["\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 49 ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES as antelopes and deer\u2014and mammalian carnivores, like the big cats and wolves, is an example of this evolutionary arms race. The hoofed animals have long legs, extended by walking on the very tips of thickened and fused toe bones. This adaptation allows them to outrun and outjump their predators. In response, big cats\u2014 such as lions and tigers\u2014have evolved speed and strength to bring down large, fleet-footed prey in surprise attacks. Wolves have evolved the stamina to run for long distances without stopping. This allows them to work as a team to chase down their prey and kill them when the exhausted prey collapse. While the predator\u2013prey equations offer an insight into the population dynamics of two species, the assumptions they rely on are rarely reflected in real life. Some predators do specialize in killing a single prey species, but other factors in the ecosystem also affect their populations. Other applications another species but also the prey The parasitoid wasp lays its eggs The Lotka\u2013Volterra equations have species of a third. They have in aphids (the smaller, yellow insects been used to study the dynamics of also been used to examine the shown above). It is called a parasitoid food chains and food webs in which relationship between host and because the wasp\u2019s larvae later eat the one species may be a predator of parasite species, which bears aphids as they grow. some resemblance to that between Volterra was interested prey and predator. Parasites often thanks to beneficial genes, certain in a mathematical specialize in one host species\u2014 individuals in a host population a relationship that should resemble are able to maintain their fitness theory of \u2018the survival the one described by the Lotka\u2013 despite the attacks from parasites. of the fittest.\u2019 Volterra equations. However, in The parasites constantly evolve to practice the process of evolution exploit these seemingly immune Alexander Weinstein is thought to interfere with this. individuals, and therefore the A parasite does not usually kill beneficial genes in the host Russian mathematician its host (those that do are called population also change. In this way, parasitoids), but can reduce its evolution is happening all the time, fitness. The Red Queen evolutionary as the parasite and host battle it theory, proposed in the 1970s by out\u2014although everything appears Leigh Van Valen, describes how, to stay the same. \u25a0","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 50 OBEXYFIACSITSRELCNEUCNMEDSEISTRADTNEHCTREEESRAMDINED ECOLOGICAL NICHES IN CONTEXT A n organism\u2019s niche is competition with other species. a combination of its For ecologists, a full knowledge KEY FIGURE place and its role in the of an organism\u2019s niche is vital to Joseph Grinnell (1877\u20131939) environment. It encompasses how inform interventions to compensate the organism meets its needs for for the environmental changes BEFORE food and shelter, as well as how it caused by habitat destruction and 1910 In a paper about beetles, avoids predators, competes with climate change. Roswell Hill Johnson, a US other species, and reproduces. biologist, is the first person All its interactions with other The pioneer of the niche to use the word \u201cniche\u201d in organisms and the nonliving concept was Joseph Grinnell, a US a biological context. environment are also part of what biologist who studied a bird called makes up its niche. A unique niche the California Thrasher. In 1917, he AFTER is an advantage for any animal or published his observations, which 1927 British ecologist Charles plant because this reduces showed how the bird fed and bred Elton stresses the importance in the underbrush of a scrubby of an organism\u2019s role as well as its \u201caddress\u201d in his definition of There is constant Reducing competition an ecological niche in his book competition for food and increases the chances Animal Ecology. resources; better adapted species outcompete those of survival. 1957 In an academic paper called \u201cConcluding Remarks,\u201d less suited to the British ecologist George environment. Evelyn Hutchinson expands the theory of niches to Existence of each Finding a unique niche embrace an organism\u2019s entire species is is the circumstance that environment. determined by a removes competition. 1968 A study by Australian slender thread D.R. Klein of the introduction, of circumstances. increase, and die-off of reindeer on St. Matthew Island, Alaska, identifies the destructive niche.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 51 ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES See also: Competitive exclusion principle 52\u201353 \u25a0 Field experiments 54\u201355 \u25a0 Optimal foraging theory 66\u201367 \u25a0 Animal ecology 106\u2013113 \u25a0 Niche construction 188\u2013189 An ultra-specialist Giant pandas occupy a very Pandas eat different parts of specialized ecological niche, as bamboo plants according to the their diet consists mainly of seasons. In late spring, they bamboo. Bamboo is a poor food prefer the first green shoots. source, low in protein and high in They eat leaves at other times cellulose. Pandas can digest only of the year, and stems in winter a small proportion of what they when little else is available. eat, which means they have to Pandas have evolved muscular eat a lot of bamboo\u2014as much as jaws and a pseudothumb to 28 lb (12.5 kg) each day\u2014and manipulate bamboo stems. Their forage for up to 14 hours a day. digestive tract is inefficient at It is unclear why pandas have processing large quantities of become so dependent on bamboo, plant material because it but some zoologists suggest it is remains similar to that of its because it is an abundant and carnivorous ancestors, although reliable food source, and pandas digestion is helped by the are not skilled predators. bacterial fauna in their gut. habitat known as chaparral, and factors. Thirty years later, George coexist (niche partitioning), and how it escaped predators by Evelyn Hutchinson expanded the the overlap of resources by different running through the underbrush. definition yet further. He argued animals and plants (niche overlap). The thrasher\u2019s camouflage, short that a niche should take into wings, and strong legs were account all of an organism\u2019s The importance of habitat perfectly adapted for life in this interactions with other organisms Ecological niches depend on the environment. Grinnell saw the and its nonliving environment, existence of a stable habitat; small chaparral habitat as the thrasher\u2019s including geology, acidity of soil or changes can eradicate niches that \u201cniche.\u201d His idea also allowed for water, nutrient flows, and climate. organisms once filled. For example, \u201cecological equivalence\u201d in plants Hutchinson\u2019s work encouraged dragonfly larvae only develop and animals, whereby species others to explain the variety of within a certain range of water distantly related and living far resources used by a single acidity, chemical composition, apart could show similar organism (niche breadth), the ways temperature, and prey, and with adaptations, such as feeding in which competing species a limited number of predators. habits, in similar niches. In the The right vegetation is needed by Australian outback, for instance, [A niche] is a highly adult females for egg-laying, and babbler bird species forage in the abstract multi- by larvae for metamorphosis. scrubby vegetation in a similar way The dragonfly also impacts its to the unrelated thrasher. Grinnell dimensional hyperspace. environment: its eggs are food for also identified \u201cvacant\u201d niches\u2014 George Evelyn amphibians; its larvae, which are habitats that a species could Hutchinson both predators and prey, add potentially occupy, but where it nutrients to the water; and the was not present. adults prey on insects. These requirements and impacts define Widening the niche its ecological niche. Hutchinson In the 1920s, ecologist Charles argued that for a species to persist, Elton looked beyond a simple conditions had to be within the habitat definition for \u201cniche.\u201d For required ranges. If conditions moved him, what an animal ate and what outside the niche requirements, a it was eaten by were the primary species could face extinction. \u25a0","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 52 CCCOOANMMNPPOELTETITCTEOOERXSIST COMPETITIVE EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE IN CONTEXT C ompetition is the driver of adapts, so that it no longer evolution; the need to be competes. This proposition, known KEY FIGURE bigger, stronger, and better as the \u201ccompetitive exclusion Georgy Gause (1910\u201386) inevitably leads to adaptations that principle,\u201d was set out by Russian give a species an edge. When two microbiologist Georgy Gause and BEFORE species compete for identical is also known as Gause\u2019s Law. 1925 Alfred James Lotka first resources, the one which has any uses equations to analyze advantage will outdo the other. As Gause devised his principle variations in predator\u2013prey a result, the weaker of the two from laboratory experiments, using populations, as does species either becomes extinct or cultures of microorganisms, rather mathematician Vito Volterra, than from observations in nature. In independently, a year later. How warblers coexist 1927 Volterra enlarges and updates his 1926 study to Cape May Blackburnian Black-throated include various ecological Warbler Warbler Green Warbler interactions within communities. Five species of warblers are able to AFTER share the same tree, 1959 G. Evelyn Hutchinson because each inhabits extends Gause\u2019s ideas and its own \u201cniche.\u201d Living produces a ratio describing the in this way, without limit of similarity between two much overlap, the competing species. birds do not compete. 1967 Robert MacArthur and Richard Levins use probability theory and Lotka\u2013Volterra equations to describe how coexisting species interact. Bay-breasted Yellow-rumped Warbler Warbler","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES 53 See also: Evolution by natural selection 24\u201331 \u25a0 Ecological niches 50\u201351 \u25a0 Animal ecology 106\u2013113 \u25a0 The ecosystem 134\u2013137 \u25a0 The ecological guild 176\u2013177 \u25a0 Niche construction 188\u2013189 \u25a0 Invasive species 270\u2013273 The red squirrel is smaller than the genetics. In fact, the competitive Let us make for this purpose gray, and has a more restricted diet exclusion principle\u2014although a an artificial microcosm\u2026 let and habitat. Reds may also die from the useful theoretical model\u2014is rarely us fill a test-tube with nutritive squirrel parapoxvirus, which is carried seen in nature, simply because, in a medium and introduce to it by the grays but does not affect them. bid to survive, a weaker competitor several species of protozoa tends to quickly move on or adapt. consuming the same food nature, he proposed, there were too many variables to draw conclusions Avoiding competition or devouring each other. about how ecological mechanisms Most creatures can make the Georgy Gause work. He argued that little progress changes necessary for survival. A had been made since Darwin\u2019s era variety of birds can live in a garden at different heights and depths of in understanding how species during any one year because they the foliage. In this way they avoid compete for survival, whereas the all operate in different \u201cniches.\u201d competing with each other. experimental method had produced They have contrasting beak shapes great advances in areas such as and sizes that allow them to eat An invasive competitor different types of food\u2014the robin Problems often arise if an exotic Types of competition preferring insects, the finch eating species is suddenly introduced seeds. Their choice of habitat and to an ecosystem. Britain\u2019s red The Competitive Exclusion feeding times might also vary; this and gray squirrels provide a clear Principle covers two main types is known as resource partitioning. example. When the grey arrived of competition. Intraspecific from America in the 1870s, both competition is between In 1957, Robert MacArthur squirrel species competed for the individuals of the same species noted this phenomenon in North same food and habitat, which put and ensures the survival of American warblers. The five the native red squirrel populations the fittest, so that only the species he observed, each with under pressure. The gray had healthiest individuals\u2014or those distinctive, colorful markings, the edge because it can adapt best adapted to a particular flitted in and out of coniferous its diet; it is able, for instance, to environment\u2014will breed. The trees, feeding on bugs and other eat green acorns, while the red can second type is interspecific: insects. They could coexist in one only digest mature acorns. Within competition between two habitat because they did not try to the same area of forest, gray different species that rely on feed in the same part of the tree but squirrels can decimate the food the same resources. The most supply before red squirrels even important of these will be the \u201climiting resource,\u201d the one that have a nibble. Grays can also live both require in order to breed. more densely and in varied Ecologists make a further two habitats, so have survived more distinctions. Interference is easily when woodland has been when two organisms fight destroyed. As a result, the red directly with each other over a squirrel has come close to limited resource, such as a mate extinction in England. \u25a0 or a preferred food. Exploitation is indirect competiton, such as stripping out a resource so there is none left for the competitor; this can be seen in plants, when a species\u2019 uptake of nutrients or water is more efficient than that of its neighbors.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 54 PECTOXHAPONAENRBRUFEIMISWEEELONLDERTSSSSE FIELD EXPERIMENTS IN CONTEXT E xperimentation is crucial have been recognized. Before in ecology. Without it, our the 1960s, experiments outside KEY FIGURE ideas about why organisms a laboratory were a rarity. Joseph Connell (1923\u2013) behave the way they do would be largely speculative. Rigorous A laboratory, however, is an BEFORE observation is also essential, but, artificial environment, where 1856 British scientists John much of the time, experimentation organisms may not behave as they Lawes and Joseph Gilbert start is needed for a full understanding do in their natural habitat. For the Park Grass Experiment at of those observations. example, bats leaving a roost at Rothamsted, to test how dusk may follow different routes different fertilizers affect the Three main types of ecological to their foraging areas in spring yield of hay meadows. experiments are used to test and late summer. The potential theories: mathematical models, reasons for the switch\u2014changes 1938 Harry Hatton, a French laboratory experiments, and field in prey distribution and predator ecologist, conducts one of experiments. Each method has its threats; seasonal differences in the first marine ecology field merits, but it is only recently that tree cover; or human disturbance experiments, on barnacles the benefits of field experiments and light pollution\u2014cannot on the Brittany coast. be established in a laboratory. Mathematical modeling might help AFTER predict patterns, but would be less 1966 American ecologist effective at identifying the causes Robert Paine removes the of change. To understand the bats\u2019 starfish Pisaster ochraceus from behavior, a study of their natural tide pools in a Pacific coast environment is crucial, and ecosystem, to test the effect this is achieved only through of its absence on other species. research in the field. 1968 The Experimental Lakes Field experiments allow different Area, comprising 58 freshwater factors to be manipulated to test lakes, is established in Ontario, their relevance. In the bat example, Canada, to study the effects of nutrient enrichment Rain forest ecosystems are some of (eutrophication). the most species-rich environments on Earth. This makes them especially valuable sites for ecologists to conduct experiments in the field.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES 55 See also: Ecological niches 50\u201351 \u25a0 Modern view of diversity 90\u201391 \u25a0 Animal behavior 116\u2013117 \u25a0 The ecosystem 134\u2013137 \u25a0 Niche construction 188\u2013189 street lights could be switched off to Joseph Connell\u2019s barnacle experiment evaluate the impact of light pollution on their behavior change. Chthamalus Highly desiccated Balanus area during low tide Scottish barnacles In 1961, American ecologist Joseph High tide Connell published the results of his research on barnacles on the This experiment showed Fundamental Scottish coast. Since free-swimming that Balanus could live only niches barnacle larvae can settle anywhere, in the lower intertidal zone, Realized Connell had tested why the lower while Chthamalus could live niches part of the intertidal zone was colonized by Balanus balanoides in both the upper and lower barnacles and the upper part by zones, but was outcompeted Chthamalus stellatus. He wanted to by Balanus in the lower zone. know if this was due to competition, predation, or environmental factors. Ocean Connell manipulated the local Low tide environment, and monitored it for over a year. In one area, he removed species could live in the lower zone, successful when their nearest the Chthamalus barnacles. They but only one could survive higher neighbor was of the same species. were not replaced by Balanus, up. This suggested that Chthamalus Each species is targeted by specific which suggested that Balanus could was better able to deal with the herbivores and pathogens, which not tolerate the desiccation that harsh conditions of the upper zone, will also eat or attack smaller, occurred in the upper zone at low but was outcompeted by Balanus weaker individuals of the species tide. Connell then removed the lower down. The \u201cfundamental nearby. This prevents \u201cclumping\u201d Balanus population from the lower niche\u201d of Chthamalus (where the of one tree species. zone, and found that Chthamalus species would normally be able to barnacles did replace them. Both survive) encompassed both zones, In 1978, Connell proposed but its \u201crealized niche\u201d (the actual the intermediate disturbance [Connell\u2019s] studies \u2026 have area it inhabits) was more restricted. hypothesis (IDH). This states improved our understanding that both high and low levels of Diversity experiments disturbance reduce species of the mechanisms In the early 1970s, Connell and diversity in an ecosystem, so the that shape population American ecologist Daniel Janzen greatest range of species can be published an explanation of the expected between those extremes. and community degree of tree diversity in tropical Several studies support IDH. One, dynamics, diversity, forests: the Janzen\u2013Connell carried out in waters off Western hypothesis. Connell mapped Australia, examined the effects of and demography. trees in two rain forests in North wave disturbance on diversity. Stephen Schroeter Queensland, Australia, and found Species diversity was found to be that seedlings tended to be less low both at exposed offshore sites Marine scientist and at sheltered sites. \u25a0","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 56 MMMANEEODAARNNEMSMNOMEROCEORTREAAENNRTAESCNTTASR IN CONTEXT MUTUALISMS KEY FIGURE Dan Janzen (1939\u2013) BEFORE 1862 Charles Darwin proposes that an African orchid with a long nectar receptacle must be pollinated by a moth with an equally long proboscis. 1873 Belgian zoologist Pierre- Joseph van Beneden first uses the term \u201cmutualism\u201d in a biological context. 1964 The term \u201ccoevolution\u201d is first used by American biologists Paul Ehrlich and Peter Raven to describe the mutualistic relations between butterflies and their food plants. AFTER 2014 Researchers discover an unusual yet beneficial three-way mutualism involving sloths, algae, and moths. I n biology, there are several kinds of interaction between organisms. One species in an ecosystem may lose out to another when competing for the same resources. A prey species may be eaten by a predator. There are also symbiotic relationships, in which one species benefits but not at the expense of the other, or where one organism does not benefit but still survives. In the relationship known as \u201cmutualism,\u201d both organisms benefit from the relationship. A tree and its ants In the mid-1960s, Daniel Janzen, a young American ecologist, became fascinated by the amazing","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES 57 See also: Evolution by natural selection 24\u201331 \u25a0 Ecological niches 50\u201351 Yuccas and \u25a0 Competitive exclusion principle 52\u201353 \u25a0 Animal ecology 106\u2013113 their moths mutualistic relationship between Ants and their larvae shelter inside In the hot, arid regions acacia trees and ants in eastern the swollen thorn of an East African of the Americas, there is Mexico. His research was one of whistling thorn acacia tree. In return a remarkable mutualistic the first in-depth studies of such the ants swarm from their nests relationship between yucca an interaction. The two partners to protect the tree from herbivores. shrubs and yucca moths. No were the swollen-thorn acacia and other insects pollinate these the acacia ant, which lives in the Without the ants, a tree would be plants, and no other plants bullhorn-shaped thorns of the tree. stripped of its leaves and die within host yucca moth caterpillars. He found that queen ants sought six months or a year. Because it A female yucca moth collects out unoccupied shoots, cut a hole could not sustain growth, it was pollen from the flower of one in one of the swollen thorns, and also likely to be shaded out by yucca plant and deposits it in laid their eggs, sometimes leaving competing trees. Janzen clipped the flower of another yucca, the thorn to forage on the tree\u2019s thorns and cut or burned shoots fertilizing the plant as it does nectar. Larvae hatching from the to remove ants from trees, and so. The moth then cuts a hole eggs then fed on the acacia\u2019s leaf- found that the ants moved back in in the flower\u2019s ovary and lays tips, with their rich supplies of when new thorns started to grow. an egg; she may lay several sugars and proteins. The larvae in the same flower. When the later metamorphosed into worker In return for food and shelter, eggs hatch, the caterpillars ants. In time, all the tree\u2019s thorns the ants provided two services feed on the seeds developing became occupied, with up to for the tree: they defended its in the flower but do not eat 30,000 ants living in a colony. foliage from leaf-eating insects them all, leaving enough for and ate potentially competitive tree the plant to propagate. If too Janzen showed that, unless the seedlings growingclose by. Janzen many eggs are laid in one acacia ants were present to defend described the acacias and their flower, the plant sheds it it, the swollen-thorn acacia lost ants as \u201cobligate mutualists\u201d, before the caterpillars hatch\u00a0\u2013 the ability to withstand damage meaning that one species would leaving those insects to caused by insects that ate its die out without the other. If the ants starve. Without these moths, leaves, stems, flowers, and roots. were removed, the swollen-thorn \u276f\u276f the yuccas would not pollinate and would soon die out. Without the yuccas, the moths would have nowhere to lay and nurture their eggs, and they too would not survive.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 58 MUTUALISMS 1. Adult female wasp There is mutual aid Life cycle of the in many species. fig wasp Pierre-Joseph van Beneden Belgian zoologist 2. Wasp enters fig, 4 . New-generation lays eggs, pollinates adult female wasps pick up pollen and flowers, and dies emerge from fig 3. Inside mature fig, and thence disperse their spores. male wasps fertilize When a bird swallows a fruit, it new females and dig carries the seeds with it escape tunnels for them as it flies away; the indigestible The fig wasp and the fig share a complex seeds may be excreted in faeces service-resource mutualism, in which the wasp provides far from where they were eaten. the service of pollination and the fig plants provide In all these situations, the plants a secure environment for the wasp eggs to develop. provide a resource (food) and the mammals, flies, and birds provide acacia would have no means of the animal. It is estimated that a service (transport). defending itself. And if the acacia nearly three-quarters of flowering trees were removed, the ants would plants (some 170,000 species) are However, not all mutualistic have no home. pollinated by 200,000 animal relationships involve plants. In species. Typically, a pollinating Africa, birds named oxpeckers Benefits for all insect is attracted to a flower by its and herbivorous mammals such There are two fundamental types colours or scent to drink nectar or as impalas and zebras practise of mutualism\u2014service-resource collect pollen, and pollen attaches another kind of service-resource and service-service relationships. to part of the insect\u2019s body to be mutualism. The oxpeckers pick They are defined by the nature carried to the next flower, where ticks from the mammals\u2019 fur, of the relationship between the it is deposited. The flower and its removing irritation and a source partner organisms, whether it is pollinator have evolved to make of disease, while at the same time the provision of a service or the this mechanism work effectively. having a meal. Oxpeckers also supply of a resource\u2014both are make loud calls when they sense usually key to survival. Service- Some plants have also evolved danger, alerting the mammal host resource relationships are common a service-resource relationship in as well as other oxpeckers. in nature, with the fertilization, or which birds and mammals disperse pollination, of flowers by butterflies, their seeds, spores, or fruit. Seeds In the insect world, some ants moths, bees, flies, wasps, beetles, may become attached to the fur of and aphids carry out a different bats, or birds the most widespread a mammal browsing the plant\u2019s form of service-resource mutualism. example. The resource (pollen) is leaves; when the mammal wanders While the aphids feed on plants, provided by the flower, and the away, it disperses the seed. The the ants protect the aphids. service (pollination) is provided by vile odor of stinkhorn fungi attracts Subsequently, the ants consume flies, which lick the fungi\u2019s slime the honeydew that the aphids release, using a \u201cmilking\u201d process on their smaller partners, by stroking them with their antennae.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 59 ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES Service-service mutualisms, in return for the protection offered of orchids. Like many other which both organisms offer each by the sea anemones\u2019 venomous flowering plants, orchids rely on other protection, are far less tentacles, the clownfish deters insects to pollinate them. Some common. One unusual relationship predatory butterfly fish, removes have extraordinary structures in takes place in the western Pacific parasites from its host, and also which to hold nectar and pollen. Ocean, between around 30 species provides nutrients from its faeces. To lure the insect pollinators, the of clownfish and 10 species of plants offer them a drink of energy- venomous sea anemones. The sea Cooperative evolution giving nectar. This fascinated anemones\u2019 stinging, toxin-filled Relationships between service and Darwin, who was given a specimen nematocysts, or capsules, on their resource providers have developed of the Madagascar orchid in 1862. tentacles kill most small fish that over millions of years in a process The flower stores its nectar in a come close, but not the clownfish. called \u201ccoevolution\u201d\u2014the evolution hollow spur nearly 30 cm (12 in) Its thick layer of protective mucus of two or more species that affect long. Darwin and Wallace provides immunity against the each other reciprocally. speculated that only a large moth anemone\u2019s sting, allowing the fish could have a proboscis long enough to live within the tentacles. In The term coevolution was to reach the nectar\u2014a theory coined by American biologists Paul eventually proven in 1997. If the The clownfish and sea anemone Ehrlich and Peter Raven in 1964, orchid\u2019s spur were shorter, a moth could both survive without the other\u2019s but a century before the word could drink without picking up protection, but their coevolved mutual existed, the naturalists Charles pollen and so would not pollinate relationship gives them a much higher Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace the flower. If the spur were longer, chance of survival. were already aware of the concept, a moth would not visit. \u25a0 not least through their observation","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS WHELKS WOLVESARE LIKE LITTLE IN SLOW MOTION KEYSTONE SPECIES","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 62 KEYSTONE SPECIES IN CONTEXT A keystone species plays Do you want an auto a crucial role in the way mechanic who\u2026can name, KEY FIGURE an ecosystem functions, list, and count all of the parts Robert Paine (1933\u20132016) even though it is often a small of your engine, or one who part of the overall biomass of the really understands how each BEFORE ecosystem. Because it exerts a part interacts with the others 1950s In Kenya, farmer and disproportionately large effect on to make a working engine? conservationist David the environment relative to its Sheldrick introduces elephants biomass, if a keystone species Robert Paine to Tsavo East National Park, disappears from an ecosystem, and discovers this results in a that ecosystem will change clear impact on many others. Paine major increase in biodiversity. dramatically. The importance of developed the idea to include the keystone species was brought to concept of \u201ctrophic cascades\u201d\u2014the 1961 Fieldwork by American light by the American biologist strong, top-down effects that ripple ecologist Joseph Connell on Robert Paine\u2014who derived the through an ecosystem and its Scotland\u2019s rocky shores shows term from the central \u201ckeystone\u201d at organisms. Since Paine\u2019s work that removing predatory the top of an arch that stops it from with starfish, several studies whelks alters the distribution collapsing\u2014in his 1969 article \u201cA have demonstrated that there are of their barnacle prey. Note on Trophic Complexity and Community Stability.\u201d Black-tailed prairie dogs look AFTER out from their burrow in a field in 1994 In the US, a group of The keystone concept Wyoming. Study of this species has ecologists led by Brian Miller In the 1960s, Paine spent several revealed its key role in fostering publishes a paper explaining years studying the animals of the diversity in its native habitat. the valuable role prairie dogs intertidal zone of Tatoosh Island play as a keystone species. on the Pacific coast of Washington State. He removed the ocher 2016 Fieldwork leads marine starfish and watched its key prey, ecologist Sarah Gravem to a mussel whose numbers had conclude that organisms can been kept in check by the starfish, be keystone species in some dominate the zone, replacing other places but not in others. subordinate species. The removal of a single, keystone species had a","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 63 ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES See also: Predator\u2013prey equations 44\u201349 \u25a0 Mutualisms 56\u201359 \u25a0 Animal ecology 106\u2013113 \u25a0 Trophic cascades 140\u2013143 \u25a0 Evolutionarily stable state 154\u2013155 Whelks feed on They also display barnacles; they aggression toward are predators. their prey. Whelks are like In areas where Robert Paine little wolves in there are large slow motion. concentrations Born in 1933, in Cambridge, of barnacles, groups of Massachusetts, Robert Paine whelks congregate\u2014 studied at Harvard. After a like wolf packs. stint in the US Army, where he was the battalion gardener, many other keystone organisms, area to hunt for prey, and the ferrets Paine focused his research and they each fulfill their role in and tiger salamanders use the on marine invertebrates. different ways. burrows for shelter. Almost 150 His study of the relationship species of plant and animal are between starfish and mussels Ecological engineers known to benefit from prairie dog on the Paciic coast led him Prairie dogs in the American colonies. Although there are to propose the concept Midwest are a good example of a \u201closers\u201d\u2014notably vertebrates that of keystone species\u2014the keystone species whose impact is favor tall vegetation\u2014the prairie disproportionate impact that the result of their \u201cengineering\u201d dogs\u2019 presence increases overall a single species can have on activities. Huge colonies of these biodiversity. When colonies die out, its ecosystem. small mammals dig networks of scrubby patches of mesquite tunnels beneath the prairie vegetation replace short grasses, Paine worked for most of grasslands. They sleep and raise plovers abandon the area, and his career at the University their young in these extensive predator numbers decline. of Washington, where he burrows, converting the grassland popularized field manipulation into a suitable habitat. Coral cleaners experiments, or \u201ckick-it-and- The princess parrotfish in the see\u201d ecology. He was awarded The prairie dogs\u2019 constant Caribbean is another keystone the International Cosmos digging dramatically increases species, this time because of the Award by the National soil turnover and allows nutrients consequences of its feeding. The Academy of Sciences in 2013, and water from rain and snow to fish lives around coral reefs, where and died in 2016. penetrate deeper than would corals fight each other for light, otherwise be the case. The damp, nutrients, and space. The parrotfish Key works nutrient-rich soil encourages a scrapes the surfaces of the corals to diversity of plants, and birds such remove layers of algal seaweed to 1966 \u201cFood Web Complexity as Mountain Plovers feed and nest eat. If the parrotfish did not do this, and Species Diversity,\u201d in the short grass. Predators like clumps of seaweed would grow on American Naturalist Ferruginous Hawks and black- the corals, smothering as well as \u276f\u276f 1969 \u201cA Note on Trophic footed ferrets are attracted to the Complexity and Community Stability,\u201d American Naturalist 1994 Marine Rocky Shores and Community Ecology: An Experimentalist\u2019s Perspective","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 64 KEYSTONE SPECIES chemically damaging the reef. If the destructive behavior helps undigested seeds pass through parrotfish was overfished or died maintain the feeding habitat for their gut, are then defecated, and out from disease, the health of the grazing animals such as zebras, later germinate. Up to one-third reefs would rapidly deteriorate. antelope, and wildebeest. It also of all West African tree species indirectly helps the predators that depend on elephants for their seed Landscape managers hunt the grazers\u2014including lions, dispersal. Elephants also dig and On African grasslands, elephants cheetahs, and hyenas\u2014and the maintain waterholes, which benefit smash down small and medium- smaller mammals that burrow in many other species. sized trees for food, helping grassland soils. Without the maintain savanna as grassland elephants, these animals would Forest-dwelling Asian elephants and opening up new areas that soon disappear. Elephants are also have a similar role. In southeast were formerly woodland. This very important seed dispersers; Asia, they smash through gaps and clearings in woodland, opening up Yellowstone wolfpack territories holes in the canopy. The new plants that grow in these unshaded areas Cinnabar Junction add to the forest\u2019s plant and animal Butte diversity and also help a broader 8 Mile range of animals to thrive there. Prospect Peak Keystone predators The sea otter is a marine mammal Wapiti Lamar that lives in the Pacific coastal Lake Canyon waters of North America. In the 18th and 19th centuries, they were Cougar hunted extensively for their fur. By the early 20th century, they had Canyon Mollie\u2019s been wiped out in many areas, and their total population was thought to be fewer than 2,000 individuals. Since 1911, legal protection has led to a slow increase in numbers. Sea otters are important because they eat large numbers of sea urchins. These seafloor- dwelling invertebrates graze on the lower stems of kelp that grow up Bechler Snake River Every species in the coastal Each pack of wolves in the zone is influenced in one way SCALE Yellowstone National Park has its own or another by the ecological 10km (6 miles) territory. Many of the territories overlap, and numbers fluctuate from year to effects of sea otters. year, with 108 wolves recorded in 2016. James Estes American marine biologist","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 65 ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES Reintroducing Beavers were wiped out in the UK several dams on the headwaters beavers to the UK 400 years ago, but the beneficial of the Tamar River, creating 13 role of this keystone mammal is new freshwater pools and making now better understood. Beavers surrounding areas wetter. are ecological engineers, building dams and canals, and their In Devon, the damp areas presence increases biodiversity. created by beavers led to an increase in the number of In 2009, 11 beavers were bryophyte species (mosses and reintroduced to Knapdale Forest, liverworts), and the range of Scotland, and in 2011, the Devon aquatic invertebrates has risen Wildlife Trust introduced a pair to from 14 to 41 species. Increased a fenced enclosure. Both projects numbers of flying insects have have been monitored to test their also improved bat diversity, with impact on the environment. In two nationally rare bat species Knapdale Forest, the beavers\u2019 drawn into the area. More dams changed the water level of beaver reintroduction projects a loch, and Devon\u2019s beavers built are now planned in the UK. from the seabed, causing it to drift herbivores, such as beavers. Within fruited plant species share one or away and die. If the kelp disappears, 10 years, the number of beaver two peaks of ripening each year. however, so do the many other colonies increased from one to nine. Fig trees bear fruit throughout the marine invertebrates that graze on Beaver dams helped revive wetlands, year, supporting many animals it. \u201cForests\u201d of kelp also absorb large and wetland wildlife flourished. The when other trees are fruitless. amounts of atmospheric carbon increase in elk carcasses also More than 10 percent of the world\u2019s dioxide and, by slowing water benefited carrion-eaters\u2014especially bird species and 6 percent of currents, help protect coastlines coyotes, red foxes, grizzly bears, mammals (a total of 1,274 species) from storm surges. The protection Golden Eagles, Ravens, and Black- are known to eat figs, as do a small that sea otters offer kelp along billed Magpies\u2014as well as several number of reptiles and even fish. stretches of open coast is therefore smaller scavengers. Fig trees therefore provide a vital particularly significant. support mechanism for fruit-eating Jaguars are apex predators in species. Without them, fruit bats, Unlike the sea otter, some South and Central American forests, birds, and other creatures would keystone species are also \u201capex\u201d preying on more than 85 species. decline or disappear. \u25a0 predators at the top of the food Although there are very few jaguars chain, such as the gray wolf. Before in any given area, their impact on By protecting a keystone 1995, there had been no gray wolves the numbers of other predators\u2014 species such as the prairie in Yellowstone National Park for at such as caimans, snakes, large least 70 years. American elk were fish, and large birds\u2014as well as dog, the public could be common in the park, but there was herbivores, such as capybaras and educated about the value of just a single colony of beavers. That deer, has a significant ripple-down year, 31 wolves were introduced to effect on their ecosystem. Left ecosystem conservation. the park and by 2001 their numbers unchecked, the herbivores could Brian Miller had increased to more than 100, devour most of the plants and largely due to the abundance of destroy the habitat on which so American ecologist elk for food. many other species depend. The presence of wolves in the Keystone plants park forced the elk to become more Not all keystone species are mobile. Rather than over-grazing animals. One example is the fig willow, aspen, and cottonwood trees tree, of which there are about 750 in favored locations, the elk moved species, mostly found in tropical on, allowing plants to regenerate forests. In this habitat, most fleshy- and provide a food source for other","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 66 EDTAFHEFFPEOIECFRNIIAEDTGNNSICENOSYGNSAIOTNFSIMAL OPTIMAL FORAGING THEORY IN CONTEXT E very plant and animal helps predict the best strategy on Earth needs resources that an animal can use to achieve KEY FIGURES to survive. Plants obtain this goal. Ronald Pulliam (1945\u2013), their nutrients and water from soil, Graham Pyke (1948\u2013), and and sunlight provides the energy Foraging theories Eric Charnov (1947\u2013) for photosynthesis. Animals The first theory of foraging by generally have to work harder to wild animals did not emerge until BEFORE find their food\u2014they have to move, the mid-1960s, when Americans 1966 John Merritt Emlen, and this uses extra resources. Robert MacArthur and Eric Pianka Robert MacArthur, and Eric Optimal foraging theory (OFT) examined the question of why, Pianka outline the concept proposes that animals try to gather when a range of food was available of optimal foraging in two resources in the most efficient way to them, animals often restricted articles published in the to avoid using additional energy. themselves to a few preferred types American Naturalist magazine. Searching for and capturing food of prey. They argued that natural takes energy and time. The animal selection favored animals whose AFTER needs to gain maximum benefit behavior maximized their net 1984 Argentinian\u2013British for minimal effort in order to energy intake per unit of time spent zoologist Alejandro Kacelnik achieve optimal fitness. OFT foraging. An animal\u2019s foraging time researches the foraging includes searching for prey and the behavior of starlings to Diets should be broad killing and eating of the food illustrate the marginal when prey are scarce, (handling time). value theorem (MVT). but narrow if food These ideas were developed by 1986 Belgian ecologist Patrick is abundant. American ecologists Ronald Pulliam Meire investigates prey Eric Pianka and Eric Charnov and Australian selection by oystercatchers. ecologist Graham Pyke. It seems that OFT works best for mobile 1989 Swiss environmental foragers seeking immobile prey, and scientists T. J. Wolfe and Paul some researchers believe it is less Schmid-Hempel examine how relevant when prey are mobile. the weight of nectar carried by bees has an effect on the Key choices bees\u2019 foraging behavior. Animals must choose which types of food to eat, which is rarely straightforward. For example,","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 67 ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES See also: Evolution by natural selection 24\u201331 \u25a0 Predator\u2013prey equations 44\u201349 \u25a0 Competitive exclusion principle 52\u201353 \u25a0 Mutualisms 56\u201359 The expected behavior of small clams was better spent Echolocating bats animals with respect to digging for another, larger clam. available resources can be A similar study with oystercatchers Technological advances have used to predict \u2026 the biotic and mussels found that the largest greatly helped research into structure \u2026 of communities. mussels were left\u2014they had the hunting strategies of thicker, barnacle-clad shells, so animals. Insectivorous bats Ronald Pulliam opening them was more difficult. (also known as microbats) The oystercatchers benefited more use echolocation in the American ecologists Howard by looking for thin-shelled mussels, dark to locate and pursue Richardson and Nicolaas Verbeek despite their smaller size. flying insect prey, such as studied Northwestern Crows moths and midges. A team feeding on clams in the intertidal Animals also have to make of Japanese scientists set out zone of British Columbia. The choices about where and when to to study the bats\u2019 feeding crows put lots of effort into digging feed. The longer a starling spends behavior using microphone clams out of the mud, opening the in one patch of suitable grassland, array measurements and shells, and feeding on the animal for example, the harder it will mathematical modeling inside. The ecologists noticed that become to find prey, so it has to analysis. The researchers smaller clams went unopened and decide when to abandon that patch recorded the echolocation concluded that the crows had to and move to another\u2014an example calls and flight paths of the make an energy trade-off between of what is known as the \u201cmarginal bats and discovered that they handling time and edible food. The value theorem.\u201d Foraging animals often directed their sonar not time and energy needed to open up also need to consider a range of just at their immediate prey other factors such as the presence but at the next target they of predators, the number of animals were lining up as well. competing for the same food, and the impact of human activity. \u25a0 The team also found evidence that the bats chose Oystercatchers, despite their name, flight paths that would allow are reliant on cockles and mussels as them to plan two steps ahead, their primary food source. Without rather like skilled chess these shellfish, they are forced to players. Not only were the forage farther inland. animals maximizing their energy input by targeting multiple prey items, but they were also minimizing their energy output by reducing the distance they flew in pursuit of insects. This behavior fits in well with optimal foraging theory.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 68 PPPPAAROTREPHDUAOSALTGIATOTEEINROSSSNACSNODLNIKTEROL IN CONTEXT ECOLOGICAL EPIDEMIOLOGY KEY FIGURES Roy Anderson (1947\u2013), Robert May (1936\u2013) BEFORE 1662 English statistician John Graunt seeks to classify causes of death in London in Natural and Political Observations made upon the Bills of Mortality. 1927 Scottish scientists Anderson Gray McKendrick and William Ogilvy Kermack develop an epidemic model for infected, uninfected, and immune individuals. AFTER 1996 American epidemiologist James S. Koopman calls for greater use of computational technologies to simulate disease generation and spread. 2018 A global team tracks the origins and spread of a fungus devastating frog populations. E pidemiology is the study of how disease spreads through a population. Its initial application was to human diseases, but its methods have been recognized as an effective way of modeling populations of other organisms, too. Ecologists have long known that the size of an animal or plant population and its growth rate depend on the availability of food, living space, and levels of predation. In the 1970s, British epidemiologist Roy Anderson and Australian scientist Robert May showed how parasites and infections from pathogens such as bacteria and viruses limited the","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 69 ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES See also: The microbiological environment 84\u201385 \u25a0 Microbiology 102\u2013103 \u25a0 The ubiquity of mycorrhizae 104\u2013105 \u25a0 Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning 156\u2013157 KEY Map of deaths from cholera in London in 1854 Soho 1\u20134 deaths Square 5\u20139 deaths Oxford Street 10\u201315 deaths Broad Street Broad Street pump Fatalities in London\u2019s Regent Street Brewer Street cholera outbreak of 1854 were linked to the Golden central pump; its water Square was found to have been contaminated with infected sewage from a stricken family. size of a population. In wild sheep, thought to be caused by miasma\u2014 for instance, the chief cause of a sort of poisonous vapor in the death is lungworms, while most air\u2014that spread from the bodies of wild birds die from viral infections. the dead and dying. Snow was not the first to question this theory, but In ecology, the effects of disease he was especially suspicious of it in have wider implications. Up to the case of cholera. 40 percent of ocean bacteria are killed each day by viruses. This In 1854, Snow plotted every causes a \u201cviral shunt,\u201d because case of cholera on a map of Soho, nutrients that would otherwise flow and found that afflicted households up the food chain to consumers collected their water from a pump revert to the bottom of the chain. on Broad Street (later renamed Broadwick). He shut down the \u276f\u276f Human beginnings Epidemiology has its beginnings British doctor John Snow fought the in the work of physician John Snow, establishment to gain acceptance for who witnessed a cholera epidemic his belief that cholera was waterborne. in the Soho district of London in The medical journal The Lancet finally 1854. At the time, disease was conceded that he was right in 1866.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 70 ECOLOGICAL EPIDEMIOLOGY The role of drought pump, and the epidemic soon in plant diseases ended. This showed that cholera was a waterborne disease that Like other disease-causing humans contracted through agents, a plant pathogen contaminated food and drink. A (disease-causing agent) decade later, Louis Pasteur\u2019s \u201cgerm needs a supply of susceptible theory\u201d proposed that diseases, as individuals to infect. Periods well as general rotting and decay, of drought slow the rate of were the work of microorganisms. plant reproduction and growth, thereby reducing the Disease model A ravaged tree in North Yorkshire, prevalence of disease. In their 1970s studies, Anderson UK, shows the effects of Dutch elm and May focused first on building disease, a fungus spread by elm bark Aridity, however, also a mathematical model to show beetles accidentally introduced to weakens plants and makes how a microorganism could affect Europe and America from Asia. them susceptible to pathogens a population. This led to a set of that thrive in dry conditions. equations that they hoped would of disease, the total would remain These include various forms help explain the real-life impact of more or less the same, with the of fungi that attack the leaves different kinds of pathogens, from rate of added mice balancing that of grain crops, legumes, and bacteria and viruses to parasitic at which other mice died. fruits. These fungi are adapted worms and insect larvae. to survive in a dormant state For simplicity, the model as hardened microscopic In their model, a number of mice assumed that the diseases were bodies in soil. They can exist were divided into three groups: transmitted by contact between for many years in dry soil, but susceptible (uninfected) mice, infected and uninfected mice. Not when the soil becomes wet, infected mice, and mice that had all infected mice would die, so the the fungi must find a host survived infection and were now model also included a recovery rate. within a few weeks or die. immune. Unlike many earlier Mice that recovered would be They do not necessarily kill epidemiological models, the total immune, at least initially. Immunity their host. Recent research population was not a fixed number; to viruses is more or less lifelong, into chickpeas suggests that mice could be added either by but it is possible to become although infections from such reproduction or by additions from susceptible again to the same fungi do increase during a dry other populations. Mice also died bacterial infection as time passes. spell, the mortality rate of the from natural causes. In the absence Therefore, the calculations also affected plants goes down included a rate of loss of immunity. during a drought. Sensibly used, mathematical models are Putting all this together, A summer drought produces no more and no less than Anderson and May produced a only sparse growth of young barley tools for thinking about set of equations to predict the rate plants. Lack of moisture and too things in a precise way. of population change in the three much heat reduce their resistance initial groups of uninfected but to fungi that attack their roots. Roy Anderson and susceptible mice, infected mice, Robert May and the immune survivors. These equations could be added together to give the rate of change for the total mouse population.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 71 ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES Diseases such as effects of hypothetical values. They by the disease. Infection numbers measles and rubella, found, for instance, that when the rise sharply to a maximum, then with short infections rate of added mice was highest, the drop away. Epidemics also occur and lasting immunity, disease had the greatest impact on when a disease is not particularly will tend to exhibit population numbers. This suggests deadly but slows the population epidemic patterns. that species with high reproductive growth rate; this has occurred with rates (introducing large numbers human diseases such as measles Roy Anderson of uninfected offspring) are most and chickenpox. likely to have endemic diseases From their calculations, they within the population, and show Applying the theory deduced that a disease will persist depressed numbers compared with The characteristics of disease in a population whose equilibrium species that breed more slowly. and its effects on animal and point (the rate of new additions, They also explored the differing plant populations are of increasing balanced by the natural death rate) effects on populations of diseases ecological importance. Food is greater than the combined of different intensities. producers, for example, benefit from effects of natural mortality, disease studies into the nature of parasites deaths, recovery, and transmission Unlike endemic diseases, and the dynamics of diseases that rate. While the disease is present, in which the population\u2019s level can affect crops and livestock. that equilibrium point will be lower of infection remains consistent, Conservationists also employ than if the population were disease epidemics appear in populations epidemiology to predict how exotic free. If, however, the equilibrium when the growth rate of all infected diseases and invasive parasites point of a population affected by and uninfected members is low might affect fragile ecosystems. \u25a0 disease is lower than the combined compared to the death rate caused effects of deaths, recoveries, and rate of transmission, the disease Venn diagram of ecological epidemiology will die out. Once a population is disease free, its equilibrium point Susceptible host will return to its former level. no Matching the real world disease Anderson and May needed to show that their model was an accurate no no predictor of a real-life population. disease disease They did so by using data from a study of laboratory mice infected disease with the bacterial disease pasteurellosis; the data included no no no the impact on the population of disease disease disease adding individuals at different rates. The observed data confirmed Pathogen Favorable their predictions, so the two environment scientists were able to consider the for pathogen A pathogen strikes when it finds a suitable host in an environment that favous infection, as shown where the circles intersect. For instance, diarrheal diseases spread quickly among sick people in unsanitary conditions.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 72 PFWEEHENYTGUDFIRONENSE\u2019\u2019TZE? ECOPHYSIOLOGY IN CONTEXT T he central principle of to its distribution, abundance, and Darwinian evolution is fertility. Ecophysiology now plays KEY FIGURE that all organisms, from an important role in helping Knut Schmidt-Nielsen simple bacteria to complex scientists understand how the (1915\u20132007) mammals, are adapted by natural stresses created by climate change selection to survive in a particular impact on both wild ecosystems BEFORE niche and habitat. Ecophysiology\u2014 and cultivated environments. 1845 The explorer Alexander for which Knut Schmidt-Nielsen\u2019s von Humboldt reveals that book Animal Physiology (1960) was Managing temperature plants facing similar ecological a vital inspiration\u2014is the study of Ecophysiology has revealed a factors also have many an organism\u2019s anatomy and how it number of specific adaptations analogous features. functions (its physiology), as well as for different environments. For how these characteristics relate to example, animals that live in colder 1859 Charles Darwin argues the challenges posed by its regions tend to have larger bodies that organisms evolve because environment. It shows how the and smaller legs, ears, and tails they are adapting to changed anatomy of an animal or plant is than related species living in ecological conditions. linked to its ability to survive, and warmer climes. A larger body has a smaller surface-area-to-mass AFTER From a physiological ratio, and therefore loses heat more 1966 Australian biochemists viewpoint, freshwater slowly, while smaller appendages Marshall Hatch and Charles reduce exposure to frostbite. Slack explain that the most is no more freely widespread plants are the available in the sea In the most extreme cold, the ones that photosynthesize than in the desert. feet of a warm-blooded animal most efficiently. Knut Schmidt-Nielsen are at risk of becoming frozen to the ground. Mammals in Arctic 1984 Peter Wheeler, a British regions such as musk oxen and scientist, suggests that human polar bears are adapted for life in bipedalism\u2014the ability to these conditions by having thick walk on two legs\u2014evolved as hairs to insulate their feet. a thermoregulatory adaptation that reduces the body\u2019s In the Antarctic, the undersides exposure to direct sunlight. of penguins\u2019 feet are insulated by a thick layer of fat. Penguins also have a heat-exchange (or counter-current) mechanism in","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 73 ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES See also: Evolution by natural selection 24\u201331 \u25a0 Ecological niches 50\u201351 \u25a0 Competitive exclusion principle 52\u201353 \u25a0 Ecological stoichiometry 74\u201375 their legs. The warm blood arriving cooler than the air outside, so the Knut Schmidt-Nielsen from the body is cooled to near moisture it carries condenses in 32\u00b0F (0\u00b0C) by the chilled blood the nose. This creates the cool, Knut Schmidt-Nielsen grew arriving from the feet, which damp conditions needed to chill up in the Norwegian town of warms to body temperature in the next in-breath. Trondheim. His interest in the the process. way animal physiology related Future challenges to habitat was inherited from Gazelles in Africa use a similar Today ecophysiology is becoming his grandfather who, years counter-current system to cool their increasingly focused on plants, before Knut\u2019s birth, had body temperature. They are able to fungi, and microbes. Like animals, released thousands of flounder chill the blood entering their head, they have to adapt to survive\u2014and (a marine fish) hatchlings into giving them an advantage over studying them offers the possibility a freshwater lake. Although their predators, who often overheat. of vital discoveries for commercial the fish thrived, they were Camels have a heat-exchange and conservation purposes. \u25a0 unable to breed because their system in their nasal cavity, which reproductive physiology was reduces the amount of water lost in Emperor penguins survive freezing adapted for life in salt water. their breath. Hot, dry air is inhaled Antarctic temperatures thanks in part and mixes with moisture inside to the way their bodies have evolved Schmidt-Nielsen joined the nose before traveling to the to adapt to the harsh environment. Duke University, North lungs. The exhaled air is much Carolina, in 1954. He built a climate-controlled space for keeping desert animals, where he considered the anatomy of camels, gerbils, and other species able to live for long periods without water. He also investigated the respiratory systems of birds and the buoyancy of fish. His 1960 textbook Animal Physiology is still a classic work. Key works 1960 Animal Physiology 1964 Desert Animals 1972 How Animals Work 1984 Scaling 1998 The Camel\u2019s Nose: Memoirs of a Curious Scientist","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 74 CALHLEMLIIFCEALIS ECOLOGICAL STOICHIOMETRY IN CONTEXT Every living organism\u2014 The field of ecological stoichiometry from tiny ocean algae was comprehensively described KEY FIGURES to a mighty redwood\u2014is for the first time by American Robert Sterner (1958\u2013), made up of chemical elements biologists Robert Sterner and James James Elser (1959\u2013) in varying ratios. Ecological Elser; in Ecological Stoichiometry stoichiometry considers the (2002), they used mathematical BEFORE balance of these elements, and models to demonstrate the 1840 German biologist and how the ratios change during application at every level, from chemist Justus von Liebig chemical reactions. Studying molecules and cells to individual asserts that the limitations such ratios throws light on the plants and animals, populations, on agriculture productivity are way the living world operates, communities, and ecosystems. primarily chemical. revealing how organisms obtain the nutrients and other chemicals Key chemicals 1934 US oceanographer Alfred they require for life from the In ecological research, the three Redfield measures the atomic resources in their environment. main elements examined are ratio of carbon, nitrogen, and carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (C:N:P) in plankton Individual organisms also phosphorus (P), because each and seawater, and finds it to be show differences in plays a vital role. Carbon is a basic relatively consistent in all building block of all life and an oceans. The Redfield Ratio soon stoichiometry during their life important part of many chemical becomes a benchmark for such cycles. Young organisms may processes. Nitrogen is a major research in all habitats. have different compositions constituent of all proteins, while phosphorus is crucial for cell AFTER from older ones \u2026 development and storing energy. 2015 In \u201cOcean stoichiometry, Robert Sterner and global carbon, and climate,\u201d An organism\u2019s C:N:P ratio is not Robert Sterner highlights James J. Elser necessarily consistent. Plants have inconsistencies in C:N:P ratios a variable ratio: they can adjust the in phytoplankton, which absorb balance of their elements according more atmospheric carbon in to their environment. For instance, low-nutrient, low-latitude ocean the proportion of carbon in their surface waters and adjust their chemical makeup can rise on a ratios accordingly. particularly sunny day because more photosynthesis occurs\u2014the process by which they take carbon","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES 75 See also: Ecophysiology 72\u201373 \u25a0 The food chain 132\u2013133 \u25a0 Energy flow through The Growth ecosystems 138\u2013139 \u25a0 The foundations of plant ecology 167 Rate Hypothesis Controlling ecological stoichiometry ratios Cancer research is one area where stoichiometry is now A locust eats grass that may contain six times being employed. Evidence is as much carbon as it needs. To get the right growing for a theory called the balance, it excretes carbon or breathes it out Growth Rate Hypothesis as CO2. Locusts are widely used in research (GRH), which may help explain because they are easy to breed. why some cancerous tumors grow at faster rates than the KEY Nitrogen LOCUSTS GRASS rest of the body. Carbon 5:1 33:1 The hypothesis states that dioxide from the air and use the may adjust its digestive enzymes organisms with high C:P sun\u2019s energy to convert it into the and excrete it, store it as fats, or raise (carbon:phosphorus) ratios, nutrients they require. its metabolic rate to burn it off, such as fruit flies, have more breathing out the excess carbon as ribosomes in their cells, which Higher up the food chain, CO2. Overuse of such mechanisms enables them to grow and animals have largely fixed C:N:P to redress a high imbalance can, reproduce more rapidly. ratios, so they must deploy various however, affect fitness, growth, and Around half of all phosphorus mechanisms to deal with any reproduction. An animal that eats in an organism is in the form imbalances of chemicals entering other animals has less work to do, of ribosomal RNA (rRNA); it is the body. If an insect or animal because its prey\u2019s C:N:P ratio present in every cell, creating herbivore is getting too much carbon closely matches its own. However, proteins to build new cells and from its plant diet, for instance, it the size of its prey population is still grow the body. Applying determined by the plants in its biological stoichiometry, environment because plants with a James Elser and his team high carbon ratio can only support have shown that fast-growing a small food chain of consumers. tumors have a much higher phosphorus content than normal body tissue. Such research may help scientists understand how tumor growth could be controlled. Understanding our world Food chains are one area of study; ecological stoichiometry covers just about everything and all the links in between. By discovering how the chemical content of organisms shapes their ecology, scientists are also learning how environments can be better managed. Their findings may significantly influence the future of life on Earth. \u25a0 The desert locust (Schistocerca Malignant lung tissue (seen gregaria) has to eat vast quantities here) and cancerous colon tissue of carbon-rich plants in order to get both had the highest phosphorus enough nitrogen and phosphorus content in research exploring the to maintain its C:N ratio. rapid growth rates of tumors.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 76 IFSEAPROWITESREFLUFL NPROENDCAOTNOSRUSMOPNTITVHEEEIRFFPERCETYS OF IN CONTEXT M any descriptions of risks of being eaten. The lethal role ecosystems focus on of predators is obvious, but their KEY FIGURE predator\u2013prey interactions nonlethal (nonconsumptive) role Earl Werner (1944\u2013) in which predators kill and prey are can have an even bigger impact on eaten. However, American ecologist an ecosystem. Potential prey are BEFORE Earl Werner and others have shown forced to change their way of life 1966 American ecologist that the mere presence of a predator in order to avoid being killed. Robert Paine conducts a affects the behavior of prey. series of groundbreaking In 1990, Werner studied the field experiments to highlight Apart from apex predators, all effects of green darner dragonfly the crucial effects of a predator animals must balance the need to larvae on toad tadpoles. He noticed on the community in which sleep, reproduce, and feed with the that when the predatory larvae it lives. In the presence of predators \u2026 1990 Canadian biologists Steven Lima and Lawrence prey move on to prey spend more time Dill analyzed the decision- other areas even if there is hiding in sheltered habitats making of organisms that are than feeding in the open. at the greatest risk of being less food there. preyed on by other creatures. Even without preying on AFTER them, predators can cause prey to 2008 American behavioral biologist and ecologist John fail to thrive. Orrock teams up with Earl Werner and others to produce mathematical models to explain the nonconsumptive effects of predatory animals.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 77 ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES See also: Evolution by natural selection 24\u201331 \u25a0 Predator\u2013prey equations 44\u201349 \u25a0 Ecological niches 50\u201351 \u25a0 Competitive exclusion principle 52\u201353 \u25a0 Mutualisms 56\u201359 \u25a0 Optimal foraging theory 66\u201367 bullfrog\u2019s new behavior gave it a competitive advantage over the green frog by making it bigger. A green darner dragonfly laying when predatory dragonfly larvae Terrestrial animals its eggs in a pond. The larvae that were introduced to the tank, both Early studies of nonconsumptive hatch out are predators and have been prey species became less active effects (NCEs) were concerned with shown to influence the behavior of their and chose different places in which aquatic organisms under laboratory tadpole prey. to swim. The bullfrog tadpoles grew conditions, but more work has now more quickly than they had in a been done in the wild with land- were in the tank, the tadpoles were predator-free tank, but the green dwelling animals. German field less active, swam to other parts of frog tadpoles decreased their research published in 2018 the tank, and metamorphosed into feeding activity and grew more focused on lynx and their roe deer adults when they were smaller. The slowly. Werner concluded that for prey. When lynx were present, predator had changed the toads\u2019 prey species there was a trade-off researchers found that the roe deer morphology and their behavior just between the need to grow as fast avoided areas they knew to be by being there. as possible and the risk of predation. high-risk, both during the day and Growing more quickly requires on summer nights when nocturnal In 1991, Werner investigated more feeding activity, and this in predation is more common. The what happened when more than turn increases the chances of being deer treated some grazing areas as one prey species was involved. In eaten by a predator. As the larvae\u2019s out of bounds, presumably due to the absence of a predator, bullfrog presence altered the behavior of fear of being attacked by lynx. and green frog tadpoles grew at the prey species differently, the virtually identical rates. However, Wherever there are predators, they exert NCEs. They also affect some sessile (nonmoving) species, as well as mobile prey. This can happen when certain dominant competitors are displaced by predators and, in their new habitats, outcompete sessile animals for food. Small fish that are displaced, for example, could outcompete sponges for food. \u25a0 \u2026 species react [to predators] by reducing activity and altering space use. Earl Werner","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS NOARTDUERRAINL","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS GWOTHRELD","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 80 INTRODUCTION Aristotle\u2019s History of A private collection of natural The Natural History Animals groups living things history curiosities is displayed Museum in London opens its based on their species, in a at Oxford University\u2019s doors to the public, free of scala naturae that places Ashmolean Museum, the charge. It now houses 80 organisms into 11 grades. world\u2019s first public museum. million specimens. C.350 BCE 1683 1881 1665 CE 1758 Micrographia, the richly The 10th edition of Systema illustrated book by Robert Naturae by Carl Linnaeus Hooke, reveals microscopic structures to a wider audience. classifies a range of plant and animal species using his binomial system. People have long marveled at In keeping with the prevailing to adopt this new technology: his the variety of life, celebrating ideas of the Catholic Church, the book Micrographia (1665) inspired nature\u2019s gifts in prehistoric natural world was seen as static others to do likewise. Able to view cave art that dates back 30,000 years and unchanging. specimens magnified to 50 times or more. In Ancient Greece in the 4th their actual size, he made meticulous century BCE, Aristotle made an early An age of discovery drawings of microsopic life, and attempt to classify living organisms; The age of great expeditions also coined the term \u201ccell\u201d after his 11-grade scala naturae (\u201cladder of of discovery revealed previously examining plant fibers. Hooke also life\u201d) placed humans and mammals uncharted regions and their suggested a living origin for fossil at the top, and descended through animals and plants. In his History fragments found in rocks. other, more \u201cprimitive\u201d animals of the Animals (1551\u201358), Swiss to plants and then minerals. A physician and naturalist Conrad Classifying variety thousand years later, the medieval Gesner included some of the recent English vicar John Ray\u2019s History of world still considered variations finds from the New World and the Plants (1686\u20131704) was the botanical on Aristotle\u2019s system to be valid. Far East, as well as relying on equivalent of Gesner\u2019s earlier work, There were several reasons for this. classical literature. The five-volume listing some 18,000 species in three Without microscopes, nothing was work reflected his division of huge volumes. Ray also produced known of cells and microorganisms. animals into mammals; reptiles and a biological definition of a species, Without the means to explore amphibians; birds; fish and aquatic remarking that \u201cone species never underwater, science\u2019s knowledge animals; and snakes and scorpions. springs from the seed of another.\u201d of aquatic creatures was limited, Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus, and many parts of the world were The invention of the microscope the \u201cfather of taxonomy,\u201d first still unknown to Western scientists. also had a major impact. English published Systema Naturae in 1735, scholar Robert Hooke was quick","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 81 ORDERING THE NATURAL WORLD Carl Woese Norman Myers\u2019s establishes a new, third \u201cbiodiversity hotspots\u201d category of organisms\u2014 concept identifies ten hotspots where conservation efforts the prokaryotes. should preserve rare species. 1977 1988 2018 1942 1988 Ernst Mayr develops the Edward O. Wilson coins The IUCN Red List shows that biological species concept, the term biodiversity more than 26,000 species\u00a0\u2013 and later identifies the more than 27 percent of all which categorizes species key human threats those assessed\u2014are at based on their ability to to biodiversity. risk of extinction. breed with each other. but it is the 10th edition from 1758 but a population that can breed new domains. As of 2018, about that founded the modern zoological only among themselves. Mayr went 1.74 million extant plant and animal naming system. Two volumes of on to explain how if groups within species have been described, but Linnaeus\u2019 work are devoted to a species become isolated from the estimates of the total number range plants and animals, which he rest of the population, they may from 2 million to 1 trillion. divided into classes, orders, genera, start to differ from the rest, and and species. The binomial system, over time, through genetic drift and The threat to diversity in which every species is given a natural selection, may even evolve By the late 20th century, however, generic name followed by a specific into new species. alongside a growing knowledge name, is still in use today. Linnaeus of the scale and critical role of also wrote a third volume on rocks, Modern technological advances, biodiversity\u2014and of how evolution minerals, and fossils. including electron microscopy and can destroy species as well as mitochondrial DNA analysis, have create them\u2014American ecologist Species concepts revealed much information\u2014some E.O. Wilson and others made the Building on Darwin\u2019s theory of of it surprising\u2014about the number world aware that human activity evolution by means of natural of species and the relationships was responsible for causing a rapid selection, German-American between them. In 1966, striving to acceleration in the extinction rate. evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr reflect the intricacies of evolution, Some have even warned that Earth cemented the biological concept of German entomologist Willi Hennig could be on the verge of a sixth species in his Systematics and the proposed a new taxonomic system mass extinction. Many policies are Origin of Species (1942). He argued of clades\u2014groups of organisms now being proposed to counter that a species is not just a group of based on a common ancestor. In this, including the protection morphologically similar individuals, the 1970s, American biologist Carl of biodiversity hotspots. \u25a0 Woese classified all life into three","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 82 IIOOSNFFSANTLOHALMTETUEMHTRAIHENRIGTNVHSGEELROEUS CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS IN CONTEXT F rom the beginning of Aristotle placed animals in a scala recorded history, people naturae (ladder of nature), with 11 KEY FIGURE have attempted to identify grades distinguished by their mode Aristotle (c. 384\u2013322 bce) organisms according to their uses. of birth. Those in the top grades Egyptian wall paintings from gave birth to live, hot, wet offspring; BEFORE c. 1500 bce show, for example, that those in the lower grades to cold, c. 1500 bce Different people understood the medicinal dry eggs. Humans were at the very properties of plants are properties of many plants. In the top of the scale, with live-bearing recognized by ancient text History of Animals, written tetrapods (four-legged creatures), Egyptians. in the 4th century bce, the Greek cetaceans, birds, and egg-laying philosopher and scholar Aristotle tetrapods lower down. Aristotle AFTER made the first serious attempt to placed minerals on the bottom 8th\u20139th centuries ce Islamic classify organisms, studying their grade of his scale, with plants, scholars of the Umayyad and anatomy, life cycles, and behavior. worms, sponges, larva-bearing Abbasid dynasties translate insects, and hard-shelled animals many of Aristotle\u2019s works Features of classification on the levels above. into Arabic. Aristotle divided living things into plants and animals. He further If any person thinks the 1551\u201358 Conrad Gessner\u2019s grouped about 500 species of examination of the rest History of Animals classifies animals according to obvious of the animal kingdom the animals of the world into anatomical features, such as an unworthy task, he must five basic groups. whether they had blood, were hold in like disesteem \u201cwarm-blooded\u201d or \u201ccold-blooded,\u201d 1682 John Ray publishes his whether they had four legs or more, the study of man. History of Plants, which lists and whether they gave birth to live Aristotle more than 18,000 species. offspring or laid eggs. He also noted whether animals lived in the sea, 1735 Carl Linnaeus devises a on land, or flew in the air. Most system of binomial names, the significantly, Aristotle used names first consistent classification of for his groupings that were later organisms, according to which translated into the Latin words he names every species listed \u201cgenus\u201d and \u201cspecies\u201d\u2014terms in his Systema Naturae. that are still used by modern taxonomists to this day.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS ORDERING THE NATURAL WORLD 83 See also: The microbiological environment 84\u201385 \u25a0 A system for identifying all nature\u2019s organisms 86\u201387 \u25a0 Biological species concept 88\u201389 \u25a0 Microbiology 102\u2013103 \u25a0 Animal behavior 116\u2013117 \u25a0 Island biogeography 144\u2013149 An octopus blends in with its surroundings. The ability of these creatures to change color was one of Aristotle\u2019s many accurate observations. While Aristotle\u2019s system of classification was rudimentary, it was based largely on first-hand observations, many of which were made on the island of Lesvos. He recorded things that noone else had described, including that young dogfish grew inside their mothers\u2019 bodies, male river catfish guard eggs, and octopuses can change color. Most of his observations were good\u2014and some were confirmed only centuries later. The great chain of being The Swiss doctor Conrad Gessner (reptiles and amphibians); birds; Despite its limitations, Aristotle\u2019s wrote the first modern register of fish and aquatic animals; and method of classification heavily animals\u2014also called History of snakes and scorpions. In 1682, influenced every later attempt at Animals\u2014in the mid-16th century. the English naturalist John Ray grouping animals and plants until This monumental five-volume work produced the equivalent register the 18th century. Medieval was based on classical sources but for botany with his History of Christianity developed his scala included newly discovered species Plants. Within little more than naturae as a \u201cgreat chain of being,\u201d from East Asia. It covered the main 50 years, the classification of with God at the top of a strict animal groups as Gessner saw living things would be completely hierarchy, humans and animals them: live-bearing quadrupeds transformed by Carl Linnaeus\u2019s beneath, and plants at the bottom. (mammals); egg-laying quadrupeds Systema Naturae. \u25a0 Aristotle Aristotle was born in Macedonia, scholar Ptolemy and King ancient Greece. Both his parents Alexander the Great. In 335 bce, died when he was young, and he he established his own school was raised by a guardian. Aged at the Lyceum in Athens. After 17 or 18, Aristotle joined Plato\u2019s Alexander\u2019s death in 322 bce, Academy in Athens, where he Aristotle fled the city, and died studied for 20 years, writing on on the island of Euboea in the physics, biology, zoology, politics, same year. economics, government, poetry, and music. Later, he traveled Key works to the island of Lesvos with a student named Theophrastus 4th century bce to study the island\u2019s botany and History of Animals zoology. Much of his History On the Parts of Animals of Animals was based on On the Generation of Animals observations he made there. On the Movement of Animals Aristotle taught both the future On the Progression of Animals","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 84 BNOOYOUFRTTMHHIIINCENQRGHUOEEISLRSCPYCOAPPEESS THE MICROBIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT IN CONTEXT L eafing through the pages of Although it is not known for Micrographia, a 17th-century certain who developed the first KEY FIGURE reader would have been microscopes, they were certainly Robert Hooke (1635\u20131703) astonished. Here, in English in use by the 1660s. The early scientist Robert Hooke\u2019s seminal instruments were unreliable\u2014due BEFORE 1665 book, were many detailed to the difficulty of making the 1267 English philosopher illustrations of structures previously lenses\u2014and scientists had to be Roger Bacon discusses the use hidden from the human eye due to inventive and work around the of optics for looking at \u201cthe their minuscule size. Hooke\u2019s problem. At first, Hooke had smallest particles of dust\u201d in microscope magnified things by a difficulty seeing his specimens his Opus Majus Volume V. factor of fifty, but the accuracy of clearly, so he invented an improved his drawings also owes much to light source, named a \u201cscotoscope.\u201d 1661 Microscopic drawings by his painstaking approach. Hooke English architect Christopher would make numerous sketches Hooke\u2019s book is more than just Wren impress Charles II, who from many different angles before an accurate representation of what commissions more drawings combining them into a single image. he saw through the lens; it also from Robert Hooke. theorizes on what the images reveal \u2026 in every little particle\u2026 about the workings of the organisms AFTER we now behold almost as he studied. For example, when 1683 Dutch amateur scientist great a variety of Creatures, looking at a wafer-thin specimen of Antonie van Leeuwenhoek as we were able before to cork, Hooke saw a honeycomb-like uses a microscope to observe pattern, the elements of which he bacteria and protozoa, and reckon up in the whole described as \u201ccells\u201d\u2014a term that is publishes his findings with Universe itself. still used today. the Royal Society of London. Robert Hooke Microscopic marvels 1798 Edward Jenner, an Micrographia inspired many English physician and other scientists to investigate the scientist, develops the world\u2019s microscopic world. Following first vaccine\u2014for smallpox\u2014 notes and diagrams from Hooke\u2019s and publishes An Inquiry into book, Dutch scientist Antonie the Causes and Effects of the van Leeuwenhoek was able to Variolae Vaccinae. construct his own microscopes. He achieved magnifications of more than 200 times actual size.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS ORDERING THE NATURAL WORLD 85 See also: Classification of living things 82\u201383 \u25a0 A system for identifying all nature\u2019s organisms 86\u201387 \u25a0 Microbiology 102\u2013103 \u25a0 Thermoregulation in insects 126\u2013127 Van Leeuwenhoek examined [Micrographia is] \u2026 the samples of rainwater and stagnant most ingenious book that I pondwater and marveled at the multitude of life he saw there. He ever read in my life. identified single-celled protozoa, Samuel Pepys naming them \u201canimalcules,\u201d and went on to discover bacteria. He English diarist also made many observations of human and animal anatomy, organ. Grew also spotted pollen The compound eye and brain of a including blood cells and sperm. grains and noted that they were bee, drawn by Jan Swammerdam and transported by bees. published in A Treatise on the History While van Leeuwenhoek of Bees, shows the eye exterior (left) examined water samples, fellow Since the early days of and the eye dissected (right), with the Dutchman Jan Swammerdam was microscopy, devices have grown brain cross-sectioned below. placing insects under his own in sophistication. The electron microscope. He published records microscope, first used in 1931, uses of all manner of insects depicted in beams of electrons\u2014rather than the finest detail and uncovered light\u2014to reveal objects, allowing much about their anatomy. scientists an even closer look. Swammerdam\u2019s most influential Electron microscopes provide views work was Life of the Ephemera of up to one million times actual (1675), which recorded in great size\u2014600 times greater than most detail the life cycle of the mayfly. modern light microscopes. \u25a0 In England, Nehemiah Grew used microscopy to examine a wide range of plants. He was the first to identify flowers as being the sexual organs of plants. In The Anatomy of Plants (1682), Grew named the stamen as the male organ and the pistil as the female Robert Hooke Born on the Isle of Wight, England, include some early insights into Hooke showed an early interest the wave theory of light; the in science. A small inheritance construction of some of the allowed him to attend the earliest telescopes; and the prestigious Westminster School, formulation of Hooke\u2019s Law. where he excelled, earning a place Hooke was also a respected at Oxford University. There he architect, an activity that made assisted the natural philosophers him a wealthy man. John Wilkins and Robert Boyle. In 1662 Hooke became the first Key works curator of experiments for the Royal Society of London. In 1665 1665 Micrographia he became Professor of Physics at 1674 An Attempt to Prove Gresham College. the Motion of the Earth 1676 A Description of Like many scientists of his Helioscopes and Some day, Hooke had a broad range of Other Instruments interests. His achievements","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 86 ITTTFHHHYEEEOMNKUNAISDMOOWLEOSNLSOEOTTDFGKTENHOOINWFGS, A SYSTEM FOR IDENTIFYING ALL NATURE\u2019S ORGANISMS IN CONTEXT Before the 18th century, there characteristics, such as similarity was no consistent naming of body parts, size, shape, and KEY FIGURE system for animals and methods of getting food. Linnaeus Carl Linnaeus (1707\u201378) plants. Botanists and zoologists also adopted a precise two-word often did not know if they were (binomial) name for each species. BEFORE discussing the same organism. 1682 John Ray, an English To overcome the problem, Swedish Early insights botanist, proposes that the botanist Carl Linnaeus invented By 1730, while still a student, plant kingdom be divided a revolutionary system, which is still Linnaeus began to have issues into trees and two families in use today. He is known as the with the system for classifying of herbaceous plants. \u201cfather of taxonomy\u201d\u2014the science of plants developed by Joseph Pitton naming and classifying organisms. de Tournefort more than 30 years 1694 French botanist Joseph earlier. For Linnaeus, the Pitton de Tournefort publishes Linnaeus divided both the plant characteristics of individual species El\u00e9ments de Botanique. This and animal kingdoms into classes, needed to be analyzed more closely beautifully illustrated book orders, genera, and species. in order to produce a more thorough becomes the botanical Organisms were placed in these taxonomic system. classification benchmark levels on the basis of shared for half a century. Collaborative work is To work together over AFTER crucial for the advancement long distances, scientists 1957 Sir Julian Huxley is the of scientific knowledge. first to use the term \u201cclade\u201d to need things to be describe a common ancestor named with accuracy. and all of its descendants. If you do not know Misunderstandings 1969 Robert Whittaker, an the names of things, cause discrepancies in American ecologist, argues for a five-kingdom categorization the knowledge of scientific knowledge. of life: Monera, Protista, Fungi, them is lost. Plantae, and Animalia.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 87 ORDERING THE NATURAL WORLD See also: Classification of living things 82\u201383 \u25a0 Biological species concept 88\u201389 \u25a0 A modern view of diversity 90\u201391 In natural science, been known by long impractical Carl Linnaeus the principles of truth names\u2014for example, Plantago foliis ought to be confirmed ovato-lanceolatis pubescentibus, Born in rural southern Sweden, spica cylindrica, scapo tereti. Linnaeus was educated at the by observation. Linnaeus called this plant Plantago University of Uppsala, where Carl Linnaeus media, which was sufficient to he began teaching botany in identify it. As well as being concise, 1730. He spent three years In 1732, Linnaeus joined an the Linnaean system describes in the Netherlands, and, on expedition to Lapland, where he relationships between species. returning to Sweden, he collected about 100 unidentified divided his time between species. These formed the basis of Later developments teaching, writing, and plant- his book Flora Lapponica, in which Linnaeus constantly expanded collecting expeditions. At he aired his ideas about plant Systema Naturae; its 10th edition Uppsala, 17 of his students classifications for the first time. (1758) became the starting point embarked on expeditions all for modern animal classification. over the world. Linnaeus was Three years later, Linnaeus It was he who suggested that a friend of Anders Celsius, the wrote about his idea for a new humans were members of the inventor of the temperature hierarchical classification of plants primate family. Much later, aided scale. After his friend\u2019s death, in a further book, Systema Naturae, by Charles Darwin\u2019s theory of Linnaeus reversed the scale and thereafter in arguably his evolution by natural selection, so that freezing point was greatest work, Species Plantarum, biologists accepted that a 32\u00b0F (0\u00b0C) and boiling point published in 1753, which covered classification should reflect the 212\u00b0F (100\u00b0C). Linnaeus 7,300 species. Previously, plants had principle of common descent, has been described as the which led to the methodology \u201cprince of botanists,\u201d and the known as cladistics. \u25a0 philosopher Rousseau said of him \u201cI know no greater man Whales were once thought to be on Earth.\u201d Linnaeus is buried fish, and were classified as such in in Uppsala Cathedral; his an early edition of Linnaeus\u2019s Systema remains constitute the type Naturae. Only later was it understood specimen\u2014the specimen that that they are actually mammals. represents a species\u2014used for Homo sapiens. Key works 1735 Systema Naturae 1737 Flora Lapponica 1751 Philosophia Botanica 1753 Species Plantarum","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 88 IK\u201cSREOEYLPWARTOOEDRDUD\u201dCSATRIVEETLHYE BIOLOGICAL SPECIES CONCEPT IN CONTEXT \u201cSpecies\u201d can be When two groups defined as population of the same species KEY FIGURE groups that are able become reproductively Ernst Mayr (1904\u20132005) to reproduce. isolated they BEFORE evolve separately. 1686 Naturalist John Ray defines individual plant and The capacity to Eventually, they animal species as those that interbreed is key become separate derive from the same seed. to the definition species that cannot mate with each other. 1859 Charles Darwin\u2019s On the of a species. Origin of Species introduces the idea that species evolve B y the early 20th century, it some point become separated by through natural selection. was accepted that multiple geography, mate choice, feeding species could evolve from a strategies, or other means, and then AFTER common ancestor. However, it was begin to change through natural 1976 The Selfish Gene by not clear how this evolution process selection or genetic drift. Over time, Richard Dawkins popularizes actually occurred. In fact, there was as a result of this initial separation, gene-centered evolution: natural some debate about precisely what a two distinct species evolve, which selection at a genetic level. \u201cspecies\u201d was. In 1942, evolutionary cannot interbreed. This type biologist Ernst Mayr proposed a of speciation commonly occurs 1995 The Beak of the Finch new definition of species: groups in small populations of creatures by Jonathan Weiner follows of interbreeding natural populations on remote islands. the work of biologists Peter that are \u201creproductively isolated and Rosemary Grant on the from other such groups.\u201d Key differences Galapagos Islands. The biological species concept is What this means is that two primarily focused on the breeding 2007 Massimo Pigliucci and populations of the same species potential between organisms. Two Gerd B. M\u00fcller use the term living in the same area may at \u201ceco-evo-devo\u201d to suggest how ecology is among the factors affecting evolution.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 89 ORDERING THE NATURAL WORLD See also: Evolution by natural selection 24\u201331 \u25a0 The role of DNA 34\u201337 \u25a0 The selfish gene 38\u201339 \u25a0 Competitive exclusion principle 52\u201353 organisms may appear identical Endless forms Sometimes, too, different animal and live in the same place, but this most beautiful and species are able to mate and does not mean that they are the most wonderful have produce offspring, as is the case same species. For example, the of a female horse (Equus ferus Western Meadowlark (Sturnella been, and are caballus) and a male donkey neglecta) and Eastern Meadowlark being, evolved. (Equus africanus asinus), which (Sturnella magna) look similar and Charles Darwin together can produce a hybrid\u2014 have overlapping ranges, but they the mule. However, mules have evolved to produce different of a species. Geographical themselves are generally incapable songs. This prevents them from separation alone does not prevent of reproduction, and therefore the mating with each other, making species from reproducing if they horse and donkey remain different them two distinct species. are brought together. Evolutionary species. Another example is the divergences\u2014such as the different liger, a zoo-bred hybrid of a female Another scenario is when mating songs of the Western tiger and a male lion. members of the same species look and Eastern Meadowlarks\u2014are very different, but because they can what prevents interbreeding. Such anomalies highlight the mate and reproduce they are still complexities of defining a species. considered to be the same species. The biological species concept The biological species concept The most obvious instance of this is is not applicable to asexual remains the most popular, but the domestic dog (Canis familiaris), organisms, such as bacteria, scientists are now looking at the a species in which there are great or asexual creatures\u2014for example, idea of shared genes, and using differences between individuals. species of whiptail lizard. DNA sequence analysis. To date, However, as is also evident, different no one has come up with a single breeds are capable of reproduction definition that covers every known with each other, and therefore species, and it seems unlikely belong to the same species. that anyone ever will. In the absence of better models, Ernst Complex permutations Mayr\u2019s biological species concept According to the biological species provides an extremely useful concept, the potential for inter- way of thinking about species breeding is key to the definition and evolution. \u25a0 Alternative species concepts Male fireflies are an example of Although Mayr\u2019s idea about be based on genetics, such as a typological species. They emit a biological speciation is perhaps DNA or RNA base sequences, or pattern of flashes to attract females, the most common way to define on phenotypes, such as the size who recognize their species\u2019 code species and explain how they of certain body parts or and flash back\u2014if they wish to mate. evolve, it is far from the only particular markings, such as the one. In fact, there are more than arrangments of spots on insects\u2019 20 recognized species concepts, wings. The evolutionary species ranging across two broad groups: concept is based on species typological and evolutionary lineages. A species is defined as concepts. Typological species the organisms that share a concepts are based on the idea lineage from the time when the that a population of individuals of species initially split off until the same type\u2014or sharing the extinction, or until an additional same set of traits\u2014are what splitting off and creation of a makes up a species. The traits can new species.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 90 IPOCNRRLTIEGMOAAARSNRLEISYYVMECKRSLINAUGLSDTOEMRS A MODERN VIEW OF DIVERSITY IN CONTEXT B efore biologists had the with simple nucleus-free cells), equipment and techniques and eukaryotes (such as animals KEY FIGURE needed to scrutinize the and plants with larger, more Carl Woese (1928\u20132012) microscopic structure of living complex cells). things, biological diversity was BEFORE split simply into animal-like and In the 1970s, the American 1758 Systema Naturae (10th plant-like organisms. Then, in the biologist Carl Woese claimed that edition) by Carl Linnaeus 20th century, better microscopes even this system failed to account classifies known life into two began to reveal deeper differences for the diversity among microbes\u2014 kingdoms: animals and plants. that could not be seen with the the smallest living things. He naked eye. By the 1960s, picking focused on ribosomes\u2014minuscule 1937 French biologist Edouard up on an idea first proposed by Chatton divides life into Edouard Chatton in the 1930s, the Sulfur-dependent archaea prokaryotes (bacteria) and need for a new division of living organisms thrive in the hot geothermal eukaryotes (organisms with things emerged, placed between pools of Yellowstone National Park, complex cells). prokaryotes (such as bacteria, Wyoming, in conditions that would kill most other organisms. 1966 German biologist Willi Hennig establishes a system of classification based on clades\u2014groups of organisms based on common ancestry. 1969 American ecologist Robert Whittaker divides life into five kingdoms: bacteria, protists, fungi, plants, and animals. AFTER 2017 A consensus among biologists accepts a seven- kingdom classification of life.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS ORDERING THE NATURAL WORLD 91 See also: Early theories of evolution 20\u201321 \u25a0 Evolution by natural selection 24\u201331 Kingdom of their own \u25a0 The role of DNA 34\u201335 \u25a0 A system for identifying all nature\u2019s organisms 86\u201387 For most of the history of Carl Woese\u2019s three-domain tree biology, fungi were considered to be plants. Even the great Bacteria Archaea Eukaryotes classifier of organisms Carl Cyanobacteria Thermoproteus Animals Linnaeus included them in his Methanococcales Plants kingdom Plantae. It was only Bacteroides Fungi with the invention of more Purple bacteria Extreme Protists powerful microscopes that halophiles the differences in fungi began to be better understood. It is According to Carl Woese, all organisms can be now known that chitin, a separated into three main categories or \u201cdomains.\u201d complex carbohydrate and These divisions are based on similarities in the component of fungus cell ribosome structure found in the cells of the groups walls, is not found in plants. of organisms within each domain. Also, fungi make their food by digesting rotted material, grains that all cells need in order to A decade before Woese proposed whereas plants make food by make protein\u2014and devised what he his theory, Robert H. Whittaker absorbing light energy in called the \u201cthree-domain system.\u201d had recognized animals, plants, photosynthesis. This gave him a new perspective and fungi as separate eukaryotic on the branches of Charles Darwin\u2019s kingdoms, with all other eukaryotes DNA analysis shows that evolutionary \u201ctree of life.\u201d Woese placed in the protist kingdom, fungi are far removed from found big differences in the and bacteria constituting a plants in the evolutionary chemical makeup of ribosomes fifth kingdom. Whittaker\u2019s protist tree of life: they are, in fact, among tiny microbes, with one kingdom covered eukaryotic genetically closer to the group as far from other prokaryotes organisms such as amoebas that branch that gives rise to as bacteria are from humans. did not fit the other categories. animals. These same studies Some protists were closer to show that certain aquatic Revising the tree of life animals, some closer to plants, molds\u2014traditionally classified Woese\u2019s third domain of organisms, and others not close to either. as fungi\u2014are not related to known as archaea, is superficially They did not match the tree of life fungi, while some disease- similar to bacteria, but has some model, in which clades\u2014groups causing microbes are fungi strange properties. Many thrive in of organisms with a common that have evolved to become extreme habitats. Some\u2014uniquely ancestry\u2014spring as branches microscopic parasites. among living things\u2014generate from the previous fork. methane in oxygen-deprived places, Fungi, such as this bright such as deep marine sediments, or Woese sought a classification yellow jelly fungus growing on a inside warm digestive cavities, system that reflected the intricacies fallen tree, are no longer classified such as those of belching, flatulent of evolution\u2014with main branches as plants. Fungi are genetically plant-eating mammals. Other on the tree of life splitting into closer to animals. archaea inhabit lakes that are ten smaller ones, and even tinier twigs times saltier than seawater, or hot that end in the leaves of individual acidic pools fed by geothermal heat species. In the future, the complex that would kill anything else. tree of life may reveal even more evolutionary categories. \u25a0","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 92 BSSAINAAOVVDSEEYPTTOHHHUEEERMEWAOYRLD IN CONTEXT HUMAN ACTIVITY AND BIODIVERSITY KEY FIGURE Edward O. Wilson (1929\u2013) BEFORE 1993 The UN proclaims December 29 as the International Day for Biological Diversity. 1996 The Song of the Dodo by American science writer David Quammen explores the nature of evolution and extinction as habitats become more and more fragmented. AFTER 2014 The Sixth Extinction by environmental journalist Elizabeth Kolbert shows how humans are causing a sixth mass extinction of species. 2016 In Half-Earth, Edward Wilson proposes that Earth can be saved by dedicating half of it to nature. B iodiversity is the variety of life on Earth\u2014in all forms and at every level, from genes to microbes to humans and all other species, including those yet to be discovered. Humans rely on biodiversity for food and fuel, shelter, medicine, beauty, and pleasure. For other species, it also provides nutrients, seed dispersal, pollination, and reproductive success. No living thing could survive without biodiversity. Ecologists have identified growing threats to biodiversity, many of them driven by human actions. The current rate of species extinction is thought to be up to 1,000 times greater than it was","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS ORDERING THE NATURAL WORLD 93 See also: Biodiversity hotspots 96\u201397 \u25a0 Animal ecology 106\u2013113 \u25a0 Island biogeography 144\u2013149 \u25a0 Biodiversity and ecosystem function 156\u2013157 \u25a0 Biomes 206\u2013209 \u25a0 Mass extinctions 218\u2013223 \u25a0 Deforestation 254\u2013259 \u25a0 Overfishing 266\u2013269 The effects of human activity on biodiversity animals because they may no longer be able to find places to feed The five human activities or rest along their normal routes. that most seriously affect Native species and ecosystems are biodiversity on Earth can be also disrupted by the introduction, represented by HIPPO, the accidentally or deliberately, of new acronym devised by Edward species. These invasive species. Wilson, with the relative can threaten the food supply or severity of each reflected other resources of native species, in the order of the letters. carry disease, and become a predatory threat. The brown tree 1. Habitat destruction snake, for example, was brought accidentally to the island of Guam 5. Overharvesting 2. Invasive on a cargo ship, and has caused by hunting species the extirpation (the extinction of a or fishing species in a particular area) of 10 of the island\u2019s 11 native bird species. 4. Human population 3. Pollution Air and water poisoning before 1800, when humans began loss of habitats that once supported Any kind of pollution threatens to dominate the planet. The first particular species. This destruction biodiversity, but air and water use of the term \u201cbiodiversity,\u201d in can occur as a result of natural pollution are particularly harmful. 1988, was by American biologist causes, such as fire or flood, or, Burning fossil fuels, for example, Edward O. Wilson, who became more commonly, through the releases the waste gases sulfur known as the \u201cfather of biodiversity.\u201d expansion of agricultural land, dioxide and nitrogen oxide into He later highlighted five key threats timber harvesting, and overgrazing the air; these return as acid rain, to biodiversity using the acronym by livestock. Deforestation, in causing water and soil acidification HIPPO: habitat destruction; particular, has contributed hugely and affecting ecosystem health and invasive species; pollution; human to habitat loss, with around half of biodiversity. Ozone emissions at population; and overharvesting by the world\u2019s original forests now ground level can also damage cell hunting and fishing. cleared, mainly for agricultural use. membranes on plants, curbing their growth and development. \u276f\u276f Habitat wreckers Some habitats are not destroyed The Red List of the International but rather broken up or divided into It is that range of biodiversity Union for Conservation of Nature more isolated units by human that we must care for\u2014the (IUCN) includes more than 25,000 interventions, such as building whole thing\u2014rather than threatened species. Of these, dams or other water diversions. 85 percent are endangered by the This habitat fragmentation is just one or two stars. particularly dangerous for migratory David Attenborough British broadcaster and naturalist","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 94 HUMAN ACTIVITY AND BIODIVERSITY Edward O. Wilson We should preserve Rapid population growth has every scrap of biodiversity generated further damage to the Born in Alabama in 1929, environment. The world\u2019s human Edward Osborne Wilson was as priceless while we population has risen from less left blind in one eye after a learn to use it and than 1 billion in 1800 to more than fishing accident aged seven, come to understand 7 billion, and is expected to reach and switched interests from what it means nearly 10 billion by 2050. As the birdwatching to insects. He to humanity. population grows, so do other discovered the first colony of threats to biodiversity: increasing fire ants in the US when he Edward O. Wilson numbers of invasive species are was only 13, and later spread through trade and travel; attended the University of Water pollution is caused mainly urban development and resource Alabama and Harvard. by sewage or by chemicals extraction destroy habitats; more Wilson\u2019s work has focused absorbed into water as it flows pollution is created; and land is primarily on ants but also off agricultural land. This pollution overharvested. The impacts of extends to the study of reduces oxygen levels in water, human population growth will be isolated ecosystems, known making survival more difficult for difficult to limit, as ever more as \u201cisland biogeography.\u201d A some species, particularly when people rely on food and shelter to leading environmentalist, combined with water temperatures survive, and demand ever more he has spearheaded efforts that have risen due to climate goods in an increasingly global to preserve biodiversity and change. Freshwater streams used consumer society. educate people about it. He by certain species of spawning has been awarded over 150 fish, for example, can be made Upsetting the balance prizes, including the National uninhabitable by pollution. Population growth also drives Medal for Science, the Cosmos overharvesting, the final human- Prize, and two Pulitzer Prizes Some organisms can absorb a made threat to biodiversity in the for nonfiction, and was named substance, such as an agricultural HIPPO acronym. Found in forestry, one of the century\u2019s leading chemical, more quickly than they livestock grazing, and commercial environmentalists by Time can excrete it, in a process known agriculture, overharvesting can and Audubon magazine. as bioaccumulation. Initial, low also arise from targeted hunting, concentrations of chemicals may gathering, and fishing, as well as Key works not be a problem. However, as those unintentional harvesting, such chemicals accumulate through the as fish discarded from catches. 1984 Biophilia food chain\u2014from phytoplankton to 1998 Consilience: The Unity fish to mammal, for example\u2014they of Knowledge can reach levels that cause birth 2014 The Meaning of Human defects and disrupt hormone levels Existence and immune systems. Poaching, forest clearance, and other human activities have largely contributed to the status of the African western lowland gorilla as a \u201ccritically endangered\u201d species.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS THE ORDERING OF THE NATURAL WORLD 95 The building of railways across the US was accompanied by hunters hired to decimate the buffalo population that had sustained Native American tribes. By the end of the 19th century, only a small number of wild buffalo survived. When the rate of harvest exceeds pollution and climate change. More against natural disasters and the rate of replenishment through than 80 per cent of the species on human-made shocks, including either reproduction or human the IUCN\u2019s Red List are affected by climate change, and provide activities such as tree planting, more than one of the five major recreational, medicinal, and the harvest is not sustainable, biodiversity threats. biological resources. and without regulation could result in the extinction or extirpation Biodiversity maintains the Although the threats to of species. health of the ecosystems of the biodiversity from human activity planet. Ecosystems are a delicate are serious, ways to protect it A study of the IUCN\u2019s Red List balance of living creatures, both are being developed. Foremost in 2016 showed that 72 per cent plant and animal, as well as the is a \u201csustainable\u201d approach to of species listed as threatened or soil, air, and water in which they harvesting and agriculture that near-threatened are harvested at live. Healthy ecosystems provide allows species\u2014such as fish, trees, a rate that means their numbers resources that sustain human and or crops\u2014to be maintained at a cannot be balanced by natural all other life, improve resilience stable level and even increased reproduction or regrowth. Some over time. Official protected status 62 per cent of species are at risk Anthropogenic biomes for areas of land, water, and ice from agricultural activity alone, can help sustain threatened such as livestock farming, tree The biosphere\u2014all the areas of species, while national and felling, and the production of Earth and its atmosphere that international agreements and crops for food, fuel, fibres, and contain living things\u2014consists negotiations can mitigate the animal fodder. of biomes, which are large impact of both legal and illegal ecosystems based on a specific trade, such as poaching. Public Protecting biodiversity environment, such as desert or education also helps people to In reality, the five HIPPO threats tropical rainforest. The impact better understand their potential identified by Wilson are interrelated, of human actions on biodiversity impacts on biodiversity and how and there is generally no single and the consequent reshaping to protect it for future generations. \u25a0 reason why any particular species of much of the planet have led is endangered. Agricultural ecologists to reassess biomes grouped into six main development, for example, can and suggest that a designation categories: dense settlements; not only destroy a habitat, but can of anthropogenic (manmade) villages; croplands; rangeland; also releases greenhouse gases into biomes is now necessary. forested; and wildlands. the atmosphere, contributing to air Anthropogenic biomes are Unlike other biomes, which can range across continents, anthropogenic biomes are a mosaic of pockets over Earth\u2019s surface. According to ecologists, more than 75 per cent of Earth\u2019s ice-free land has been affected by at least some form of human activity, particularly in dense settlements (urban areas), which account for over half the world\u2019s population, and villages (dense agricultural settlements).","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 96 OWAPMEEANASIRNSEGEINPXHTTAIHNSECETOIOFN BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS IN CONTEXT A biodiversity hotspot is an and increasing challenge of mass area with an unusually extinctions of species caused by KEY FIGURE high concentration of the destruction of premium habitats, Norman Myers (1934\u2013) animal and plant species. The term Myers argued that priorities had was coined in 1988 by Norman to be set to establish where to BEFORE Myers, a British conservationist, concentrate resources to conserve 1950 Theodosius Dobzhansky to describe areas that are both as many lifeforms as possible. studies plant diversity in biologically rich and deeply the tropics. threatened. Facing the huge Defining hotspots Initially, Myers identified ten AFTER The lush hillsides and forests of hotspots crucial for conserving 2000 Myers and collaborators Arunachal Pradesh, India, are part plant species that were endemic reevaluate the list of hotspots of the Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot. (did not grow anywhere else on and add several new ones, The area contains some 40 per cent Earth). By 2000, he had refined the bringing the total to 25. of India\u2019s animal and plant species. concept to focus attention on 2003 An article in American Scientist criticizes the concentration of conservation effort on hotspots, saying that this neglects less species-rich but still important \u201ccoldspots\u201d. 2011 A team of researchers confirm the forests of east Australia as the 35th hotspot. 2016 The North American coastal plain is recognized as meeting the criteria for a global biodiversity hotspot\u2014 and becomes the 36th.","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS 97 ORDERING THE NATURAL WORLD See also: Human activity and biodiversity 92\u201395 \u25a0 The ecosystem 134\u2013137 \u25a0 Deforestation 254\u2013259 \u25a0 Sustainable Biosphere Initiative 322\u2013323 Our welfare is intimately looks like an antelope; it was seen Norman Myers tied up with the welfare of for the first time in 1992, in the wildlife \u2026 by saving the lives Annamite Mountains of Vietnam. Myers was born in 1934 of wild species, we may be The endangered Irrawaddy dolphin and grew up in the north of is found along the coastlines of England. He studied at the saving our own. Southeast Asia and the islands University of Oxford before Norman Myers of Indonesia. Other rare animals moving to Kenya, where he include Eld\u2019s deer, the fishing cat, worked as a government regions that fulfilled two criteria: and the giant ibis. administrator and teacher. the area must contain at least During the 1970s, Myers 1,500 vascular plants (plants with Protective measures studied at the University of roots, stems, and leaves) that were Conservation agencies agree on California, Berkeley, where his endemic, and it must have lost at targets for every hotspot. They list interest in the environment least 70 percent of its primary species that are threatened and grew. He raised concerns vegetation (the plants that originally make plans to conserve and manage about deforestation for cattle grew in the area). Conservation those areas with suitable habitat ranching, describing it as the International, an environmental and viable populations of target \u201chamburger connection.\u201d agency that uses Myers\u2019 concept to plants and animals. Sites are ranked guide its efforts, now lists 36 such according to how vulnerable and Myers raised the concept regions. Although they represent irreplaceable they are. of biodiversity hotspots in only 2.3 percent of Earth\u2019s land the article \u201cThreatened surface, they are home to nearly Myers\u2019 two criteria have been Biotas: \u2018Hotspots\u2019 in Tropical 60 percent of the planet\u2019s plant, criticized by those who say they do Forests,\u201d published in The amphibian, reptile, mammal, and not take account of changing land Environmentalist in 1988. bird species\u2014and a high use in regions where less than 70 In his first book, Ultimate proportion of these species live only percent of good habitat has been Security: The Environmental in their respective hotspot. destroyed. The Amazon rain forest, Basis of Political Stability, he for example, is not within a hotspot argued that environmental Most hotspots lie in the tropics but the forest is being cleared faster problems lead to social and or subtropics. The one facing the than anywhere else on Earth. \u25a0 political crises. In 2007, Time highest threat level is the Indo- magazine hailed Myers as a Burma area in Southeast Asia. We are into the opening Hero of the Environment. Only 5 percent of the original stages of a human-caused habitat remains, but its rivers, biotic holocaust\u2014a wholesale Key works wetlands, and forests are vital for elimination of species\u2014that the conservation of mammals, 1988 \u201cThreatened Biotas: birds, freshwater turtles, and fish. could leave the planet Hotspots in Tropical Forests\u201d Animals unique to this area impoverished for at least 1993 Ultimate Security: The include the saola, a forest-dwelling Environmental Basis of mammal that is related to cattle but five million years. Political Stability Norman Myers","\u0420\u0415\u041b\u0418\u0417 \u041f\u041e\u0414\u0413\u041e\u0422\u041e\u0412\u0418\u041b\u0410 \u0413\u0420\u0423\u041f\u041f\u0410 \\\"What's News\\\" VK.COM\/WSNWS OTHFELIVFAERI"]
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