fungus is not golden toad of Costa Rica is first attracted public attention in known, but the global trade in live declared extinct. Various 1999, when American environmental amphibians for various uses, be it explanations are proposed. scientist Malcolm McCallum pets, food, fishing bait, or research, published his findings about the has been a major factor in its spread. 1998 In the US, many poison- dramatic increase in deformities dart frogs die at the National in frogs. He went on to produce Ranaviruses evolved from a fish Zoo in Washington DC. The landmark studies on amphibian virus. They infect amphibians and chytrid fungus is implicated decline and extinction. reptiles, and have caused mass as a cause. mortality in frogs since the 1980s. The causes of the problem are The common midwife toad ranavirus AFTER wide-ranging, and include habitat causes bleeding, skin sores, lethargy, 2009 The Kihansi spray toad destruction and pollution, as well as and emaciation. It is notably virulent of Tanzania is declared extinct competition from nonnative species. as it has the ability to \u201cjump\u201d from in the wild as a result of chytrid But one of the most devastating one species to another. \u25a0 infection. causes is undoubtedly disease, with two particularly lethal culprits. 2013 A second species of chytrid fungus causes the near- Chytrid and ranavirus extinction of fire salamanders Chytridiomycosis is a disease in the Netherlands. caused by the chytrid fungus, and it has ravaged populations of frogs 2015 The chytrid fungus is and toads in particular. The fungus detected in amphibians in 52 affects amphibians\u2019 skin, such that out of 82 countries sampled. See also: Biomes 206\u2013209 \u25a0 Pollution 230\u2013235 \u25a0 Endangered habitats 236\u2013239 \u25a0 Deforestation 254\u2013259 \u25a0 Overfishing 266\u2013269","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS THE HUMAN FACTOR 281 IBSSMUOTAEIMLGAEDILNOIAENNHGETORKYUYOESIEUNEPRGSWBTRHOIICLEKS OCEAN ACIDIFICATION IN CONTEXT Adding carbon dioxide (CO2) of CO2 pollution on the oceans. to the air not only triggers They took samples of seawater KEY FIGURES climate change but also from around the world, and found Kenneth Caldeira (1960\u2013), makes the oceans more acidic. So that the acidity had increased Michael E. Wickett (1971\u2013) far, the oceans have buffered the measurably in the past 200 years worst effects of global warming, of industrialization. They coined BEFORE absorbing up to half of the carbon the term \u201cocean acidification\u201d and 1909 Danish chemist S\u00f8ren dioxide added to the atmosphere by predicted that this change could S\u00f8rensen develops the pH human activity. However, the gas accelerate over the next 50 years, scale for measuring acidity. alters the oceans\u2019 chemistry. with damaging results. 1929 American biologists In 2003, American climate Many sea creatures rely on the Alfred Redfield and Robert scientists Ken Caldeira and Michael natural alkalinity of seawater to Goodkind discover that excess E. Wickett investigated the effects maintain carbonates for building carbon dioxide in water their shells and skeletons. Even a suffocates squid. Most carbon dioxide released slight decrease in alkalinity seriously into the atmosphere as a result disrupts growth, especially for 1933 German chemist of burning fossil fuels will be sensitive creatures such as corals Hermann Wattenberg makes and plankton. Acidification might the first global survey of ocean absorbed by the ocean. wipe out corals within decades; if acidity, as he analyzes results Ken Caldeira and they go, so do the reef ecosystems. from the Atlantic expedition Michael Wickett Phytoplankton are the foundation of the Meteor research vessel. of the ocean food web, and are vital to maintaining global AFTER oxygen levels. 2012 In the US, oceanographer James C. Zachos and his Ocean acidification is far harder colleagues use fossil evidence to reverse than the atmospheric from marine sediments to effects of CO2 emissions, and its show that past acidification devasting impact on biodiversity, of the ocean has led to mass fisheries, and food security remains extinctions of sea creatures. a serious concern. \u25a0 See also: Global warming 202\u2013203 \u25a0 Pollution 230\u2013235 \u25a0 Endangered habitats 236\u2013239 \u25a0 Acid rain 248\u2013249 \u25a0 Halting climate change 316\u2013321","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 282 BDSTEHAPMREIGAAEWNGNOEVLRIORCEFOADNNUNMROBETNANTAL URBAN SPRAWL IN CONTEXT S ince the 1950s, the term Modern definitions of urban sprawl \u201curban sprawl\u201d has been vary, but it generally has negative KEY FIGURE widely used to describe the overtones. At its most extreme, it Robert Bruegmann (1948\u2013) growth of low-density suburbs has created megacities\u2014defined by beyond high-density city cores. the United Nations as cities of more BEFORE The term was first used by The than 10 million people. Examples 1928 British architect Clough Times newspaper in the UK in 1955 of such megacities include Tokyo- Williams-Ellis compares to describe the spread of London\u2019s Yokohama (38 million), Jakarta London\u2019s growth to an octopus suburbs. At this time, the British (30 million), and Delhi (25 million). devouring the countryside. planning authorities were introducing \u201cgreen belts\u201d around Ecological upset 1950s With postwar prosperity cities, where new building was Some researchers claim urban and increased car ownership in almost entirely banned. Green sprawl is the most serious threat the US, the middle classes leave belts were designed to stop cities to biodiversity from any human cramped city centers and move from spreading and merging with activity. The new suburbs house to new, low-density areas in other towns. relatively few people, yet require the suburbs. extensive and disproportionate The old city is levels of infrastructure, such as AFTER submerged in a power and water supplies and 2017 A housing crisis in the far-flung, multicentered, transportation networks. As cities UK prompts calls for the lifting mostly low-density, swell, valuable farmland is covered of restrictions on new building highly heterogeneous in concrete and natural habitats are on the greenbelts around major urban region. disrupted or lost entirely. Sprawl can UK cities. Robert Bruegmann also disturb local fauna and flora through the introduction of pets 2050 The date by which, and invasive plants that threaten according to UN estimates indigenous species. Limited public published in 2014, the urban transportation in low density population of the world is areas also means that suburban set to rise to 6.34 billion out populations tend to be multiple car of a projected total population owners, which adds to the levels of 9.7 billion. of air pollution in cities\u2014as do the wood- and coal-burning stoves of the poor in outlying shanty towns.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS THE HUMAN FACTOR 283 See also: Pollution 230\u2013235 \u25a0 Endangered habitats 236\u2013239 \u25a0 Deforestation 254\u2013259 \u25a0 Depletion of natural resources 262\u2013265 \u25a0 Amphibian viruses 280 Toluca was once a picturesque old town to the west of Mexico City. Now a city of more than 800,000 people, it is gradually merging into the sprawl of Mexico City\u2014at a high ecological cost. The area of the world currently blocks, pushing the city limits\u2014 million and that of Beijing to 23 covered in urban development and the urban poor\u2014far from city million by restricting land available is one-and-a-half times the size centers. The reliance on cars in the for building and controlling the of France. Mexico City has expanded new neighborhoods, and the lack of inflow of people, forcing out more than any other city in the West. central hubs, means there is little low-skilled workers. China is Spreading far beyond its official opportunity for community life. also building higher-density boundaries to become the home neighborhoods with narrower of more than 21 million people, it Aware of the problems caused streets, more intersections, and has also grown disproportionately: by urbanization, the Chinese more public transport that will help in 1970\u20132000, the surface area of the government is now trying to limit the formation of communities. \u25a0 city grew 1.5 times faster than its the population of Shanghai to 25 population. While 59 percent of the city\u2019s territory is conservation land, illegal logging and urban sprawl continue to degrade urban forest, grassland, and water supplies. It is estimated that 37 percent of all urban growth by 2050 will occur in China, India, and Nigeria alone. In Beijing and other cities in China, densely populated hutongs (alleyways), where the urban poor used to live, are being demolished to make way for low-density luxury The endangered axolotl One of the victims of the urban Historically, the wild axolotl sprawl of Mexico City has been lived in the urban canals created the tiny axolotl, a pale-colored by the Aztecs as they built their salamander that looks like a fish capital city in the 13th century, but is actually an amphibian, and in the network of lakes and is sometimes known as the around the city that fed these Mexican walking fish. Capable of canals. As Mexico City has growing up to 1 ft (30 cm) long, the expanded, these canals have axolotl feeds on aquatic insects, been lost, and the wild axolotl small fish, and crustaceans, and has declined. In 2006, it was has the ability to regenerate added to the list of critically severed limbs\u2014a quality that endangered species and by has made captive specimens an 2015 it was thought that the important subject of scientific creature may have been extinct. research. The captive version is However, specimens have since also a familiar pet in aquariums been found in Lake Xochimilco around the world. in southern Mexico City.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 284 POTLUUARRSNOTINCICGEASINNOSTUOPARAE A PLASTIC WASTELAND IN CONTEXT W hen plastics were first Charles Moore, who highlighted it in mass produced in the his 2011 book Plastic Ocean. Sailing KEY FIGURE early 20th century, the home from a yachting competition, Charles J. Moore (1947\u2013) world marveled at the versatility and Moore came across a vast patch of durability of a material that could be plastic debris in the Pacific Ocean. BEFORE molded into any shape, used, and Now known to have a bigger surface 1970s Scientists begin to then thrown away. The problem with area than France, Germany, and research plastic litter at sea plastic, however, is that most of Spain combined, the Great Pacific after reports in the journal it never goes away. According to Ocean Garbage Patch (GPOGP) Science describe large the British business publication comprises 79,000 tons of numbers of plastic pellets The Economist, only 20 percent microplastics amassed by the in the North Atlantic. of the 6.3 billion tons of plastic swirling current known as the produced in the world since the North Pacific Gyre. 1984 The first International 1950s has been burned or recycled. Marine Debris Conference, This means that 80 percent\u2014 The GPOGP is one of several held in Hawaii, raises 5 billion tons\u2014is in landfills or oceanic garbage patches\u2014there awareness of the growing elsewhere in the environment. are others in the Atlantic and problem of litter in the oceans. Polluting the oceans AFTER Microplastics\u2014tiny fragments of 2016 The documentary A plastic less than 1\u20444 inch (5 mm) Plastic Ocean, directed by across\u2014are even harder to clean Australian journalist Craig up than other plastics. Comprising Leeson, highlights the global 90 percent of the plastics in the effects of plastic pollution. oceans, they surge through currents like a murky soup. The problem 2018 The Earth Day Network, was first identified in 1997 by the an organization committed to American oceanographer Captain spreading the environmental movement worldwide, makes A \u201cseabin\u201d is emptied in Sydney End Plastic Pollution the theme harbor. The Seabin Project, introduced of Earth Day, on April 22, 2018. in Australia in 2015, helps counteract plastic pollution by filtering surface water in ports and harbors.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS THE HUMAN FACTOR 285 See also: The food chain 132\u2013133 \u25a0 Humankind\u2019s dominance over nature 296 Effects on wildlife \u25a0 Human devastation of Earth 299 \u25a0 Man and the Biosphere programme 310\u2013311 Plastics pose a danger to Plastic is recycled, burned, put into wildlife in many ways. Larger landfill, or dumped in the ocean. items such as plastic shopping bags can choke or strangle It takes thousands of years to decompose. birds and marine animals; if ingested, they can damage Wave action and UV sunlight breaks their digestive tracts or cause plastic in the ocean into tiny fragments, which spread starvation by obstructing the stomach. If microplastics are through the water. ingested, toxins can pass into an animal\u2019s fatty tissues, Our oceans are a process that then passes up turning into a plastic soup. the foodchain. Indian Ocean as well as in smaller and many countries, following the According to Greenpeace, bodies of water such as the North lead of Bangladesh in 2002, are nine out of ten seabirds, one Sea. Plastic microbeads, introduced banning the provision of single-use in three sea turtles, and more by cosmetic companies in the plastic bags. Other measures than half the population of 1990s, add to the problem. Used include banning plastic straws whales and dolphins have in personal care products such and promoting the use of reusable eaten plastic. Even some of as soaps, facial scrubs, and water bottles and recyclable or the crustaceans living in the toothpastes, the beads travel from compostable packaging. \u25a0 western Pacific\u2019s Mariana wastewater systems into rivers and Trench, the deepest point in oceans, where they are consumed the world\u2019s oceans, are known by fish and other animals, with to have ingested plastic. the same damaging effects as microplastics (see panel, far right). Companies are starting to take the need to reduce plastic use seriously. A brewer in Florida, for instance, has found a way to make six-pack rings from by-products of the brewing process, so that seabirds can chew them off if they become caught in them. Steps to limit plastic The throwaway society A Northern Gannet is entangled Cleaning up plastic pollution is a cannot be contained\u2014it in the plastic rings of a six-pack. gargantuan task. Breaking plastics has gone global. We cannot Birds that scavenge along the shore down into their constituent such as seagulls are especially prone chemicals requires huge amounts store and maintain or to being caught in such debris. of energy, which also damages the recycle all our stuff. environment. The best solution is Charles J. Moore to learn to live without plastic. Most countries have banned or are working toward phasing out the use of microbeads in beauty products,","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS WATER IS A PUBLIC HTRUUMSATN, RAINGDHTA THE WATER CRISIS","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 288 THE WATER CRISIS IN CONTEXT In 2008, Canadian activist Indians line up for water in a slum Maude Barlow argued that area of Hyderabad in 2007. India KEY FIGURE water shortage had become the suffered a severe water crisis in 2018, Maude Barlow (1947\u2013) most pressing ecological and human and demand is projected to be twice crisis of the 21st century. Stressing the available supply by 2030. BEFORE that water is a \u201cCommons\u201d (a shared 1983\u20135 Droughts in Ethiopia, resource) and that access to water is percent of the planet\u2019s water is both Eritrea, and Sudan cause a fundamental human right, she set fresh and easily accessible. It is 450,000 deaths. out how wastage, pollution, and obtained mostly from rivers, lakes, 1990 The desiccation of the overconsumption meant that the and underground aquifers (rock Aral Sea is declared the world\u2019s water cycle\u2014the constant exchange containing groundwater). People worst ecological disaster of of water between Earth\u2019s surface use water to drink, wash, irrigate the 20th century by the UN and the atmosphere\u2014could not crops, and run industry, and since Environment Programme. be relied upon to provide water for all plants and terrestrial animals 2008 The United Nations evermore. She said that shortage require freshwater to live, all are estimates that around 42,000 of water was already a crisis in the affected by the water crisis. people die every week from developing world, where the burden diseases related to bad water is borne particularly by women and Wasted water and poor sanitation. children who collect water\u2014and A larger human population uses unless drastic action is taken, the more water, and a large proportion AFTER rest of the world will be affected too. of that is wasted, especially in 2011\u201317 California suffers one developed countries, where people of its worst droughts on record. About 1.1 billion people lack on average use about 10 times more It impacts on agriculture, easy access to water, and 2.7 billion than those in the developing world. nature, and daily life. find water scarce for at least one Sources of freshwater have dried up 2017 Water campaigner month of the year. Although 70 (for example, much of the Rio Maude Barlow reveals that percent of Earth\u2019s surface is Grande between Mexico and the half of China\u2019s rivers have covered by water, almost all of it is US) or are becoming too polluted to disappeared since 1990. saline ocean water. Only 0.014 Life requires access to clean water; to deny the right to water is to deny the right to life. The fight for the right to water is an idea whose time has come. Maude Barlow","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS THE HUMAN FACTOR 289 See also: The ecosystem 134\u2013137 \u25a0 Pollution 230\u2013235 \u25a0 Acid rain 248\u2013249 \u25a0 Overpopulation 250\u2013251 \u25a0 Depletion of natural resources 262\u2013265 Distribution of the world\u2019s water Easily accessible 8% Atmospheric 1% Rivers freshwater is a very water vapor 1% Water within fragile resource. Only living organisms a tiny fraction of the total amount of water 38% Soil available on our planet moisture is immediately fit for human consumption. 2.5% Freshwater 1% Easily accessible 97.5% surface water Oceans 20% 52% Lakes All water Groundwater 79% Ice caps and glaciers Freshwater Easily accessible surface water use. The Ganges in India and the (64 billion cubic meters)\u2014due in In the last century, half of Earth\u2019s Citarum in Indonesia are two of the part to the population growing by wetlands have disappeared to make most polluted rivers in the world. 80 million people each year. The rise way for farmland or development, At the current rate of consumption in demand has also been driven by or because groundwater has been this situation will deteriorate further. changing lifestyles and eating removed from aquifers faster than By 2030, two-thirds of the world\u2019s habits that require more water it has been replaced. A reduction in population may face shortages. per person. The production of wetlands means plants and animals Ecosystems will also suffer. biofuels has also risen sharply, with dependent on them are also gone. significant impact on water Nearly half of all drinking water Increased demand demand. Between 260 and 1,060 comes from aquifers. About 240 Human use of freshwater has tripled gallons (1,000\u2013 4,000 liters) of water cubic miles (1,000 cubic km) is since about 1970, and demand is are needed to make about taken every year. Two-thirds is used increasing by 2,260 billion cubic feet \u00bc gallon (1 liter) of biofuel. for irrigation, 22 percent for \u276f\u276f Maude Barlow Born in Toronto, Canada, in 1947, Peace\u201d nominated for the 2005 Maude Barlow is an activist and Nobel Peace Prize. In 2008, she water policy critic. She is the received the Citation of Lifetime author or coauthor of 18 books, Achievement, Canada\u2019s highest including the bestseller Blue Gold: honor for environmentalism. The Fight to Stop the Corporate Key works Theft of the World\u2019s Water. Barlow formerly served as an adviser 2002 Blue Gold: The Fight to on water to the United Nations, Stop the Corporate Theft of the and led moves to have water World\u2019s Water recognized as a basic human 2007 Blue Covenant: The Global right. In 2012, she helped found Water Crisis and the Coming the Blue Planet Project, which Battle for the Right to Water campaigns for the right to water. 2014 Blue Future: Protecting Barlow chairs the Council of Water for People and the Canadians social action group, and Planet Forever was one of the \u201c1000 Women for","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 290 THE WATER CRISIS The desiccation of the Aral Sea A stranded ship on the dried-up The disappearance of most of the smaller lakes, and contained only bed of the Aral Sea. The loss of such Aral Sea, once the world\u2019s fourth- one-tenth of its 1960 volume of a large body of water has had a largest lake, in Kazahkstan has water. Large areas are now devastating effect on agriculture, been a huge ecological disaster. desert. Most of the lake\u2019s fish climate, and the local fishing industry. In the early 1960s, the two main and other aquatic life disappeared rivers that fed the lake were with its water. Once fishermen diverted to irrigate millions of here could catch Syr Darya cotton plants across central Asia. sturgeon, but its numbers In June 2004, the UN warned that declined sharply when the lake the lake could dry up completely shrank and became more saline. unless measures were taken to Efforts to replenish the waters save it. It was then receiving only have achieved an increase in 10 percent of the water that it surface area and depth, and fish once did, had divided into several populations are now increasing. domestic use, and 11 percent for Ogallala aquifer is being depleted. not have plentiful water, such as industry. However, most aquifers There are even water supply North Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, replenish much more slowly than problems in Brazil, which is the large areas of central and south they can be emptied, so water most water-rich nation on Earth. As Asia, northern China, and the yields reduce with use. If the water the situation worsens, it becomes southwest United States. In contrast, table falls, some lakes and rivers dry a growing source of conflict. economic water scarcity occurs up. About half the total length of when water is available but the China\u2019s rivers has been lost since Water scarcity infrastructure does not exist to 1990. In North America, the Great There are two types of water utilize it. This is the situation in Lakes are shrinking, Lake Winnipeg scarcity. Physical water scarcity much of sub-Saharan Africa and is threatened, and the massive affects regions that naturally do parts of Central America. People Water stress around the world KEY London None 1\u20139 months New York Istanbul Beijing Tokyo 10\u201312 months Mexico City Delhi Osaka Major cities Los Angeles Cairo Shanghai experiencing water scarcity Mumbai This map illustrates the Rio de Janeiro average exposure of water users Sao Paulo to water stress\u2014the ratio of total withdrawals to total renewable supply in a given area. A higher proportion of withdrawals means that more water users are competing for limited supplies.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS THE HUMAN FACTOR 291 The world has not really worse. For example, a sewage Salisbury Water woken up to the reality of treatment plant run on \u201cclean\u201d what we are going to face in energy can provide the wastewater In Adelaide, South Australia, terms of the crises as far needed to fertilize biofuel crops, an innovative water recycling which in turn can be used to purify system in use in the suburb as water is concerned. the water\u2014without emitting of Salisbury has reduced Rajendra Pachauri greenhouse gases. extraction from the Murray River and aquifers by about IPCC Chair Drinkable waste water a half. Wastewater from the New technologies can also convert local sewage treatment works living in these areas may have to wastewater directly into drinkable and rainwater from drains spend hours each day walking to water\u2014a process that has been are treated, and then directed the nearest supply of water. Many energy-hungry in the past. The into a series of 50 wetlands. children miss out on an education Intergovernmental Panel on Climate These contain reedbeds because they are collecting water. Change (IPCC) stresses that water and other aquatic vegetation management policies can lead to that further clean the water. Wildlife concerns higher greenhouse gas emissions. The recycled, nonsdrinking The water crisis is bad for humans However, that is not the case if the water from the wetlands is and can mean extinction for some conversion is fueled using solar then piped to the inhabitants animals and reduction in numbers energy, which is starting to take of Salisbury to use for flushing for others. Populations of the over from oil to power desalination toilets, watering gardens, Amazon river dolphin, which lives plants in the Middle East. In parts washing cars, and filling in the Amazon and Orinoco river of the world, there is seasonal heavy ornamental ponds. basins in South America, for rain\u2014for example, in countries example, have been much reduced, with a monsoon\u2014but it runs off In addition to providing partly by the increase of heavy into polluted rivers and cannot be a more sustainable source of metal pollution from mining but used. Rainwater catchment and water, the system has boosted also by the construction of dams, storage schemes would help. biodiversity within the newly which restrict the migration of established wetlands. Among fish, the dolphins\u2019 food, to their Other helpful initiatives include the birds that are currently spawning grounds. Elsewhere, reducing pollution, cutting irrigation resident or visitors are ducks, in China, the world\u2019s largest and industrial wastage, providing spoonbills, herons, pelicans, amphibian, the Chinese giant new technological solutions for cormorants, and migratory salamander, has also become developing countries, and reaching waders, along with species critically endangered by dams international agreements\u2014after all, of amphibians and fish, and being built for water storage and water catchments do not stick many aquatic invertebrates. hydroelectric power. Such to national boundaries. \u25a0 engineering works change the Salisbury\u2019s recycled water has natural flow of rivers, upsetting There is no water-rich environmental benefits including the creature\u2019s habitat. country in the world that reduced demand on existing water is not facing problems. resources and improved biodiversity A holistic view of ecosystem through the newly created wetlands. management is crucial to prevent Maude Barlow the water crisis from getting much","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS ENVIRONM AND CONS","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS ENTALISM ERVATION","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 294 INTRODUCTION Francis Bacon\u2019s work Written in a cabin The first working UNESCO launch their espouses the idea that in the woods, Henry photovoltaic solar Man and the Biosphere David Thoreau\u2019s book cell panel is built by Programme to encourage man has dominion Walden presents a inventor Charles over nature\u2014a view romanticized view Fritts in the US. economic development of the natural world. that is sustainable that is later termed and eco-friendly. \u201cimperial ecology.\u201d C.1620 1854 1883 1971 1789 1864 1966 Gilbert White\u2019s Natural George Perkins Marsh Lynn White argues that History and Antiquities of warns of the Western\u2014largely Christian\u00a0\u2013 Selborne records in great anthropocentric worldviews detail the wildlife around destructive impact have placed humankind in an that human action is his rural home. environmental crisis. having on nature. E arly in the 17th century, out that resource scarcity was potential for producing limitless English philosopher and generally the result of human energy, but it took a century for scientist Francis Bacon actions rather than natural causes. solar power to be widely adopted. wrote of the need to control and \u201cClean\u201d hydroelectric power was manage nature. By the end of the Renewable and clean the first sustainable source capable 18th century, in contrast, English Before the Industrial Revolution, of generating electricity on a large vicar Gilbert White was writing most energy had been renewable\u2014 scale\u2014joined in the late 20th in favor of a peaceful coexistence the energy of human and animal century by modern wind power, and between people and the natural labor, wind- and watermills, and tidal, wave, and geothermal energy. world. Yet in his lifetime, powerful sustainable wood. From the mid- new steam engines unleashed the 18th century there was a dramatic An environmental ethic ravages of industrialization\u2014the shift to coal. The most efficient fuel In 1937, following the devastating reaction against which would later for firing furnaces and factories, it \u201cDust Bowl\u201d caused by intensive provide a major impetus for the came at a price\u2014choking pollution farming in the US, President environmental movement. and the then-unknown rise in Franklin D Roosevelt wrote, atmospheric greenhouse gases. \u201cA nation that destroys its soils Possibly the first systematic destroys itself.\u201d In 1949, American analysis of humanity\u2019s destructive In the 1880s, however, the key ecologist and forester Leopold impact was American diplomat to a new form of renewable energy Aldo articulated a recurring theme George Perkins Marsh\u2019s 1864 was provided by American inventor in environmental thought, by book, Man and Nature. Marsh Charles Fritts\u2014a photovoltaic cell, advocating a \u201cland ethic,\u201d a warned, among other things, which could convert solar power responsible relationship between that deforestation could lead to the to electricity. German industrialist people and their local environment. creation of deserts, and he pointed Werner von Siemens soon saw its","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS ENVIRONMENTALISM AND CONSERVATION 295 The Indian NGO The Sustainable Gretchen Daily\u2019s Navdanya (\u201cNine Biosphere Initiative Ecosystem Services seeds\u201d) is founded, to (SBI) report, published preserve seed diversity, in the US, argues for shows how humans promote fair trade, and increased funding for can derive benefits ecological research. from preserving the protect farmers. natural environment. 1987 1991 1997 1981 1988 1992 2015 Mark Schafer pioneers The Intergovernmental The UN\u2019s Rio Earth The Paris Population Viability Panel on Climate Summit sets global Agreement on Analysis (PVA) as a method targets for cutting Climate Change for estimating the likelihood Change is established is signed by 195 of a species\u2019 extinction. in Geneva, Switzerland. greenhouse gas UN countries. emissions. The post-war period saw many 1969 massive oil spill in Santa assets which, when properly governments legislating to ensure Barbara, California, US senator managed, provide a flow of vital the quality of air and drinking water Gaylord Nelson proposed the idea goods and services. and establish national parks and of a national event to highlight the other protected areas. In 1968, the varied threats to the environment. International cooperation world first found its collective voice, On the first Earth Day, which took Two UN agencies\u2014the World when UNESCO (the United Nations place on April 22, 1970, millions Meteorological Organization and Educational, Scientific and Cultural turned out on marches across the the UN Environment Programme\u2014 Organization) held the Paris US. The scale of the event helped established the Intergovernmental Biosphere Conference. This resulted, the passage of the Clean Air, Clean Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in three years later, in the creation of Water, and Endangered Species 1988 to assess the risk of human- the Man and Biosphere Programme. Acts and led to the creation of the induced climate change. United States Environmental Growing awareness Protection Agency (EPA). The IPCC continues to monitor Public concern for the environment climate change. In 1992, the Rio was marked by the establishment In 1973, German economist Earth Summit, a UN initiative, was of major conservation organizations. Ernst Schumacher used the term unprecedented in both its size and The International Union for the \u201cnatural capital\u201d in his best-seller the scope of its concerns. It was the Conservation of Nature had been Small is Beautiful to describe how first of a number of international established in 1948, and it was ecosystems provide us with gatherings seeking, with much followed by the World Wildlife Fund complex services. The concept success, to get global agreement on (1961), Friends of the Earth (1969), inspired American environmentalist greenhouse emissions. International and Greenpeace (1971). After the Gretchen Daily and others, who cooperation is now seen as key argued that ecosystems are capital to saving Earth\u2019s environment. \u25a0","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 296 RKMTHENASEONTWDOSOLVOMEENDRINLGNYIEOAONTNUORFE HUMANKIND\u2019S DOMINANCE OVER NATURE IN CONTEXT T he Renaissance (\u201crebirth\u201d) Many scientists of the era believed between the 14th and 17th that humans had a privileged place KEY FIGURE centuries is primarily in a universe created by God for Francis Bacon (1561\u20131626) associated with the arts and humanity to inhabit. English culture that flourished across philosopher and scientist Francis BEFORE Europe as the Catholic Church\u2019s Bacon (1561\u20131626), a pioneer in the c.9500 bce The first authority began to be challenged. It development of scientific method, agricultural crops are was also a time of extraordinary reinforced this idea; the natural cultivated in the Middle East. scientific advances, which some world, in his view, existed to saw as the beginnings of a provide for humans, and should be 340s bce The Greek \u201cscientific revolution.\u201d Discoveries conquered and exploited. philosopher Aristotle devises a in astronomy, physics, and medicine \u201cladder of being\u201d with man at gave rise to the idea that science Bacon\u2019s view later became the top. could tell humans everything about known as \u201cImperial Ecology\u201d\u2014the the universe, and that knowledge idea that humanity\u2019s knowledge of 15th century The \u201cAge of would make humans its masters. science and technology should be Discovery\u201d begins: Europeans used to gain dominance over the set out to explore the world in natural world. Imperial ecology search of new resources. became the predominant ideology throughout the Renaissance, the AFTER Enlightenment\u2014an 18th century c.1750 New technology such movement dedicated to the pursuit as the steam engine launches of knowledge\u2014and later the the Industrial Revolution, Industrial Revolution of the 18th which begins in Britain. and 19th centuries. \u25a0 1866 Gregor Mendel pioneers Sir Francis Bacon sits for a portrait the science of genetics, in parliamentary robes. Bacon had breeding 22 varieties of peas. an illustrious political career; knighted in 1603, he served as Lord Chancellor 1970s The first experiments of England from 1618 to 1621. in genetic engineering\u2014the See also: Global warming 202\u2013203 \u25a0 A holistic view of the earth 210\u2013211 direct manipulation of DNA by \u25a0 Pollution 230\u2013235 \u25a0 Environmental ethics 306\u2013307 humans\u2014take place.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS ENVIRONMENTALISM AND CONSERVATION 297 ENCATOUNROEMIISSTA GREAT THE PEACEFUL COEXISTENCE OF HUMANKIND AND NATURE IN CONTEXT I n the late 18th century, rapid From reading White\u2019s Selborne advances in science and I took much pleasure in KEY FIGURE technology\u2014particularly Gilbert White (1720\u201393) in Britain\u2014led to widespread watching the habits of birds, industrialization and urbanization and even made notes. BEFORE as people sought to control and Charles Darwin 4th century bce Diogenes, a exploit the natural world. There Greek philosopher, advocates were, however, many in Britain onward. The book was compiled forgoing the comforts of who still lived and worked on the from his correspondence about his civilization in favor of a life land. Among the educated rural findings with several like-minded \u201cin accord with nature.\u201d class, some had a fascination for naturalists, but it was more than both science and nature. From simply a collection of data. White\u2019s 1773 American naturalist this group, a new generation of engaging and often poetic style William Bartram starts his field naturalists emerged, suggesting sent a persuasive message; his studies of the wildlife of the that humans should learn from their work rejected the \u201cimperial\u201d idea southeast US, documented in scientific studies to live in harmony of conquering nature, and instead his 1791 book, Travels. with the natural world rather than encouraged a balance between attempt to dominate it. humans and the natural world\u2014 AFTER like that of the Ancient Greeks\u2019 1949 American ecologist Aldo Arcadian ideology mythical idyll of Arcadia, for which Leopold publishes A Sand In 1789, rural parson and naturalist White\u2019s approach was named. \u25a0 County Almanac, exploring the Gilbert White published his Natural idea of humans\u2019 \u201cland ethic,\u201d or History and Antiquities of Selborne, responsibilities toward nature. which became a seminal work in what was later called \u201cArcadian 1969 Friends of the Earth Ecology\u201d. Educated at Oxford and a is founded in the US\u2014initially keen gardener and ornithologist, as an antinuclear group\u2014 White closely observed the wildlife marking the beginning of the around his Hampshire village, and modern Green movement. made meticulous notes from 1751 See also: Romanticism, conservation, and ecology 298 \u25a0 Environmental ethics 306\u2013307 \u25a0 The Green Movement 308\u2013309 \u25a0 Halting climate change 316\u2013321","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 298 IOTNHFWETHPILREDEWNSEOESRRSVLADISTION ROMANTICISM, CONSERVATION, AND ECOLOGY IN CONTEXT I n many ways, Romanticism\u2014 affected scientific attitudes to a new cultural movement that nature by inspiring interest in the KEY FIGURE emerged towards the end of nascent field of ecology and the Henry David Thoreau the 18th century\u2014was a reaction environmental movement. (1817\u201362) to the scientific rationalism of the Enlightenment. As industrialization The wild world BEFORE took hold in urban areas, writers, A key figure in the Romanticization 1662 English diarist John artists, and composers began of nature was Henry David Thoreau, Evelyn\u2019s work Sylva, advocating increasingly to glorify the natural an American writer from Concord, forest conservation, is world. The now prosperous middle Massachusetts. His book Walden presented to the Royal Society. classes were particularly inspired (1854) described his time living in by Romantic portrayals of nature, a cabin in the woods by Walden 1789 Gilbert White publishes and took up leisure pursuits such Pond. Thoreau advocated his Natural History of Selborne, as hiking and mountaineering. preserving nature not for its own inspiring a reaction against The Romantic movement even sake, but as a necessary resource \u201cimperial ecology.\u201d in sustaining human life and a kind of spiritual enrichment. While AFTER Thoreau\u2019s \u201cwilderness\u201d was not far 1872 A bill creating the first removed from modern life, his US national park, Yellowstone, Romantic portrayal of the natural is signed into law by President world significantly influenced the Ulysses S. Grant. conservation movement in the US and helped inspire the National 1892 In San Francisco, Parks system. \u25a0 Scottish\u2013American conservationist John Muir Thoreau\u2019s simple hut at Walden founds The Sierra Club. Pond appeared on the title page of this 1875 edition of Walden. Thoreau 1971 The UNESCO \u201cMan claimed he went to the wilderness and the Biosphere\u201d project to be free of the obligations of city life. is launched. See also: Global warming 202\u2013203 \u25a0 A holistic view of Earth 210\u2013211 \u25a0 Urban sprawl 282\u2013283 \u25a0 The Green Movement 308\u2013309"]
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