Herb Winer, History of the Great Mountain Forest

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PROPBtt'l J u. • ,, .i,~ .. \" UA'l'!!i ~~tiU\JJ. v • ..-.-Adviser---~-l&cultJ YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY. NSW HAVEN. OONN.

HDlfGllY at 'l'R! GREAT KOUNTAJI JUmST', Ll't'CBrIBLD OOllft'l', C<lllm:TICUf A ~tatian Pra8eDtec1 to the Faoul~ otlfh• Gnduate Sehool ot Yale tmiveni~ Sn CaDnodcftdoerqottoPr ht.hie -l~- ot 1 9 5'

11'l'he Gnat Momtain POS\"88t inclwlN 6,400 ecrea en the Canaan Nountablplateau m Norfolk and Canaan, Lltohtteld Councy, Ccm.cticut. Bxiatingstand.a have been mdiaturbed qr tb'9 or cut t1l'lg tar et leaet 20-45 yoors.'the obJect ives of th1• atuly wre1 (1) to determine the general nat ure o~pre-colonial aasociot lODB ill the l'oreet region; (2} to reconstruct thetl\"ae.b.ncmt Of the Forest ewe setUcaent began 1D the eighteenth centU1\"3;and (3) to aaaeae the ettecta of treataent on the preeent Fa.rut. Beaeochvaa concentftted cm hiat.wioal materiale (espec1all.7 the original land sur-ftJ'& and later land records), eupplemented by fleld st udies ot selectedateM8 in and near the roreat . '!'he prhcipal tindinp en:•tll\"V'eY•Tellies ot the proprietors' proride a more rel!able index to th erelatiw abundance of trees in the pre-colon1al Forest region than doearly deecrlpt i ona, mieb \.VG uauaJJ.y b1eeed. 'l'be Forest region 'WSS daD-mated bJ two major associat i omu (1) hemlook..northen hard\IOods (chieflyh-.1.ock-beeoh) 1n Norfolk, am (2) oek-cheatnut-hick017 1n Canaan andSaliabuey. Thia oonolueion accOJ'da vitb t.he olaat ic cl1tf~aea f'ound .,:-- ... ,within the region and ia supported by the characteristics of th1'M small ) ..,a1at1Dg old-growth olbu aten48. llh1te pine vae ot mSnor ecolog:lcalimportance, occurring 1n l11dted pure stands of cataetl'Cph1c orlgJn endae scat tered 1Dd1v1dmla 1n botb maJor aaaociatlona. COll81dering the )adaptability of hemlock to a v1de range of clSme.t io and edaphic cQld1t1ons _,,,,in southern Nev Eqland, ita lov abundance 1D the oak-cheatmlt-hickoryaasoc1at1on m\l&Jt bJ aecribed la~ to tires etArted b7 the Indianabefore 1'120·Onl7 mall portions of the Forest were cleared t or agrioult ure . Cut.tingstor other purposes began late 1n the •Sght.eenth cent ury and became ext.en-sive atter 18'0· During the next SO ;yaare, almoet all the FoJ'Ut \.18n outover et leaat once, tor ch81'0oel wood, lmber, and tanbark· Ohai-ooaloperat 1one inwlved oleal'CUtting of all hardvaod.s et 20- to 3S-;year inter-ftls, thua f avoring chutaut, the oaka, and other~ sproutingherd.woods. Hemlock ws heavily cut ~or both l\Dber and tanbark; 1ta abun-dance .-a most. aerioua17 reduced, howver, by n.re. Ftros wre not carm:m,but strong evidence 1ndtcates that a tdngle tire can virtually el11dna~b.omlock tor very long periods.Pioneer apocies such ae gray bbch, quaking aspen, and pSn cheJ!'17, \lhichwere cCD.lOD in 1900, have nov generally given '-'81 to lonew...livod and moret olerant species or l ater suceossionsl s tages . Ches tnut, a major o~­ent of the Fores t 1n 1900, vns wiped out by the chestnut bl1dlt in 1912-1918; t t s position has been filled lorgely by Grlst blg bardvood associates.Moot o~ the present etanda are ot sprout orig1n, 50 to 70 years old, andccr::ipoaoo chiefl.7 of red ook, red maplo, sugar maple, beech. blnck birch,and yellou birch· White pino 1o restricted to a few old-1'1old stands,not.sbl.7 on the ooarser-toxturod soils '-n tho northern part of the Forest.A vell-doveloped hemlock 1.Dlderatory occurs vhel'OV'er residuel seed treeshave eacspod firo . 2arrine any cnjor tut ure d1st,urbance, present suceoo-sional t rends indicate n relntively rapid re-estat llehJ::ent of varian' e orthe bemlcck-hnrdwod olimeHc olblx.



ivPREFACE moan aotittty has pla79d an lq>artant, orten dooi81w, rolein determlJd.ng the character ot ~ tcreat stande. This ts particular]¥true 1n southern Rew' England, parts or which have been settlDd tor marethan lOO ;,ears. Few tcrost areas in th1e region have boon o:Kplolted torl ess than 150 yeara, and u:Mtsturbed remranta ot tho ~ toreet areMW utNmely r&re. In tbe1r age, farm, and apeciee eoq><:l8!.tion, moatof the modern tore1te reflect a long histary ot ~ cut~ clear-ing tor agriculture, or other t<r1111 or dieturbance. A knol1edge of arigina.1 forest wgetat.ian and or oeeomary9UCceeaional relations ie, of cour•, e1eent1.al. to rational. rarest mao-ageme~. Relict• ot the pre-colcm1al tcreat, where tboy oxiet, are otgl\"G&t ..alue in this oonneotian, tw they ueu&1lT prov.tde oaz:ploei o.to11n- ar near-climax usociationa. Where these re11ots no longor exist,sucoesllional relations and the nature ot the cli'llll'.E my be inferred froman aundnat1an ot en.ting stande 1n the light o! tbe!r past t.roatmntand the ailvical oharaoterist1cs of their e~nt spootoe. Ord.inar.Uy,the longer a .tand hu been undisturbod, the mare infarrra1i1on it canturn1ah. These general considerations are baaic ~ t.be prooent. study.1(?' principal aim hu been to detwmine the mture ot tM pre-colont&ltorest in a apeciflo area ot Conmcticut am the t111m1er in lfrl.dh it bubeen att'ected b;r ue. Such Cl area lhould pNferab~ be one where ex-ploltation be&an nlatiw~ late and Where existing 8'tands haw dnelopedwith u little reoen\ diaturbance as poesible. The ava1labil1ty of landrecarda and other 111\"1tten evidence or put treat.tit ie also a prlmry

~•1te. Tbeee conditions were well met by the Great lftAmtain Forest,located in ncrtbem Litohtield Coant7, Conmct1cut. This tract otteredan additioral adftntage 1n that, through the goeroslt;r or its ommo,it baa been ava1.lable to the Yal• Fore.tr.r School tac imtruatiClll andresearch sino• 1941. The inbarent di.t.ficultiea or thi1 st:ad7, augi:ented \"3' qy- omlimltationa, haw kept me from aocoq>liehlng all that I set out ~ do.Such INCCNI . . I baw &Chined baa depended to a great oxtent CJD thecooperation ot m&l\1 peraons ~ crganlaat1one, wboeo as~ it iaa pleuure to acme.ledgei Ir. Eddztd c. Childs, 09'mr ot the Great l.!ounta1n Foteat, basoh.om a oont1nu1Jig and eno~ging !ntenet; he &l.8o prov1dGd fieldassistance tar a WMk dur1Dg the SUBEr ot 19'1.. The men Who pm'tici-pated 1n tbia work Wl'9 JIBea:rs. George c. Kiefer, Jr., Dat'Nll F . Ruse,Bruce Bram, Robert Crabtree, and Jchn R. Gets. Mra. Ada M. Koare, Jll\"s . Bernice o. ElU.81 l!.-8. LUa S. Hub,am the late fir. HalT7 Atwood, tam clerk8 ot C&naan., Goshen, 8a11•'bar71and Ucrtolk, rempeoti\"l.T' Jlllde available the land recOt'ds of theee tOWD1.tb881\"8. Ellie S7lftl'D&l.e and W111ia R. o•comor, offi.eere ot ti• NorfolkS&vinp Bade and oustodians ot the tOlnl•a earlier r oearda, providedoffice apaoe tor s:r uae ~ a period ot S maa.t.ba in 19'° and 19Sl.In the tall or 19Sl I took advantage of the generous hospitality ofJlr. and llr\"e. Oeo~ c. D.ater, Jr., then 11Ting on tho Farost. Prom Vre. Eben E. {sar.h A. Wilcmc) Burr, ot canaan, and Jltt.Charle• H. Nickerson, ot TmT.tngton, I receiwd 1Dvaluabls orientationClll tho earq history of the Farest region. Among the t8l\1 otbor reai-denta at the Forest n gicm Whose Warmatlon baa boGn helpful during

thia atuq al'e Ml'· Joeeph R. Carroll, Mr· Philip E. Curtiae, Mrs. Dni.d J'.r.Ooodnov, Mrs. M4nn1e Bumpbre7, Mr. Fred R~ Inman, the Rev. Jsmea Potter,and Ml\"· Homan Sllitb, of Borfolk; Mee81'8· Ernest p. Blake, Gronr c. QiatUe·ton, and 1rank Paadni, ot Oan&anJ and Mr· Chard Powera Saith, ot COl'DWall.Moet ot iq 11bl'U'7 re8M1'0h \4ls done at the Connecticut StateLlbrarJ', the Ia.le Univenit7 L!bnr:f, the LibJ'arT ot the Connecticut Hia-torScal Socdaq, and the Hortol.k PuN.f.e Librar.r· I am eratetul to atattmmbua ot aU these librarie• tor their ak1l1tul aeetatance. Par their gu1daMe throughout thia atuq I am deeply 1ndebteclto Proteaeon u. J. Lute and Day!d M. Sllith, ot f.he Yale ForesU'y Schoal..Protesaor Smitb de\"\"98 epee.ial thanke tor ua1atanee in the preparationof parts ot chapter V. Other JDllDben ot the forestry School tacult)' \It.lohaw been ot aosiatanoe en Prof'essors Walter H. Meyer, Freder1ok r.Wangaard, Garth K. Voigt, and WW!a L. Stern, and Dean George .A. Garratt.I have aleo bad the benetit ot adTiee from Professor Bugh M. Raup, directorot the Harn.rd Fo:reat; Proteaaor X..OIW'd w. Labaree, ot the Yale hiatorfdepartmlntJ Proteeeor Irnng Rouse, ot t.be Peabod,y J.bMtm ot Nat uralBiator.n and Dr· c. 1. Blla:a, b1~tr1oian of tbe c~tiout AgriculturalExperlment Staticci. For various other aseiatanoe I owe t.hanka to ProtenorJame• G. Wendel, ot the l1niftraity of M!ehipnJ Ml88ftl· John A. Betterlyand .Philip B. N01Ce; and my brother, Mr· Louis M. Winer·n-117, I aclmO\ll.edge vith gratitude aevenl pent.a from t.l1eTale Sohool ot Foreaf.rJ' and the a\IU'd ot a Sterling telloveh1p by taleUrliTeNit.7 Sn 19Sl·'2· B· I. v.llev HaftftOot.obe:r 1955

StDHRJ !!&!PUP.ACE 11I. D 'l'BODOOTION 1T Soope and methodlt lII. THI PHISlCAL INVIRClmENT OF '11IB J'tmm' 4 a.olOfT 8 Tsoopuog.rapb;r 8 ClmatAt 10 14 St.. 22 Cliat io ~ 330, DiaouaeioD 36In. ~ADJ) LAID DIVISI<lf m 'IEE FcmF.S'1' RmIQJ Iz>dtam popu1at1on 38 Org1misat1on ~ the Weatern Landa )8 Settl~t of Canaan and lartolk 41 Settl•mt ot Convall and QOllbln 45 >•\"\"•Lend- and t!mbv-t.TMpa•• J.8 J>hialon ~ 48IV. THE PRE-COLONIAL FOREST Sl PNrioua lllft1t1ption.e Hlatorical nidece 60 62 Traditional deecrip'tions &Joly deacriptione 64 64 The uae of the word \"1*11.oot• l1J Eridence tJiom the orlginal land auneye '18 IY1dence fJoaa Jl¥>dllm reliota 91 The role of t1re in the pre-colonial roreat reg1cm 110 DUcmalcn ed oonelmSona 125 129V. 'l'HI TREATMBM1 Cl THE J'cm'.S'l' 133 J:ooncaic dnelopaent ot the l'oreat ng1oD 133 Population chenge 134 Abeentee ancl epeoulative CMlenhSp of land 13? The ap\"ioultural eocmcmr 139 Wood-•ing 1nduatria 1w44 »<-.t ic Wle8 14? SaynSlle U.9 Speo1ea \19ed tor lmber lSl Specialtf\" anutact \"UNa of vood 153 1he ohuooel 1l\"Cll1 Snduat17 156 1'9 Tanner1ee Change in toreat &1'98

v. Tim TREATMENT ~ 'HIE FORF.Sf (o<ll'lt•) 160 161 Lad-use Sn t.he J'Ol'fft 164 ~ and aettJ.emet JfuUrtolln 166 168 Agr1ov1tun Cutt !ng Opnaticme 1'10 Sawflla n3 Cb8J'0081 179 Utillzet.ion ot haalook 181 183 Multiple lrtilkaUon 18' The PJ'08l\"98' ot cutting operatiebl 189 COppice . . . . . .t and 1te resulte 190 Fire J.n t.he ~t-eo1c:m.Sal period 1'11 200 the Mautlel.4 bum Bttecte ~ ma~o.r tOJ'd of tieat.nt en modern at.ands 210 215 I• hr pa.ture 232 Cotl.!na opera_tlona and bmlook cutting, u&ociated 2.42 \d.th tire 2Sl Coal!Dg opentt.cu and b.nlorok outtiq, v!thout tift 2$4 s.vlol eutt!ap or hardvooda and heloct 2'P Barchloo4 outtinp 261 Inqu1ar partiel cut't.1np Qenenl oaneluaicma 264mEIDlX A· C<aacn and ecieatif'ie names ot plants amntiOJJed 1n the tatAPPENDll D. Docu.ntu;y evidence on tbe Meeker familyRlfBRENGES Gl'l'ED

W!i st. PlttttPl.ate fQUow llaI GeoloO' ot nor-them Lltchtield County. 8II ~ relief and dninage ot Canaan, Borth Canaan, 10 and ltortolk. 12III TopognpbSc mp ot the Great. Jobunt.ain ron.t end enviroDa· 491V A port.ion ot the ldnut.Q ot the tirat maet!ng held by th• ,3 P1\"'4'1'1etora ot lartolk, 17'4· 118y frq)r»tan• mp of llortal.k. abowing the ear~ land did- 118 118 aicaa, ..,.17 l'Oeda, and •~ ot t.he late- pitohea.VI s.otion Of a ooc!ewinent olcl-grcvth hal.ook· 13STII Sect ion ot a dadnant old-growth h•look. usVIII s.ottcm ot an al.4-p-tNth ~oak. 154l1 Populatico cbarce 1n tile tCMl8 ot Canaan, Borth Caman, 158* llol\"tolk; and Goehen, Sn Litcht1eld counv, and 1D the 158 state ot Comieot.Sout, 1156-1950· 1§89x Jlortbea L1tchf\"ield counv in 1?90· 158-XI The oalliere ba ~. 1'8- 158-XII lorto1k 1n 18,3.XIII Canaan 1n 18'.3·llY lorMt, Guaan, Borth Canaan, Goehen, and Cornwall 1n 18'9·IV IOJ'fo1k Sn 1874·XVI Canaaa and lorth ClllUD 1n 1874·XVII lfo.rMk 1n 1904·

xl .A \"heap ot atones.• 96 962 .A \"•tone •take and atone•• • 114 1143 The B!.gelov Pond 8tan4. US llS4 Interior ot the eace atanct. llSS Ol.d-povth h-1.ook on a root. US6 mother balook m • rook. 1207 Eatreme e~• ot halock on a rook. 1208 The aame tree, partiall.7 uprooted. 144 9 Old mountain laurel in a nat1D'81 opening 1n the old-growth 144 144 etand at Dol.Jit!n Pcmd. 144 14410 tellov bSrah and hem.look eetabliabed on a tallem t:ree. 14411 Bqatack Mountain.12 Jel\"H78 in a bub paature. US13 Sheep goSn, to a IJ&lt box. 14814 A modern p.eture ~to tore.t, in Barkbamted. 149 14915 Picneer epeoiee ca an old peatui. 1n the Poreat. 15416 Shrub stare 1n auccesaian on a peature. 1541'1 a •1abtetllth-centU17 ...-1-dcul ....w.. 16818 InterSo:r ot an up-uct-doun M1Dlll• 16819 .A cheeee baz. 17320 Preeent-dq amall sa\Dill 1n South Norfolk. 17321 The Buena VS.ta blast tumace, Lower Cit7, Canaan. 17822 The Buena V1ata f'Urnace in 19Sl· 178 17823 An 'tmkn0\111 houae 11te 1n Meekertown. 17824 The Potter t81\"1Dhouse site . 1932' Ruins ot the Mimetield aamill an Meekttrtotm Drook. 19326 Bridge abutmnt and '4teel-bouae f ouadatlon ot the Hunts 196 ~ M1l2lill on Me8kertow Brook.tr/ BuUd!ng a charccal •Uer.28 .A ce111>leted miler remb' tar coel.Sna·29 Pilling a meiler during coal jng.30 A coaled meiler.31 T\IO reaidual hmloeka 1n a 52-7ear-old Rhamrd\.l•ood.sprout \"Fire TO\t..r et.and cm the eunmdt ot32 52-JMl\"-Olcl hardwod...&pl'OUt at.md on the eut elope ot \"Fire Tm.\"91' H111.033 Mrial photop-aPh ot the Mm.rield burn, an ample ot the prol oaged ettect of a single fire 1n 11m1tjng the abundance ot hemlock.

x1Yf1 2t limgs (cont.)36 100-~ hanlook atend, vltll eaie ~ bardvooda, 217 217 eetabliabecl after haalack cutt!q and eubeequent ot'l81Sng. 2'J!'l71 Anothe view of tbe aaZ!le at.and Shovn 1n figure 36. 2Z'l•tand·38 Bemloek standard 1n a 50-~d ~ 2Yl39 Stand sim5lar to that ebom in figure 38. 27140 l30-1MJ'-Old h-1ock-hardwod stand eatabllshed d'ter a 2.40 aavlog outting. 2404l GJ'q birch, red oak, and hanloclc !n a hudwood-sprout at.and SO 78U8 after ooaljng. 2.49 2494'- V1ev south into plot Sl-5, a vell-stocked hemlock-hardwood etend about 100 years old·43 ~ hemlock-hardwood etud, tJ:ie reault ot light parUal eutt!ngs, pioobebl.7 h!ah-greding tor eavloga.44 Old-povth heal.eek• with 8S-~ ~ eetabliahad e.ttci a eoelSng opuatico.45 SS-year-old barduood JIPl'Outa near the edge ot the aamo stand.

'l'l]:}t Penetage ot er. Sn poupa ot land tnea 1n ah towns 18 1 2 Sn northern Litcbtield eounv, ConneoUout. 3 Anrqe acmtbl.7 •x1. ., •!n!ma, and wn ten;>eraturea 24 4 (°P.) at Norfolk, Col\"INell, and Canaan, Ccmneot!out. ' B1&h&at and lowest ~....ture• (•r.) and Nnge, bT 1a1ths, 6 at Nortolk, Cotnvall, and Cana&D, 0GDl)Mtiout• 7 Medml.ma, wtnhna, ud wn aon~ preoSp1taticn (inches) 8 at lclrtolk~ Corm.ll, 8Zld Canaan, CQl'JDeOtjout. 9 ~. a!nDna, and mean •aaonal anovtall. ancl length 28 of poring 1ea80D at JortQlk, Connrall, aD4 Canaan, 10 Ccmneotiout. 11 ~-AugtW't and annual aoiature rat io•· 3l 12 Abuni.taMe (pereent) ot prinaSpal apeoies recorded bl 9S u Gl'1gSnal land tur••Jll end 1n ex1at1ng •1rlin •tanda 15 ill Dort.hveltun ~lftDJa. 16 17 Pr1noSpal..,.... and llJ*Sie• ot ti.ea naMd u bounc!a !n the proprietora' ewt•J• ot lo!rtolk, Goaben, Oanun, 18 ••Y•aDd Sel.1ebU17, CJonneou.ut. 1ollova 99 Speo!ee maed 1n the pl'q)l'ieton' 8UI ot lorf'Olk, GoeMn, Canaan, end Sal.1.ebur,r, Conneetfout, and 100 •wiwl b7 ..... in table 8. IUMI' genwa and epec!ea ot treea named a1 botmda m tb• 101 prop..UtOl'e' 8Ul'ft7• ot Bartolk, Ooaben, Canaan, aJ¥l Salial>Ul7, Ocmneetiout. lhaber ot t.fte8 named •• bound8 1a propJ'Seton' •Ul'9'8YB 102 and eubject.d to Ghi-equue teate. Oanpoeition and a~Ul'e ot old-grotith •tanda at B!plov 117 Paa4 and Leng S\lllllP. CalllpQ8itkm and etruetUl'e ~ old·grovth et..and at Dolphin 120 Pand. PqN'.lat 1on ot tewns a1.1l'J\"OUllCUng the Great Mountdn Jonst, 135 ~ LStohfteld counv, end ot the et.ate of CcmJeOt~, 1'15()...19'0· Len4-ue Sn lortolk, 1818. 140 DdrJiDI anct ebeeJ> n1a1ng Sn lort01k, 1826-1869 143 ...,_. ot aawUla and •annal lmber prodwst t.Qll (te7) Sn lSO lor.to1k and Cenau, 1819-1880. Poreet 8l'9fl (percent) ot lortolk, Canaan, and Ccawt.icntt, 1'9 181.8-1931·

WI! 2' 'fables (cc:mt.) xillTab1t19 Canpoeitial and structure ot a S2-J'Ml'-al.d hardvood-sprout 192 at.and cm a el.ope (Manstield burn, Carmen Block).20 C~1t1cm and structure ot a S2-JMr-Qld ~sprout 193 otand Oil a ridge- top (Hrmat1el4 bum, CGlaaD Blook).21 CClllJ)081t1on and atruature ot an 80-J8V-Old bardvood-bemloolt stand an an abandoned paeture (Munacm tea, Canaan Block). 20322 Ccmipoe1t1on and st.wcture ot a 70-:year-cld beech et.and an 205 an abandmed past ure (ltm•ai tea, Conun Block ).23 Ccq>oa:ltion and etruct \11'9 ot a ?o-,ear-ol.d \ilite pine at.and cm en abandoned puture (WoodiJl,..l>ean tan, Canaan Block). 20824 OallpOeltSm and atrurrture ot a ~al.4 hadwood-apJ\"OUt et.end eetabllahed after coallq (Walker lot, lortb Block). 2132S CQllll081ticm and etructure ~a lro.;vear--old bmnlook-budvood 217 at.and eetabltmed attel\" beloclc outting and ~t ooalmg (~ Jobnam tnct, M1ddle Block).26 CC1111pOeiticm and au.tun ot an SO..;rear-old helock-*1te p~ at.and eatabliahed atter olearcutttng (Hunt.a LJIDBD tract, South Block). 220 Ccnpoeiticc and atracture at a 45-JMr-Qld hardvood-healock etaDd e.tabllahed after coaling and eubeeqmnt aavloe- tubark out.ting (Bl-cMi-Bouard lot, Middle Block)· Coq>0eitlm and lltr\&JtUN ot a 50-fear-al.d hel'dvood-8PJ'C)ut atencl vitb halock ~ (Benna ~887 tract, Berth Blook).29 CCJq)Olitlon and structure ot a 110..year-old hemloo)c,...northel'll 234 hardvood etfmd eetablJabed after 88Vlog cuttSng (BJ'Cllllllo- 11pl.ov traat). CQDJ>091tion ot the O'N!'9tor7 ~a 130-JMJ'-old hml~ hardwood at.and eatablillhed after amdog outt.inc (Robbme P!toh, Caman Bloek). CC111>091t1cm and at.ructure ot a 100..~4 bmlochobardvood at.and (Manatield lot, Canaan Block).am32 C~CHtition structure ot a at.end ot 100-~d hemlock vit.h a ~ budwod C<llllp(lamt, •t.abllahed after olear- outtJ.q and tvo let.er eoal Sng operattcma (Hunt-lobwt.8- 2°'6 RtcleT lot, South Bl.eek).33 Ccq>0alt1on and atnaotun ot a ataDd ot old.-grovth h-1ook, 249 vith 85-1Ml\"'-ol4 hardvood8 ••tabltahed after coeling (.ilacm Bowe lot, Long Swllp, South Bl.oot)..J4 ~iticn and ltruotuN of a oul.W, ~ hanl.CIO~ 2,3 hudvood stud (Woodin-Deen tU'll, Canan Block)•

1 The Great Mountain Forest, one 0£ t he l ai..goat forest.od are&8owned by an individual in Conneotiout, includes about 61400 e-oroa in thetamial of llorf'olk and Canaan, in nonhern Litchfield Count.y. I ts Mr1Baommar.iorates the n.ruoo t hat thG first se t tlers gave t o \"'l'hat i s rl<J'1; calledC4nnan Mountain• Compared with most other p.arts of rural COOMcticn~ the Forest2bas few roads and only limited aecees (eee platQ I II). 1tm nearest settle-ments and their approx:im3ta air - Una disUince frGm the \"':'oreat nro theVillage of IforfolJr. 1 m l e narthall.'JtJ Falls Village (in Cnnaan), 5 mi.l asv1est.; and the village of CAnao.n (in North OanaWl) , 6 mil ea nortAmoet.}\\rther •ay, t o tBe sou tnoaet, a.ro the o1tios of tl1nsted (9 mile s) ,To:rrinBtOn (l.2 mtlo B) 1 and Hortfard (JO :dlee) . Acquiai.tien of the present Forest land began ill 19091 '!Then thetajor po.rt of the area had r-0-centl:y been cut over. $e'tween 1909 and 1920,Starling 'Ii . Childs and Z.'r oderic c. Walcott) 1ndividually and j oint ly bought1 Throughout this dissertation, the word nt.ownll (not 11 tamsbip11 ) refers to tho priallry unit of local gov~nt Qnd to 'the l and a.roa over Tlhich the tcirtn g<>ver'nment bas jul'isdicti.on., \"V1llage 0 ~e.!ors to an unlni:-arporat.ed aettl~r»rlt within a towntt f!hen ueed without qualification,, names like \"Norfolk0 and \"can&a.n\" denote the to'1'DB. Unless otherwlse notod• all plaQe namea are in Cooneeticut,2 When capital1zed1 •tf orest\" refers to the 'lreat ilount.U.n FarGSt. The nroreut region\" includes iiori'olk, Canaan, Saliabur.r, and the narthorn ports ot Goshen and Cormrall•3 Starling w. Chil ds (1870-19lt6) and Frederic c. Walcot t (1869-1949) both tl'OH ixmu1tment banke:r6 aud philantbropist.s of br():ad interests. 1'alcot t , Who traa a United States Senator from Connecticut frail 1929 to l 9lS, was especially concerned .witb wildlife oonaeJ'Vltion. Ti'd.o attitude was ~f'lected in the ea-1.y mana1~nt of the Yore at, then~ kr..arm as tho »Childs ·aloott Game Preserve. \"

2about 3, 000 acres, mostly in f.fc:u-fol k,4 Edward o. Clrllds• a !Jctn otStarling W,. Ghil<la1 enlarged the For est to 1ta preso1tt oizo b.'f a seriesof pul\"ehaaes beginning tn 1931~. s and he bas since obta.inod sol.£> titl et<> al:lost all the Fwest area. Gener al The present boundary and major subdivisions of' the Forest 41'\"9shown on pl ate TII (chapter I I ). Tbo South Bl ock occupies the soutb-~at cox·ner of Norfolk nnd is bounded south by the Goshen terim line,t7est 'trJ ~he Canaan town line, north by Meekertown Road, and east byBlaeklaoo Road and other lands . The Middle Bl ock extends from l!eekw-to:iu Road -'Ol\"th to Crissey Road, being bounded on the treat by the C&naantam1 line and on the east by lands or otbor cr.merG. TOO i.fo.Tth !llockincludes that part of tbe _rarest north of Crissey Road and east of thecanaan town line, all lyine south o:f Waneum Road. The C3naan Blockc~es all of the Forest in that town, i ncl uding llftobb1ns.; ~itch, •a mall separate lot bounded by Meekertomi Road on the south and lyingwast Of the main Forest boundary. The chief objectives 0£ management during the earl~r period ofland acquisition wer o to dev.elop a favorabl e habitat f or wlldlife ( es -poei.ally deer and game birds ) and to p.:rmit the Forest to recover f romh The principal deeds a ro rocwd&d 1n NIB (-Norfolk Land Records ) 27s 16~31 281 l2, S2-SJ. 95- 457-4)9, h72. '17J 29t 2J4,, 2691 1~5-4361 JOa 210, 235, 595.~ The principal deeds to Rd;':ard c. Childs arG recorded i n t:m 33 a 151,19SJ Jlu hJJ- 1136; 361 29-30, 1:85-4871 39• 70-·fl1 and cm {-ca.naanLand Records) 24s ~96, ~9'7~98, S99-600J 281 18, 2111 22; , 301, 4421Jls 149.

3the e.tteate of prolonged an.cl i ntell8ive exploitation. Childo and- Wa.1-eot.t 1\srthtlred these obj~otivcs by closi_ng the l ore.st to spartsmn•el:t.mnattng f ire, and da.~ se.veral swamps to create sllalla.T ponds f orwatai'owl. Deer rtere furth r eneouro.ged by feeding st.\":lt:loon oot up 1n Dur1nrt this early pot'\"1od f orest management r1as le.rge]Q a matterof fire prooteation. l ost 0£ tho Forest was covered by stands o£ hardwoodGPl\"OUU less than 20 years old. I n bllrned eutov~ areas, pioneer specieelike pin ch.e~•6 quald.ng aspen, and gray birch predo:.Unated. Fatr standscontained merchantable timber1 and most of these were relo.-tiwly inaccess-ible and of poor quality. UnC:-er these eiroumtanees. mann{;-arzmt took avery conservative dire.etiom from 1909 until after '7orl d ~1ar ! ! , cuttingoperations wero confined almost entirely t o a fmf' thin:rl.n-:s in plantationsand to the salvage of blight-killed chestnut.. 'l'bese salvage op0rations, oond\leted in 1917 and 19181 7\"emovedcheat.nut sat?logs and tie natt::irlal in areas aecessib1e from 'Tans-.mi Road,tfoo!cQrtm'm Road, and tho Uo. 4 Trail . At this tiroo some of the old&rhemlock and oak i n the South Block could alao have been cutJ but tho~s rejected this proposal ooeause of their ~losit'e to rot.aw what fewsta.'lda they had in older age classes. Smaller cheatnut soazs ., mtltablfi!f'or fence poets, were cut in 19.39 and 1940. Since 1917 about 100 acres of conifer ous plantatiOM have6 Tbe soientii•io nautes ~f a l l plants l'l8ntioned in th¢ ta\"t are givon in !ppendia A.

4hi.tr,hbusb blueberry \" • r e left undist urbed. Since iforl.d War II a m.odest program of in~diate cuttingshas been developed. .The arc.as c overed by- these oparations eo ffJl\" havebaoo small and r estriotad to tti.tb1n a short distance C)f t hil l.ir:d.tGd~ net i n t he North and !4Cdl& Blocka. Tbose pBl\"t8 of the Forest acquired by 1920 have thUD e njoyedprotection from f ire cmd-aside fi'om the rer:lO'fal o! chesttmt-vil't ualf!roodon from cut ting tor ~t hO ~ars . liuoh ot Ul2 lJ:md acquiredafter 1920 bad not r ecentl.y bEJGn cut . Tho ay.rage &£,re of stands in theF~et today exceeds 60 .,.ears,7 placing· t hem among thtJ oldast 3 poroentof t arost stands in Conneottout (Zumwal t , 1953a 28). SeoP! a.pd Methods In ardor t o keep this inwstigation within re:asonabl-o 1.imits,cortain aspects of the s ubje ct wor~ ruled o-v.t froin the st..\"l?'t. :io~ttention was d&voted to 3iJUmps 1 plantations, or the ol d• f ! el d sta,dsof l'ftiite pine devel oped on the coarser-textured soils nor-~ of TobeyPon.cl.. With a few ezcept icms1 fiel d werk was r estricted t o t ho Forest Very l i ttle bas ooan published eonoerning tho Farc!rt.. A briefnote by Cl app (1941) and a somewhat fUller art i cle by Russ and Childs( 1953) are the only general accounts that have appearod. B .f\mone theunpuol1sbed mater ial.£ availabl e are cruiae data and v~ous t\".;pe and? c~tations from unpu.bllsh&d student cruise data eollooted in 1943 and mde availabl e by Pl'of~ear 1Yalwr a . U&Y$r indicate an a.~ge ~nnrl age ot 64 years, car1·eot ad to 19)5.8 In a paper hued upon f ield TJOl'k in the Forest, Lutz ~ ChD.pmn {l9b4) described 1njurice t o tree trunks from antler rubbtng ey dear.

\Opographie ups prepared by f o~estora empl.OJ9d by the prooont ownerand, since 191'1, by students at the Yal e Fonatry Camp. These data·haft been of 11111ted value,. ~ues o.t v-arying sta.n-ds and the faetthat erntee data eelde:n provide f ull ecological informltion. '!'\'lo aets oraerial photographs of the Forest. made f or the u. s. IJoologieal Sune;r in1941 and 1944, were belptul 1n l ocating stand111 of 1.nterost1t Several prerlous !nvestigat.io.ns ot forest hist~1 1r. otherare&S have been valuabl e i n developi ng the methods 0£ the p.tt08Gllt study.'Ille most int•natve and impressive of these wae by ~ (19.l?}, wllo waaable to trace the development· of portions o! t he Kulblcksllden Re86arch~O'l'est, i n Swoden• from early in the sixteenth century;• ott-es~bke(1951) presented ev1den09 on the hi story or the German at.ate r o:rest ort&nboi-s f r om the 'thi r teenth can1m'y. ~ orking from rera r kab]¥ f ulldooument.aey eouroes, _Solatert (19~1} traced the biatm'y ot £arest degredationin the Vau.oluee Mountains, part of the f renc.)\ Raese~lpea. In tnts country~oue approaches t o rarest history haw been takell by Bram (19il), Cllmtand Spun (l 9b2) and Nesbitt and Netboy ( 19~) . 'l'be acmt impc:rtantAmerican atudie.s are those by Ol!asted (1937)• ceal!Bg with tho vagetationof tho North Haven sand plains, and Raup and C&rl son (l9hl),. on the land.use history of the ffaM'ard r.-orest, in central Massaclntsetts. T:l.rin andF.aup and Carleon are particularl y successful in obtaining and ~ing4 1'1de variet y of historical evidence. Published materials on the hietaey of the Forest 3rS utruall.1'li!ld.tod in their treat.min~ Aside from the l and r •o<J.tlds,, ungublishedmteriale a.re ecarce. Fer tba 'Jfo.rest region as a whole, tho tttOtil.t r eliabl eerldence on the pre-colonial. f ores t i a that derived froui tall.1cs

6ol the original eune19, wbich W1ll be present.Gd 1n cb.'lpter IV. Indeftl.oping the subeequent M-eWr;r of the f onet1 I Md hoped to f<'llowthe eJl:Ampl.e ol Raup and earl.son (1941) , who were abl e t.o reconstructthe chain of title and the mj~ tnes or land use ro.r almo9t i l l thelots na1r included in the llar'f'&l'd Forest. KT ettorts along this lintwere r &lativel1 unsucoesatul. Watking backward fl\"om the primaey- deeds (listed in rootnotesL end 5), ! eDl!d.ne<l about 31.000 deeds in »orfolk and Canaan and pZ\"eparedi~d abatnota of more than 1, bOO that appeared relevant. Three •ps,platted by c. H. J'tickereon from earq deed dese!\"1.ptions1 were 0£ someaaoietanoe in this WOZ'k. In a tett 1netancee 1 t was poss1.b1o to reconst.Ftlctcloar chains of title on pap.-tr. But ln most cases gape and ambiguitiesremin0d1 largely'because SQQO evly deeds were not reccrdod and thedesariptiom of l ots in tbe deede that were fil•d were often 30 vagueas to be unidentit1&ble. The situation was complicated by the fnot thatduring the latter part ot too nineteenth century much of tho presontFcrost was <11PDltd by two f'1rma \Ti.th extens1ve holdin.:JS i n ~ purta atNorfolk and Canaan. Thie aide 1t neceaea17 to exa.m:tn:> additt.cmal hundredsof roferencee in an atte• to unrnel tbe M atary of ~hip. Thie phase or 'trq invo\"Bt1gat1on required a disproportion3teamount of t i m . ffonver# nlthough it was seldom poaetble t o r etraceold lines on the ground# t.bo deed studies proved to be valuablo,. in aqual.ita.tive r.atmr than a quantitative sense. T<>sether 'f'1ith pablisbedbiot<rieal matorio.11 they provided clear outlines of tho po.st troatmentof tho Forest. As far as possible# I tbon atte~ to fill in thooutli ms from an exam.nation o! uisting stand••

1 Uy f i e l d 'ffOrk was concentraud on ol der sttlmls1 at'tar 1t beoamear;paroot that the cutti ng history of large parts of tho Forest was sub-sta11t1ally uniform.. Particular emphasi s was given to hetllook1 because ofi t s :lnoreasing importance in the pr-esont FOl\"est, t.~ relatiV('Uy largeamount of historieal evidoooe concerning th.is spect ea1 and t he importantC<H>l.~cal. queatioos involvorl in i ts r ole Ln the Forost rf)ei,On befCt\"e andaf-ter sett l ement began during the ei ghteenth een~tlr.1• In so doing,. I wasf orced to negl ect many other questions or h1s tor1oa1 and ecol ogiea1 inte-rest .A..~ these areas ror fut ure r esearch are the devel op:oont e.: old-fiel dhardWooo stands, the r-0spons~ of a ssociated speeies t o the disappe3raneeof chestnut, and the ef f&ct s of paat treatment on se'VG'r'al mt.nor speci es(e. g. , r ed pine1 re~ apru-ce, and ~uli.p..t.ree) that are &ppi!l'tent-ly nenrthe limits or their rnng~s in the Forest. ifi th r esl)Gct to hemlook, a r~ba.si o quest i ou have been r easonabl y well se ttl ed, but others, to bedim:m.&s.ed :ln abapter V, Ntnaln open t o f urther study. The .t'ollawlng chapt$rs Wil l consider, 1n order,. the phyeiealenv:U-omaent of t.\"le Fore.a~ tne sattleroont and diviaton of lands in theregion. t he nature or the pre--ooolonial f arests of the roaion, o.ntl then_ys 1n -1lieb the 'f!ereat has been modi f ied by uae •

8 Since stte1 or Wlbitat, ts a eomplex function o£ ~ t>h1e1caland biotic factors, tbe separation or theee raotoriJ tar convenience i ndiaeus!lion 1s somewhat arb1b$1'y• In f ol lowing convooti oanl practice, i tr.mst be remtmbend that tho pl ant. commmity often modif-1.e,s its ~eal ·'e-nv.t.ronment to eoiue degree• pan1C\.llattl y with r espect to mi~tS.cand soil conditiorut1t N~rtb&less, the broad llm.tts within 't'lhich plantooJ£m.mit.1es ori«iD&te and develop are set largely by the GX'Wl\"?'...al. physi -cal 1.nfluencn ot geology, topography, so11.s1 and climate. Geol oq Northern LitchfU>ld Cou.nty 1• the bi.Etheat pai\"'t of t.lw ~·resternUplil.tld of Conneot!cut. B$oause of 1ts geologic, topoaraptttc, ru:ld cl.1.mat1cMtirdty to •at.~ laeeuhusettiJ, the Norfolk...Oolebrook arM i s oftenconsidered as a aouthern extension of the Berk~hiro HUl.s., The generalized geol ogy of northern Lttc!1fiold County is sbormon plate I 1 &om Agar (1929)-t In 1ts main out l tnea, thio tap i'olJ.o:vs thept'-eliml.nary geological map of Ccnneet 1eut (Rice and Oroeory, 1906), butit intJludes a more detailed aubdi'Visicm of the igneous oertes. 'l'he ageand etru.ct'llral relattcmQM.pa of all the roQks have boon ooocurod by in-tensi-ve .roldtng, taultin~, intrl.1Gion. and replacement• ~ch have obl iter-ated such rossil s aa tlte sed!.mantary atrata onco contnined, The oldestl\"oeks listed on tbe l •gend of pl.ate I (tlnnrille aeries) hnve boon con-s!~ ae pre-Cambr:l&n ar, Caitbrian, and th~ y oungest (Thomaston gneiss)cp Ordovician (Agar, ~934). Non-calcareous roeka, chietly gneisses and eolliSto, underlie

T r: rT;. r Trr T T T'T\" T T Tr TTPlate I. Geology of northern Litchfield Countbeen added in red.

· - -- LEGE ND[ T I Thol\"r\"I0 ~1o ,, ' Gnc ;3 5- - } e.eckctJ; ~ ~J Gne; :>5~ 1-1.-.rt to-.drn !I<: \" i ot~ Oer k.s,..:rc Scn; o:.tD. ~_toc k br ;dg e .L•,.,,e 3fo,..e \"Pou9\"'\"09 o uo rlz 11c11.'lx l ~ \"aCO 'l Ml . o..o rlr Oio •; t c~ Oorock. ...,t. Gne i.s$filIIIl Cirt 'lville Fo.i l10 z .) • ....j I r .snt y (Aga r, 1929) . Town boundaries and names have