Herb Winer, History of the Great Mountain Forest

••ster tb1a road, just of the ~ areat, 1• sh n on Plate III.'l'be earlt.e1t extant trawler ' s account. o.t th& Qr-00111rocda waewritten 1n 176S by Lard Adam Oat-don, an .English 3-?'J!\Y officer irho# thoughtd.thout a techni.cal backgr«md1 bad a broad interest 1n trees and forests.His joarnal containa many references to the nature or the coasto.l forests,moat of Which appearcrali.ble in the liebt ot modern knOlt'ledgo•Un.i'wtunately, his remarktJ on the Groamroods, written after hie tripfrQ!1 Canada by way of Al'ba.rq and Harttard, ~ 1.1m1ted1From ~an to Norto~ the countr7 i s r.amant1c and young.lhpeopled, tho roads but middling being not abavo twnty 79anaettledJ trm this you tra.vol miles thro' tbo &l'\"OCm.roods,the woret road I have eeen in Amaric&J this ie a mmeut [1.e.1a newly cut road] and not a habitation all th.'> way, tho' Iaa tol d tbore will eoon be aeveral. After you pass tbiefOS'eet, or noble chestnuts and other tl\".ees; but no ~, ,.o.iran in on a pretty little riftr [the !\"~~] at [aJplace called New Hartford ... • (Gordon, 19161 h46. )Sixteen 79ara i..ter a French veteran of tho Savon Years' Wartruoled over the ea. rou:te dur.l a 3-7ear ~and tour of too UnitedStates. ltnam principally u o. writer, anpoie Jean. fliorquis de Cbaa-telil.w£ was a •mber ot the French Academ,y and a. an who wa.e mor eimpre.s&ed bT the Greenwoods than by tho roughness of the roachan the mrning 0£ th& third [ot Januarr, 1781], I TIQ8 diaaiedto find that the weather, alft38 uncerta~ hBd t.,banOO. I badto go throuch the Greemoods, a thiDly popul.attJd, rucged, anddit!icmlt area. .,. At Canaan I turned l oft [east] and beganto climb the mountains. Untortunately the snorr railed • whereit waa most neceuary, and I had to walk on f«>t most oi' thBny to r eline my horses, who a01D9timee strur.Rlod t o pull thesleigh out ot the mud and at other times !lad to draa it ewerrook• 2 or 3 feet bigh. Thie road ie so r OU{th t.b:lt it 1a hardlyorpoee1bl• to uee elei-«b• unleee there 1a ll r oot and a b4lfanow on the ground. Witb eonaiderable d1ttieulty I ged totruel lS ml.es [trom Sheffi el d, 11.iss. ] bet oro :itoppina 1nNort0clk at a mlaerable inn.llpoo leadng this inn [the next llOl't\ing] I found myself in the

7)Greemroods. This .forest g:roire on the ea.me l'Bnge of hillt Ibad crossed in going t o 1'~1sbk111 (New York] on the road fromLitcbfield. But here the trees are supab• They aro hemlocks, Sand they are so l$rge1 so atraigbt.1 and so toll t.~t I do notbelieft tbe1r equals can be found ln all Uoirtn A~l.ca. Ireeret that Salvatore Rosa or Gaspard PousotrP did not seethe impoeing1 truly grandicso scene pres ented hare by a deep small stream eaUed th~ Nara-valley, t.brougb which hOlfa agontad. 7 Hnge bemlocke shade i t and mak~ it appear mrrowerthan it is. Sme of them r1so obliquely, their eromlS unitingto intercept the nn1s raJ8• {Translated tram Ohastellu,1786s :n4f. )J4119s Tnnehard, an American editor and engraver, describedtho Greemrooda alter a trip from Hartford to Canaan 1n 17691 The o,een-Wooda derive their name from a vast f'Ol\"9st of etatel;y pines, &Oli cover the race of thia part ot the countS\"T.. fhese are clothed i n green boarded moas, 6 which, being pGndant from -wethe bough•, s creens -~ of the trees !Tom the eye• mw t.o the 1'bol..o a glocrltf, wil d, and whimsical app~. ... The a.ape.ct ta mountainous and dreary, but the scom i s naw and then varied as we reach the &wmdts of tho mowrta:ins: here a dtatant prospect. of an 11E8nai9 euccession of htlls, gently anrelling into torm~ and ever3where covered w:ttb ttrees, breaks in upcin the •19• lTNriehat\"d, 1789.)Heire ta a elaar instance of the ueo of \"pine\" to mean hemlock or conifersin general. A llOr9 amb1guOllS reference to npine\" 1n tbo Groen;roods tsS Here and =~ senteMea further Cbastellux vote \"sapins1 \" wbi..cb George Grieve, his eighteenth-century translator, rendered rrt irs-..·1 • (~tellux, 17861 l7S1 17871 4b6t.) , ,. naeons to be diacussed in the~ section, I believe that 9 bemlooks\" l s more accurat..e.6 'Rwo e:lgbteenth-oontury pail'lter• who were famous for their landscapes.7 I haw not been able to det&rmlno either the exact location o1 thia etreaa al' its llOdern name. ?t could haw been • • Olle or ~-al that Chai'rtellux or•aed between Hortolk and New Hartford, Who.re he stopped tor the nlgbt 1 and a -pnotee 1*1atiftcation would add lit tle to the si.gn111oance of the passage.8 According to Pl'of . H., J\" Lutt, probQl y h'uttooae lichens, Usnea epp. or Ale\ltoria 9PP•

74llOe't. lO!ty tr•&t • through whteh be puaed along the west branch 0£ theFar:nington River 1n 1819, was \"interspersed 111.th nUlll)l\"ous pine tree•• \"(SUltman, 162obs 37.) SUl\Mn My have meant \"ptne•1 to :t.ncb1c1e allconifers, or parhape be roferred to wh:ite pine that mia local]¥' abundant\7!.thout being dominant. Similarly lnoonclusivo are th& often-quoted observations otEzra Stile• regarding aize and age or \"pinos\" in tho ~mrocda, Stiles•interest in ring coonts and the age of tree.a ie sh.aim by ~al entriesin hie diaries ( Dezter, 19011 lt 2S3, J8lr , 396). Ao ~~tdent of YalehG mo.de regular vi•ita to tlJt) College farms 1n Norfolk and Canaan, and in.the course or one o.t these trips be entered tha f oUD'ti.ng not.as in hisdi ary1 here given litoral.lyt 18 (Hay 1784]. Rode [fr.am Farmington] -tbro-• ~n Woods [to Ncrtollc]. Counted anmlo·e ot Pines. One 200 & mOl\"O & 1 i/2 feet ta. Another 3$2 years old exclusiw [ot ] sap [wood] we [Which ] ·cont[ained] abaft SO more eo tree lVS8 ~ 400 1'Ml\"8• It was tlu'ee feet utam. The las t or exterior lSO 'incyears not above four Inehe. Butt Cutt. 19 , •• At Norfolk Sawmill a p1m Log ) t & A 'Oima.. 30$ Rings or Ye-ars o! wC $S in the MP• Sound to the heart•.9'lo infer from these lines that t'h.e Greenwoods were lal'gely mdte pine isclearly uDSOWld. Stiles did not even •.&7 that pine tTaS Coomo.t'lJ it tsquit.o poes1\"t>l• that h1a 1.nterest in these stumps and logs as otimulatedboeauae ~,. wre unco..:in. FlnallJ't there ta a poeslbllity tbnt. he,like t!laJ\7 otbere, used \"\"pine\" in i:t• most general senaot the •rd \"bem-locktt ap'peare Mld1en in hia wrtttnga. The growth rate o-£ the t int>tree irent1oned ( 22 i-ings per rad1al. inch) 1 while hr fr'OI! conclusive,wa•9 St1lel ES, T<>l. 3, PP• 6311', Yale Univer11t7 Library,. The passage p,ubUlbed by Oexter (19011 la 121) in so...mat altered and aspanded tor..

aeoll8 more cbaraet.rietlc ot hemlock than of White phew New~leae1 such statemen\"te as those of Tl'encbard and Stileaappoar to haft gained nde eurrency, and thet.r un~ 'ft8D refl.seted1n Burope 48 wel l as tn Arlm1.ca. In bis msstve \"ErdbeschretbUng undGesdd.chte \"YOO taarlka1 \" the Germn geographer Obrtstoph Ebeling wroteot ConnectieutaThe moat extensive and the denae•t roreet stands uo in thenO!'thern r egions, particularly' in atheet.tJrriepenawboooudts14 mdcb ex-tend through Litchftel d County in t o 6 comonmiles wide [• 19-28 Engllab miles]. The ~s consist ofWhol ly f orested mountaiM covered wtth the finest mu.tie pine[Weymouthskiefer J. Beeides t his there are alao goad f arestsin all other parts of the state, except f M> a £<1'11 coastalareas. Cormecticut has mere or t oo other coniferous species, 1n the nortbor n regions than to the south.., whore ~ merebrondloaTed trees {J;f'CTlfe Among the coniters are pitch pine[WelbraucbJdeter], hemlock [Sohierlingstarmo ], wbit.e and redcedar, spruce, and p&rbaps othars. The oaks are the most com-mon of th4t broadleaved trees. ••• Among thO ~ are theA.mnican •la, sa.c.~ae, whi~e and bl a ck birch, am;r speciesof hicJtery •••• thG butternut ••• , cheetmt ('lbtch is vorycommon), Uh, and 'V&l\"ious species ot maple ... • (Tran.slatedfrom Bbel 1ng1 1 793-l.B03t 2t 1961'. )Ebeling n&ver visited the United StatesJ bis information catll'1J fromwavelers and f r om correspondent s 1n may parts or tbe cou.ntry.. TMquotation above illustrates how t he fame of the White pi.no, abottod b7oat-oleas usage, led to the persistent asOUIJIP1iion that tt was Um dominantapooies ·of the 'lreenwooda (see, f or example, c. P. Sld.tb; 19461 8~) .Hemlock was ll!i8nt.1.oned by two travelers who paoood t hrough theGreenwoods early in the rd.ne~uth century. The first mis F.dward Kendall,an f'nglish journalist and pl\"<:aoter of acient1f1o oducatian, who notedtn 1801 that the hilltops from Simsbury to Ganaan ~ tta scant1'fl1\"0!Sth ot stunted tr~esa \" aDQn8 which wae \"white spruce-tir (Pi:mla ablesoaz.deneie), her e called hollllock or hemlock-spruce. \" {trendelJ.. 15091 220t. )

He e.aid nothing abcmt the 1'8Qa.inder or the toreate An Amerioan named Zerah Hawley, of •hose education and vocationn~ 1·e known, foll~ Silliman' a route along the wtlst b.fanch or theF~n R.iver and thrcugh Sandierfiel d,, las.a. , llhicb lies north ofCol.Gbr()()k• There be found the 1ftenwood8 •a very thick !'~t or e.,.._green. composed O\"f the lofty hemlock, spruce, and a ~ae spea:les otlaurel-, trhieh contirmed for four mile s withoat an inbabitant .n (Hawley,i6221 s. > Another sar&p of evidoooe is a remin1seenec of the 'Rev. R•lphBmer~on, minister at Norf olk from 181.S to 1829. ifrit ing in la~ yearsto a former parlsh1o¥r, he recaptured hi s impressions of the tomi behad known eo •ellr· No doubt t he forests, the orchards, the ~\"ls, the meadan amt.le as gaily in their vernal attire, and tho oeena.ry is ju\"8t •a d1wrsif1ed and roaantie as t1hen I f1fft behold it 1n those stern \Tinter days !:If ~ earliest visit, 'Whan the rocks and hills, and hemlock 1foods, and narrow paesee, and that strange oon1cal mountain [Hays·taek ] we-re all so new to mo, (Grtssey, 19001 173.) We nay oonclu® this section of early desariptions rtith relevant~cte flo-om Ti.mot.by D\"1.gbt •s 1'1-avelaJ1 'Dlright wao probably tho mostcompetent of the early travelers in th$ F'orest regi.on. Tnoue.'1 lacldngforUll botanical training, lr waa a careful observer of trees and f crestawberevar be want. Some or hitt speculation :m rarest suocosGion and\"equtvoeal seneration\" may n,,.-r seem some-~at ~de cf the nm-k, but 1toften pNned shreWd and aceul'ate. At any rete, be knew t he differencebetrteen a pine and a hem.lock (see bi• de•cript1on Gt New Ene].and treas,Dwtflbt. 1821-221 1 1 %-h2), and his obsenations of treo sp&dos andf oroat stands were almost aln19 credible.

71Dtrlgbt Oft'81' reoord,ed a trip through the Gree•oods, but be diddescPlbe eewral j,oorne19 from New S.en in Which he took the Litchfiel dRoad through Oosben and CO.l\"nwall Hollow t o Canaan. On the first of thesetripe1 during Septe!IMr 17981 he observed thatBelCM' .L1Wbfiel d the foreete are universal.11' ol\aemk1lohckick&orey. ; &<!.In Goshen they a.re composed of maple, beedl, 'l'hefirst Wbite pines 'Vihicb we saw on this r oad ~e in oshen•( Dwight, 182142, 2 1 J 74. )Dwight recorded what he saw, and by 1795 the exiating forests south ofGoshon had already been extensively di sturbed ( see~ 3# !l.t . 70) . Tothe north, however, conditions were markedly dil'ferent... As Dnieht noteddur1ng a later journey ovor the same r oute, in 16021TP..e settlements here [in Goshen, Cornwall, and etusaan ] arerecent, 'CO~ nth naost others in the Sto.t&. 'rh9 oundsare i mper fectly cl eare--1. The agr!cultura is 1nciiff01•ant, andthe hOU.a are chlofly new and smau. {Dwight., 1621-22, )a 336.)Dwigbt•s statement aballt tho .forests of ~oshen thus t\"ai'~ to standsundcubtedly closs r to their prs-eol onial condition than those c:Jl&ewberein Connecticut .The reference to White pine in IJoehen illustrates Dldgtit•st.ntc!U'eet 1n \" thi·s most noble or all V'&geW.ble produe~ions_.\" (1821-2212• 109.) It doe• not necessarily mean that pine had been absent fromthe pre-colord.al f orest ot sou.thor n Connecticut, but mare ~t~q thatsuch pine as onue dtd occur had 4lready been heavlly cut.. Ag.a.:tn, afterpaeaf.ng through Cormrall Mollolr in 17981 tw1ght wrote tb<l.t The valle7 11 ~ roanttc. .. •• Several gi-ows of 'lfbite pi ne riso upon [the borders or' the tfollonbeok River J. (Dwight, 1821-22, 21 l'TS.)Simi.tar and 1ICll\"8 detail.ed pusages occurred trequent,.q ~ont the•Trawl.et\" retlac'ttng mare elearl.7 Dwight ' s adld.ratS.on of the· White pine,

b1a deaire. that t t not be confused with other1 inter!.or eon1£ere• andb1.s CJom)8j!D le•t it be exterm.\na\"tod by cnucutting-.The Uae of the Ward \"Remlook\" The preceding quotaUons, involving the t.lre&mTeods and itsetlTUOft81 show that ear1.y description.a of ool.on:f.al f'Ol'&ata of ten 9\lffered£rem the limited competence and intentions of their au:tncrs. Theseweatmeeee wore often aggravated by the careless uso of wrnacu.lar namesof tieea, notably healoek• 18 tbe qu~ted passages ~, early referene&stQ ~ock are not urimown. H~r, in the light of othoP e-vidonce(e11·pe.ciall7 t he tallies of wt.tnesa trees from t he propcl.etoi·e• surveys),such referenoea fall short of a reasonable expectation in both abundanceand ld.nd, The reuons rcr tMa <ieficie.nc;y mq be attributed to the£oll~na major faotoret {1) The habit, st.ill pi'8'V8J.ent amoft3 Dtll\Yeducated persOJU'., of cal. ling all c onU'ers \"pines\" J ( 2) tbe superficial.resomblance of hemlock to balsam f ir and the spruces or NGlr F:DglandJ(:J) the abe~nce of any European species of Tsura, With a consequentlack of utabllshed European common namee tor hemlool:J nnd (4) the generalpteoccupatlon wtth trbite ptne among northeastem softT1ooas1 based on~ and eomercial consi derations. Each of the~ factor's deservescOd!SiderationJ 1n separating them f or oorrvenience in disallssion.,, ft tnUStbear ln mind that they W8!\"8 uauall.1' combined tn aparatt<m. (1) The uae ct f>pinefl in the broad aense as a ~ tar40QUere <r evergl'ffn treee 18 ancient 1n Raglish1. and it ie naturallya practice inore commaa ·amcng literary tra\"9lare than amq ternen,~or•, er othere whose vork required or encouraged t am.Uinrity with

tlm ~1oue spoci\" o! conifers. Timothy nw:tght (1821~21 l; J6.ih2)intended Id.a detail ed descriptS.ona of rm England .trees in part as anantidote to th1e vagueneos in mn:y travelers ' accoant1'1 CJ~l.lux,himself 4 llte\9aey travelor, had complained earllcnt of tho slovenlylinguistic hab1ts of the l\merleans he obswved1 tbetr p:roeccupati.on w1threduci ng the wild9rne1's and ameseini weal th had l e-tt little t'.fm f or theonrichment of their lall.8'1aee. I n aonsequence, Cb.astol.hu (1?06t 36-37)n11Jted1 niea pins• lea ~a1 les sapi.nit8 -.re all luapo-0 unclor the nameof f.lpi.ne-t.l\"eee. • His comment i s hardly m id as a blan.~Gt go.mraltaation,but then, as 1\0llf1 it probably applied to a substantial. segmnt of tbewriting public. · (2) Heml.octc. balatll!l f ir, and the spruces of New · dam area,11 aborW•ved evero-een coni.feFQ• Mdence of ccnf\laion an this score1s frequent~ difficult te 1tlont117 and evaluate. f ar it q- involve.no\"'~ mora than the ond.BD!.on ot an expected refenmce to hotilock. one example, ~ ~' of such negative ov.J.dence :ts Williamt''ooct'a \"New Rngl.anda Prospect• a 1n 11h1~b appeared tho earliest. aeeount().f tbs \"tillbers of New England, \" or, more properq, of tho saaohusottsBl\V' Col.OPYt Wood 111Dntioned 21 species and gellSl'a or natd.ve trees,inc-luding p ine, oedar, t 1r, spruce, end n.cyprts'' (1.e. 1 .Atlantic lfbite-ced;lr),. Al though he wnnt into some detail to 41scr.t.mi.Mto betm3ettGe'OOl'al speciea and their En«ltoh counterpane• he did not. mn'td.on hemlocka t all (Wood, 16.3!)a lJ-lS) * Mia travels never t ook him ~ ~ 1-Ttlan.d1but it seems ~arocal¥ possible tbat during h 19are in tbo I&luacbueetts~ Col-., be never saw a hemloek1 clearly, Wood .111.lSt Mw consideredlt N a aort of apru.oe or t .ir•

80A more troubleaottll!l lnstance is the petition o! nt.ehe.rd Sackett,a.ddrosaed to the govwnor and General Assembly of CmmactJ.cut '!n 110~.SGcl:ott was a New Yorker engaged 1n export.in« maets, ~s, and \"suchlike timber \" for the Royal ?favy and the Brlt1sb nierchant. neot. Miupotttton prayed forthe full libert y and privilege of f'elltnz, cuttinS, eotting all such trees or Pine1 Spruce (JI! other Timber may be mrl.tabl e rcr the utKls af orosa!.d~ inCf6ony [and t:N.nap<llt'ti.ng <lf Connecticut ], notWhat.soever, that4Qr ft'lUl!pS _. placou Tl!t.bin thlsheretofore gtvon and granted • •• •There is no record of action on Sackett•s pet ition, nor t u tllorG ~other esternal evidence to indieate bis familiarity with tbe f orests ofConnecticut. Considering the l1m1ted distribution a.nd abundance of redand blaok spruoe 111 the state,. Hawes (1923) suggested that by nspruee\"Snclcctt meant \"hemlock.• This eoojeoture is not Ul'll\"OasonablD_.Hemlock is conspicuously absent trta the vrit!ngs of three~n ot the Revolutionary peri who took more tban n passing \ast-'l'lam~~ntorest in fQl\"este, Patnmll1 Anburoy1 and '*An Americnn•\" The latt.m!\"uaa- an English agiculturist n otte \"American Hus~ displ,aJsd a~ally perde:ptive understanding or col.onial agriO'(ll'turo ( ~ 1939) .Hts conoern \Tith f orests ~ their prudont use was ro~tod in mn,ypasSil.ges in atld1Uon tG tb!s ~ paragraph1 Among the otb.~r pi.~otions or [Se\"tr Engl.ana] 1 I should not forge·t tbe woods• TJbieh, in tho parts not brOQgirt into culture, are TeJT noble• tll$Y consist of oak, ash, elm~ cb.Gstmit, cypress, cedar, beoch1 .tir,ash, sassafrao, and oumach. The oak is voy good, and e::nployed cbietly in shi-p••il)nild:ln1n a nd the t1r yie l.ds ver7 grently f ar masts, yards ,. and plankJ- even the r oya-J. uvy is supplied troa lutnce with mast.a o£ 01110 Connecticut Ari>bifts• Trnde and laritimE> Aft'aira• eories I , voL 1, pt• 11 deo• hO (Caanectiou-t St.ate Libre,.) •

81e~aordinary simo .._. • (The uneet.tl.ed par'to of lb'!' England]are, flith an ex.cept i on of some open mead~ and marahos• onecontinued and th1dc f or est ot the a~t-iblled 5t6'.-r5ee·s~ilbl u t .Y of pines_.partioularJ {\"An American, \" 1775, ltThe omission of hemlock, tho us t: of \" f ir-tt f or 'White pine~ tho useof r1~.ine\" 1n its broad sense, ~nd the repetition of \"aahtr are typicalof the erra.tio praetioes f cund oven 11100ng the writinga o~ caraful(;)igbteonth-oentury vtsi tors.Thomas Pcmnall S?f,mt 6 ~s in Amrica.; f1~om 1757 to 1759 hewae govern.er general of :Jansacbusetts Say Colony. His 11Top~hicalf.escription\" of the middle British colonies includ&c.l the f ollo.-•lngparugraph, r elating to Connocti out ~nd l.tassachusetta OO(~t of theCounoe~1eut River =Tbe natural vegetation or this country, vhloh I haw beendeacribing, l s p1DG of mail7 sorts, the 'Ohito moti...ng pi.no andthe pitch t.>inOJ fir~. ocdar, and spruce J ootro of: MD.Y $or'te1red, black• and mitcJ beech, birtlh, map le_, and baas J ashand elm, \"both black ulld whiteJ walnut , hickory, hornbeam, andacacia. Jut tbeoo dif£erent epeoies or wood ~~te ineach place, the soil may oo pronounced to be or mould, loanwand moist• stony or sandy, light or stiff.- ( P<:l'1nnll, 1776t 64. )Tho ~nt ot thta liSt 1s of som intereet, ah~ a sepat'a.t1onor ~ and spectea into softwoods s.nd hardwoods o.nd th grauping otassooiated hardwoods 111ro beech, btrcll, and maple. Tho mn. Who wr-0tesuch a passage, including a minor species 11.ke &C4ci.a (l>laok locust),wOUl.d hlt.rdl¥ h3ve neglected to mention hemlock, unless bo Md confused!t -oith spruce or fir,It •Y' bo argued, of course, _ tbat the mare presenoo of a list

troos in the C1el<4, Ria acquaintance mi.gbt have been sliebt~ ba$6dlargely on lite.racy or co.~ &xperienoe. In P~U•a case, hie¢t'Gdibilit7 is bolstered by two extended diecue&ions of f~st sucoeaeion(1776• 23-2$' 102- 103) as ~u a-s by tho evident oaro a.nd ~curacy ofhis athol\" obaorvationa. But in cons idering tbe remrke of ThS'.lS An.bu~e;r,ne ore 1n a pcM1tlon to dtseount his oompotence 1n the li.eht o£ intGt'nal Anburoy eeryed as a lieutenant in IJenBral ~9 •s tJlrJrqduring the ReYOlution. After the otDTendor at Saratoga in l 771 .he - .pnrollni1 and ho us then pernd.tted to pue ~ ee.ut.Jwrn V~ and!:tlssachusetts to Cambl\"l.dge; Whence he was to haw returned to F.~' d.During this mirch and the precedi ng campaigns 1n Canada and Nmr York,Im had presumably had an oppcrtunity to see eome'tbinfl o£ th.o r~faro.a.ts..- In a 11lettert1l2 dat.ed ~y 201 1778, Anburey ~sod bie.~Bai.ODS I New i Jl3].and prodaoos 'V$r.Y' good ts.mer• the fJQQdo and $7&ipe abounding With~, e1-, ~ eypreas , pioo• chestnut, walnut., cedar• astriJJit beech; £!»• sasaatras• aDd SW!l'.l'Ch~ Witb all ot.her kinds of trees that P'Ofl in Englandf the firs are. of anla 'i'rawlertt ot tbia perio d co~ aet d~ t.heir ~ions t or 01attera,\" poe;tertty in aeries or cateMibl,y ~ 1..nte~ f~ tho pl\"Off• In Anbul\"ey•s easa iii 800tlS clear that his ~ letters, if ~, were hardl.T more ti.ban lath C1'1flr Ylhich he pl..'l~ 'IJml mterial txttwe-on hie return t o Bngl-Wld in 1781 and the publicat ion of the work 1n 1789'. The. davice 0£ 0 'bttters\" wore tnn.sparontlg thin:; but 1t8 uee persiJJt ed as l ate as the publication of Dwight' s \"Trave:leu (1821• 22). 'f'hougn it deceived no one, the 19tter rorm was oonwniant; pravldine a ready excuse t or begging the Il~ader ' s 1miuJ.ccl\()G an account of •IV' want of Learning ar In.tellcity er St.yla &c &Ii•1.) Thia w_.d appear• in no, major dicttonaryJ it may b..- a t ypographical ·~nol:' t or •aspen,.\" or Anburey' o corruption of &Ot:l9 otb01' nam.,

83 extraordinary gr~ht f tlr m.3.et.s, y.irds,, and planks1 tho 8Un'llcb is 01cb used by tho tanner-s and d19rs, and the oo®r produces anet gums, besides being extremely usaM in ~g sbinglse far eovoringa t o their dwellings, as beW, the most durable and leut. injured by the weatb.81\"; but the treasu.t.\"O and c.1. .ory of the woods are the monareh oak, the spruco, and fir t.roos,. which are in sueb abundance tllat the na-vy or England r.dgbt be supplied With all sorts of naval stores e.t a cheaper rate than i'r01a the BaltioJ and it ia on tbts ae-count that they bu!ld ~ sht.pe in this provinoe than all the other parts oi r~ea lfj • • • (An- burey, 1789• 2a 223-224.} Th-0 first tiv.e lioos of this passage were eloarq bo.®cl on ananalogous para~ in t•Amarican Husbandry• \" publlshed in 17715 and quotedabOl.re on page 80. Tha a ddition of \"pine, \" 11walnut, n ond n~oo11 thus~ as fr-oet.tng on a borrowed ~e, f ar Which tho roadOi· woe preparedby Anlmrey'·e pretat<xry etatemnt that tttba facts cam tdtttlll bis onknarlladgo1 or are supported by som bonorablo euthority ... •\" (1789:11' \"11.) In an extended <llscuasion or Canad1an f o.rest-o-.porbapa alsoborrcaid-Anburey .eonnentcd upm the \"l.ort1noss of tho p.Lnos, ~t.reee,and cedal'u1 which are of a nize. perteetly astoniahiJ.ne,. u Ho discussed'*ite and red pine and 'lbite and red cedar, add•..ng1 °Tlw.ro wro $EIV'aral~O'S of f~es, 1thieh riao to a great height, are ~-cellently enl-cukrt.ed !er masta, as wel l aa ~ s~t of carpenter-*s work.n Cl '1891li 67, ) Ai'tel1 briefly oonsider ing the oaks, \"\"1alm.lts#\" boeehi oln, and~ aaple, Anl)urey closed the ae~t1on With th0 Gtt.ltezsnt, lf:Z a.m nob~.\" (1789, 11 89. ) During the early rd.neteentb cr.mtury, ffhoml.ock\" (~ the'tt'<m)·and 0 heml.ock spr-uce0 began to appear in the vooabularl.es (If bota.n.-:lca.lly tmtralned tsnglts~14 Subsequent Endisb travel~a t.'rAAre f1mer~ An tnteroettng U1uswat1on Qf variant usage appeore from 3 eomparison

1n llU1li>er and sel do:i took occasion to corm::aant on tho f at'Gets of Connec-t1cnt or southorn Bew Bngl.o.nd; but wbon they did tho,y ~ CiotiJl..g-uitlhod hem.lock, ( 3) Among the cor.non trees that f areign tz-nvoloro 9'117 in America,bed.ook waa the mat illpclrtnnt t bat lacked a Bnr0pe411 oquival.ant and, inconaoquencet a EurOP3Clll nama. '1hts t act certainly turtheroc1 tho naturaltoDtlomJy tO/t' foreign Ti.sitars to contuse hemlock With other eeili!ors. The Bngliab wcrd \"beml.ook\" is of Anglo-Saxon orieJ.n, but bef'oret he oeventeentb century it donated only the polaonOWJ umbGUif erounherbs Caa.t.um •culatw:a L. and Ci outa epp. The exte.Mican o£ its mamngt o 1nclude the tree ne an Amorica.niam or uncertain dt\"J.rivattor.i. perhaps\"fl'oll the re1emblan~ ot ti. brencbea in tem.d.ty and posit.1.on t o tbao£' tliroe prlntod version.a of Adam Hodcaon's travels. Hodcaon, anr:11gl18b 1Jlporter, spent 16 mantha in the United St.ato&1 ~tod in partto vialtins various otss-l<ml47 oatabliahments. In a \"lcttcru fromUn' Yark, be described his journey f Nll Cornlfall1 tJbox'o be brui otoppedat the !ifiaaion Schools\Te lef't Cormrall o.t t en o•cl ock1 on t he f3odur[Otf:\"lf!.fle.asr,ohl,a1y8t2h1r]o1u.ginb road, fan open aleigb. Our at' three ara natural crove of h otailildockoaseprmut~i.aand8~; \lhich Eg!!r!e!,e!n! larab onr our beads,te'U'eiformed a fine contrast with tho nr:m £allon sno;-r ••• •(Rodg•on. 1623cu JSh.} [Italics added. ]Tb1o 'f'ersion was published in an English e eolestostieal monthly, whoseoditor apparently inserted the CODDll after \"hemloe!:. n ~ there-after the eam pueage appeared in identical .tarm in an !J:m'icanedition (Hodpon; 1823?>1 247). To the American edit.er• Samel Wb1ting,benlloolr na one tree and spruce anotberJ unmindtul ot the fact thatspruces were uncc:zmon 1n the Fcrest r eglcn., he app.'.XrOnt~ caw no reasonto alter the paeeage. But TJhen the book lnls l ator !Daued in Fagland,It····modified fer atylistio and teohnloal rffftlDllprore~bq under tbe authcr•e direction, the ltalioi~od lino TraS D&ltural grove orhemlock apruce ( Pinus C4Dadena18, ) '1ld cedar, whic'l huna over our path•••••(Hodgaon, 1821n JOO.)

85leaves of the oollmOn hemlock. ' (Oxford English Dictionary. ) Tho t'irst printed reference to \"hemlock\" in the ~ s ensea.ppeQl\"ed in Jo8selyn' u \"Ntm\" f.nglauda Rarities D1scovorct:t. u published in1672, Joaselyn (1672: 621 64) deaeribed th~ medioinal uses of bark fromthe \"board pine or hemlock tree.\" Which be later def:L\"Wd a& \"a kind o!op!'aea•11 The first two editions of John E-velyn t s \"S,.lva, 11 pabllshed inl.66h and 1670, did not nention hemlock, In the third ec1it10J'l, r.•velyn(l 679t 102) inserted this sentence, probably dertwd from Joooolyni-uThe Heclock-~ (as they call it in !!!.!~.DF,JJpld) is u kind of SPNC!• \".These ref eronoos wer e of a speci al sort, hOllOVer, and i\"t mo not untilthe nineteenth century that the English use of Jlbemloek1' grew e~lS Among the residents of the colonies, \"hemlockn bo~ standardduring the eighteenth century. The word occurred in numarouo ~criptsand local records starting no later than 1703 (Oxford ' ne11sh ntotioaary) . 16Dr. li'illiam Donglaeo (1749- 53, 21 5S) mntioned hotnloel; bricf ]Jr as oneoror tJ1c f i ve \"firs the gror.tb o! New t ngland. · Jere;rq Del.knap•o dca-aiption of New Rauipshire forests (1792: lll ) contain&d a l~ttph onthe hemlock, \"in stature ttie next tree to the mast p!M. 11 ? ro yearsa£tar ho bad aettl.ed in ~ in 1796, Benjamin Vaughan co-~d upona tNo be had not kn011n i n 1'~d1lS 'l'o the modern Englishman Without technical t.r ai.oing1 the use Qf \"hem- loelc\" (for tho tree) baa r omined an unfamiliar AioorictUlism (HorwUl, 19)!)) .16 An uample or changing ~at.lee may be f ound in tbo rrritin:;s of IJeorge Waeb1ngton. l• a suneY'QI' 1n western Vtrg1.nta ba:i 1748 to l ~211 Washington Noord6d t1rO witness trees ae •opruce ptno• n lbicb Spurr (1951) conaldered to Rter to hemlock. Tn 1786 lfaa~ noted in his diary that. ha bad 0ptantod the hem.look pine ~ 'u.lS broueht t o • by CorneU.UB llctlenot Roe from C.Olo. BlActburn•s in rt{ cbrubberies [at llount Vernon]••••• {fitZ,p&trick, 192S, Jc 9-10.)

86 Tbde is • epeotes ot pine cal.lad here the btml.29 lfithout any addition, This hemlock is found t.n ?Z'~ abundance tr. looks eomawha-t like the oypreu or oven tho cede known in the English shrubberies, (US publiahed by Chit'l3rd1 19451 486.)When Tiuu>tby Dll'ight wrote bis discussion of the princip.'ll iorost t:neaof l b Engl and (1821-22, l: 36}, be began the t.\"lird pal\"ngraph with thestatements \"The Hemlock hardq needs a description. \" A·10.\"tg Americanst he name bad becaae uniYeraall.y lcnon (Yi.chaux, 1610.l.3~ le 137) .. Like the Americans, the J'rench 1n canada. f'~'ld a def\"ioi•n07in tbe1r 01'Jl tongue w1th r espect to bemloclc, Which they remed1e<l wtth~~e word \"prusse, \" (Bouclwr,. 16641 51 ), ·later \"J>4ru::if)G1 ° and tt(fJI \"pruche\"(P.ornald, 1950: SJ) . None of these words ever gained currancy in France,Where \"o&pin du C&nada\" is nOlf t he usual t~ f or hemlock. t~ MrqFrench trawlers (e. g., Cbe.st ellux, quoted on p.. 72)1 bom.1.ock wasgena-r a lly labelled • sapin, \" :tnvariabq rendel\"'ed \" f ir' by !\"~ -trans-lators . Tc at least one transl.at -car, the word \"\"hemloclc1 u Whan uocd bya ~f'ul French writer as a teohrd.cal t erm, was too sti·~ to beaee&~le as Bnglieb.1717 La Rocbefoucauld-Lianconrt,_ who unfortunately never viai.ted the Forest~on, wrote of Maine, \"L' hemlock y est abondant1 pal\"'ti~ntpr4s de N-0rt.n- Y'armouth1 n ll'hi.ch wae tranalA~d as, \"The oilve:r f'i.FB1'0Q in great plenty in the ne!.ghborhood of North Yarmouth8 (179'-Ja,3: 2$5; 1799b. l• 542)~ Agai.n_. 1n desorilrl.ng tba North Haven sand etlacphpeesatr.atdoJui,n ~17i'9a!S.1t ta Rocbefoooauld wrote that \"lee terreaplain as isont plu a sablcmeuaes et paraiooent peu rortu.es.Quelques pins plane•, 9' et IA, leur donnent 1•apparenc0 de la st&rilite1 \" and incapabl e of f~rtillt,-,.. SOllK3wb!cl1 became ttthe soU ts satid)tallftl' fin are t~ ecw.t teNd over thie tr&Qt and ml-:e but a poorappearance\" (l 799a,, Jc 21.61 17991>. la S2l).T10lotb7 Dwight. n o appue~ 1acftd aooe-tS; to tho ~· text,crit1Ciaed La Rccbef oueaul.d sever&l.1't 1'The Duke m.rrtroot a kind of'~per for •il•er tUa and waa perf ect.1¥ right in saying that theyzt'IQke. a poor appearance. Uis accounts of ®r ! oreot.G are e~Gl'r~oua,. and be ott(m finds ot-ber treea, b&aldes firs, ~ no

87 A final. tlluatl'at ian of contusion engendered in ir3.nslatioa~ be cited from the work or c. F. Volney, a 'Freach S'Cholar alld natur~lphilosopher, who spent ) years in t ho untted Statea bogf...nning 1n ~79S.Volmy tra.s not eepec1all,v' ~ated tn f areat.s, but ha di<l inelude atypical tet of pa:ragraphs describing the nsouthern,\"' umtdd~1 tt and0nnrtbern\" forest regions. The northern forest, he \'11'0'to~pi:!encore c<>mpOStf de aapins~ mlleses, cedres,, ~a1 etc. , foro3t\"part des contins eu e&dent Li. e ., tho \"m1d<llo J,conre le nord dU H-.YGrk• l •tnthieur du Ootir~iout et deMusaehueetts. donne son nom 4 l't(tat de Vermont [i,o.., Verd-Vont J. {Volne7, if.~>31 lr u .)/l..n &nmJ;Jmou English t-ranslat OF rendered the epeei.es in standard £asb1.on&c.•as \"pines, f ire, larcbea, oodara, . cyppes-sea, (Vo~, 1801.i:u 10).Wltil a freer hand, the Aar1can novelist and editor Oharl&s BrockdenBrown tnt\.11.tted the paeaget[fbe ncrt.bern forest ] is l1kewise composed of the fir, pine,larch, cedar, and eypross. It spreads i tself cm;,r tt1'l vroaternparts of New I~> and the inland c'OUDtriGS of 58\7 England •. •. ,(Volney, l804bt 9. )Volm¥1s Ol\"iginal version tma not partieularly onlightan.1.ng, but Brown'stranslation made no impravemeat. Timothy Dw1.gbt had thic translat ion1n l!Xl.nd when ho directed against VolmJy his sharpest eritioism of theway most f c:reigners described Amsrioan f orestsa I have already given a sufflc1ent account of th43 f orests of these c~tr1ee, and shall only observe hw.e that the f il' is a solit&J7 tFeo, thinly &cattered upon tho mountains, sauth~ trb0l er 11ill ever t ind the1a.• ( Dwight, 1821-22',. hi 243. )Olmftcd (1937: 271) al.So eoas!&tred this \"silver fir\" of tho sndplain w have been nd cedar {juniper).. Tb.is is possibl.ej i t 18 alsopossible t.hllt La Roehef ~caUld n e r-efening ta pitdt ptoo, 1'fh1cb DOBd<ninat4te OQ8 ~soe-iatiorn oeOUJTing on tbe pi.in (Olm&ted, 1937i2ta57R.2o6u1.o)h•etoBuCoIaRuVledS\"s1awweTlch1awnnoptinrue.le out the poss:1Mlit7 that

88of flew H•11PSh1re and Voracmt, and that i t 1D raroly f ound inthese atates, except on the mountains, bel oo ~titutlo f arty-fom'J tbat the pin&, south ot the ntstriot of :!aine, if itw re all collected into one spot, would s~coly cO'O'Cr thecounty o! Hmapehiro [Vaas . ]J that the lo.rcb, thoueh ~exieting in New BneJ,and, 1e s!' rare that I bo.vo never yet en one1 that the cedar, •er it all colleetod., wouldscnr-cely f i l l three tclms'iips J and t hat tho C\"J' Pl'OO~ in no~,1t1.thin J17 knar1odee, found either 1n New cl.anC or t:e1., York•• •• Nine-tenths of all tho fOri?lsts in t.hio country [N1'\"J'fi Rnglandand New York] , south of the Diatri.ot of f!A!no, aro o~d mplo ~ e:s:.either o fo a2k1,.81h1celr«.7.rly'1b &c. ar of beech, (nwight 11821-22, 1.n id,, lt 60. )nwight•s criticism was partly inorited1 since Volney ner,l 12etoo completelythe nortb,em hard'Woods, and he llated the oonU'en w1thout mdl concernf er the-ir abundance. But he was not as careless as \"'-.ght thoughts8 oa.p1Da\" llllSt haw incl uded hemlock and apruce, .aa wll as f irJ \"'mlleeo\"co:mt tamraok, wbicb ~gbt knew not u \"larch, \" but o..cy no \"haemontac\"or \"tamarlak\" (1821-22, 11 J6)J and \"CJPNs11 aa usual rofor.red t.o Atlanticwhi te-cedar. Early Germn ae<>oimta of American trees ~ the $Ol.:I) laokof Q word f or hemlock as in Snslleh and Frenob. Hc:mlootc: was ap.~tly'1Ullp)d indi ecrimtnately wt.th \"Tanna• \" \"Fi cbte, 0 and \" Ktof'er•\" The modern'•Sch1erl1ngstanne\" did not appear until late in the oi{:btoontb century•preaumably a l oan tranalatien from the English \"homlock fu-. nl818 \"Sch1erling\" was (and still is) restricted to tho hc1\"b<looou3 healoeks.tlo reference to hemlock by' 4f13 nam occurred 1n tho earliest Germandesci-iptions of AmeriC3n f oreot. trees {von a ngonhoil:l, 1781,; l!osm-,r16S) . Su 79ara atter tho a-ppearance of bis first ~ork, VOD. •f'QDgCnhe1m (178?t 39-40) publishe~ a tu1l and Uluotratod acoO\Ult oLbeml.ock1 w1th ener a l obsorvations on 1ts silrlcal b3bitD6 in l'lhieh heded.gnated t he tree as ttSchicrlinastanns. \" This .ar~ quickly gainedcurrency, and it wu used by Ebeling {179 3-18031 21 196)1 quoted on 1spogo 7 51( and by tbe ranslator of La Rocllof t '3cn:r1n t o-..icauld-!J.aneourtravele 799c, 21 3 note 17). l 7~) {eee

(h) The comercial ~co o-f whit.e p1n0 WT'.Qll~ ncrtbernccmif.-e began with the earliest aettlemnta. 'lhroueh0t1t. 1to oo:mreial.r anto1 White pino ftS mothe:r\"s milk to the infant lum1>c~ in<lwltry, andonly after the suppl y mae v1.rtuall y exhausted di d othor co\"d.!'ers assumetlljal' CQaQercial iq>ortance. The attitudes that prevailed U?.tll.recontl.y \"1th r t'lepeot to western white pine and its associo.teo Ql'Grond.nisoent. of the typ~'ll early regard f or the whito m.1'!n in thotlorthoaet. Where White pine 'fRl.11 abundant i n the arig:i.nal f oroot of thellortboo.st it comlnated the co:;.rm-<d.al ecom com:plotoq ; m10re it '1'138acarce it r eco1vod special attention for that Yery ~aon. im:i~t•s~ks about the abundance o! white pine, quoted on tho pr ocoding page,wc;ro doubtl.eas partially inspired '>7 h1o destre to ccnTOot this bias.By his day it was $opeoially easy to exageo te tho ~trulC& or 1'hit.eplllc in southern Hn l and, since most of tbc ol.d-crosrth pine badal1\"03dy be-On cut, and ol.d-field pine na not yet 1'1doq ostabllshed. Se?Oral p.usagoa. from ear]¥ writ1nga already quoted in t bieoect.lan abow a preoccupation mth wtnte pine. Anothor instOnco i a Petert?b.itnay's h~st.o17 of Worcestor Count.,-, Kass . , publiehod in 1193, whichCQ1taincd brief comments 011 tile t oreate ot each to=n. Re.up {1937) andRaup 81ld Carlson {1941) have established nbitnsy•s gonora1 co:::ipateneeas an observer, although sooo question r emains as tn the oxtont ofprevi ous cutting and burnin.1. in tho stands that •llrl.tnoy o.:r.-, (Bytiro,~46J nay, 19S3) . lfhat iD re~nt bore is the empbaG1o on l'1bi.te pine,Which itney uaualq considered worthy of mention Whether i t Tr.laabun&mt or not. I n 1 $ of tbs lt9 town• in orceat&r County, litney

90ulisted ~ite pine ae be1tt\"' present , 1~ WlStated quant ityJ tcr.ns had\"omsidorablen whit e pine and anot~r 4 tawmJ twnot maeb11 ar r:V'Ct'J' llttle\"Jin 8 t Oll'DS 'lfhite pine was notable ehiei'l.y by Ti.rtuo of its boingflch1-0f ly cut offf· or 11moetly ,..;orkod up.nl9 Sueb stQtorJ.)nts ao these,OP course, W8r'\ never intended to haft quantitative ei¢f ic&noo1 ueept1n ~ OOllll18rC1al sens&J w1t.hout exploring tboir !r:xplir~tions 1'w:1:her•m> can Had11.y reooanize a 09liber3.te concern r or wh!to ptna tl'l:lt wnee:tcndod to oo othoJ> •peclea. Leng atter the ald-er<JWth wtrl.te pine had been ernoiallyaxh.austod over all of s outhem Now England, this proocc-1.1pat 1on continued.It was sti nW.at&d toward tne eloee of t he ninsteenth centur.r by thelfi.do-epreod harveeti na or vohmteer o1<!- .tie1d \\\"hite pi.co, Whicn reacheda peak between 1890 am 1910, enrttng a poarerM infiuenoo oncont.empor&rJ' eil.S.oultural thought (lutt and Clino• 1947):. Dy that titneheavy cuttinfl and damge by f ire bad relegated be!alook to 4 miner position,and this fact, together With the importance of old-tiold ptno, lod to .at least one <ltecuesion of the original f arosts ot No\7 ~ in 1Jh!chhoml.oe.k n1 comple tel7 tnnared (Hnl•y and ff.awes» 1912s 183-195) . Altboogb the evidence preM~d i n thie SGCtion ha:> beenf ocuae d pr1marily on the 1' arost r e gion, its sigmfioance ~-;>licogemrn113, I believe, to t he question of the rol e of hetilock thrQJgboutthe pro-coloni.al .fortts~s of s outhern R• Engl.and. Tho scarcit7 of ror-erenoea to hemlock in early descriptions of the f orest, ospoci G.l.ly whenl9 Tho latter towns. and tho pace reterenoes in Whi tswy (119))1 l'ltlNt Aahburnbam (266r. ), Rol ?on (19'1\"' lun.Jnberg (146)• 'UfOl'd (2)7), Spencer {214). SterUna (302), Sturbridge (187). and 17e9't.!1S.Mtor (225) .