["\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS ENVIRONMENTALISM AND CONSERVATION 299 IMASGAAENNDETIVSETRUYRWBIHNEGRE HUMAN DEVASTATION OF EARTH IN CONTEXT T he widely held view that George Perkins Marsh in an the natural world existed to engraving from 1882. As well as being KEY FIGURE be exploited by humankind an environmentalist, the Vermont George Perkins Marsh saw a major rebuttal in the form of native was also a skilled linguist, (1801\u201382) the 19th-century environmental lawyer, congressman, and diplomat. movement. Arguments against BEFORE the \u201cimperial\u201d attitude to nature, Marsh believed that people must 1824 Joseph Fourier, a French which had prevailed since the dawn be made aware of their destructive physicist, describes the of global exploration in the late 15th impact and find new ways of greenhouse effect\u2014later century, began with naturalists such managing natural resources to identified as a contributing as Gilbert White, and were echoed preserve the natural equilibrium. factor in global warming. in the sentiments of Romanticism. An activist as well as writer, he Such ideas tended to focus on the helped establish the principle 1830s Scientists posit that the idealization of nature, rather than of protected areas, and inspired Dutch colonization of Mauritius examining the harm done by human the idea of sustainable resource in the 17th century caused the conquests of the natural world. management that became a core dodo to become extinct. element of the 19th-century In contrast to the emotive environmental movement. \u25a0 AFTER Romantic responses to modernism, 1962 In the US, Rachel American polymath George Perkins Carson\u2019s Silent Spring Marsh took a close look at humans\u2019 describes the harmful effect of impact on the environment and pesticides on the environment. suggested changes. Marsh was horrified by the destructive effects 1971 Greenpeace is founded of human management of natural by American environmentalists. resources. In his book Man and Nature, Or, Physical Geography as 1988 The Intergovernmental Modified by Human Action (1864), Panel on Climate Change he pointed in particular to the mass (IPCC) is set up to assess the deforestation which had virtually \u201crisk of human-induced desertified some areas of the US. climate change.\u201d See also: Global warming 202\u2013203 \u25a0 A plastic wasteland 284\u2013285 \u25a0 Humankind\u2019s dominance over nature 296 \u25a0 Environmental ethics 306\u2013307","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS ESNOELRAGRY IASNBDOTWHIWTHITOHUOUTTCLOIMSITT RENEWABLE ENERGY","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 302 RENEWABLE ENERGY B y the late 19th century, fears By contrast, fossil fuels\u2014such were already growing in as coal, oil, and gas\u2014have taken IN CONTEXT industrial Europe that the thousands of years to form, and world could not rely on fossil fuels when exhausted, cannot be KEY FIGURE forever. When the first working replaced. Natural gas is an Werner von Siemens selenium solar cell panel was built abundant fossil fuel, but its (1816\u201392) in 1883 by American inventor extraction can cause environmental Charles Fritts, the progressive problems, such as earth tremors BEFORE German industrialist Werner von and water contamination. Nuclear 2nd century bce The first Siemens immediately recognized its power, although sustainable for a water wheels mark a labor- huge potential for renewable energy. long period of time, is not considered saving turning point in the He declared: \u201cthe supply of solar renewable because its production history of technology. energy is both without limit and requires a rare type of uranium ore. without cost.\u201d Yet, because no one 1839 French physicist Edmond at the time understood exactly how Energy sources such as solar Becquerel creates the first selenium created photoelectricity, power, wind, and water are also photovoltaic cell, using light to and Siemens\u2019s calls for more generally \u201cclean\u201d\u2014unlike fossil fuels, produce a weak voltage. experiments went unheeded, solar they produce zero or very low cells were not developed until the greenhouse gas emissions. However, 1873 French inventor Augustin 1950s. Today, solar power is the not all renewables are clean. People Mouchot warns that fossil fuels fastest growing source of new have burned wood and animal dung will run out in the future. energy and predicted to dominate for heat and light for hundreds of future growth in renewables. thousands of years. Trees can be 1879 The first hydroelectric replanted and animals produce more power plant is built at Niagara Renewables v. fossil fuels dung, so the practice is sustainable, Falls in the United States. Human civilizations have drawn but burning such fuels also emits on renewable energy for millennia\u2014 carbon dioxide (CO2), which is one AFTER from burning firewood to 1951 Construction of the first harnessing the wind to propel The Ivanpah solar plant in the grid-connected nuclear power sailing ships. Renewable sources Mojave Desert, California, generates plant begins at Obninsk in the such as sunlight or tidal power enough concentrated solar power USSR. It produced electricity are not at all depleted by use. to serve more than 140,000 homes from 1954 to 1959. at peak hours of the day. 1954 Bell Laboratories in the US develop the first practical silicon photovoltaic cell. 1956 American geologist Marion King Hubbert predicts declining oil production after the year 2000. 1966 The world\u2019s first tidal power station starts operating on the Rance River in France. 2018 The International Energy Agency predicts that the share of renewables in meeting global energy demands will increase by a fifth to reach 12.4 percent in 2023.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS ENVIRONMENTALISM AND CONSERVATION 303 See also: Global warming 202\u2013203 \u25a0 Pollution 230\u2013235 \u25a0 Ozone depletion Artificial 260\u2013261 \u25a0 Depletion of natural resources 262\u2013265 \u25a0 Waste disposal 330\u2013331 photosynthesis Solar energy is derived Solar radiation can Since the early 1970s, scientists from solar radiation. be used to produce have been working to develop the technology to mimic the energy on Earth. process of photosynthesis and create liquid fuels from carbon Solar energy is The supply of this dioxide, water, and sunlight. without limit. energy will not stop All three are plentiful, so if the as long as the Sun exists. process can be replicated it could produce an endless, reason why, unlike other forms through an evaporative process, relatively inexpensive supply of renewable energy, they are not first adopted by 16th-century Arab of clean fuel and electricity. classed as \u201calternative\u201d sources. alchemists and used on an industrial scale in Chile in the late There are two crucial steps: Renewable, clean energy will 19th century. In the developing to develop catalysts that use have huge long-term benefits for world, solar disinfection is bringing solar energy to split water into populations and ecosystems. It safe drinking water to more than oxygen and hydrogen, and reduces pollution, mitigates against two million people; the process to create other catalysts that global climate change, builds involves using solar heat and ultra- convert hydrogen and carbon sustainability, and increases the violet light to kill pathogens. dioxide into an energy-dense energy security of countries. If it fuel, such as liquid hydrogen, can be provided cheaply enough, Wind power ethanol, or methanol. Scientists it will also pull many people out For more than 2,000 years, people at Harvard University recently of poverty. In some 30 countries, have built windmills to pump water used catalysts to split water renewable energy now makes up and grind grain. Today, wind farms into oxygen and hydrogen, more than 20 percent of the supply. onshore and offshore account for then fed the hydrogen, plus around 9 percent of renewable carbon dioxide, to bacteria. Solar energy energy consumption. A wind The bioengineeered bacteria The Sun\u2019s power could supply the turbine\u2019s hugeblades turn around converted the carbon dioxide world\u2019s energy needs several times a rotor attached to a main shaft, and hydrogen into liquid over. The International Energy which spins a generator to produce fuels. The next challenge is Agency (IEA) believes that\u2014in electricity. Wind power is now the to transfer a successful lab the short term\u2014it has the greatest leading area of energy growth in experiment into something potential of all the renewables. Its Europe, the US, and Canada. commercially viable. radiation can be converted directly Almost 50 percent of Denmark\u2019s into electricity via photovoltaic cells energy comes from the wind, and This solar fuel generator mimics (as with solar panels on buildings) in Ireland, Portugal, and Spain the the way plants turn sunlight and or indirectly by using lenses or figure is 20 percent. Its global carbon dioxide in the air into energy mirrors to create heat, which can potential is thought to be around and oxygen. be converted to electricity. This is five times its present level. called concentrated solar power. It is only economic to build wind Solar panels on a roof can heat farms where there is regular wind, domestic water. Sunlight can be however, so the potential is not \u276f\u276f employed to desalinate water","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 304 RENEWABLE ENERGY Hot-dry-rock energy oil, aims to overcome this \u2026 the wind and the sun problem by fracturing rock and the earth itself provide Natural rock fractures that bring strata and injecting water into fuel that is free, in amounts hot water to the surface from it at a great depth. The water that are effectively limitless. deep underground have been is heated by contact with the described as the \u201clow-hanging rock, then returns to the surface Al Gore fruit\u201d of geothermal energy through production wells. because they are easy to exploit. Depending on the economic American environmentalist and However, they are rare in most limits of drill depth, the former US Vice President parts of the world. The vast technology might be feasible majority of geothermal energy across many parts of the world, locked beneath Earth\u2019s surface but there are risks. Like fracking, is in dry, nonporous rock. EGS can cause small earth tremors, so it should not be The enhanced geothermal conducted near populated areas system (EGS), a similar process or power stations. to fracking for natural gas and evenly spread around the globe. Paleolithic times. Ancient Romans close to the surface. The potential Offshore wind is generally stronger made use of it to heat their villas. is much greater, but drilling for and more regular than onshore. Today it is employed to generate deep resources is very expensive. Floating turbines can generate electricity in at least 27 different wind energy far offshore, unlike countries, with the United States, Water power seabed-anchored wind turbines, the Philippines, and Indonesia the Since water is 800 times denser which have to be sited in shallow world\u2019s leading producers. than air, even a slow-moving flow water close to the coastline. can yield considerable amounts of Geothermal heat is also utilized energy if harnessed, for instance, Geothermal energy directly to heat homes and roads by dams or tidal barrages that drive The heat in Earth\u2019s interior is in Iceland. Technology is now derived both from the original being developed that will use China\u2019s Three Gorges Dam, the formation of the planet and from geothermal hot water to operate world\u2019s largest hydroelectric dam, was the radioactive decay of materials desalination plants. The only completed in 2012. Critics point to its within it. People have bathed in hot drawback of this renewable energy ecological impact on the Yangtze River\u2019s pools, where geothermally heated source is that it is concentrated habitat and biodiversity, and the risk for water reaches the surface, since near tectonic plate boundaries, local people of flooding and landslides. where Earth\u2019s mantle heat rises","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS ENVIRONMENTALISM AND CONSERVATION 305 turbines connected to generators. World energy supply by source in 2016 China is the biggest producer of hydroelectric power (HEP), with Hydro 45,000 small installations in addition 2.5% to \u201cbig-dam\u201d schemes such as the Three Gorges project, whose 32 Coal Natural Biofuels giant turbines have the capacity 27.1% gas and to produce 22,500 megawatts of waste electricity. A downside of big HEP 22.1% 9.5% schemes is that reservoirs created Renewables upstream of the dam can flood 13.7% good farmland, forcing people to relocate and destroying ecosystems. Oil Nuclear Despite this, the IEA has estimated 31.9% 4.9% that by 2023, hydropower will be Others meeting 16 percent of the global 0.3% Other demand for electricity. renewables 1.7% Tidal power is based on the A pie chart illustrating the sources for the total same principle: moving water turns energy produced and supplied throughout the world turbines, which drive electricity in 2016, according to data published by the IEA. generators. The source of energy \u201cOthers\u201d includes nonrenewable wastes and other from a tidal scheme is reliable, sources not included elsewhere such as fuel cells. generating power each time the tide ebbs and flows, but such of Scotland in 2000, and the first grain for biofuels, can also damage schemes are expensive to construct. multi-generator wave farm opened the environment. Perhaps because At present, the largest is the Sihwa at Agu\u00e7adoura in Portugal in 2008. of this, biomass is a more common Lake Tidal Power Station in South fuel in nations that cannot afford Korea, which was completed in Biomass other renewable options. According 2011 and has reduced the annual Organic matter from plants or to the IEA, the majority of solid amount of CO2 the nation generates animals is known as biomass. biofuel supply in 2016 took place in by 315,000 tons (286,000 tonnes). It contains stored energy because Africa, accounting for 33.2 percent. Wave power involves the capture plants absorb the solar power they of wave energy through a converter. need for growth via photosynthesis, The future The first commercial wave power and creatures absorb that energy As growth in renewables increases, scheme began off the west coast either from the plants they eat the advantages of each type must or from what their prey consumes. be balanced against their adverse \u2026 someday, renewable energy Creating a renewable fuel from effects\u2014from biomass pollution to will be the only way for people plant, animal, and human waste the reported role of wind turbine to satisfy their energy needs. products such as straw, dung, and blades in the deaths of migrating garbage may seem an attractive birds. In 2014, the IEA predicted that Hermann Scheer option, and some coal-fired power renewables would provide 40 percent stations have been converted to of global energy needs by 2040. In President, European Association wood-burners. Burning biomass 2018, the IEA further predicted that for Renewable Energy produces heat, electricity, and renewables would account for almost transport fuels, such as ethanol and a third of all world electricity by biodiesel. However, biomass energy 2023, with solar power taking the is not necessarily \u201cclean.\u201d Burned biggest share. Energy from ocean as a fuel, biomass releases CO2, and currents could also generate huge creates air and particle pollution. amounts of electricity, as could Clearing prime forest for its wood or large arrays of solar panels in space to cultivate biomass crops, such as or floating on the seas. \u25a0","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 306 IEFTTOAHSRREETLTSHFICMIIWTEESNIHTECAHLESFTTCHOOEBMUESY ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS IN CONTEXT A t its heart, the discipline documented the serious impact of environmental ethics of pesticides on the environment, KEY FIGURE extends the boundaries and brought these issues to the Aldo Leopold (1887\u20131948) of ethics beyond humans, and into forefront of American public debate. the natural world. It forces humans Six years later, US ecologist Garett BEFORE to question their role in the Hardin\u2019s article \u201cThe Tragedy of the 1894 In The Mountains of environment, their responsibility to Commons\u201d outlined the danger of California, Scottish\u2013American the planet itself, and their duty to overusing shared resources and naturalist John Muir describes future generations. allowing the human population his travels through wild places to grow unchecked. in California, evoking the deep The field of environmental spirituality and adventure he ethics grew out of an urgent sense Other writers viewed the feels when in the wilderness. of encroaching crisis, expressed impending crisis from a more in both popular and academic philosophical perspective. Aldo 1909 Gifford Pinchot\u2019s The writings. In 1962, the book Silent Leopold\u2019s \u201cland ethic,\u201d outlined in ABC of Conservation argues Spring, written by US biologist and A Sand County Almanac (1949), that future generations should conservationist Rachel Carson, placed human beings on an equal be able to utilize Earth\u2019s footing with other species in a natural resources. A thing is right when wider ecosystem. As one part of a it tends to preserve the larger whole, our ethical concerns AFTER integrity, stability, and should be with the healthy 1968 US academic Paul R. functioning of the entire ecosystem, Erlich and his wife, Anne, beauty of the biotic rather than simply the advancement publish The Population Bomb, community. It is wrong of human health and happiness. warning of the dangers of when it tends otherwise. human population growth. In his seminal 1966 lecture Aldo Leopold \u201cThe Historical Roots of Our 1970 On April 22, the first Ecologic Crisis,\u201d later published Earth Day is celebrated in the as an article, the US historian US. It becomes an annual Lynn White claimed that the global celebration of environmental crisis was the fault environmental education of Western society\u2019s worldview. and reform. In particular, he blamed the Christian thinking that promoted anthropocentrism\u2014the idea that humans are superior to all other","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS ENVIRONMENTALISM AND CONSERVATION 307 See also: Endangered habitats 236\u2013239 \u25a0 Pesticides 236\u2013239 \u25a0 Depletion of natural resources 262\u2013265 \u25a0 Ecosystem services 328\u2013329 The remote, subalpine Mineral wanted to build a ski resort there. Aldo Leopold King Valley has survived the threat of The Valley had no official protected development. It remains an ecosystem designation beyond that of a game Born in 1887, Aldo Leopold that aims to benefit all\u2014following Aldo refuge, but the Sierra Club argued grew up in Burlington, Iowa. Leopold\u2019s \u201cland ethic\u201d principle. that the area should be preserved He received his degree from in its original state for its own the Yale School of Forestry, creatures, leading to the view that sake. The suit went to the Supreme after which he took a job with nature was created for humanity\u2019s Court, which in 1974 ruled in favor the US Forest Service. While use and exploitation. of the Forest Service and Disney. there he was instrumental By then, however, Disney\u2019s interest in the proposal to manage Ethical dilemmas had waned; today the Valley is part the Gila National Forest as a Environmental ethics questions of Sequoia National Park. wilderness area, and in 1924 the moral imperatives behind it became the first official sustainability and stewardship by The battle between those who Wilderness Area in the US. asking if the motivations are follow anthropocentric ethics and Leopold then moved to grounded in anthropocentrism, or those who argue for ecocentric Wisconsin to continue his work in the protection of the natural world approaches has continued. It often in the Forest Service, and in because it inherently deserves takes place in political arenas, 1933 became a Professor protection. These questions have particularly with the increased of Game Management at the played out not only in philosophical prominence of globally sensitive University of Wisconsin. arenas, but also in the legal and issues such as climate change. Leopold died in 1948 while political spheres. Sustainable development has helping fight a grass fire. generally been an anthropocentric Most of his many essays In 1969, the Sierra Club, an endeavor, to ensure future on natural history and environmental lobbying group, generations have their needs met. conservation were published challenged a US Forest Service Environmental ethicists tend to posthumously in collections, permit allowing Walt Disney argue that sustainability is only such as A Sand County Enterprises to survey the Mineral viable if it preserves the future of all Almanac, that greatly King Valley in California\u2014Disney members of the ecosystem. \u25a0 influenced the emerging environmental movement. Key works 1933 Game Management 1949 A Sand County Almanac 1953 Round River: From the Journals of Aldo Leopold 1991 The River of the Mother of God: and Other Essays","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 308 TAHCITNLKOGCLAOLBLYALLY, THE GREEN MOVEMENT IN CONTEXT T he roots of the modern its height and the Cuban Missile \u201cgreen movement\u201d Crisis of 1962 brought the US and KEY FIGURES developed in organizations the Soviet Union to the brink of David Brower (1912\u20132000), established in the late 19th and nuclear war, galvanizing calls for Petra Kelly (1947\u201392) early 20th centuries, such as the nuclear disarmament among Sierra Club. Faced with the threat many campaigners. BEFORE of increasing urbanization and 1892 The Sierra Club is industrialization, the Sierra Club In this atmosphere, the idea founded in San Francisco, sought to protect the natural of conserving particular natural California, by the Scottish\u2013 environment for people\u2019s enjoyment. sites, as in the national parks American conservationist system in the US and the UK, John Muir. A greater awareness of humans\u2019 gave way to a much broader relationship with the environment concept of environmentalism. 1958 Environmentalists led to the emergence of a more Several organizations emerged with protest against proposals politically active environmental a strong activist agenda involving for a nuclear power plant movement in the second half of the mass protests and direct action. at Bodega Bay, California. 20th century. This took off in the 1960s, when the Cold War was at Organized protest AFTER One of the first of the activist 1970 On April 22, the first Only through care organizations was Friends of Earth Day is held across the US. for the environment can the Earth. It was founded in the US the livelihoods of those in 1969 by a group that included 1972 Environmentalist conservationist David Brower, candidates stand for election most dependent on it a former leader of the Sierra Club, in Tasmania, New Zealand, be sustained. with the aim of preventing the and Switzerland. Petra Kelly building of nuclear power plants. Politically active from the outset, 1996 Ralph Nader stands as Friends of the Earth continues to candidate for President of the lobby governments across the world US on the Green Party ticket. and campaigns on a broad range of environmental issues, emphasizing the importance of sustainable economic development. In 1971, a small group of activists in North America formed the Don\u2019t Make a","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS ENVIRONMENTALISM AND CONSERVATION 309 See also: Citizen science 178\u2013183 \u25a0 Pesticides 242\u2013247 \u25a0 Human devastation of Earth 299 \u25a0 Halting climate change 316\u2013321 Activists in a dinghy patrol in front formed in Germany in 1979. As Petra Kelly of two ships from the UK carrying the movement gained momentum, illegal toxic substances as part of many smaller parties began to Born Petra Lehmann in regular Greenpeace protests. coalesce to form national, unified G\u00fcnzburg, West Germany, Green Parties. in 1947, Kelly later adopted Wave Committee to protest against the surname of her stepfather, nuclear bomb testing by the US on In recent years, as issues such an American army officer. the island of Amchitka, Alaska. as pollution and climate change When she was 12, the family The organization favored direct have risen up the news agenda, moved to the US, where Kelly action rather than political lobbying other established political parties studied political science in and chartered a boat to sail to the have adopted environmentally Washington, D.C. island in protest. The publicity friendly policies. \u25a0 generated by the group swayed In 1970, Kelly returned public opinion and halted the tests. We have everything to Europe. While working This was the first action of what we need, save perhaps, at the European Commission was to become Greenpeace, an political will. But, you know in Brussels, she joined organization that continues to what \u2026 political will is a Germany\u2019s Social Democratic use direct action to challenge Party, but grew disillusioned those engaged in environmentally renewable resource. with traditional politics. She damaging activities. Al Gore joined Germany\u2019s newly formed Green Party in 1979, Green politics and in 1983 was one of 28 During the 1970s, political parties members to be elected to with dedicated environmentalist parliament. Kelly campaigned manifestos emerged in several on issues of environmentalism countries. For example, The Ecology and human rights. In 1992, Party was established in the UK she and her companion, Green in 1975, and the Green Party politician Gert Bastian, were found dead at her home in Bonn, apparently the result of a suicide pact. Key works 1984 Fighting for Hope 1992 Nonviolence Speaks to Power 1994 Thinking Green: Essays on Environmentalism, Feminism, and Nonviolence","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 310 TTTHOOEDMAOCYRO\u2019SRNOSAWECQT\u2019SUIOEWNNSOCREOSLNDOF MAN AND THE BIOSPHERE PROGRAMME IN CONTEXT D uring the second half of UNESCO was founded after World the 20th century, there was War II with the aim of fostering KEY ORGANIZATION an increasing global \u201cthe building of peace, the UNESCO awareness of the importance of the eradication of poverty, sustainable relationship between humans and development and intercultural BEFORE the natural world. This led, in dialogue through education, the 1925 The International 1971, to the United Nations sciences, culture, communication Institute of Intellectual Educational, Scientific, and Cultural and information.\u201d As such, it was Cooperation\u2014which aims to Organization (UNESCO) launching in a unique position to examine exchange intellectual ideas the Man and the Biosphere carefully the relationship between and improve quality of life\u2014is Program (MAB). This is an people and the environment. set up in Paris, France. intergovernmental program devoted to encouraging environmentally Global network 1945 The United Nations sustainable and equitable economic The organization began by setting Conference establishes the development, while protecting up a number of internationally constitution of UNESCO. natural ecosystems. recognized protected sites, known AFTER Humankind is altering the Such actions have 1983 First International environment with processes consequences. Biosphere Reserve Congress takes place in Minsk, Belarus. such as deforestation and urban sprawl. 1995 Statutory framework of the World Network of The MAB program Data gathered from global Biosphere Reserves is agreed. predicts the MAB reserves helps 2015 The UN launches its consequences of generate a picture of what 17 Sustainable Goals initiative. today\u2019s actions on these consequences could be. tomorrow\u2019s world. 2017 The US withdraws 17 sites from the UNESCO World Network of Biosphere Reserves, but 23 new sites are added elsewhere.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS ENVIRONMENTALISM AND CONSERVATION 311 See also: Human activity and biodiversity 92\u201395 \u25a0 The ecosystem 134\u2013137 \u25a0 The peaceful coexistence of man and nature 297 \u25a0 Renewable energy 300\u2013305 \u25a0 Environmental ethics 306\u2013307 \u25a0 Sustainable Biosphere Initiative 322\u2013323 as the World Network of Biosphere achieved by zoning areas within Moroccan women gather the Reserves (WNBR). These set out the reserve to protect core health-giving fruits of the argan to show how human cultural and locations, whilst simultaneously tree. These trees in the Arganeraie biological diversity are mutually providing places for appropriate Biosphere Reserve are carefully beneficial and encourage the and sustainable development by sustained by the local population. balanced integration of people with local inhabitants. their natural environment. They sharing knowledge across the also sought to find ways to manage To this end, communities are World Network is key to the natural resources efficiently for the encouraged to participate in the success of the project as a whole. benefit of the environment as well management of the reserve, and as its inhabitants. use their local knowledge of the Conflicting opinions area to make the best use of natural The sites of the WBNR, as well as There are now over 650 sites resources. The idea of educating being of international scientific around the world, providing a people about the environment and significance, are often culturally platform for collaborative scientific important to the host state. They and cultural research in a range the outbreak of World War II. are not nominated by UNESCO, but of marine, coastal, and terrestrial Today, members aim to achieve by national governments, and they ecosystems. Through the network, their objectives by sponsoring remain under the jurisdiction of the the program monitors the effects of international educational and states they are in. International human activity on the biosphere, scientific programs. These recognition of their status does not particularly examining climate include dedicated projects impinge upon the rights of those change, and fosters the exchange that promote and protect states over the Biosphere Reserves. of information. human rights and sustainable development, while encouraging In recent years, some states Local knowledge cultural diversity. have chosen to manage certain The MAB program recognizes sites as national rather than three interconnected functions of The organization is perhaps international reserves and have a biosphere reserve: conservation; best known for establishing withdrawn them from the program. sustainable development; and internationally recognized World Nevertheless, there has been a support though education and Heritage Sites, which aim to steady increase in sites nominated training. These objectives are preserve as many aspects as for the program from governments possible of the world\u2019s diverse around the world. \u25a0 UNESCO cultural and natural heritage. UNESCO, an agency of the UN based in Paris, France, was founded in 1946 to promote international collaboration for peace and security. It was established in line with the United Nations Charter, through education, science, and culture. Today, the organization has 195 member states. UNESCO continues the work begun by the League of Nations International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation in the 1920s, which was interrupted by","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 312 PESCARXIHPZTEAOEIDNNPAICUCCNELTTDSIIANOTIOTGNIFOSN\u2019S IN CONTEXT POPULATION VIABILITY ANALYSIS KEY FIGURE Mark L. Shaffer (1949\u2013) BEFORE 1964 The IUCN publishes its first Red List of threatened mammal and bird species. 1965 In The Destruction of California, ecologist Raymond Dasmann charts the rapid loss of flora and fauna in the state. 1967 The Theory of Island Biogeography by Robert MacArthur and Edward O. Wilson explores island patterns of immigration and extinction. AFTER 2003 Population viability analysis (PVA) of the Fender\u2019s blue butterfly is used to guide conservation in the US. 2014 PVA studies in the Sonoran Desert, US, help assess the response of birds and reptiles to climate change. P opulation viability analysis (PVA), or extinction risk assessment, is a process used to estimate the probability that a population of a target species has the ability to sustain itself for a specific time, be it 10, 30, or 100 years. A key feature of PVA is the definition of minimum viable population sizes and minimum habitat areas\u2014information which can then inform decisions on conservation priorities. A tool for conservationists PVA combines both statistics and ecology to calculate the fewest organisms required for a species to survive long-term in its preferred","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS ENVIRONMENTALISM AND CONSERVATION 313 See also: Ecological resilience 150\u2013151 \u25a0 Climax community 172\u2013173 Vulnerability of \u25a0 Metapopulations 186\u2013187 \u25a0 Mass extinctions 218\u2013223 \u25a0 Deforestation 254\u2013259 small populations Fender\u2019s blue butterfly was not seen A minimum viable population after the 1930s and was deemed extinct has to be of a sufficient size until it was rediscovered in 1989. It is not only to maintain itself endangered, but small populations live under average conditions but in northwest Oregon. also to endure extreme events. Mark Shaffer likened this to habitat, it takes no more than a low a reservoir built to withstand level of environmental damage or the type of flood that occurs human disturbance to nudge them only once in 50 years, but not toward extinction. a devastating once-in-a- century flood. habitat. This minimum number Counting grizzlies also dictates the amount of suitable In 1975, grizzly bear numbers were Small populations are habitat that the species needs. PVA shrinking in Yellowstone National especially vulnerable to is a useful tool for conservationists Park. Only an estimated 136 of the multiple threats occurring when lobbying governments and bears were left, and this isolated successively. The Heath Hen developers to give protected status population was considered to be in New England, US, had been to an area. Armed with a PVA, they endangered. As part of his doctoral widespread in colonial times, can explain precisely why reducing research, Mark L. Shaffer began to but relentless hunting for food a stretch of forest, heathland, or study the long-term sustainability and sport caused a dramatic reedbed will threaten certain flora of this geographically isolated decline in Heath Hen numbers or fauna. Protecting an area that grizzly bear population. by 1908. In that year, the last is extensive enough to support surviving population on the a large species also benefits many Shaffer, a pioneer of population island of Martha\u2019s Vineyard smaller organisms sharing the viability analysis, applied four was given protected status. same environment. factors that he considered would However, a catastrophic decide their fate. The first was wildfire during the 1916 A number of creatures can only demographic stochasticity: breeding season, severe survive in environments where irregular, unpredictable fluctuations winters, inbreeding, disease, human disturbance is minimal. in numbers, age, gender, and birth and heavy predation by birds This is especially true for those and death rates. For example, if the of prey all combined to push that live in specialist habitats, overwhelming majority of animals the Heath Hen population such as certain owls in old-growth in a population are males, breeding below a viable level. By 1927, forest, reptiles on acid heathland, success will be poorer than in a \u276f\u276f only two females remained, or amphibians in fast-flowing, and the species was extinct unpolluted streams. However, as Uncertainty is just about by 1932. the human population grows, there the only certainty in PVA. is a constant demand for land for building, agriculture, leisure, roads, Steven Beissinger or forestry. This pressure is a particular threat to species that American conservation biologist cannot easily adapt and move elsewhere. Where they are already confined to \u201cislands\u201d of suitable","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 314 POPULATION VIABILITY ANALYSIS A female grizzly and her cubs forage extensive Greater Yellowstone modllers have suggested that in Yellowstone. A female\u2019s home range Ecosystem\u2014an area of 34,375 sq Yellowstone may have reached its is 300\u2013550 sq miles (775\u20131,400 sq km), miles (89,031 sq km) that has the maximum carrying capacity\u2014the while a male\u2019s is as much as 2,000 sq national park at its core. In 2014, largest number of animals an area miles (5,000 sq km). the US Geological Survey estimated of suitable habitat can support. In that around 757 bears lived in the 2017, grizzlies were briefly removed more evenly balanced population, ecosystem, based on 119 sightings from the threatened species list, and will influence its chances of of grizzly sows and cubs. However, but their protections were restored survival. The second consideration the population had dropped to by a federal judge in 2018. was environmental stochasticity: around 718 in 2018, and population unpredictable fluctuations in How studies are devised environmental conditions, such Technology is increasingly PVA studies are now conducted in as habitat and climate changes, allowing scientists and several ways. The simplest type is which may affect the availability the time-series PVA, which looks at of food and shelter. The third policymakers to more closely the entirety of a population over a was natural catastrophes, such monitor the planet\u2019s period of time in order to calculate as forest fires or floods. The fourth a rough average growth trend and of Shaffer\u2019s factors was genetic biodiversity and threats to it. any variations. In such studies, all changes, including problems Stuart L. Pimm individuals are treated as identical. created by inbreeding. For each of these, statistical modeling can American\u2013British biologist Demographic PVAs tend to be determine a range of possibilities. more precise and detailed. They are based on estimated reproductive Since Shaffer\u2019s initial research and survival rates for different age in the 1970s and \u201980s, and bands within the population. Such subsequent new management and analyses require much more data, conservation strategies, grizzlies but can provide extra information have extended their habitat by on the needs and vulnerability of more than 50 percent within the different sections of the population,","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS ENVIRONMENTALISM AND CONSERVATION 315 A population is identified as being at risk. A population A management viability analysis is solution is found to conducted to assess combat the threat the situation. to the population. The population has The island foxes of the Channel a chance to recover. Islands, off California, numbered fewer than 200 in the late 1990s. By 2015, there were more than 5,000, but on one island, a subpopulation is still at risk. fueling a case for conservation \u201csurrogate\u201d data from one colony dolphins off the coasts of Argentina where protection is required. As was used to make forecasts on the and Australia. With the development reliable information on age ranges other two; they proved valid for one of increasingly efficient computer and breeding rates is often not colony, but not the other. programs incorporating ever more available for small, threatened variables, PVA will undoubtedly populations, ecologists sometimes Making a difference be used even more effectively in use data from other populations of Methods are still being refined, but the future. It is impossible to predict the same species\u2014or a different but PVA has now become a cornerstone every extinction, but PVA provides similar species\u2014to conduct a PVA. of conservation biology. PVAs have tools for identifying endangered However, the results are variable, been applied to populations as populations and determining the even in populations of the same varied as island foxes in California, management actions likely to species in the same area. In a 2015 sea otters in Alaska, Fender\u2019s blue be most effective in improving study of three colonies of California butterflies and Northern Spotted population viability, and preserving sea lion in the Gulf of California, Owls in Oregon, and bottlenose a species at risk. \u25a0 A Japanese study collected population growth Population viability data, including the number of analysis can indicate how The Japanese Rock Ptarmigan female offspring that survived urgently recovery efforts need lives in the Japanese Alps at to the next breeding season and to be initiated in specific an altitude of around 8,200 ft the annual survival rate of all (2,500 m). Its population of some birds. Their calculations included populations. 2,000 birds is divided into variables for a range of offspring William F. Morris several small communities from each pair. on mountain peaks. When a American biologist combination of climate warming Their findings indicated that and predators moving further there was a relatively low risk of up the mountains prompted extinction in the next 30 years, fears for its survival, ecologist even if the starting population Ayaka Suzuki and his team set was only 15. One potential out to find the minimum viable conclusion is that the Mount population size for the birds on Norikura population is strong Mount Norikura. The team enough to supplement declining populations on other mountains.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS CCLHIAMNAGTEE IITS IHSAHPAPPEPNEINNIGNGHNEORWE. HALTING CLIMATE CHANGE","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 318 HALTING CLIMATE CHANGE IN CONTEXT S ince the Industrial Firefighters battle flames from the Revolution, humans have \u201cHoly Fire\u201d that ravaged Orange KEY FIGURES been altering Earth\u2019s natural County, California, in 2018. Higher Bert Bolin (1925\u20132007), environment through increased temperatures led to an extended and Intergovernmental Panel carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. difficult forest fire season. on Climate Change (1988\u2013) Societies have become more technologically advanced, but this related catastrophes, such as those BEFORE technology\u2014from coal-powered impacted by tropical monsoons, 1955 American scientist trains, ships, and factories, to oil- are seeing the most severe Gilbert Plass concludes that fueled cars and planes\u2014has had repercussions, especially higher concentrations of an adverse impact on the natural in terms of loss of life and habitat. carbon dioxide (CO2) will lead world and the species inhabiting to higher temperatures. it. As scientists have become more Global cooperation aware of the human causes of Scientists have been aware 1957 American scientist Roger climate change, global research that human actions contribute Revelle and Austrian physical groups have been formed to study to climate change since 1896, when chemist Hans Suess jointly the phenomenon and suggest ways Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius publish a report proving that in which humanity can halt, if not suggested that people burning the oceans will not absorb the reverse, the damage. excess CO2 in the atmosphere. The effects of climate change 1968 British glaciologist are varied. As more CO2 in the John H. Mercer theorizes a atmosphere creates global warming, catastrophic rise in sea levels this causes the polar ice caps to in the next 40 years due to the melt, the oceans to warm and rise, collapse of Antarctic ice sheets. and species that are unsuited to warmer oceans to die out. Global AFTER weather patterns are also changing: 2020 Plans created by the hurricanes in the North Atlantic Paris Agreement to combat region have increased in intensity, climate change are due to leaving devastation and death in be implemented. their wake. Fires and droughts have become more frequent in dry areas; winters are more severe in colder climates. Areas of the world already susceptible to extreme weather- Natural causes: Human causes: \u2022 Volcanic eruptions \u2022 Deforestation \u2022 Shifting plate tectonics \u2022 Farming practices \u2022 Fossil fuel burning \u2022 Ocean currents \u2022 Industrial emissions ... lead to increased amounts of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, causing climate change.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS ENVIRONMENTALISM AND CONSERVATION 319 See also: Global warming 202\u2013203 \u25a0 Deforestation 254\u2013259 \u25a0 Man and the Biosphere Programme 310\u2013311 \u25a0 Sustainable Biosphere Initiative 322\u2013323 \u25a0 The economic impact of climate change 324\u2013325 fossil fuels were adding to global \u2026 human beings are now agreement, which was ratified by warming. It was not until the 1970s, carrying out a large-scale all UN member states, did reduce however, that governments began geophysical experiment of a greenhouse gas emissions. to act upon this knowledge. Around kind that could not have this time, the general public had happened in the past\u2026 Creation of the IPCC begun to be made aware of the In 1988, the Intergovernmental reality of climate change due to Roger Revelle and Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) news articles and broadcasts that Hans Suess was established in Geneva, shared the bleak outlooks of climate Switzerland, by two United Nations scientists with the wider world. ecosystem management, natural organizations: UNEP, and the disaster relief, and antipollution World Meteorological Organization International efforts to halt or activities. UNEP later became (WMO). Swedish meteorologist delay climate change began with responsible for coordinating UN Bert Bolin\u2014who served on the the first United Nations conference efforts against climate change. Advisory Group on Greenhouse on the environment, which was Gases that the IPCC supplanted\u2014 held in Stockholm, Sweden, in In 1987, UN members also was the panel\u2019s first chairman. 1972. The conference paid little agreed to the Montreal Protocol, attention to the issue of climate pledging to protect Earth\u2019s ozone The IPCC was created to serve change compared to other layer by ending the use of ozone- as a globally coordinated response environmental issues\u2014such as depleting substances. Although to climate change linked to human pollution and renewable energy\u2014 it was not specifically designed activity. It issues reports based on but did create the United Nations to combat climate change, the scientific research in support of Environment Programme (UNEP), the main international treaty on an agency to oversee environmental climate change: the UN Framework policies and programs such as Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which was signed at An Inconvenient Truth, a 2006 the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, documentary on climate change Brazil, in 1992. The IPCC\u2019s work by former US Vice President Al Gore, also involves issuing the Summary aimed to educate the public on the for Policymakers (SPM), which causes and effects of climate change. provides summaries of climate \u276f\u276f","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 320 HALTING CLIMATE CHANGE change research to governments around the world to help them understand the threats to humans and the environment as a result of climate change. The Kyoto plan are on track to meet their target for An underwater cabinet meeting is Nine years after the creation of the 2020, except for Norway, which had held in the Maldives in 2009 to call for IPCC, in 1997, UN members signed set a very high target (a 30\u201340 action against climate change. Rising the Kyoto Protocol, which sought to percent reduction from 1990 levels). sea levels could mean that the nation improve regulation of global carbon is eventually swallowed by the ocean. emissions. This protocol was the Paris and the future first agreement among nations The Kyoto Protocols set targets for more aggressive global resolution of to mandate country-by-country nations to meet from 2005 to 2020. climate change, the Agreement was reductions in greenhouse gas After 2020, signatory nations will signed by 195 UNFCCC member emissions, aiming to reduce them begin to abide by a new protocol: countries at the UN headquarters to levels that would stop humans the Paris Agreement. In November in New York City. Like Kyoto, the from negatively impacting the 2016, after decades of calls for a primary aim of the Paris Agreement world\u2019s ecosystems. is to cut greenhouse gas emissions Some scepticism comes from to agreed-upon levels. Although signed in 1997, the those who suggest scientists\u2019 Kyoto Protocol did not take effect estimations are too alarmist, With the decision of Syria to until 2005. At the end of the first and that global warming is sign the Paris Agreement in 2017, commitment period in 2012, all happening more slowly than the United States became the only signatory nations had achieved predicted. Others see the idea country in the world not to take their target reduction except for of climate change as a human part in the agreement. Although the Canada, which withdrew from the phenomenon as a hoax, instead US initially signed the agreement protocol because it could not meet claiming that global warming is under Barack Obama\u2019s presidency, its targets. Australia also failed to a natural cycle for the planet his successor, Donald Trump, has reduce emissions, but in the initial and not a product of human rejected the agreement, claiming period, their target was set as an behavior. Whatever the reason, that it asked too much of the United 8 percent increase. Most nations denial of climate change among States and too little of other nations. some policymakers and business This decision struck a blow to the Climate change denial leaders is a position that that other signatories; as well as having the IPCC and scientists continue plenty of wealth to fund climate Despite the consensus by the to disprove. research, the US is also the world\u2019s majority of scientists around the second-largest greenhouse gas world that climate change is a emitter. President Trump has since human-caused phenomenon and clarified his position by saying requires urgent intervention, climate change denial persists in many of the world\u2019s most powerful nations. Several scholars have termed the opposition to the facts of climate change a \u201cdenial machine,\u201d in which conservative media and industries benefitting from lax environmental regulations create an environment of uncertainty and scepticism about climate change science.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS ENVIRONMENTALISM AND CONSERVATION 321 that he believes climate change The burden of change to be a natural phenomenon from which the world can \u201ccome back\u201d Greenhouse gas Developed nations without significant changes to emissions must will take the human behavior. peak as soon lead in reducing as possible. carbon emissions. Other nations have voiced their The losses suffered Developed own concerns with the Paris by vulnerable countries will Agreement. The government of nations due to provide financial Nicaragua, which joined the accord climate change help to developing in 2017, criticized the Agreement must be addressed. countries. for not going far enough and argued that it will not reduce carbon emissions quickly enough to avert global climate disaster. The Paris Agreement also lacks a mechanism to ensure that countries that have signed it comply with its terms. Desperate measures The Paris Agreement was signed by 195 According to the terms of the Paris member countries of the UNFCCC. It placed Agreement, countries must work the responsibility on developed nations to assist together to limit the increase in those who lacked the funds or resources to the global average temperature combat climate change alone. to below 2\u00b0C (3.6\u00b0F) above pre- industrial levels. The Agreement create a global environment create no emissions without also also seeks to go further, suggesting mirroring the current highest removing an equivalent amount of that the increase should be limited temperatures experienced, a 2\u00b0C CO2 from the atmosphere. to only 1.5\u00b0C (2.7\u00b0F). In a study increase would usher in a \u201cnew published in the journal Earth climate regime\u201d unlike anything The IPCC\u2019s 2018 report also System Dynamics in 2016, climate humans have seen before. appealed to individuals to do their scientist Carl-Friedrich Schleussner part to lower CO2 emissions. Land and his co-researchers argued that Subsequent research has shown use, energy, cities, and industry are while an increase of 1.5\u00b0C would that this 1.5\u00b0C target will prove the major areas in which the IPCC difficult to meet. In 2018, the IPCC suggests change is necessary: We have presented produced a Special Report on global people should embrace electric cars; governments with pretty warming, as it had been tasked to walk and bicycle more; and fly less hard choices. We have pointed do by the Paris Agreement. Its often, because planes produce a out the enormous benefits of findings were alarming. Rather significant proportion of greenhouse than being on track for the 1.5\u00b0C gases. The IPCC also encouraged keeping to 1.5\u00b0C. target, the world is now headed people to buy less meat, milk, Professor Jim Skea closer to 3\u00b0C above preindustrial cheese, and butter, because reduced levels. To recover and hit the target demand for these products should Co-Chair, IPCC working group III of 1.5\u00b0C would require nations to lead to lower emissions by the meat take unprecedented and drastic and dairy processing industries. measures. Global human CO2 While global agreements such as emissions would need to drop 45 Kyoto and Paris have dominated the percent from 2010 levels by 2030, conversation, it is now clear that and in 2050, would need to reach any and all methods to lower CO2 \u201cnet zero,\u201d meaning that humans emissions must be pursued. \u25a0","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 322 TWTHOOESRCULASDPT\u2019SAACIPNIOTTPYHUELATION SUSTAINABLE BIOSPHERE INITIATIVE IN CONTEXT T he Sustainable Biosphere useful ecological knowledge as Initiative (SBI) emerged in scientists raced to combat KEY FIGURE 1988 due to the efforts of environmental degradation. Jane Lubchenco (1947\u2013) the Ecological Society of America (ESA) to establish what scientific Prioritizing the planet BEFORE research should be prioritized given The scientists of the SBI set out a 1388 England\u2019s Parliament the limited funding available. new path for the field of ecology, makes it illegal to throw waste At this time, the field of ecology and determined which research into public watercourses such was undergoing a transition areas would be the most important as ditches and rivers. towards applied science\u2014using in the years to come. They sought knowledge to develop practical to prioritize three fields of research: 1970s British scientist James solutions relevant to contemporary global change, biological diversity, Lovelock and American environmental issues. American and sustainable ecological systems. microbiologist Lynn Margulis environmentalist Jane Lubchenco Studies of global change look at the develop the Gaia hypothesis. led the SBI, and paved the way atmosphere, climate, soil and water for the ESA (and others) to promote (including changes due to pollution), AFTER and patterns of land- and water-use. 1992 Canadian ecologist The SBI has stimulated Research into biological diversity William Rees introduces the improvements in focuses on the conservation of concept of the \u201cecological endangered species and the study footprint\u201d to describe human understanding and in of natural and manmade changes in impact on the environment. advancing connections genetic and habitat diversity. Finally, studies of sustainable ecological 2000 Dutch Nobel laureate between ecological systems analyze the interactions Paul Crutzen popularizes the knowledge and society. between humans and ecological idea that the world has entered processes in order for scientists to a new geological epoch known Jane Lubchenco find solutions to the stresses they as the Anthropocene, or \u201cAge detect in ecosystems. of Man.\u201d This era recognizes the monumental and often The SBI stressed the need for dangerous ecological impacts funding for such research, and also humans make on the planet. highlighted the importance of sharing findings with those outside the scientific community. It set out a process for applied ecological","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS ENVIRONMENTALISM AND CONSERVATION 323 See also: The ecosystem 134\u2013137 \u25a0 Chaotic population change 184 \u25a0 Gaia 214\u2013217 \u25a0 Overfishing 266\u2013269 \u25a0 Halting climate change 316\u2013321 \u25a0 The economics of climate change 324\u2013325 \u25a0 Waste disposal 330\u2013331 research that included not only acquiring new knowledge, but communicating it and helping incorporate it into real-world policy changes. The future of research workshops, and creating reports to Wind turbines are explained to young Lubchenco and her colleagues advance its agenda. The SBI has students. The SBI advocates ecological created the SBI as both a mission brought ecology into the public eye, education in schools and universities so statement and an argument for why and today ecologists sit on advisory that people can learn how to manage ecological research deserved more boards, influencing both corporate and sustain the biosphere. funding and attention. Their report and government policies. was published in 1991 in the journal 2013, build on the work of the SBI. Ecology as \u201cThe Sustainable Despite such improvements, They hope to effect greater change Biosphere Initiative: An Ecological Lubchenco still believes that the in the next two decades, so that Research Agenda.\u201d It was well changes that have been made have sustainable development can received within the scientific not kept pace with the growing satisfy humans\u2019 current needs community, and has been adapted dangers the planet faces. New without compromising the needs for use at a global level\u2014first in the campaigns such as the ESA\u2019s Earth of future generations. \u25a0 International Sustainable Biosphere Stewardship Initiative, created in Initiative that was developed in Mexico in 1991, and then in Agenda 21, an action plan adopted in 1992 at the United Nations Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Since 1991, the SBI and its report have influenced a generation of ecologists, opening up new avenues of funding and collaboration, forming committees, putting on Jane Lubchenco An acclaimed environmental Oceanic and Atmospheric scientist and marine ecologist, Administration (NOAA). She Jane Lubchenco grew up in was the first female and the first Denver, Colorado. She earned a marine ecologist head of NOAA. bachelor\u2019s degree in biology at In 2011 Lubchenco oversaw the Colorado College, and a Master\u2019s creation of Weather-Ready Nation, in zoology. She got her Ph.D. in a project to prepare the public in marine ecology at Harvard. case of extreme weather. She researches the interaction between humans and the Key works environment, with an emphasis on biodiversity, climate change, 1998 \u201cEntering the century of and oceanic sustainability. the environment: a new social contract for science,\u201d Science From 2009 to 2013, she served 2017 \u201cDelivering on science\u2019s as Under Secretary of Commerce social contract,\u201d Michigan for Oceans and Atmosphere, and Journal of Sustainability Administrator of the National","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 324 PEWWNLIEAVTYIAHRIRNOTEGNHMEDEINCNAETTURAL THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN CONTEXT C limatology is an uncertain habitat destruction, shifts in science. Future projections growing seasons, and enforced KEY FIGURE will change, based on human migration. William Nordhaus (1941\u2013) human actions and new technology, as well as natural cycles. However, Counting the cost BEFORE it is vitally important to assess The social cost of carbon (SCC) is 1993 In Reflections on the the financial impacts of climate a monetary estimate of the damage Economics of Climate Change, change. Once potential costs are to human society caused by every William Nordhaus summarizes understood, we can explore ways additional tonne of carbon dioxide the issues surrounding climate in which to mitigate its direct released into the atmosphere. change and the economy, impacts. It is necessary to consider highlighting uncertainties not only the direct costs\u2014such as Protesters in Lamu, Kenya, and potential solutions. damage to property from flooding in 2018, opposing the construction or fire\u2014but also the costs of a coal-fired power plant. Growing AFTER associated with broader effects, awareness of ecological damage has 2008 In Common Wealth: such as a decline in biodiversity, seen an increase in public disapproval. Economics for a Crowded Planet, Jeffrey Sachs argues that although humanity faces daunting economic crises\u2014 including that of climate change\u2014we have the knowledge to address them. 2013 The Climate Casino: Risk, Uncertainty, and Economics for a Warming World, by William Nordhaus, explains how global warming relates to the world\u2019s economy, and provides ideas for reducing its impact.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS ENVIRONMENTALISM AND CONSERVATION 325 See also: Renewable energy 300\u2013305 \u25a0 Man and the Biosphere Programme 310\u2013311 \u25a0 Halting climate change 316\u2013321 These damages include reductions emissions. The model divides the William Nordhaus in agricultural productivity, harm to world into distinct regions for its infrastructure, energy costs, and analysis. It predicts that the Born in New Mexico in 1941, impacts on human health. The SCC combined SCC in 2055 will be Nordhaus is a leader in the provides a starting point for energy between $40\u2013$188 per ton ($44 and field of the economics of policy. For example, if the SCC is $207 per tonne) of carbon dioxide climate change. He stumbled factored into proposals for a new released, depending on the rate of upon this field of research power plant, the cost of building it warming and the mitigation through sharing an office with becomes much higher. This may policies enacted. a climatologist. Nordhaus\u2019s also make the cost of alternative economic theories\u2014the forms of energy\u2014such as solar or Economic models incorporate DICE and RICE models\u2014are wind power\u2014more financially assumptions, such as the discount widely used to analyze policy viable. However, it is extremely rate. Discount rates prioritize the decisions. Nordhaus is difficult to calculate the SCC. present over the future, because the principally concerned with future cannot be predicted perfectly. placing a realistic price on Forecast models The rate is selected based on how carbon. Today, the social cost Economists use several models in the balance between present and of carbon is generally agreed order to calculate the SCC. In 1999, future priorities is weighted. Higher to be around $40 per ton, but William Nordhaus developed RICE discount rates indicate that future Nordhaus\u2019s models show that (Regional Integrated Climate- populations will be wealthier, and it should be higher to account Economy model)\u2014a variant of his prepared to deal with climate for the impacts of climate own preceding DICE (Dynamic change. Lower discount rates change. Nordhaus is Sterling Integrated Climate-Economy model), suggest that the disruption caused Professor of Economics at Yale which weighed the costs and by climate change will make people University, and serves on the benefits of slowing down global in the future poorer than we are Congressional Budget Office warming. The RICE model today. Nordhaus suggests a 3 Panel of Economic Experts integrates carbon emissions, carbon percent discount rate, meaning that and the Brooking Panel on concentrations in the atmosphere, if the monetary damages from Economic Activity. In 2018, climate change, damages, and climate change will be $5 trillion in Noordhaus was awarded the controls that are in place to reduce the year 2100, we could invest $382 Nobel Prize in economics. billion today to avoid it. \u25a0 Key works Analyzing the costs of reducing carbon dioxide 1994 Managing the Global THE COST OF REDUCING CO2 Marginal Financial Commons: The Economics benefits cost of Climate Change 2000 Warming the World: The cost of reducing Economic Models of Global CO2 increases in line Warming with the quantity, but this is offset by the benefits gained. The lines intersect at the point of equilibrium, where maximum benefits are achieved at the lowest cost. QUANTITY OF C02","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 326 DHMMEAOOSRNNTVOOREPCSOOUTYLLITOINEUFGSRSTAEEHRSEEEDAND SEED DIVERSITY IN CONTEXT In 1987, Indian environmental Californian rice production is high campaigner Vandana Shiva yield but there are problems with soil KEY FIGURE launched a movement to protect salinity. Although salt tolerance can be Vandana Shiva (1952\u2013) native seed diversity in response genetically introduced, traditional rice to changes in agriculture and food varieties can be naturally salt-resistant. BEFORE production. She founded Navdanya, 1966 A new high-yielding a nongovernmental organization, For example, a grass in the genus strain of rice known as IR8 to protect agricultural biodiversity Oryza was first cultivated for rice in leads to a big increase in from the combined threat of genetic Asia between 8,200 and 13,500 years production in several rice- engineering and patents. ago; today, there are more than growing countries. First 40,000 varieties of this rice in developed in the Philippines, Agro-biodiversity existence. Intrinsic to agro- it is also called \u201cmiracle rice.\u201d Agricultural biodiversity (also known biodiversity are the many non- as agro-biodiversity) has resulted harvested species that support AFTER from the selective breeding, over production. These include 1994 The World Trade thousands of years, of plants and microorganisms in the soil, species Organization introduces the animals taken from the wild. These that feed on pests, and pollinators. Trade Related Aspects of practices led to the extraordinary Through the ages, the skills and Intellectual Property Rights genetic diversity of different breeds knowledge of millions of farmers (TRIPS) agreement. of crops and domesticated animals. have shaped this biodiversity. 2004 After protests by farmers who developed the crop, the Monsanto company\u2019s patent on an Indian strain of wheat known as Nap Hal is revoked. 2012 Indian initiative Navdanya International launches its worldwide Seed Freedom campaign to protect food sovereignty and safety.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS ENVIRONMENTALISM AND CONSERVATION 327 See also: Human activity and biodiversity 92\u201395 \u25a0 Pesticides 242\u2013247 \u25a0 Humankind\u2019s dominance over nature 296 \u25a0 Ecosystem services 328\u2013329 Seed patents threaten new strains are patented by the Vandana Shiva the very survival and companies that created them. freedom of peasants \u2026 Trade deals impose regulations Environmental campaigner on who can use what. These work Vandana Shiva was born in and farmers \u2026 against small-scale farmers but northern India. Her mother Vandana Shiva favor the powerful agricultural was a farmer, and her father corporations that produce the seed. a forester. She studied in India From the late 1960s, a technology and Canada, obtaining a transfer to the developing world Seed sovereignty doctorate in the philosophy included high-yield varieties Shiva argues that rural farms are of physics. After returning of cereals in association with threatened if the appropriate seed to India, in 1982 she founded chemical fertilizers, pesticides, is no longer available. Traditionally, the Research Foundation for and herbicides, mechanization, most small-scale farmers routinely Science, Technology, and and more efficient irrigation. save their seed from one harvest to Ecology. Following the Bhopal Known as the \u201cGreen Revolution,\u201d the next. Now, when farmers buy in pesticide plant disaster in this transformation shifted the seed\u2014especially if it is genetically 1984, her interest in agriculture focus of agriculture in the developing modified\u2014they often have to agree grew and three years later she world away from biodiversity to not to save it. Having to buy seed founded Navdanya to protect higher crop yields. New Green from a company every year can biodiversity and native seeds. Revolution crops such as \u201cmiracle leave them worse off financially. Shiva campaigns against the rice\u201d (IR8) boosted production, but World Trade Organization\u2019s there was a downside. As more Shiva criticized the practice of Trade Related Aspects of emphasis was placed on fewer corporations patenting seed varieties Intellectual Property Rights productive strains, the genetic base as \u201cbiopiracy\u201d and set up Navdanya (TRIPS) agreement, which of traditional seed varieties for to support \u201cseed sovereignty.\u201d broadens patents to include grains, potatoes, fruits, vegetables, It campaigns for agro-biodiversity plants and animals. TIME and cotton declined. via a network of seed-keepers and magazine hailed Vandana organic producers and has helped Shiva as an Environmental The United Nations Food and found more than 100 community Hero in 2003. Agriculture Organization estimates seed banks, effectively gene banks, that 75 percent of crop biodiversity where seeds of crops and rare plant Key works has been lost from the world\u2019s fields. species are stored for future use. \u25a0 Some environmentalists have 1989 The Violence of the Green argued that traditional varieties are Fertilizers have hugely increased Revolution more compatible with local farming food grain production in India\u2014whose 2000 Stolen Harvest: conditions, cheaper for farmers to population of 1.3 billion people makes The Hijacking of the Global use, and more environmentally food security paramount\u2014but the Food Supply sustainable than new, high-yield chemicals also destroy soil fertility. 2013 Making Peace with varieties. Additionally, many of the the Earth","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 328 HNSANUUATDMSUTATRANHIANELLIIRAFENECSDOPSEFCYUSILETFSEILMHESLP ECOSYSTEM SERVICES IN CONTEXT T he benefits that humans As a sacred mountain, Mount Fuji derive from ecosystems supplies a cultural ecosystem service KEY FIGURE are referred to by ecologists for the people of Japan, while the Gretchen Daily (1964\u2013) as ecosystem services. Some of the surrounding rich volcanic soil provides natural processes most important a service to the local tea plantations. BEFORE to the continuation of human life c.400 bce Greek philosopher can be classified as ecosystem Although the idea that humans Plato is aware of the human services, such as pollination of benefit from nature has a long impact on nature, noting that crops, decomposition of waste, history, it was not until the 1970s deforestation can cause soil to and the availability of clean that the balance between nature erode and springs to run dry. drinking water. Ecologists argue and human needs came to the that because the enormous forefront of ecological debate. The 1973 German statistician and contributions of ecosystem services term \u201cecosystem services\u201d first economist E.F. Schumacher to human life are not readily appeared in the mid-1980s, and in coins the term \u201cnatural capital\u201d quantifiable, humans drastically 1997 the concept was developed in his book Small is Beautiful. undervalue these services while in two key articles: \u201cEcosystem exploiting the natural world\u2019s Services: Benefits Supplied to AFTER resources for profit. Human Societies by Natural 1998 The UN Environment program, NASA, and the World Bank release a study on how protecting the planet serves human needs. 2008 A study at the University of California, Berkeley, shows that ecological destruction by the world\u2019s richest countries means they owe the world\u2019s poorest countries more than the developing world\u2019s debt.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS ENVIRONMENTALISM AND CONSERVATION 329 See also: Human activity and biodiversity 92\u201395 \u25a0 Ecological resilience 150\u2013151 \u25a0 The Gaia hypothesis 214\u2013217 \u25a0 Human devastation of Earth 299 If current trends nature\u2019s ability to control pests\u2014 Gretchen Daily continue, humanity will as opposed to humans\u2019 use of dramatically alter virtually pesticides\u2014and the atmosphere\u2019s Born in 1964 in Washington, all of Earth\u2019s remaining capacity to clean itself naturally, as D.C., Gretchen Daily well as the control of weather developed a passion for natural ecosystems hazards through natural buffers ecology at a young age. After within a few decades. such as wetlands and mangrove her family moved to West forests. Pollination is another Germany in 1977, she Gretchen Daily important regulating service, one witnessed a national crisis that is endangered bythe global over acid rain, and saw people Ecosystems,\u201d edited by Gretchen decline of pollinators such as bees. protesting in the streets over Daily, and \u201cThe Value of the World\u2019s Cultural services involve the ways environmental degradation. Ecosystem Services and Natural that humans assign cultural or Daily earned two degrees and Capital,\u201d edited by American spiritual significance to elements of then her Ph.D. in biology at ecological economist Robert ecosystems such as sacred trees, Stanford University, where she Costanza. In 2001, UN Secretary animals, rivers, and mountains. is now the Bing Professor of General Kofi Annan launched the The esthetic or recreational value Environmental Science. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment of a natural landscape is another (MEA), which helped popularize the type of cultural service. Daily studies biodiversity concept of ecosystem services in within the framework of 2005, when they published a wide- At its heart, the concept of \u201ccountryside biogeography,\u201d ranging appraisal of how humans ecosystem services allows humans or the portions of nature that impact the environment. to see how inextricably connected have not been used for human they are to nature, and how without development, but whose the natural world human existence ecosystems are still impacted would be impossible. Ecologists by human activity. She is a use the concept to illuminate cofounder of the Natural how precious these systems are Capital Project, which aims to for basic life conditions and to incorporate environmentalism convince industries, businesses, into business practices and and governments of the necessity public policy. for ecological preservation. \u25a0 Key works The four types of service Plans to protect air The MEA\u2019s 2005 report detailed four and water, wilderness and 1997 Nature\u2019s Services: categories of ecosystem services: wildlife are in fact plans Societal Dependence on supporting, provisioning, regulating, Natural Ecosystems and cultural. Supporting services, to protect man. 2002 The New Economy of such as soil formation and water Stewart Udall Nature: The Quest to Make purification, allow for the existence Conservation Profitable of all other services. Provisioning American politician and services consist of freshwater; conservationist food, such as crops and livestock; fibres, including wood, cotton, and other materials used for human essentials such as building and clothing; and natural medicines, and plants used in pharmaceuticals. Regulating services include","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 330 WOPWLNEEAEHNATAEROVTEEGALOASIVNTTIONOHTGOHUOEGNRHTHIS WASTE DISPOSAL IN CONTEXT M ore than 65,000 people all adding to the world\u2019s garbage from at least 180 nations heap. Traditionally waste had been KEY FIGURE traveled to Johannesburg, burned or buried, both options now Paul Connett (1940\u2013) South Africa, in 2002 to attend the associated with toxic greenhouse United Nations World Summit on gas emissions and, in the case of BEFORE Sustainable Development. Its final landfills, the potential for poisoning 1970 The first Earth Day resolutions included a call to ground water. The answer to the takes place in the US to raise minimize waste and maximize world\u2019s growing waste heap had to awareness of clean waste reuse and recycling, and to develop be found elsewhere. disposal and recycling. \u201cclean\u201d waste disposal systems. The recycling revolution 1988 The Resin Identification In the last decades of the 20th Recycling for reuse is not a new Code is introduced in the US century, it had become clear that concept, but its use as a way to encourage the recycling refuse was reaching unmanageable of reducing mountains of public of plastic goods. proportions. Industrialization, the waste that would otherwise go into growth of large urban populations, landfill has its origins in the 1960s 1992 At the Rio Earth and increasing use of plastic were and 1970s, when organizations Summit, 105 heads of state such as Greenpeace made the pledge their commitment Pollution is nothing but public more aware of environmental to sustainable development. the resources we are not issues. Recently, campaigners such harvesting. We allow them as Paul Connett, author of Zero AFTER to be dispersed because we\u2019ve Waste (2013), have renewed the 2010 The United Nations been ignorant of their value. global call to reduce consumption, launches its Global Partnership R. Buckminster Fuller and reuse or recycle items, rather on Waste Management to than discard them. promote resource conservation American inventor and architect and efficiency. Since the 1970s, many US states and most European countries, 2012 Goals outlined at the as well as Canada, Australia, and UN Conference on Sustainable New Zealand, have introduced Development include waste curbside collections of recyclable reduction and eco-friendly items sorted into bins. Sweden has production methods. been especially active. In 1975, Swedes recycled only 38 percent of their rubbish, but today they lead","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS ENVIRONMENTALISM AND CONSERVATION 331 See also: Global warming 202\u2013203 \u25a0 Pollution 230\u2013235 \u25a0 Urban sprawl 282\u2013283 Methane from landfill \u25a0 A plastic wasteland 284\u2013285 \u25a0 Renewable energy 300\u2013305 After carbon dioxide, methane Refuse plastic Rethink as you shop. is the most critical greenhouse bags and excessive Do you really need what gas. Although its atmospheric packaging. Buy products concentrations are lower than in large containers or you are buying? CO2, methane is 25 times more without packaging. powerful at trapping heat in the atmosphere. Atmospheric Individual actions can methane comes from various reduce waste\u2014households natural sources, including the in the developed world add a decay of vegetation in habitats tonne of waste to landfill such as bogs and wetlands, but also from livestock rearing, each year. from the use of fossil fuels, and from the decomposition Reuse what you Recycle what of trash in landfill sites. can or pass it on can\u2019t be used so that to someone else it can be turned into In many places, including the UK and US, a number of who can use it. new products. landfill sites are now trapping and collecting methane the world, recycling 99 percent of silver, copper, and palladium used to produce energy. Landfill household waste. About 50 percent in circuit boards. It has been shown gas contains up to 60 percent of this waste is burned in recycling that \u201cmining\u201d landfill sites to methane, depending on the plants that generate heat for the extract the metals can be more composition of the waste and nation\u2019s homes. Sweden also cost-effective than mining natural the age of the site. Vertical imports waste from other countries mineral deposits. However, e-waste and horizontal pipelines are to process in its 32 incineration also includes toxic metals, such placed through the landfill plants. In 2015, it imported some as cadmium, lead, and mercury. to collect the methane, which 2.5 million tons (2.3 million tonnes) In countries that both generate and is then processed and filtered. of waste from Norway, the UK, import e-waste, landfill scavenging Most of it is used to generate Ireland, and other nations. for metals can be polluting. While electricity, but it may also be Europe now has an e-waste used in industry. After further \u201cMining\u201d electronics reprocessing industry, relatively few processing, it can be turned The fastest-growing type of waste efficient schemes exist elsewhere. into fuel for vehicles, too. is discarded electronics. E-waste from mobile phones, computer hard There are many new initiatives, Methane is extracted at the drives, TVs, and other electrical but the world is still very far from Payatas landfill, Manila\u2014the first goods reached almost 46 million Connett\u2019s zero waste ideal. A huge in the Philippines to have the gas tons (42 million tonnes) in 2014\u2014 challenge remains for individuals converted to energy, as part of a almost 25 percent more than in and governments: cut consumption United Nations program. 2010. E-waste often contains and recycle global refuse that will precious metals, such as the gold, soon reach 21\/4 billion tons (2 billion tonnes) a year. \u25a0","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS DIRECTO","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS RY","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 334 DIRECTORY I n addition to the scientists covered in the preceding chapters of this book, many other men and women have made significant contributions to the development of ecology. They have ranked among the greatest scientific thinkers of their time. Some have excelled in academia, while some came from other walks of life but pioneered new approaches to advance. Still more have been formidable campaigners. Although they worked in a range of disciplines, all have contributed to our understanding of Earth\u2019s biosphere, how it has evolved, and humanity\u2019s place in it. Crucially, their work continues to show what needs to be done to preserve the natural world and to protect Earth from the destructive consequences of human behavior. SAMUEL DE CHAMPLAIN undescribed species and used yarn notably in Canadian Wild Flowers (1865) to \u201cband\u201d birds\u2014meaning he tied it to and Studies of Plant Life in Canada 1574\u20131635 their legs, allowing him to identify (1885). Her many albums of plant individual bird\u2014to find out more about collections are housed in the National A French explorer, cartographer, soldier, their movements. Herbarium of Canada, at the Canadian and naturalist, Champlain explored and See also: Animal ecology 106\u2013113 Museum of Nature in Ottawa. mapped much of Canada. He founded See also: Endangered habitats 236\u2013239 the city of Quebec and established MARY ANNING the colony of New France. As a sharp KARL AUGUST M\u00d6BIUS observer and chronicler, he documented 1799\u20131847 animals and made notes about plants, 1825\u20131908 including details of leaves, fruits, and In 2010, the Royal Society named nuts, and inquired about how the Anning as one of the 10 British women A German pioneer, M\u00f6bius was primarily Native American people used them. who have most influenced the history of interested in the ecology of marine See also: Classification of living things science. She found fame as a fossil ecosystems. After studying at the 82\u201383 collector and paleontologist, and her Natural History Museum of Berlin, extraordinary fossil finds, from Jurassic and earning a Ph.D. at the University of JAMES AUDUBON strata in the cliffs of the Dorset coast, Halle, he opened a seawater aquarium included the first correctly described in Hamburg in 1863. While a professor of 1785\u20131851 ichthyosaur, two relatively complete zoology at the University of Kiel, his work plesiosaurs, and the first pterosaur from on the viability of commercial oyster The pioneer of North American outside Germany. Her finds helped production in the Bay of Kiel led him ornithology, Audubon grew up in Haiti change views about Earth\u2019s history, to recognize the various dependent and France before emigrating to the providing strong evidence for extinction. relationships between organisms in US in 1803. He developed an interest See also: Mass extinctions 218\u2013223 the oyster bank ecosystem. in nature, especially birds, and was See also: The ecosystem 134\u2013137 a talented artist. His artistic technique CATHERINE PARR TRAILL was unusual: after shooting a bird, ERNST HAECKEL he held it in a \u201cnatural pose,\u201d using fine 1802\u20131899 wire, and painted it with a backdrop of 1834\u20131919 the bird\u2019s natural habitat. Between 1827 A botanist and prolific author, Traill and 1838 he published The Birds was born in the UK and emigrated to Haeckel was a biologist, physician, of America in a series of installments. what is now Ontario, Canada, after she and artist who popularized Charles It included 435 colored prints of 497 married in 1832. There, she wrote about Darwin\u2019s ideas in Germany (while also species, six of which are now extinct. life as a settler in Canada. She also rejecting many of them) and introduced Audubon also discovered 25 previously wrote about the natural environment, the word \u201cecology\u201d in 1866. Born in","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS DIRECTORY 335 Potsdam, he studied at several went on to pioneer phytosociology, the MARJORY STONEMAN DOUGLAS universities before becoming a zoology study of natural plant communities, first professor at the University of Jena in using the term in 1896. In the 1920s 1890\u20131998 1861. Haeckel was the first biologist Paczoski established the world\u2019s first to propose the kingdom Protista\u2014for institute of phytosociology, at the A formidable campaigner for the organisms that are neither animal nor University of Poznan, where he was protection of the Florida Everglades, vegetable\u2014and he researched and professor of plant systematics. An Douglas was also a successful journalist painstakingly recorded tiny deep- accomplished botanist, he published and author, suffragist, and campaigner sea protozoans called radiolaria. works on central European flora, for civil rights. Her 1947 book The See also: Evolution by natural selection including that of the Bia\u0142owieza Forest, Everglades: River of Grass was 24\u201331 which he managed as a national park. influential in building an appreciation See also: Organisms and their of the Florida wetlands, and in 1969 she WILLIAM BLAKE RICHMOND environment 166 founded the Friends of the Everglades to defend the area from draining for 1842\u20131921 JACK MINER development. Douglas remained active well into her second century, and at Best known as a British artist, sculptor, 1865\u20131944 the age of 103 she was awarded the and designer of stained glass and Presidential Medal of Freedom. mosaics, London-born Richmond Also known as \u201cWild Goose Jack,\u201d Miner See also: Citizen science 178\u2013183 became an environmental activist moved with his family from the US to after having to endure the poor light Canada in 1878. He was illiterate until BARBARA MCCLINTOCK and smoky air produced by London\u2019s the age of 33 but embarked on local winter coal fires. In 1898 he founded conservation projects, such as building 1902\u20131992 the Coal Smoke Abatement Society winter feeding stations for Bobwhites. (CSAS) to lobby politicians for clean He was one of the first people in North In 1983 McClintock became the first air. The CSAS was instrumental in the America to put aluminum bands on solo woman to win the Nobel Prize in introduction of the UK\u2019s Public Health birds\u2019 legs to track their movements. A Physiology or Medicine, and the first (Smoke Abatement) Act in 1926 and duck banded by him, and later seen American woman to win any unshared the Clean Air Act in 1956. in South Carolina, was the first banding Nobel Prize. The award recognized her See also: Pollution 230\u2013235 recovery made in North America. Miner discovery\u2014more than 30 years before\u2014 is thought to have banded more than of transposable genetic elements, or THEODORE ROOSEVELT 90,000 wildfowl, helping establish \u201cjumping genes,\u201d which sometimes a huge database of migration routes. create or reverse mutations. As a 1858\u20131919 See also: Citizen science 178\u2013183 cytogeneticist concerned with how chromosomes relate to cell behavior, she To deal with severe childhood asthma, JAMES BERNARD HARKIN also discovered the first genetic map Roosevelt became an active sportsman for corn\u2014linking physical traits with and outdoorsman, developing a lifelong 1875\u20131955 regions of the chromosome\u2014and the passion for nature. When, in 1900, he mechanism by which chromosomes stood as William McKinley\u2019s running Sometimes referred to as the \u201cfather exchange information. mate in the US presidential election, he of Canadian national parks,\u201d Harkin had See also: The role of DNA 34\u201337 did so on a ticket of peace, prosperity, a passion for politics and conservation. and conservation. Roosevelt became In 1911, he was appointed the first JACQUES COUSTEAU the 26th President when McKinley was commissioner of the Canadian National assassinated in 1901, and went on to Parks Agency and oversaw the 1910\u20131997 establish the US Forest Service, five establishment of Point Pelee, Wood new national parks, 51 bird reserves, Buffalo, Kootenay, Elk Island, Georgian French undersea explorer Cousteau was and 150 national forests. Bay Islands, and Cape Breton Highlands well known as the presenter of several See also: Deforestation 254\u2013259 national parks. Harkin realized the documentaries on the aquatic world. commercial value of the parks, and After inventing underwater breathing J\u00d3SEF PACZOSKI his policy of encouraging road-building apparatus called the Aqua-Lung in to attract tourists was not universally 1943, he worked with the French Navy 1864\u20131942 popular. He was a prime mover behind to clear underwater mines after World legislation to regulate the hunting War II. He later converted the Calypso, Paczoski was a Polish ecologist, born of migrant birds in 1917. a former minesweeper, into a research in what is now Ukraine. He studied See also: Endangered habitats 236\u2013239, vessel from which he explored the botany at the University of Kiev and Deforestation 254\u2013259 oceans, writing several books and","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 336 DIRECTORY making hours of television. The Australia. He graduated from the women toured the country, speaking Calypso was badly damaged in 1996, University of Sydney with a degree at meetings to highlight the dangers but Cousteau died suddenly in 1997 in botany and zoology in 1937, and then of the dump, which they feared could before he could afford to replace it. studied at Harvard University, earning grow as foreign governments and See also: A plastic wasteland 284\u2013285 a Ph.D. for his work on termites. After corporations saw an opportunity to World War II, he returned to Australia, dispose of their radioactive waste. PIERRE DANSEREAU where he became the first head of See also: Pollution 230\u2013235 the Commonwealth Scientific and 1911\u20132011 Industrial Research Organization\u2019s EUGENIE CLARK Division of Forest Research in 1976. Dansereau was a French Canadian Particularly known for his work on 1922\u20132015 plant ecologist who pioneered the study myxomatosis and its use in controlling of forest dynamics and is considered rabbit populations, Day published his Known as the \u201cShark Lady\u201d for her one of the \u201cfathers of ecology.\u201d Born in first paper in 1938, and his last\u2014on research on shark behavior, Clark was a Montreal, he gained his Ph.D. in plant moths\u201474 years later. Japanese-American marine ecologist taxonomy at the University of Geneva See also: Thermoregulation in insects and a pioneer in the use of scuba diving in 1939. He later helped set up the 126\u2013127 \u25a0 Invasive species 270\u2013273 for scientific research\u2014she undertook Montreal Botanical Garden and many dives around Florida\u2019s Cape Haze wrote numerous papers on botany, JUDITH WRIGHT Marine Laboratory, where she worked biogeography, and the interaction of alongside other female ecologists such humans and the environment. In 1988 1915\u20132000 as Sylvia Earle. Clark made several he was appointed Professor Emeritus key discoveries about sharks and fish, at the University of Montreal, a post he Principally a poet, Wright was also and was a major advocate of marine held until he retired, aged 93, in 2004. renowned in her native Australia for conservation. In 1955, she founded the See also: Biogeography 200\u2013201 campaigning on Aboriginal land rights Mote Marine Laboratory, which works and environmental issues. She was to protect shark species, preserve coral MARY LEAKEY born in Armidale, New South Wales, reefs, and found sustainable fisheries. and studied at the University of Sydney, See also: Animal behavior 116\u2013117 1913\u20131996 before publishing her first book of poetry in 1946. Between 1967 and 1971, DAVID ATTENBOROUGH London-born Mary Leakey, one of the along with artist John Busst and world\u2019s foremost paleoanthropologists, environmentalist Len Webb, she built 1926\u2013 experienced her first archeological an alliance of conservation groups, excavation at the age of 17, when she was trade unions, and concerned citizens to British naturalist and television hired as an illustrator at a \u201cdig\u201d in Devon. fight Queensland state government\u2019s producer Attenborough served as a In 1937 she married paleoanthropologist plans to open up the Great Barrier Reef controller for the BBC before stepping Louis Leakey, and the couple moved to to mining. The campaign, detailed in down to dedicate more time to writing Africa to work in the Olduvai Gorge\u2014 her book The Coral Battleground (1977), and producing documentaries. He a site rich in fossils\u2014in what is now eventually succeeded. wrote and narrated a series of nature Tanzania. In 1948, Mary found the fossil See also: The Green Movement 308\u2013309 programs, notably the Life series, skull of an 18-million-year-old ancestor of beginning with Life on Earth (1979). apes and humans, Proconsul africanus. EILEEN WANI WINGFIELD Attenborough\u2019s work has been credited More breakthroughs in understanding with renewing public interest in nature human ancestry followed, including the 1920\u20132014 and conservation in Great Britain. discovery in 1960 of Homo habilis, a See also: A plastic wasteland 284\u2013285 1.4\u20132.3-million-year-old hominid who As a young Aboriginal woman in used stone tools. Australia, Wingfield herded cattle and PETER H. KLOPFER See also: Evolution by natural selection sheep with her father and sister. In the 24\u201331 early 1980s she lay down in front of 1930\u2013 bulldozers at Canegrass Swamp in MAX DAY opposition to construction of the Berlin-born Klopfer is an ecologist Olympic Dam uranium mine. Later, whose main area of interest is ethology, 1915\u20132017 Wingfield teamed up with Eileen studying animal behavior in a natural Kampakuta Brown and other Aboriginal environment. His influential 1967 book An ecologist and entomologist, Day elders to campaign against the An Introduction to Animal Behavior: developed an interest in wildlife, government\u2019s proposals to dump Ethology\u2019s First Century acted as a particularly insects, as a boy in nuclear waste in South Australia. The survey and synthesis of past and","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS DIRECTORY 337 present ethological theories. In 1968, determines where animals choose to and the author of books on nature and he began teaching in the Department live. His 1963 paper on habitat selection the environment. He cofounded the of Zoology at Duke University, North by prairie deer mice demonstrated that David Suzuki Foundation in 1990 to Carolina, where he was instrumental instinct and experience both play a role investigate sustainable ways for people in starting its primate center. in how the mice select their habitat. to live in harmony with the natural world. See also: Animal behavior 116\u2013117 See also: Ecological niches 50\u201351 See also: Environmental ethics 306\u2013307 DIAN FOSSEY SYLVIA EARLE DANIEL B. BOTKIN 1932\u20131985 1935\u2013 1937\u2013 Most of what is known about the lives An American marine biologist, author, Botkin, a prominent American author and social structures of wild mountain and conservationist, Earle is an expert and environmentalist, earned his Ph.D. gorillas in Africa derives from the work on the impact of oil spills. In 1991, she in plant ecology in 1968 at Rutgers of primatologist and conservationist assessed the damage caused by the University. He writes and speaks on all Fossey. The daughter of a San Francisco destruction of Kuwaiti oil wells during the areas of the environment, from forest fashion model, she graduated and Gulf War. Earle undertook similar work ecosystems to fish populations, and also worked as an occupational therapist after the Exxon Valdez, Mega Borg, and advises agencies, corporations, and before visiting Africa, where she met, Deepwater Horizon oil spills. In 2009, governments. After decades spent and was inspired by, Mary and Louis Earle launched Mission Blue, which, by researching climate change, Botkin has Leakey. In early 1967 Fossey founded 2018, had established nearly 100 marine questioned how far it is impacted by the Karisoke Research Center in the protected areas around the world. human activity. He is a research scientist Rwandan mountains, where she See also: Pollution 230\u2013235 at the Marine Biological Laboratory, near studied gorillas. Her best-selling 1983 Boston, and is involved in environmental book about her experiences\u2014Gorillas ROBERT E. SHAW studies programs at several American in the Mist\u2014was later adapted for the universities. screen. Fossey was murdered at her 1936\u2013 See also: Halting climate change 316\u2013321 camp in December 1985, probably because of her anti-poaching stance. Shaw is an American pioneer EILEEN KAMPAKUTA BROWN See also: Animal behavior 116\u2013117 of ecological psychology, which looks at how perception, action, communication, 1938\u2013 TOMOKO OHTA learning, and evolution in humans and animals are determined by the In the early 1990s, the Australian 1933\u2013 environment. In 1977 he coedited the government revealed plans to build a book Perceiving, Acting, and Knowing: nuclear waste dump near Woomera, in Ohta is a Japanese population Toward an Ecological Psychology, the South Australian desert. Together geneticist who in 1973 proposed the which effectively launched this new with Eileen Wani Wingfield, Brown, an revolutionary Nearly Neutral Theory, area of study. In 1981 Shaw was the Aboriginal elder, established a kungka which included the idea that mutations founding president of the International tjuta (women\u2019s council) in the town of that are neither neutral nor harmful play Society for Ecological Psychology and Cooper Pedy to fight the plans. They an important part in evolution. After is now an emeritis professor in the were aware of the birth defects, cancer, graduating from the University of Department of Psychological Sciences and other health issues following the Tokyo in 1956, Ohta worked on the at the University of Connecticut. British military\u2019s nuclear tests in the cytogenetics (how chromosomes relate See also: Using animal models to desert in the 1950s and 1960s, and to cell behavior) of wheat and sugar understand human behavior 118\u2013125 feared that radiation could seep into the beet, and now works at Japan\u2019s groundwater. The plans were abandoned National Institute of Genetics. DAVID SUZUKI and Brown and Wingfield won the 2003 See also: The selfish gene 38\u201339 Goldman Environmental Prize. 1936\u2013 See also: Pollution 230\u2013235 STANLEY C. WECKER Canadian scientist Suzuki earned a LYNN MARGULIS 1933\u20132010 Ph.D. in zoology from the University of Chicago in 1961, and two years later 1938\u20132011 An American animal behaviorist, became a professor in the genetics Wecker was an influential researcher department at the University of British American biologist Margulis attended into animal population and community Columbia. Since the mid-1970s, he has Chicago University aged only 15 and ecology, especially the study of what also been a TV and radio broadcaster gained her Ph.D. at the University","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 338 DIRECTORY of California, Berkeley, in 1965. The next work on chaos theory. In his 1975 paper movement. In the early 1980s, he was year, at Boston University, she proposed \u201cPeriod Three Implies Chaos,\u201d written one of the leaders of a successful that cells within nuclei had evolved with Chinese mathematician Tien-Yien campaign to prevent the building of as a result of the symbiotic merger Li, he argued that above a certain rate the Franklin Dam, which would have of bacteria. This idea, although not of growth, population forecasts become destroyed key habitats. In 1996, Brown generally accepted until the 1980s, totally unpredictable, a discovery with was elected to the Australian Senate as transformed the understanding of major ecological implications. a Green Party representative. On cell evolution. See also: Population viability analysis retirement in 2012, he set up the Bob See also: The Gaia hypothesis 214\u2013217 312\u2013315 Brown Foundation to campaign for the protection of Australian habitats. PAUL F. HOFFMAN IAN LOWE See also: The water crisis 288\u2013291 1941\u2013 1942\u2013 BIRUTE GALDIKAS Canadian scientist Paul Hoffman\u2019s Lowe, an Australian environmentalist 1946\u2013 discovery of \u201ccap carbonates\u201d\u2014evidence who studied engineering and science at for ancient glaciation in Precambrian the University of New South Wales and German-born anthropologist and sedimentary rocks in Namibia\u2014revived earned his Ph.D. in physics at the primatologist Galdikas has pioneered the \u201cSnowball Earth\u201d hypothesis in University of York, advises the UN\u2019s the study of orangutans in the wild. climate change studies in 2000. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Along with Jane Goodall and Dian term was first used by American Change. He is outspoken on the need Fossey, she was one of \u201cThe Trimates,\u201d geologist Joseph Kirschvink in 1992, for renewable energy, arguing that it chosen by Louis Leakey to study great although there had been speculation is \u201cquicker, less expensive, and less apes. Leakey persuaded her to support since the late 19th century that Earth\u2019s dangerous than nuclear power.\u201d In the establishment of an orangutan surface was almost entirely frozen more 1996, Lowe chaired the expert group research station in Borneo, to which she than 650 million years ago. responsible for the first report on the moved in 1971. For more than 30 years, See also: Ancient ice ages 198\u2013199 state of Australia\u2019s environment. Lowe Galdikas studied the great apes, is now Emeritus Professor of Science, advocated protection for them and their SIMON A. LEVIN Technology, and Society at Griffith rain forest habitat, and undertook the University, Brisbane. rehabilitation of orphaned orangutans. 1941\u2013 See also: Renewable energy 300\u2013305 See also: Animal behavior 116\u2013117 \u25a0 Halting climate change 316\u2013321 Levin, an American ecologist, specializes BRIAN A. MAURER in the use of sophisticated mathematical AILA KETO modeling, alongside field and lab 1954\u20132018 observation, to understand the workings 1943\u2013 of ecosystems. He also researches the Maurer\u2019s 1989 paper \u201cMacroecology: relationships between ecology and Keto spent much of her youth exploring The Division of Food and Space Among economics. Levin earned a Ph.D. the Great Barrier Reef and surrounding Species on Continents\u201d\u2014written with in mathematics from the University rain forests. She studied biochemistry James H. Brown\u2014was the first clear of Maryland in 1964 and taught at and went on to work at the University articulation of the idea that there is value Cornell University from 1965 to 1992. of Queensland. In 1982, with her in studying ecological patterns and After moving to Princeton, he was husband Keith, she founded the processes over large areas and long time appointed director of the university\u2019s Australian Rain forest Conservation frames. In his last years he researched Center for BioComplexity, which Society, which did much to save the dynamics of the spread of exotic birds investigates the mechanisms that Australia\u2019s Wet Tropics area. and species diversity among mountain- generate and maintain complexity See also: Biomes 206\u2013209 dwelling mammals in North America. in the living world. See also: Macroecology 185 See also: Predator\u2013prey equations 44\u201349 BOB BROWN NANCY GRIMM JAMES A. YORKE 1944\u2013 1955\u2013 1941\u2013 After studying medicine at the University of Sydney, Brown practiced Based at Arizona State University, An American mathematician and in Australia and the UK. He moved to Grimm is a climate change ecologist physicist based at the University of Tasmania in 1972 and soon became and sustainability scientist, whose Maryland, Yorke is best known for his involved in the environmental research concentrates on the","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS DIRECTORY 339 interaction of climate change, human such as the Hawaiian chain, where the SARAH HARDY activity, and ecosystems. Her work has date of each island is already known particularly focused on the movement with some accuracy. Most of her work 1974\u2013 of water and chemicals through is focused on the evolution of spider ecosystems. Grimm is a past president species. Gillespie is based at the Hardy is an American marine biologist of the Ecological Society of America University of California, Berkeley, where and polar explorer who studies the effect and a senior scientist on the US Global she runs the EvoLab, a research group on the environment of deep-ocean Climate Change Research Program. that focuses on arthropods, such as mining. She argues that to protect See also: Ecosystem services 328\u2013329 spiders and insects. marine communities and biodiversity See also: Thermoregulation in insects it is important to develop a systematic TIM FLANNERY 126\u2013127 \u25a0 Island biogeography 144\u2013149 approach to the zoning of the oceans\u2014 with deep-sea marine protection areas a 1956\u2013 HARVEY LOCKE priority. Hardy studied marine biology at the University of California and earned One of Australia\u2019s most prominent 1959\u2013 her Ph.D. in oceanography at the environmentalists, Flannery earned University of Hawaii in 2005. a Ph.D. in 1984 from the University of Born in Calgary, Canada, Locke trained See also: A plastic wasteland 284\u2013285 New South Wales for his work on and practiced as a lawyer before kangaroo evolution. He later built switching to full-time conservation KATEY WALTER ANTHONY a reputation as a mammalogist, work in 1999. He is committed to areas discovering several new species, and of ecology known as large landscape 1976\u2013 as an expert on climate change. He and connectivity conservation, which was chief commissioner of the Climate involve the connection of all lands, Based at the University of Alaska, Commission, an Australian government whether urban or wild, across a wide Walter Anthony is an aquatic body, and champions renewable energy. network. Locke was a founder of the ecosystems ecologist specializing in See also: Renewable energy 300\u2013305 Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation polar environments. She has studied Initiative, which campaigns to create carbon dioxide and methane emissions SUSAN KAMINSKYJ a continuous wildlife corridor between from lakes in the North American those two areas of North America. In Arctic. In 2017, she discovered that 1956\u2013 2009, Locke also cofounded the Nature unusually large amounts of methane Needs Half movement, which advocates were escaping from an Arctic lake, From her laboratory at the University for the protection of half of Earth\u2019s land where the gas was seeping into the of Saskatchewan, Canada, Kaminskyj\u2014 and water area by 2050. Locke argues water from greater depths than a cell biologist and mycologist\u2014has that this policy is necessary to avoid previously discovered. If replicated pioneered the use of fungi to clean a sixth mass extinction on Earth. elsewhere, such emissions from oil-contaminated site, in a process See also: Mass extinctions 218\u2013223 reserves deep in the permafrost could known as bioremediation. Kaminskyj produce a dramatic increase in the and her team found that when seeds MAJORA CARTER amount of methane in the atmosphere. are treated with a fungus named See also: The Keeling Curve 240\u2013241 TSTh20-1, plants can establish in the 1966\u2013 substrate of such land and clean the AUTUMN PELTIER soil as they grow. When her dog led her through a See also: Ubiquity of mycorrhizae degraded brownfield site to the banks 2004\u2013 104\u2013105 \u25a0 Pollution 230\u2013235 of the Bronx River, in her native New York City, Carter realized the potential Peltier, a member of the Wikwemikong ROSEMARY GILLESPIE for the regeneration of this area. She First Nation who lives in Ontario, won funding from the city council to Canada, is a campaigner for clean 1957\u2013 develop Hunts Point Riverside Park on drinking water, arguing that humanity the site, providing a natural retreat and should treat water with greater respect. Scottish-born Gillespie studied zoology river access for locals. Subsequently In 2018, at the age of 13, she was one at the University of Edinburgh before her organization, Sustainable South of the youngest people ever to speak moving to the US to earn her Ph.D. at Bronx (SSBx), advocated and won to the UN General Assembly. Here, she the University of Tennessee. She is support for \u201cgreen\u201d urban renewal in advocated the policy that \u201cNo child known particularly for investigations disadvantaged communities elsewhere should grow up not knowing what clean into what drives biodiversity at species in New York. SSBx also campaigns to drinking water is, or never know what level, concentrating her evolution improve air quality and food choices. running water is.\u201d research on \u201chotspot archipelagos\u201d See also: The Green Movement 308\u2013309 See also: The water crisis 286\u2013291","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 340 GLOSSARY Abiotic Nonliving; often used to Biogeography The study of how Citizen science Scientific research refer to the nonliving components plants and animals are distributed carried out by amateurs, typically of an ecosystem (such as climate geographically, and the changes involving large-scale data collection. and temperature). to this distribution over time. Climate change A shift in the Abundance The number Biological community A world\u2019s interconnected weather of a given species within an collection of living organisms patterns; a gradual natural process ecosystem; an abundant species within one location; when exacerbated by human actions. is strongly represented within the combined with their environment, wider population. they make an ecosystem. Climax A biological community or ecosystem that has reached Acid rain Any form of precipitation Biomass The total quantity of a a stable point, so that populations with high levels of acidity, causing given organism within a habitat, of organisms will remain steady. damage to the environment; may generally expressed as weight or This is the end result of succession, occur naturally or as a result of volume. Also a type of fuel made in which the type of species and human activity. from organic matter, usually burned population sizes that make up to generate electricity. a community change over time. Anthropogenic Originating in, or influenced by, human activity. Biome An area of Earth that can Climax species A plant species be classified according to the that will not change as long as its Apex predator A predator that species of plant and animal life environment remains stable. is not prey for any other species. within it. Clutch size The number of eggs Atmosphere The layer of gases Biosphere The layer of Earth laid in one birthing. surrounding Earth. It also protects in which life can exist, situated organisms from ultraviolet radition. between the atmosphere and Community ecology The study of lithosphere; the sum of all how species interact within a given Autotroph A producer; an ecosystems on the planet. geographical space. organism that makes its own food from sources such as light, water, Botany The scientific study Competitive exclusion and chemicals in the air. of plant life. principle The idea that multiple species reliant on exactly the same Behavioral ecology The study of Carnivore An organism which resources cannot exist together animal behavior and how ecological eats only meat. without one population rising and pressures influence this. the other falling, as one will always Catastrophism The theory that have an advantage over another. Biodegradable Usually used changes in Earth\u2019s crust were in reference to waste products, caused by dramatic and unusual Coniferous Describes trees with meaning something that can be events, as opposed to gradual seed cones which mostly do not broken down by natural processes. change over time. shed their needlelike leaves during winter. Biodiversity The variety Cells The smallest structural and of ecological life within a given biological unit that can survive Conservation The protection and geographical area, encompassing on its own; the \u201cbuilding blocks\u201d preservation of animal life, plant variety between and within species. of all life on Earth. life, and natural resources.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS GLOSSARY 341 Consumer A species that eats Endangered Describes a species the connections between them, other organisms to obtain its whose population is so small that illustrating how communities required nutrients; this term can it is at risk of dying out completely. interact on a wider scale to survive. apply to any organism that is not at the very bottom of the food chain Epidemiology The study of Fossil The remains of a prehistoric how diseases spread through organism, preserved and solidified Deciduous Describes trees that populations, and the impact this in sedimentary rock or amber. shed their leaves in the fall. has on the wider ecosystem. Fossil fuel Nonrenewable fuels Decomposers Organisms, Ethology The scientific study formed over millions of years from primarily bacteria and fungi, that of the evolution of animal behavior plant and animal remains. break down dead organisms and as an adaptive trait, with a waste matter to obtain energy. particular focus on observing Fracking A process by which oil animals in their natural habitat. or gas can be extracted from the Deforestation The cutting down ground. Fracking involves drilling of a large area of trees, carried out Evolution The process by which down and injecting liquid into for a range of purposes, including species change over time as traits the rock at a high pressure in farming, industry, and construction. are passed down over generations. order to force the oil and gas to the surface. Detritivores Organisms that feed Extinction The permanent dying on waste matter. out of an entire species. Fungi A group of organisms, including mushrooms, that produce Diatom Any of a large group of Extirpation Extinction of a spores and feed on organic matter. microscopic algae that often play species on a local level\u2014when Unlike plants, fungi do not utilize an important role in stabilizing an a species dies out within a specific sunlight for growth. ecosystem and facilitating the geographic area but still exists existence of a range of life forms. elsewhere on the planet. Gene The most basic unit of heredity; part of a DNA molecule Diversity A measure of the variety Feedback loop The effect that one that transmits characteristics from of species within a biological part of an ecosystem has on the a parent to its offspring. community or ecosystem. rest, and how this change feeds back into the system as a whole. Genome The complete set of an DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid. A organism\u2019s genes. large molecule in the shape of a Fertilizers Substances, which double helix that carries genetic can be either natural or chemical, Geology The scientific study information in a chromosome. that are added to soil to increase of Earth\u2019s physical formation and its nutrient content and help plants structure. Geologists examine our Ecology The scientific study of grow more successfully. planet\u2019s history and the ongoing the relationships between living processes that are acting upon it. organisms and their environment. Fieldwork Studies undertaken in the wild, rather than under Global warming A gradual Ecosystem A community of controlled laboratory conditions. increase in the temperature of organisms in a given environment Earth\u2019s atmosphere caused by the that interact with and affect Food chain A series of predators accumulation of greenhouse gases. one another. and prey, in which each organism is dependent on the preceding GMO Genetically Modified Ecosystem services The benefits lifeform for food. Organism\u2014any life form that has humans receive from an ecosystem; been artificially and chemically a term highlighting the importance Food web A collection of food altered by engineering techniques of the environment to humanity. chains within an ecosystem and that modify its DNA.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 342 GLOSSARY Greenhouse effect The way in Irrigation The controlled Migration A large-scale movement which gases in Earth\u2019s atmosphere application of water to areas of of a species from one environment trap heat. The buildup of these land, usually through the creation to another; often occurs seasonally. gases leads to global warming. of channels, to help crops grow. Monoculture Using land for the Greenhouse gas Gases such as Keystone species A species cultivation or growth of only one carbon dioxide and methane that that plays a centrally important type of plant or animal. This often absorb energy reflected by Earth\u2019s role in an ecosystem, often has damaging effects on the land, surface, stopping it from escaping disproportionate to its biomass, as it can decrease its mineral value. into space. and whose removal would alter or endanger the entire ecosystem. Morphology The study of the Green Movement A political external structure of organisms. ideology that encourages a greater Kin selection An evolutionary focus on the importance of the strategy whereby individuals Mutation A change of environment, and asks people to pursue the best tactic for their structure within an organism\u2019s take action to prevent damage relatives\u2019 survival, even at the DNA, which may result in a to Earth\u2019s natural habitats. expense of their own safety, well- genetic transformation giving being, or reproduction. it uncharacteristic traits. One Groundwater Water found below example of a mutation is Earth\u2019s surface, such as in spaces Mass extinction The widespread albinism, a lack of pigmentation. in the soil, sand, or rock. and rapid dying out of an abnormally large number\u2014at least half\u2014of Mutualism A situation in which Habitat The area in which all species; this sharp change in two or more organisms depend an organism naturally lives. biodiversity usually marks a shift on each other for survival. to a new geological era in our Herbivore An organism that eats planet\u2019s history. Mycorrhizae Types of fungi only plants. that grow among the roots of Metabolism The chemical plants and exist in a symbiotic Homeostasis The regulation processes that occur within the relationship with these plants. of conditions within an organism, cells of an organism to keep it alive, such as temperature, water, and such as the processes that enable Natural selection The process carbon dioxide, to maintain a the digestion of food. by which characteristics that stable internal state. increase an organism\u2019s chances Metacommunity A set of of reproducing are preferentially Hypothesis An idea or assumption, independent communities that passed on. used as the starting point for interact and are connected by a theory, which is then tested the movement of some species Niche The specific space and through scientific experimentation. between those communities. role that a species occupies within an ecosystem. Inheritance The passing on of Metapopulation A collection genetic qualities and behavioral of smaller populations of a given Omnivore An organism that feeds predispositions to offspring, species that are linked by the on both animals and plants. through both genetic information movement of some individuals. and parental nurture. Organism General term for Microorganism An organism, any living thing, from single-cell Invasive species A nonnative invisible to the human eye, bacteria to complex, multicellular species that has been introduced that can only be seen with a life forms such as plants and animals. to an ecosystem and spreads microscope, such as a bacterium, rapidly, damaging the ecological virus, or fungus; also known as Ornithology A branch of biology balance of the area. a microbe. that concerns the study of birds.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS GLOSSARY 343 Overfishing The depletion of the Prey A species that is hunted Thermoregulation The internal fish population in a given area as by another species. processes that occur within an a result of fishing too intensively. organism to ensure it maintains Primary producer Any organism a stable temperature, a function Ozone layer Part of the upper that makes its own food from that is crucial for survival. level of Earth\u2019s atmosphere, with nonorganic sources, namely light a high concentration of ozone (O3) and\/or chemical compounds such Transmutation The process of molecules; provides protection as carbon dioxide and sulfur, and evolutionary divergence by which from ultraviolet radiation. thus sustains the animals that one species transforms into an feed on it. entirely new one. Paleontology The study of fossils and biology of Earth\u2019s geological Primary vegetation The Trophic cascade The impact past. Paleobotany is the branch vegetation that has prevailed in a that the removal of a trophic level studying plant fossils. given area since the start of its of a food chain with at least three current climatic conditions. levels has on the wider ecosystem Parasite An organism that lives on as a whole. or in another organism, and obtains Recycling The process of nutrients from its host. converting waste into new objects Trophic level The place of an or materials, or burning it to organism within an ecosystem\u2019s Pesticides Chemicals used to kill generate energy. hierarchy; organisms that are certain types of pest in order to on the same level of the food chain protect cultivated plants. They can, Renewables Fuel sources that are on the same trophic level. however, also kill nontarget species are not finite, such as solar power, and damage the wider ecosystem. hydropower, and wind power. Tropics The region of Earth that surrounds the equator, between the Photosynthesis The process Species A group of organisms lines of the Tropic of Cancer and by which plants and algae transfer capable of exchanging genes with the Tropic of Capricorn, and does the Sun\u2019s light energy into chemical one another through reproduction. not experience the same seasonal energy as glucose, allowing it to be changes as the rest of Earth. passed along the food chain. The Stochasticity Unpredictable process absorbs carbon dioxide and fluctuations in environmental Urbanization The process which releases oxygen. conditions that affect populations occurs when rural areas are built and ecological processes. upon intensively, almost always Physiology A branch of biology with negative consequences for that focuses on the everyday Succession The process by which the natural environment. functioning of organisms. a biological community evolves over time, from a few simple species Urban sprawl The outward Pollination The transfer of pollen to a complex ecoystem, through growth of a previously concentrated from a male plant part to a female species\u2019 impact on the environment. urbanized area, often with negative one\u2014by birds, insects, and other consequences for the environment. animals, or by the wind\u2014enabling Taxonomy The science of naming fertilization and seed production. and classifying different organisms. Variation Differences within a species, caused either by genetic Pollution The introduction of Tectonic plates Pieces of Earth\u2019s or environmental factors. harmful contaminants to the crust and uppermost mantle that natural environment, inducing gradually shift over time, causing Vascular plant A type of plant changes to the atmosphere. seafloor spreading, continental with conductive tissue for the drift, and mountains, rift valleys, movement of water and minerals Predator A species that hunts volcanoes, and earthquakes at throughout, such as a fern or a other animal species for food. plate boundaries. flowering plant.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 344 INDEX Numbers in bold refer autogenic ecosystem engineers 189 biosphere 95, 136, 153, 160, 197, 204\u2013205, 215 to a topic\u2019s main entry autotrophs 132 biosphere reserves 236, 310, 311 Avery, Oswald 19, 34 Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB) A axolotls 283, 283 310\u2013311 Sustainable Biosphere Initiative (SBI) acacia trees 57\u201358, 57 B 322\u2013323 acid rain 93, 222, 229, 234, 248\u2013249 adaptation 72 Bacon, Francis 294, 296, 296 bipedalism 72 Bacon, Roger 84 birds see also ecophysiology; natural selection bacteria 30, 31, 31, 68, 69, 84, 85, 90, 100, Agassiz, Louis 196, 198\u2013199 bird counts 180\u2013181, 182, 183 Age of Discovery 80, 296 102, 103, 136, 139, 164 birdsong 235 Age of Enlightenment 18 Bak, Per 184 eggs 114\u2013115 aggression 124\u2013125, 124 balsam fir 151 light pollution damage 253 Aguado, Catalina 181 Baltimore Orioles 199 migration 180, 180, 199, 278 air pollution 93, 95, 232, 233\u2013234, 233, 248 Banks, Jonathan 276 social behavior 189 Al-Jahiz 108, 130, 132 bark beetles 277 bison 143 albinism 30 Barlow, Maude 288, 289, 289, 291 black widow spiders 39, 39 algae 132, 151, 217 barnacles 54, 55, 55, 62, 63 Blackburn, Tim 185 algal blooms 166, 269 Barro Colorado Island 157, 157 blood-suckers 127 alleles 30 Bartram, William 297 Blue Tits 114, 114 allogenic ecosystem engineers 189 Bateson, William 29 Blue-footed Boobies 115, 115 altruistic behavior 19, 29, 38, 39, 125 bats 54, 67, 155 Blue-gray Gnatcatchers 176\u2013177, 176 Alvarez, Luis and Walter 22, 221, 221 Bazalgette, Joseph 233 bluebirds 111 Amazon Basin 97, 259 bears 51, 51, 72, 109, 109, 191, 313, 314, 314 Bodenheimer, Frederick 112 amphibian viruses 280 beavers 65, 65, 111, 188, 189 boneworms 139 Anderson, Roy 68, 70\u201371 bees 29, 29, 38, 39, 66, 85, 100, 101, 126, 127, bonobos 120, 123, 125, 125 Andrews Forest, Oregon 153, 153 Bonpland, Aim\u00e9 162 animal behavior see ethology 278, 279 Botkin, Daniel B. 337 animal ecology 106\u2013113 behavioral ecology 154\u2013155 Boyle, Robert 85 Beklemishe, Vladimir 204 Bradley, Richard 130, 132 behavioral ecology 154\u2013155 Beneden, Pierre-Joseph van 56, 58 Brown, Bob 338 see also ecological niches; food chains; food webs benthic communities 142 Brown, Eileen Kampakuta 337 Anning, Mary 334 Biblical flood 198, 198, 199 Brown, James H. 131, 146, 148, 185, 338 Anthony, Katey Walter 339 big ecology 153 Bruckner, John 132, 133 Anthropocene epoch 322 Big Garden Birdwatch 182 Brugger, Ken 181 anthropogenic biomes 95 bioaccumulation 94 Buckland, William 199 antibiotics 103 biodiversity 63, 81, 90\u201397, 131, 137, 149, 235, budworm 151, 151 antibodies 103 buffalo 95, 110 antiseptics 103 237, 258, 322 Buffon, Comte du 20, 23, 26 ants 48, 57\u201358, 57, 94, 142 agricultural 326\u2013327 bullfrogs 280 aphids 49, 58, 224 and ecosystem functioning 156\u2013157 bushmeat 124 aquaculture 269 effects of human activity on 93 butterflies 127, 181\u2013182, 277, 279, 313 aquifers 289, 290, 291 hotspots 96\u201397 Aral Sea 288, 290, 290 key threats to 93\u201395 C archaea 91 loss 156, 157 Arditi-Ginzburg equations 46 neutral theory of 152 C:N:P ratios 74, 75 argan trees 311 biofuels 289 cactus 173 Aristotle 42, 80, 82\u201383, 83, 100, 130, 166, 296 \u201cbiogenic\u201d rocks 30 Caldeira, Ken 281 Arrhenius, Olaf 185 biogeography 94, 130\u2013131, 162\u2013163, 166, 197, Callendar, Guy Stewart 240 Arrhenius, Svante 202\u2013203, 240, 318\u2013319 200\u2013201, 209 camels 73 atmosphere 197, 204, 215 biological species concept 88\u201389 camouflage 83 Attenborough, David 93, 167, 336 biomass 62, 112, 113, 238, 305 cancer research 75 Audubon, James 181, 334 biomass energy 305 cane toads 273, 273 Audubon Society 182 biomes 95, 135, 173, 197, 206\u2013209, 209","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS INDEX 345 carbon 74, 75 Connett, Paul 330 barcoding 37 carbon dioxide (CO2) 65, 136, 228, 259, 281, conservation 124, 142, 236, 239, 267, 295, junk DNA 123 mitochondrial DNA analysis 81 302\u2013303, 305, 318, 321 307 mutations 19, 30, 30, 31, 36\u201337 Keeling Curve 240\u2013241, 241 see also environmentalism sequencing 37, 89 social cost of carbon (SCC) 324\u2013325 continental drift 196, 212\u2013213 Dobzhansky, Theodosius 29\u201330, 31, 96 carbon sinks 264 convergent evolution 209 dodos 299 carnivores 109, 133, 141 Cooke, Wells 180 dogs 89, 101, 116 Carson, Rachel 138, 139, 229, 244\u2013245, 244, cooling ponds 137 Dolly the sheep 34 247, 299, 306 cooperative behavior 124 dolphins 97, 285, 291 Carter, Majora 339 coral bleaching 207, 238 donkeys 89 Caswell, Hal 152 coral reefs 135, 152, 189, 193, 203, 205, 207, Dorling, Danny 250 Celsius, Anders 87 207, 238 Douglas, Marjory Stoneman 335 Central Park, Manhattan, New York 149 Cousteau, Jacques 335\u2013336 dragonflies 43, 51, 76\u201377, 77, 109, 111, 189 cephalopods 222, 223 Cowles, Henry Chandler 160, 170, 172, 174 droughts 70, 288, 318 CFCs 229, 260, 261 crabs 142 Drude, Oscar 172 Chambers, Robert 20 Crawford, David 253 dunes 170, 172 chameleons 185 creationism 18, 20, 22, 28, 196 dung beetles 126, 127 Champlain, Samuel de 334 Crick, Francis 19, 32, 34\u201335, 35 Dutch elm disease 70 Chapman, Frank 181 crocodiles 42, 222 Chargaff, Erwin 182 Croll, James 224 E Charpentier, Jean de 198 Cronquist, Arthur 175 cheetahs 47 crows 67 E. coli 31, 31 chemotrophs 133 cuckoos 199 eagles 133, 229, 235 chestnut blight 175 Curtis, John 161, 174, 175 Earle, Sylvia 337 Chicxulub Crater 220, 221, 237 Cuvier, Georges 18, 22 Earth Day 211, 211, 295, 306, 308, 330 chimpanzees 101, 120, 121, 121, 122, 122, cyanobacteria 161, 189, 205 Earth Summits 153, 323, 330 123\u2013125, 123, 124 cystic fibrosis 37 earthworms 189 cholera 69\u201370, 233 Easter Island 264, 264 Christmas Bird Count (CBC) 180\u2013181 D echidnas 209 chromosomes 123 echolocation 67 Chutkan, Robynne 102 Dachille, Frank 220 ecological drift 192 chytridomycosis 280 Daily, Gretchen 329, 329 ecological equivalence 51 citizen science 161, 178\u2013183 Daisyworld 216 ecological footprint 322 cladistics 86, 87, 90, 91 damselflies 109 ecological niches 22, 43, 50\u201351, 108, 110\u2013112, classification 20, 37, 81, 82\u201383, 86\u201387, 90\u201391 D\u2019Ancona, Umberto 46\u201347, 48 Clements, Frederic 135, 138, 152, 160\u2013161, 166, Dansereau, Pierre 336 176, 192 167, 168, 170, 172\u201373, 174, 175, 197, 206\u2013207, Darwin, Charles 18, 21, 22, 23, 26\u201328, 26, 29, competitive exclusion principle 42\u201343, 52\u201353, 208, 210 112 climate change 95, 109, 113, 185, 202\u2013203, 207, 32, 42, 56, 59, 72, 116, 120, 130, 133, 146, generalists and specialists 111 223, 224, 225, 228\u2013229, 267, 268\u2013269, 276, 281, 150, 162, 167, 193, 200, 297 guilds 152, 161, 176\u2013177 295 Dawkins, Richard 19, 38\u201339, 39, 88, 116, 123, niche construction 188\u2013189 climate change denial 320 154 niche overlap 51, 111\u2013112 economic impact 324\u201325 Day, Max 336 niche partitioning 51, 112 halting 316\u201321 DDT 229, 244\u2013245, 246, 247 ecological pyramids 112, 112 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change \u201cdead zone\u201d (oceans) 269 ecological resilience 131, 137, 150\u2013151 (IPCC) 276, 295, 299, 319\u2013320, 321 decomposers 139, 141 ecological stoichiometry 43, 74\u201375 and spring creep 276\u2013279 decoupling of interactions between species ecological succession 170\u2013171, 171, 172, 173 climax communities 172\u2013173, 174 278\u2013279 ecophysiology 72\u201373 cloning 34 deer 49, 77, 97 ecoregions 237\u2013238 clownfish 59, 59 deforestation 93, 97, 228, 237, 238, 250, ecosystem ecology 157 cockatoos 201 254\u2013259, 264, 294 ecosystem services 328\u2013329 cod fisheries 266\u2013267, 268 detritus feeders 133 ecosystems 128\u2013159 \u201ccold-blooded\u201d 126 developmental traps 279 biomes 95, 135, 173, 197, 206\u2013209, 209 colobus monkeys 124 diatoms 112, 189 biotic and abiotic elements 135\u2013136, 208 competition dinosaurs 22, 222, 223 categories 136 competitive exclusion principle 42\u201343, 52\u201353, Diogenes 297 ecological epidemiology 68\u201371 112 disease energy flow 134, 138\u2013139 exploitation 53 ecological epidemiology 68\u201371 equilibrium 136, 137 food chains and webs 109 infectious diseases 280 interference 53 DNA 19, 26, 30, 32, 34\u201337, 38, 123 interspecific 53 intraspecific 53 Connell, Joseph 43, 55, 62, 170","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 346 INDEX ecosystems cont. evolutionarily stable strategy (ESS) 131, 154\u2013155 forests see deforestation; rain forests evolutionarily stable strategy (ESS) 131, evolutionary theory 16\u201339 Fossey, Dian 336\u2013337 154\u2013155 fossil fuels 93, 203, 217, 225, 240, 263, 302, experimental 157 coevolution 56, 59 external disturbances 136\u2013137 convergent evolution 209 319 feedback loops 136, 217, 224\u2013225 early theories 20\u201321 fossils 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 30\u201331, 105, 196, guilds 161, 176\u2013177 heredity 18, 19, 20, 21, 26, 28, 32\u201333 holistic concept 175, 210\u2013211 kin selection 19, 29, 39 212, 212, 213 keystone species 43, 60\u201365, 109, 130, 142 natural selection 18\u201319, 21, 22, 24\u201331, 38, 66, 72, Fourier, Joseph 203, 299 mutualism 42, 43, 56\u201359, 100, 104, 105, 157 81, 154 foxes 132, 225, 315 resilience 131, 137, 150\u2013151 Red Queen theory 46, 49 fracking 304 techno-ecosystems 137 see also DNA; genetics Frank, Albert 100, 104, 105 see also biodiversity; competition; ecological extinction 22, 81, 92\u201393, 95, 96, 143 Franklin, Rosalind 19, 35 niches; food chains; food webs; predators current rate of 92\u201393 Friends of the Earth 297, 308 and prey extinction risk assessment 312\u2013315 Frisch, Karl von 116, 123 extirpation 93, 95 Fritts, Charles 302 ecozones 209 Holocene extinction 223 frogs 109, 280 ectotherms 126, 222 island species 147, 148 fruit bats 155 Eden Project, UK 137 K-Pg extinction event 221\u2013222 fruit flies 75, 164\u2013165, 165 eggs mass extinctions 22, 218\u2013223 fungal diseases 280 \u201cthe Great Dying\u201d 223 fungi 58, 70, 91, 91, 100, 136, 139, 222, 278 birds 114\u2013115 clutch size 101, 114\u2013115 F mycorrhizae 104\u2013105, 104, 105 turtles 253 Egler, Frank 173 G Egyptians, ancient 82 Ehrlich, Paul 56, 59, 134, 250 facultative siblicide 115 Gaia hypothesis 197, 210, 214\u2013217 electron microscopy 81, 85, 90 Faraday, Michael 233 Galdikas, Birute 338 electronic waste (e-waste) 331 Farman, Joe 260\u2013261 game theory 154, 155 elephants 22, 62, 64, 109, 139 feedback loops 136, 217, 224\u2013225 garlic mustard 272\u2013273, 273 elk 65, 110 fermentation process 102, 103 Gaston, Kevin 185 Elliott, Christopher 173 fertilizers 327 Gause, Georgy 42\u201343, 52\u201353, 112, 190 Elser, James 43, 74, 75 Gause\u2019s Law 52\u201353, 112 Elton, Charles 50, 51, 100, 108, 109, 110\u2013111, runoff 151, 234, 239, 269 gazelles 47, 73 112, 130, 132, 270, 272 field manipulation experiments 63 genetically modified food 36, 36 empathy 125 fieldwork 43, 54\u201355, 116\u2013117 genetically modified organisms (GMOs) 36 endangered species 93, 95, 312 fig trees 65 genetics 19, 29, 154 endotherms 126, 222 fig wasps 58 energy finches 27, 27, 110, 193 gene mapping 123 biomass energy 305 fireflies 89 gene selfishness 38\u201339 energy flow through ecosystems 134, fires 137, 171, 318, 318 gene therapy 19, 35 138\u2013139 Fisher, Ronald 19, 29, 30, 114 genetic drift 81 energy transfer 113, 136 fishing genetic engineering 35, 296 Enlightenment 20, 298 genetic markers 123 environmentalism 294\u2013331 fish farming 269 heredity 18, 19, 20, 21, 26, 28, 32\u201333 early history of 296\u2013299 harmful practices 207, 238 human genome 19, 34, 37, 123 environmental ethics 306\u2013307 moratoriums and quotas 267, 268 see also DNA Green Movement 297, 299, 308\u2013309 overfishing 93, 150, 207, 229, 250, 266\u2013269 geothermal energy 91, 304 halting climate change 316\u2013321 fishing cats 97 germ theory of disease 70, 102, 103 Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB) fixed action patterns (FAPs) 116\u2013117 Gessner, Conrad 80, 82, 83 310\u2013311 Flannery, Tim 339 giant pandas 51, 51 renewable energy 300\u2013305 fleas 112 Gillespie, Rosemary 339 Sustainable Biosphere Initiative (SBI) Fleming, Alexander 102, 103 giraffes 18, 21 322\u2013325 flight, insects 126\u2013127 glaciation 198\u2013199 waste disposal 330\u2013331 flooding 238, 239, 258, 277 glaciers 198, 199, 199, 203 epidemics 71 food chains 69, 75, 94, 108, 130, 132\u2013133, 277 Gleason, Henry 152, 161, 171, 172, 174\u2013175 epiphytes 169, 169 DDT biomagnification 246 Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) Esmark, Jens 198 ecological pyramids 112, 112 180, 183 essentialism 18, 20 producers and consumers 112, 132\u2013133, 139, global warming 185, 202\u2013203, 207, 223, 224, ethology 101, 116\u2013125 277, 279 268\u2013269, 276, 281, 318, 319 animal models and human behavior 101, food limitation hypothesis 115 goldfinches 181 118\u2013125 food webs 108, 108, 109, 133, 138, 140, 141, 142 Gondwana 213, 222, 223 eukaryotes 90, 91 Forbes, James 199 Goodall, Jane 101, 120\u2013122, 121, 122, 124, 125 eusocial species 39 Forbes, Stephen A. 160, 166 eutrophication 151","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS INDEX 347 Gore, Al 244, 304, 309, 319 HFCs 261 JK gorillas 94, 123 hibernation 278 Gosling, Raymond 19 Hoffman, Paul F. 337\u2013338 jaguars 65 Gould, Stephen Jay 38 Holdridge, Leslie 197, 206, 209 Janzen, Daniel 43, 55, 56\u201357 \u201cgreat chain of being\u201d 83 holistic theory 175, 210\u2013211 Janzen\u2013Connell hypothesis 55 Great Lakes, North America 150\u2013151 H\u00f6lker, Franz 252 Jenner, Edward 84, 102 Great Oxygenation Event 189 Holling, Crawford 131, 150\u2013151 Johnson, Roswell Hill 50 Great Pacific Ocean Garbage Patch (GPOGP) Holmes, Arthur 212 Johnston, Emma 235, 235 Holyoak, Marcel 190 Jones, Clive 189 284 homeostasis 215, 217 Great Tits 279, 279 hominids 124 Kaminskyj, Susan 339 Green Movement 297, 299, 308\u2013309 Hooke, Robert 22, 42, 80, 84, 85, 85, 102 kangaroo rats 185 Green Revolution 327 hornets 127 Keeling, Charles 202, 228, 240 greenhouse gases and greenhouse effect 95, horses 31, 89 Keeling Curve 240\u2013241, 241 Hubbell, Stephen P. 152, 190 Kelly, Allan O. 220 153, 202, 202, 203, 228, 239, 240, 241, 264, human behavior, animal models and 101, 118\u2013125 Kelly, Petra 308, 309, 309 294, 299 human genome 19, 34, 37, 123 kelp 64\u201365, 143 Greenpeace 299, 309, 330 Humboldt, Alexander von 42, 72, 160, 162\u2013163, kestrels 111 Grew, Nehemiah 85 Keto, Aila 338 Grimm, Nancy 338\u2013339 163, 166, 168, 174, 176, 206, 256 keystone species 43, 60\u201365, 109, 130, 142 Grinnell, Joseph 42, 50\u201351, 108, 110, 112, 176 hummingbirds 110, 110 kin selection 19, 29, 39 Grisebach, August 172 Hunter, Tim 253 Klein, Naomi 262, 263, 263 Growth Rate Hypothesis (GRH) 75 hunting behavior 124 Klopfer, Peter H. 336 guilds 152, 161, 176\u2013177 Hutchinson, George Evelyn 50, 51, 52, koala bears 111, 111 gulls 101, 117 Koch, Robert 100, 102 111, 139 Kolbert, Elizabeth 92, 202, 222 H Hutton, James 18, 23, 196, 198, 204 Krakatua 149, 149 Huxley, Julian 19, 26, 86 Krebs, Charles 224 habitats hydroelectric power 294, 302, 304\u2013305 Kyoto Protocol 153, 320 carrying capacity 47 hydrosphere 197, 204, 215 destruction 93, 94, 95, 124, 137, 239, 280 L endangered 236\u2013239 I fragmentation 93, 124, 130, 157 Lack, David 101, 114, 115 protected 239 ibis 97 Lack\u2019s principle 115 ice ages 198\u2013199 ladybugs 224, 271 Haeckel, Ernst 91, 166, 206, 334\u2013335 ice cap melting 225, 318 lake ecosystem 211 Hairston, Nelson 130, 141 idealization of nature 298, 299 Laland, Kevin 188 Hamilton, William D. 19, 29, 38, 39, 154 immunity 70 Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste 18, 20\u201321, 21, 26, 28, 32 Hansen, James 225 imperial ecology 296, 299 land ethic 294\u2013295, 306 Hanski, Ilkka 161, 187, 187 imprinting 116, 117 landfill sites 331 Hardin, Garrett 108, 229, 250, 306 inbreeding 314 Lawton, John 189 Hardy, Sarah 339 Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot 96, 97 Leakey, Louis 120, 121 hares 110, 110, 188 industrial melanism 31, 31 Leakey, Mary 336 Harkin, James Bernard 335 Industrial Revolution 20, 31, 228, 232, 241, Leeuwenhoek, Antonie van 42, 84\u201385, 100, Harrison, Nancy 189 Hartig, Theodor 104 294, 296 102, 130, 132 Hatton, Harry 54 Ingersoll, Andrews 224 Leibold, Mathew 190, 192, 193 hawk-dove \u201cgame\u201d 155 insects Lenski, Richard 31 Hawking, Stephen 37 Leonardo da Vinci 22 Hawkins, Charles 161, 177 mass extinction 223 Leopold, Aldo 140, 142, 167, 244, 294, 297, 306, HCFCs 261 thermoregulation 126\u2013127 Heath Hen 313, 313 interbreeding 88, 89 307, 307 heavy metals 105 intermediate disturbance hypothesis (IDH) 55 Levin, Simon A. 338 Heinrich, Bernd 101, 126 International Dark-Sky Association 229, 253 Levins, Richard 52, 186 Hennig, Willi 81, 90 Internationl Union for Conservation of Nature Lewontin, Richard 188 hens 165, 313 (IUCN) 236 lichens 171 herbivores 109, 113, 133, 139, 142 invasive species 93, 148, 270\u2013273 life zone classification 197, 209 heredity 18, 19, 20, 21, 26, 28, 32\u201333 animals 270\u2013271 ligers 89 Herodotus 42 plants 272\u2013273, 282 Hess, Harry 212 island biogeography 94, 130\u2013131, 144\u2013149, heterotherms 101, 126 193 heterotrophs 133","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 348 INDEX light pollution 235, 252\u2013253 Mendel, Gregor 19, 26, 29, 32\u201333, 33, 296 nest predation hypothesis 114, 115 Likens, Gene 229, 248, 249, 249 Mendes, Chico 256, 257, 257, 258 Nestler, Johann Karl 33 Lindeman, Raymond 112, 113, 130, 138\u2013139 metacommunities 190\u2013193, 192 Neumann, John von 154 Linnaeus, Carl 20, 42, 80\u201381, 82, 83, 86\u201387, 87, 91, metamorphosis 77, 276, 279 Newport, George 101, 126 metapopulations 161, 186\u2013187, 190 nitrogen 74 120, 132, 133, 162, 168 methane 331 noise pollution 235 lions 49, 109 Mexico City 283 noosphere 205 Lithops (\u201cflowering stones\u201d) 168 miasma 69 Nordhaus, William 324, 325, 325 lithosphere 197, 204, 212 mice 70, 71 nuclear power 217, 235, 302, 308 lizards 112 microbes 90, 91, 102\u2013103 Locke, Harvey 339 microbial resistance 103 O locusts 75 microhabitats 147 Loreau, Michel 131, 156\u2013157 microplastics 284 oak trees 171, 189, 277 Lorenz, Edward 184 microscopy 80, 84\u201385, 100, 102 obligate siblicide 115 Lorenz, Konrad 101, 116, 117, 117, 120, 123 Miescher, Friedrich 26, 32 oceans Lotka, Alfred J. 42, 46, 47, 52, 224\u2013225 migration Lotka\u2013Volterra equations 42, 46\u201349, 52, 225 acidification 207, 238, 281 Lovelock, James 197, 204, 210, 214, 215, 215, 216, birds 180, 180, 199, 278 garbage patches 183, 284\u2013285 butterflies 181\u2013182 octopus 83 322 Miller, Brian 62, 65 Odling-Smee, John 161, 188, 189 Lowe, Ian 338 Miller, G. Tyler 137 Odum, Howard and Eugene 134, 138, 197, 210, Lubchenco, Jane 322, 323, 323 Miller, Hugh 221 210\u2013211, 214 Lyell, Charles 18, 23, 26, 196 Miner, Jack 335 Odum, William E. 43 lynx 48, 77, 110, 110, 188 \u201cmissing link\u201d 121 Ohta, Tomoko 337 M\u00f6bius, Karl August 334 oil extraction 262, 263\u2013264, 263 M moles 21 oil spills 234\u2013235 Molina, Mario 229, 260, 261 one-child policy (China) 251 MacArthur, Robert 43, 52, 53, 66, 131, 146\u2013147, monarch butterflies 181\u2013182, 182 open community theory 174\u2013175 147, 150, 312 monoculture plantations 256 optimal foraging theory (OFT) 43, 66\u201367 monsoons 291, 318 orangutans 123 macaws 111 Montreal Protocol 260, 261, 319 orcas 234 McCallum, Malcolm 280 Moore, Charles J. 284, 285 orchids 59 McClintock, Barbara 335 Morgernstern, Oskar 154 Ortelius, Abraham 212 McKendrick, Anderson Gray 68, 164 Morris, Desmond 116, 120, 122 ospreys 247 McKibben, Bill 264 Morrone, J.J. 200 overgrazing 93, 140, 239, 265 MacMahon, James 161, 177 mosquitoes 127, 247, 253 overharvesting 93, 94\u201395 macroecology 185 mosses 169, 171 overpopulation 229, 250\u2013251 Malle, Adolphe Dureau de la 170, 171 moths 31, 31, 56, 57, 59, 101, 126, 253, 273 see also population dynamics Malthus, Thomas 18, 27, 46, 47, 164, 165, 165, mountain goats 191 Owen, Richard 22 mudslides 258, 258 owls 111 184, 250 Muir, John 228, 236, 237, 237, 298, 306 oxpeckers 58, 110 mangroves 146, 147, 239, 259 mules 89 oystercatchers 66, 67, 67 Marae Moana 239 Munroe, Eugene 146 ozone depletion 260\u2013261, 319 marginal value theorem (MVT) 66, 67 musk oxen 72, 239 ozone emissions 93 Margulis, Lynn 204, 210, 215, 322, 337 mussels 63, 67, 272 marine conservation 182\u2013183, 239, 267 mutualism 42, 43, 56\u201359, 100, 104, 105, 157 P marmots 278 service-resource relationships 58 Marsh, George Perkins 134, 135, 294, 299, 299 service-service relationships 58, 59 Paczoski, J\u00f3sef 335 marsupials 209, 213 mycelium 104 Paine, Robert 43, 54, 62\u201363, 63, 76, 130, 140, mathematical modeling 54, 70, 74, 146\u2013147, mycorrhizal fungi 104\u2013105, 104, 105 Myers, Norman 81, 96\u201397, 97 141 155, 184 Pangaea 212\u2013213, 223 matriarchal societies 125 N parasites 49, 68, 71, 112, 187 Matthews, Blake 188 parasitoids 49, 49 Mauna Loa 241, 241 national parks 236, 237, 237, 239, 298, 307 Paris Agreement 318, 320\u2013321, 321 Maupertuis, Pierre Louis Moreau de 20 natural resources, depletion of 262\u2013265 Parmesan, Camille 277, 277, 278 Maurer, Brian 185, 338 natural selection 18\u201319, 21, 22, 24\u201331, 38, 66, 72, May, Robert 68, 70\u201371, 108, 150, 184 mayflies 85 81, 154 Mayr, Ernst 81, 88 Nelson, Gaylord 211, 295 meadowlarks 89 nematodes 143 meat-eating 109, 123\u2013124, 133 megacities 282 megatsunami 221"]
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