Research in English Language Instruction

Langacker’s analysis. The second 45-minute session followed traditional teaching method. In the two treatments, the same set of example sentences were used, and all the example sentences were taken from Langacker (2001, 2003) and Zhang (2002). Both lectures were delivered in Chinese, which was the mother tongue of the participants. The teaching objective of the two review lessons was the same, i.e., to enable the students to master six usages of the simple present, namely habitual or state present, eternal truths, performatives, present actions (e.g. demonstrations and stage directions), scheduled future and historical present. The approach to achieve the objective differed as described below. Experimental Treatment : As for the experimental approach, the treatment consisted of the following four steps. 1) The teacher explained the difference between ‘perfective’ and ‘imperfective’ processes with figures. A perfective process has a starting point and an ending point, while an imperfective process has indeterminate beginning and end, and a stable status that persists through time. And then the teacher asked the students to name some perfective verbs (e.g., walk, talk, hit, dress, sing) and imperfective verbs (e.g., believe, know, think, have, resemble). 2) The teacher interpreted the present perfective and the present imperfective with figure illustrations. 3) The teacher explained that the usages of demonstrations and performatives could be fitted into the present perfective, while the state present could be fitted into the present imperfective. 4) The teacher explained the ‘non-present’ usages of the simple present. In explaining the habitual present, eternal truths, scheduled future and historical present, the concept of ‘virtual document’ was introduced, and figures were used to illustrate the meaning of the simple present. Comparison Treatment In contrast, the control approach followed the traditional teaching method described by Huang (2003), Shen (2000), Wang and Liu (1996) and Yao (2005). The procedure consisted of three major steps. 1) Emphasizing the canonical usages, i.e., habitual present and state present, illustrating with example sentences and then asking students to construct their own sentences; 2) Introducing the adverbs usually used with the simple present; 3) Introducing special usages one by one, i.e., eternal truths, performatives, present actions, scheduled future and historical present, and illustrating with example sentences and then asking students to construct their own sentences. 144

Activity 2: Read the following articles and note on the explanations, procedures and sample of tasks. The use of picture differences task, consensus task and map task Gass, S., Mackay, S. & Ross-Fieldman, L. (2005). Task-based interactions in classroom and laboratory settings. Language Learning, 55(4), 575-611. The use of discourse completion task Garcia-Fuentes, C & McDonough, K. (2018). The effect of explicit instruction and task repetition on Colombian EFL students’ use of politeness strategies during disagreements, The Language Learning Journal, 46(4), 470-482. The use of film Iscan, A. (2017). Using films in vocabulary teaching of Turkish as a foreign language, Journal of Education and Training Studies, 5(5), 27-35. The use of Stimulated recall Egi, T. (2008). Investigating stimulated recall as a cognitive measure: Reactivity and verbal reports in SLA research methodology. Language Awareness, 17(3), 212-228. The use of think aloud Yasemin Sonmez &Suleyman Erkam Sulak. (2018). The effect of thinking-aloud strategy on the reading comprehension skills of 4th grade primary school students. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 6(1), 168-172. The use of picture description Bui Hue Phuongii. (2018). Can using picture description in speaking sessions help improve EFL Students’ coherence in Speaking? European Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 3(3), 33-51. 145

Study Research The use of task to Procedures/interpretation Question respond to RQ 1 2 3 4 5 6 Activity 3: Read the following dissertation and thesis and answer the focused questions below. Case study 1: The effects of types of corrective feedback on student oral pragmatic competence on the use of refusals Case study 2: The effects of error treatments and students’ language abilities on the usages of tenses through the use of computer-assisted language learning Case study 3: Effects of differentiated writing instruction by tier assignment on writing ability of ninth grade students Questions: 1. What are research questions in each case? 2. What are the population and sample? How the samples were justified? 3. What are the focused variables? How were they operationalized? 4. What are the research tools the researcher used? 5. How did the researcher explain the construction and validation process of the research tools? 6. What were the research design? 7. How did the researcher collect data? 8. How did the researcher analyze the data to answer the research questions? 146

Chapter Summary and Highlights “All experiments involve at least a treatment, an outcome measure, units of assignment, and some comparison from which change can be inferred and hopefully attributed to the treatment” (Cook and Campbell, 1979) Strengths: ▪ Isolating and examining variables of interest (Causal description) ▪ Classroom research in situations where researcher has a fairly high level of control. ▪ Describing groups and what happens in them. Weakness: ▪ The averages analysis do not reveal what happened to individual students ▪ An experimental comparison does not in itself offer an explanation of what happened ▪ May neglect external validity or generalizability. ▪ Variables are not easily identified Components: ▪ The dependent variable ▪ The independent variable ▪ A moderator variable ▪ A control variable ▪ Intervening variables 147

References Al Ajmi, A. A. S. (2015). The Effect of Written Corrective Feedback on Omani Students' Accuracy in the Use of English Prepositions. Advances in Language and Literary Studies, 6(1), 61-71. Chirandon, A., Laohawiriyanon, C., & Rakthong, A. (2010, April 10). The Effects of Teaching English through Games. The 2nd International Conference on Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Liberal Arts, Prince of Songkla University, Thailand. Dornyei, Z. (2007). Research Methods in Applied Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hatch, E. & Lazaraton, A. (1991) The Research Manual: Design and Statistics for Applied Linguistics. Heinle & Heinle, Boston. Iqbal, M., & Rafi, M. S. (2018). A Comparative Study of English Language Teaching Practices at the Access Program and Public Schools. Bulletin of Education Research, 40(3), 231-249. Khruathong, S. (2015). Teaching English through technology: Use of TV studio production for the improvement of English speaking. AJE, 1(1), 85-99. Kiany, G., Nabi Karimi, M., & Norouzi, M. (2017). An assessment scheme for ELT performance: An Iranian case of Farhangian University. Journal of Teaching Language Skills, 36(1), 111-144. Kotchana, S., & Tongpoon-Patanasorn, A. (2015). EFL learners’ vocabulary size: A case in the northeastern region of Thailand. ASEAN Journal of Education, 1(1), 9-26. McMillan, J. H. & Schumacher, S. (2005). Research in Education: Evidence‐based inquiry. Boston: Pearson. Nipaspong, P. (2007). The effects of types of corrective feedback on students’ oral pragmatic competence on the use of refusals. Doctoral dissertation, Chulalongkorn University. Parvaresh, V., & Tavakoli, M. (2009). Discourse completion tasks as elicitation tools: How convergent are they. The Social Sciences, 4(4), 366-373. Pell, C. (2020, January 9). IELTS Writing Task 1 Maps Lesson. IELTS Advantage. https://www.ieltsadvantage.com/2015/03/24/ielts-writing-task-1-maps-lesson/ 148

Rattanavich, S. (2017). The Effects of an Experimental Training Program for Teachers of Vocational English Using Concentrated Language Encounter Instructional Processes and Reciprocal Peer Teaching Strategies. English Language Teaching, 10(12), 58-71. Script describing test. (n.d.). University of Washington Computer Science & Engineering. Retrieved August 18, 2021, from https:// courses.cs.washington.edu/ courses/cse510/01sp /projectReports/grader/appendices/UsabTest_Instructions.htm Sehic, S. (2017). College-level second language courses and creative thinking skills: An ex post fac to study. The Journal of Language Learning and Teaching, 7(1), 119-142. Thongthangsai, C. & Wiriyakarun, P. (2012, December 14). The effects of explicit and implicit negative feedback on Thai EFL students’ acquisition of English Grammar [Paper presentation]. The 3rd National Conference on Applied Arts: NCAA 2012, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, Thailand. Tian, C. (2015). A Cognitive Framework in Teaching English Simple Present. English language teaching, 8(3), 24-34. Trochim, W. M. K. (n.d.). Introduction to Design. Research Methods Knowledge Base. Retrieved August 16, 2021, from https://conjointly.com/kb/introduction-to- design/ Uslu, M. E., & Çubukçu, Z. (2017). Improving reading comprehension level and strategy use through strategies-based reading instruction. Journal of Educational & Instructional Studies in the World, 7(4). 149

Chapter 5: Case study Introduction This chapter accentuates another widely conducted type of research: ‘Case Study’ research. It includes some of its key characteristics, design, purpose, and implementation. Readers can familiarize themselves with this type of research by exploring the concepts and principles of undertaking case study research, with sample studies in ESL/EFL context. It also includes two activities that are designed to help readers understand the nature of case study research better, what to expect from conducting their own study, and how to handle data collection and data analysis by means of observation. 1. Defining Case Study Case study research looks at a specific issue in a thorough and comprehensive manner. As its name suggests, the focus narrows down on a specific case in which the researcher is interested, and it is observed that it involves a single instance of some bound system including an individual, a classroom, a school, or a specific community. A case study may aim to explain the causal relationships in real-world context, describe an intervention and its context, and evaluate a particular case (Yin, 2003). As a result, it is particularly useful when the issue being considered is unknown or underexplored. Hitchcock and Hughes (1995) observe that a case study describes the richness of individuals or groups of them in a chronological order as well as presents and highlights specific features of the case. Consequently, a range of data can be elicited based on interviews, narrative accounts, classroom observations, verbal reports, and written documents (McKay, 2010). 2. Case Study Research Design When deciding to conduct a case study, there are important steps and things to consider. First of all, it is vital to understand that a case study typically asks ‘how’ 150

and ‘why’ something is the case. Research focus is informed by a relevant theory which results in particular types of data to be gathered. The researcher then justifies the extent to which data should be collected and identifies any patterns that occur in the event and see if these patterns are in line with the theoretical assumptions. Importantly, it is crucial to select the appropriate research design that suits the research objectives and questions. The research design can be explanatory, exploratory, or descriptive, depending on the underlying theories relevant to the study. As Yin (1994) suggests, researchers may consider the following before deciding on the research design: 1) Searching for theoretical propositions that can be elaborated to cover study questions, propositions, units of analysis, data-proposition links & criteria of interpretation 2) Reviewing literature, discussing with investigators, asking challenging questions, thinking what is to be learned from the study 3) Being aware of the range of theories and selecting the cases and units of analysis 4) Being aware that the process of research design and conceptual framework takes time and can be difficult, but is a crucial step for the success of the study Moreover, the comparison below shows the common nature of the case study research design. On the left side, it reveals some of the strengths and advantages of doing a case study while the information on the right side shows some concerns and limitations researchers should be aware of. Strengths Limitations 1. Approach excels at bringing us to 1. A single or small number of an understanding of a complex cases offers little basis for issue through detailed establishing reliability or to contextual analysis of a limited generalize the findings to a number of events or conditions wider population of people, and their relationships. places, or things. 151

Strengths Limitations 2. A researcher using a case study 2. Intense exposure to the study of design can apply a variety of a case may bias a researcher's methodologies and rely on a interpretation of the findings. variety of sources to investigate a research problem. 3. Design does not facilitate assessment of cause-and-effect 3. Design can extend experience or relationships. add strength to what is already known through previous 4. Vital information may be research. missing, making the case hard to interpret. 4. Social scientists, in particular, 5. The case may not be make wide use of this research representative or typical of the design to examine contemporary larger problem being real-life situations and provide investigated. the basis for the application of concepts and theories and the 6. If the criterion is for selecting a extension of methodologies. case is because it represents a very unusual or unique 5. The design can provide detailed phenomenon or problem for descriptions of specific and rare study, then your interpretation cases. of the findings can only apply to that particular case. (Source: Research Guides, the University of Southern California https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/researchdesigns) 152

3. Case Study Research in English Language Teaching Case study research in English language teaching has been widely conducted in different conditions and contexts around the world. Particularly, English as a foreign language (EFL) context has received attention from a number of researchers and teachers. In the field of English language teaching, case studies can be categorized into three types: positive, neutral, and negative (Atmowardoyo, 2018): Positive Case Study Positive case study focuses on the positive aspects in language teaching and thus involves the study of good language learners, effective teachers, and curriculum management. Below are some examples of positive case study research: Study Research Focus Haryanto (1999) ▪ Motivation of good Indonesian EFL learners and their Asriati (2015) and learning strategies Khaerati (2016) ▪ Using grounded theory by means of open coding, Weda (2016) Hatifah (2017) axial coding, selective coding, and story line development ▪ Attributes of effective EFL teachers ▪ Students’ perspectives about characteristics of good language learners ▪ Successful EFL teachers’ verbal cues in classroom interaction Neutral Case Study This type of study do not focus on any characteristics of the event in particular as the major aim is to explain a case in question. Examples of these studies are presented below: 153

Study Research Focus ▪ Investigating three pre-service ESL teachers Wai King Tsang ▪ Analyzing language learning/teaching autobiography (2004) ▪ Employing inductive analysis approach and content analysis Study Research Focus Nixon & McCay ▪ Investigating three elementary teachers and how they (2007) assess their students’ written works Basturkmen & ▪ Employing holistic data analysis (reading, thinking Lewis (2002) aloud, coding and drawing inferences) Wette (2009) ▪ Investigating three students and two teachers and how they conceptualize and assess their success in an EAP writing class ▪ Employing interviews and email dialogues ▪ Employing analytical induction procedures ▪ Investigating the principles and practices of developing teacher education curriculum ▪ Interviewing seven experienced teachers and analyzing relevant documents and materials ▪ Employing interpretative case study Negative Case Study This last type of case study is based on “unexpected phenomenon” in the observed context (Atmowardoyo, 2018: 201). An example of negative case study is provided: Study Research Focus Curtiss (1977) ▪ Observing the language development of a 16-year-old girl named Genie who was in social isolation since her birth. (Source: Atmowardoyo, 2018) 154

4. Selection of the Cases Cases should be selected in the same way as the topic of an experiment is selected. 1) Developed preliminary theory should be used as a template with which to compare the characteristics & empirical findings from the case(s). 2) Selected cases should reflect characteristics & problems identified in the underlying theoretical propositions / conceptual framework. 5. Validity and Reliability of Case Study Research Validity: Case study research depends on analytical generalization in which the findings of a study can lend support to some broader theory. Reliability: Case study research must carefully document all the procedures it follows as much detail as possible. One way to increase the reliability of a case study is to have a protocol that guides the researcher in the collection of data. Yin (2003) suggests the followings:  An overview of the case study project  Field procedures  Case study questions  A guide for the case study report  Collecting the evidence 6. Data in Case Study Research There are several important considerations when conducting a case study. These include the sources of data, data elicitation and interpretation. Six sources of evidence: ▪ Documents (letters, agendas, progress reports) ▪ Archival records (Service records, organizational charts, budgets etc.) ▪ Interviews (typically open-ended, but also focused & structured surveys are possible) ▪ Direct observations (formal or casual; useful to have multiple observers) 155

▪ Participant observation (assuming a role in the situation & getting an inside view of the events) ▪ Physical artefacts Data elicitation techniques and interpretation: Data obtained from external sources Apart from self-report data, wealth data for research in English language teaching and learning can be obtained through observation and the evidence from prompted production and response carefully designed by teachers for the students to react. Data obtained from external sources: Data from observation Direct Observation Direct observation is a measuring instrument used to measure such traits as self-control, cooperativeness, truthfulness, and honesty. In many cases, systematic direct observation of behavior is the most desirable measurement method. An investigator identified the behavior of interest and devises a systematic procedure for identifying, categorizing, and recording the behavior in either a natural or \"staged\" situation (e.g., evaluation of students’ performances) Systematic Direct Observation Selecting the aspect of behavior to be observed. ➢ An observer cannot notice everything that happens. Select first the behavior upon which the investigator wishes to focus. ➢ Defining the behavior that fall within a category. ➢ Know in advance what will or will not be classified as aggressive behavior, problem-solving behavior, or any other classification of interest. Training observers. ➢ Observers must be trained for uniformity of interpretation and standard application of the observation categories. 156

Quantifying observations. ➢ An observation system must include a standard method for counting behaviors. Developing procedures to facilitate recording. ➢ Procedures to facilitate recording must be developed to avoid errors of selectivity of memory. ➢ A useful technique is to develop a coding plan that enables observers to record their observations with a single letter or digit rather than in narrative form. The five dimensions of observation 1) Role of the observers: ▪ Full participation observation ▪ Partial observation ▪ Outsider 2) Portrayal of role to others: ▪ Overt observations: subjects know that observations are being made and who the observer is ▪ Observer role is known by someone, but not others ▪ Covert observation: Subjects do not know that observations are being made or that there is an observer 3) Portrayal of study purposes: ▪ Full explanation for everyone ▪ Partial explanation ▪ Cover (no explanation) ▪ False explanation (subjects are deceived as to the study purposes) 4) Duration of observation: ▪ Single observation (limited duration) ▪ Several observations (limited duration) ▪ Long term multiple observation (e.g., months) 157

5) Focus of the observations: ▪ Narrow focus, single element, component, variable ▪ Expanded focus, predetermined set of factors or variables ▪ Board focus holistic views of the situation, setting, subjects etc. & possibly including letting the variables emerge What to observe ➢ The setting ➢ The human, social environment ➢ Activities and behaviors ➢ Informal interactions and unplanned activities ➢ The language of program participants ➢ Non-verbal communication ➢ Unobtrusive measures ➢ Documents ➢ Observing what does not happen & other surprise findings Video: Practising language in a game (Source: British Council) Key guidelines for doing successful field work Michael Quinn Patton's summary of the key guidelines for doing successful field work: 1. Be descriptive, rather than interpretive, in taking field notes. 2. Gather a variety of information from different perspectives. 3. Cross-validate and triangulate by gathering different kinds of data -- i.e., a multi-method study -- such as observations balanced with interviews, content analysis of program documents, recordings, and photographs. 4. Use quotations; represent program participants in their own words to the greatest extent possible. Try and capture participants' perceptions of their experiences, emotions, etc., in their own words. 158

5. Select key informants wisely and use them carefully. Draw upon the wisdom of their \"cultural insider\" informed perspectives, but keep in mind that those perspectives could be limited 6. Be aware of and sensitive to the different stages of fieldwork: a) Build trust and rapport at the entry stage. Remember that you, as the evaluator and observer, are also being evaluated. b) Stay alert and disciplined during the more routine middle-phase of fieldwork. c) Focus on pulling together a useful synthesis as your fieldwork draws to a close. d) Be disciplined and conscientious in taking detailed field notes at all stages of fieldwork. 7. Be as involved as possible in experiencing the program, situation, subjects, setting, etc. as fully as possible while maintaining an analytical perspective grounded in the purpose of your fieldwork: i.e., 'scientific research designed to answer a research question.' 8. Clearly separate description from interpretation and judgment. 9. Provide formative feedback to the subjects as part of the verification process of your fieldwork - e.g., \"member checks.\" Time that feedback carefully. Observe its impact. 10. Include in your field notes your own observations, experiences, thoughts, and feelings. Several prominent qualitative researchers have referred to this as \"memoing.\" These, too, are field data (e.g., English class). 159

As an observer, Bernard (1994) categorizes participation options into detached observer, participant observer, observer participant, and full participant as seen in Fig 5.1. Figure 5.1 Observation participation options from detached to involved (Bernard, 1994, p. 137) Detached observation would entail either observing through a one-way mirror or having somebody video the classroom in order to watch the video later. Participant observation occurs when the observer is not a student and not the teacher. The participant observer would visit the class several times so that her presence was not disturbing but sit at the back of the room taking notes. See Levine et al. (1980) for a detailed description of a participant-observation training class including out-of-class assignments and essential participant-observer skills. Observer participation occurs when the evaluator is much closer to the class. An example of observer participant would be where the evaluator/researcher is also the teacher. The fourth category is full participant, or what Bernard (1994) calls going native. An example of full participation would be the researcher/evaluator being a student in the same program, for example a graduate student in a seminar evaluating the seminar for the class project. Patton (1990, p.208) says deciding which role we play should be based on what is possible and what is helpful. The point is that a TREE has several options when it comes to observer roles. 160

7. Activities Activity 1: Classroom Observation Task: Let’s practice on observation 1. Watch the video. 2. Decide on what (the purpose) and how (method) you would observe from the English classroom. 3. Use the observation to analyze what you would like to observe. This observation task is based on coding system for type and tally Name of observer: Date and time of observation: Element observed: Teacher and/or students: Grade level and/or subject: Objective of observation: Instruction to the observer: Tally the number of times each interactive behavior occurs during your observation period. Try to record at least one example of each type of interaction. At the end of the observation period, total the number of all teacher-student interactions and calculate the percentage of the total for each interaction. Type of interactive behavior Tally of times Percentage observed Indirect Accept Feeling e.g. “I know some of you don’t feel well. You may be discouraged, but let’s keep trying.” Praises/Encourages e.g. ”I like what you’re saying.” “Good.” Can you tell us more.?” Accepts or Uses Student Ideas 161

Type of interactive behavior Tally of times Percentage observed e.g. “Nick said General! Lee was an outstanding leader—let’s talk about that.” Asks Questions e.g. “Why do you think General Lee surrendered at that time? “What was the turning point of the war?” Direct Lectures e.g. Explain task Give Directions e.g. “Think about the question,” Answer questions 1-6 on page 97. Criticizes or justifies Authority e.g. “I don’t like the way you crumbled your paper.” Student Talk Student Talk-Response e.g. Students answered all directed questions in one or two words or with deeper explanations. Student Talk-Initiation e.g. “I agree with Tom, but I think Lee should have waited longer before he surrendered.” Totals Most Frequently Used Type of Interaction (Source : Reeds, A.J.S & V.E. Bergemann. (2005). A Guide to Observation, Participation, and Reflection in the classroom.) 162

Activity 2: Read the case studies below and note on some important point related to case study research and the use of learning diaries in the research. Case study 1: Note on how case study research design was mentioned in the abstract section of the research paper Abstract On a multifaceted basis, this paper explores the challenges experienced by native and non-native English language teachers (NESTs and NNESTs) in a tertiary-level EFL setting in Turkey. Adopting a qualitative case study design, the data were gathered from five NESTs through interviews and from five NNESTs through hand-written accounts based on the template for challenges in ELT (TCELT) and analyzed through deductive thematic analysis. The findings showed that the NESTs and NNESTs perceive similar as well as different challenges in the language preparatory program where they are co-teaching. Student-related and institutional parameters accounted for the NNESTs’ problems, whereas on the part of the NESTs, teacher-related and cross-cultural factors accompanied these parameters. The findings were furthered by the teachers’ elaborations on the causes and pedagogical consequences of the challenges, and their strategies for coping with them. In light of the teachers’ accounts, the paper concludes by offering several suggestions for the elimination of the perceived challenges in an attempt to improve the effectiveness of the program. (Source: Yusuf Demir. (2017). What, How, and Why? A Multi-dimensional Case Analysis of the Challenges Facing Native and Non-native EFL Teachers. PASAA, (54) July_December 2017, 141-176.) Case study 2: Note on how case study research was explained in the introduction and method section in the research paper This research is based on the Journey through Space and Time (JTST) educational astronomy project for primary and junior high school science curricula in Australia, which seeks to improve students’ astronomy content knowledge through science inquiry. The focus of the current project is on the learning needs of students for whom the language of instruction is a foreign or second language (EFL/ESL). This article reports the results of a pilot case study conducted in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan in December 2017. The research employed a Type II Case Study design. 163

Data were collected through video and audio recordings of classroom interactions. The Astronomy Diagnostic Test measured changes in content knowledge and written feedback at the end of the course and helped to understand students’ overall impression from the course. The study revealed that engaging Kyrgyzstani EFL students aged between 12 and 15 years in making videos about their learning of astronomy significantly facilitated their content knowledge acquisition. This research contributes to the existing knowledge about the use of technology in students’ science education, and specifically as a tool to enhance EFL students’ understanding of the integrated science, technology engineering and mathematics (STEM) curriculum. The results of the shared knowledge construction stimulated by the collaboration in video production create a case for further research in EFL students’ disciplinary literacy development. Method Study design the pilot astronomy course The Secrets of the Stars was conducted in Bishkek in December 2017 and facilitated by the first author. This pilot study employed mixed methods within a quasi-experimental longitudinal design (Shadish, Cook & Campbell, 2002), Type II Case Study (Yin, 2014) to measure the effect of the course on students’ content knowledge and learning. Quantitative data collected through The Astronomy Diagnostic Test (McKinnon, 2013) were complemented by qualitative data collected through participant observation (Patton, 2002), which included both video recordings of the lessons as well as audio recording of collaborative work during each lesson as the students made their videos in small groups. Each component allowed for the triangulation of results and were used to enhance research validity and to gain a better understanding of the concepts under investigation instructor. The course instructor has an expertise in teaching English to the speakers of other languages (TESOL), but it was the first time she had applied English to teaching astronomy using digital storytelling. Thus, prior to commencing this study, she participated in professional learning for delivering the JTST educational package (McKinnon, 2013), and sought advice and coaching on how to make videos from specialists in this area and from her past students, to whom she had assigned making videos about grammar as a home task in her past courses (Chubko, 2017). To better understand the process of video making, the instructor prepared an introductory video about herself and her pathway towards 164

becoming a teacher of astronomy. This allowed her to identify the stages of the video making task and the approximate amount of scaffolding required for each of the stages. Participants Participation in this pilot astronomy course was offered as an incentive for students already attending English language courses and was advertised as an opportunity to practice English and test their ability to apply the acquired English language skills in a real-life context. To be enrolled in this astronomy course, students had to be aged between 10 and 16 years, be non-native speakers of English and possess an intermediate level of proficiency in English (level B1-B2) that classifies the student as an ‘Independent user’ (Council of Europe, 2018). At this level, students are expected to understand the key points of various types of verbal and written input and make meaningful contributions to classroom interactions (Council of Europe, 2018). Nine graduates from the intermediate level English language extracurricular university-based courses for teenagers were recruited for the research. The real names of the participants are substituted with pseudonyms to protect their anonymity. Overall, there were five male participants: Chyngyz, Manas, Sanjar and Stas (all aged 12 years), as well as Talant (aged 15 years). There were four female participants: Kamilla (12 years), Diana (14 years), as well as Elena and Sayora (both 15 years). All of the participants spoke Russian as their first language (L1). Five of the participants had Kyrgyz ethnicity (Chyngyz, Manas, Talant, Sanjar & Kamilla); therefore, they were native speakers of Kyrgyz language, while other students were learning Kyrgyz at school as a second language. English was a foreign language for all the participants. Additionally, some of the research participants were learning at least one other foreign language, for example French, at school. Thus, to a greater or lesser extent, all of the research participants were multilingual EFL students. Ethics committee approval This research project was granted approval from the University’s Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC), Project ID: 15076, approval date 8 March 2017. (Source: Nadezhda Chubko, Julia E. Morris, David H. McKinnon, Eileen V. Slater and Geoffrey W. Lummis. (2019). Engaging adolescent Kyrgyzstani EFL students in digital storytelling projects about astronomy. Issues in Educational Research, 29(4), 1107-1130.) 165

Case study 3: Download the following thesis and identify the use of observation checklist as follows: 1. How was it constructed in the research instrument section? 2. How were the data collected and analyzed? 3. How the findings in relation to the observation were reported and discussed based on the relevant research objective? Master of Education in Teaching English as a Foreign Language, Faculty of Education, Chulalongkorn University. Activity 3: Read the research paper employing case study research and answer the following questions to learn the basic concepts and the characteristic of the research procedures and how the report was presented. Leki, I. (1995). Coping strategies of ESL students in writing tasks across the curriculum. TESOL Quarterly, 29(2), 235-260. Kamhi-Stein, L.D. (2003). Reading in two languages: How attitudes toward home language and beliefs about reading affect the behaviors of “under-prepared” L2 college readers. TESOL Quarterly, 37(1), 35-71. Questions for you to answer when you read case study samples 1) What is the research question? 2) In what context was the research conducted? 3) Who were the participants in the study? How were they selected? What were their relevant characteristics? 4) What was the theoretical orientation of the researcher? 5) What was the roles of the researchers? 166

6) What data-collection procedures were used? How much time was spent collecting data? 7) How were data analyzed? What were the findings? 8) What conclusions are drawn? Are they logically related to the descriptive data? 9) What is the contribution of the study to our knowledge of social or contextual factors in second language learning? 10) What are the stated implication for teaching? Review Questions ➢ What seems to be common research question in case studies research? ➢ Can you identify key problem statement and the purposes of this research? Chapter Summary and Highlights This chapter discusses some key characteristics of a case study in which a specific focus on a particular event or phenomenon allows in- depth analysis and understanding. Case study research relies on eliciting multiple sources of data and while generalizability is not the major aim, theory-informed findings can be generalized where appropriately. A case study is suitable for small-scale research and can be an option when a researcher has little control over events or when context is important, and events cannot be experimentally manipulated. Limitations of case study such as lack of samples to be the representatives of the population and not being able to establish causal relationships should be noted. The chapter also includes important considerations when designing a case study as well as steps to undertake a successful case study. Teachers and researchers, particularly in ESL/EFL context, can make use of case study to explore and understand issues in their English language teaching context that may require an in-depth analysis. 167

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Chapter 6: Action Research Design Introduction This chapter explains the characteristics of Action Research and the challenges found when the action research is conducted. It provides explicit information of general research process as well as examples of action research both in general educational context and ESL/EFL settings. Data types such as diary, verbal report and its analysis sample are also discussed. 1. About action research “Action research is the process through which teachers collaborate in evaluating their practice jointly, raise awareness of their personal theory, articulate a shared conception of values, try out new strategies to render the values expressed in their practice more consistent with the educational values they espouse, record their work in the form which is readily available to and understandable by other teachers; and thus, develop shared theory of teaching by research practice.” (Elliott, 1991) The action research can be called as classroom research, self-reflective inquiry, teacher research, teacher self-evaluation, and teacher as researcher. It focuses on binary aspects of action and research (Burns, 2012). The action aspect requires planned intervention, deliberately putting into placed concrete strategies, processes, or activities in the research context. Interventions in practice are in response to perceive problem, puzzle or question that needs to improve or change in some way. These problems may relate to teaching learning, curriculum or syllabus implementation, school management or class management can also be focused. The research component of action research means systematically collection of data about the planned actions, analyzing what they reveal, reflecting the implication of the data, and development of the alternative plans and actions based on the data analysis. Improvement and involvement are twin pillars underlining action research. 172

The condition of designing action research is to follow a cyclic process through an adoption of exploratory stance, which develops an understanding of problem and makes plans for some source of interventionary strategies. The intervention (action) is then conducted during the collection of relevant observation in different forms. New strategies of the intervention are carried out and this cyclic activity is repeated and continued until sufficient solution for the problem is satisfied. The design is repetitive and aimed to promote deep understandings of a particular situation. It starts with conceptualizing and specifying problem and moving through various interventions and evaluations. Exploration Action Exploration A B C 12 3 4 A B C Plan Explor Analyz Plan Ac Observ Reflec Plan Explor Analyz to e e and to t e t to e e and explor reflect chang explor reflect ee e Characteristics of action research and its advantages • It is a collaborative and adaptive research design that is implemented in work or community context. • It is contextualized, small-scale and localized. • It is a strategic problem-solving method for specific educational challenges. • The research design emphasizes on pragmatic and solution-oriented research outcomes rather than testing theories. • It has capacity to increase the amount of practitioners’ learning from their experiences and has explicit quality to improve practice and support the change. • It is aimed to support teachers in coping with challenges and problems of practice and carrying through innovations in a reflective way. • It enables positive communication between administrators and teachers. • It is flexible and solution-oriented thinking. • It increases expectations for student learning and for self-improvement. 173

The teacher who gets involved in action research (McNiff, 1988): • is not satisfied with the status quo and has the confidence and resolution to attempt to change what is going on. • is not satisfied with the present way of doing things and seeks to change it. • is resourceful, committed and above all curious; and • wants to be an acting agent and rise above being a skilled technician and move towards becoming an educator. Challenges of action research • The researcher must be responsible for advocating for changing and for researching the topic, so it is more challenging to conduct than conventional research. • It is relatively difficult to write up because there is no explicit standard format to follow when you report the findings where most data are in form of observation or stories. • There might be some bias on the results if the researcher has too much personal involvement. • It is time-consuming and complicated to implement due to its binary outcomes of change (action) and understanding (research). • It requires willingness to actively support from the participants to make advocating for change happen. 174

Differences between action research and general educational research or formal research General Educational Aspects Action Research Research / Formal Research Researcher Teacher Researcher or Teacher Objective To improve and develop To improve and develop teaching and learning / To education to generalize apply knowledge to local knowledge situation Problem Teaching practice / Problems Theoretical concepts / identification currently faced Literature review Scope Narrow and small scale Wider Literature review Brief Extensive Sample Students in the class Random / Representative Research method Connection made from Use theory as framework for teaching practice and building the research theory from practice Research Simple research procedures Systematic and carefully procedure constructed research plan Data analysis Use simple descriptive Use more advanced statistics analysis, focus on practical tools referring to the results and reference is made quantitative nature of data / to characteristic and Use qualitative techniques attributes of the students Implication Focus on how to solve Focus on new theory or new problems in teaching and body of knowledge being learning created 175

Action research process  Plan: Problem identification What is the problem the researcher identified? / What are the action research questions? ▪ Identifying a problem and pose a question ▪ Plan for action to improve what happening ▪ Create an action plan  Act: Intervening What were the intervention(s) proposed in the action research? / What were the intervention(s) proposed in the action research? ▪ Change classroom approaches or practices in response to the hypotheses has made ▪ Implement the action plan  Observation ▪ Preparing to observe ➢ How and what are observed? ➢ Why is the observation conducted? ➢ What are the assumption and expectations? ➢ When is the observation carried out and for how long? ▪ Recording observations ➢ How does the researcher keep record during the observation? ➢ How does the researcher treat the record after the observation? ▪ Observation ➢ Observe the effects of the action plan ➢ Use a tape-recorder to observe, using photograph or making video recordings  Reflection How did the researcher reflect the findings? / How did he/she share the findings ▪ Interpret/ analyze the data ▪ Reflect critically on the action process ▪ Modify the plan / plan a second round of research 176

Whole class Group Individual Knowing learners - Study learners’ basic information - Analyse learners’ problem - Select the problem Learning Design Plan - Set objective(s) - Design and develop action plan Learning process Modify - Employ the plan in learning activities Action and Observation - Observe and collect data Evaluation Reflect - Analyse collected data - Present the analysed data Presentation - Write a research report - Disseminate research findings Action Research Process – PAOR *Adapted from Ruetinan Samutthai (2001) 177

Action research cycle (Kemmis & McTaggart, 1988) Sample of action research cycle 1 (Carr & Kemmis, 1986) Reflecting I am not happy with the textbook we are using, but it is the only one available. Planning What can I do about it? I cannot change the book: should I change Acting my method of using it? Perhaps I should try paired work. I show the children how to ask and answer questions of each other to make otherwise boring material relevant to themselves. We try out this technique in class. Observing I join various pairs and listen to their conversations. I record some conversations. I keep my own notes. Reflecting The activity is lively, but some questions wander from the text. I want to get across the material in the text. 178

Sample of action research cycle 2 (Carr & Kemmis, 1986) Planning Perhaps I could develop with the children an interview technique, where A asks B questions which will elicit responses based on the material. Will that make it boring again? How can I guard against this? Perhaps I can involve them even more actively. Acting The children record their own conversations. There are not enough Observing tape recorders to go around, so they work in fours, taking it in turns to listen and talk. At the end of the two sets of interviews they listen and comment on individual recordings. They really enjoy this. And they seem to be gleaning information from the text in formulating their own question and answers. Reflecting Am I correct pedagogically in teaching the content through this process? I must consult my head of department on this. Should I aim for this sort of learning more often and with other classes? I am worried about practical difficulties such as too much noise and insufficient tape recorder. 2. Action research in education Scenario 1 - Shy students Problem: The teacher noticed that some students were very shy and did not want to participate in class lessons. Research If I change the structure of discussion methods, will these question: students participate more? Action plan: The teacher decided to put the students in small groups to discuss the lesson content before the large group discussion. She also downplayed competition and welcomed speculation and questions about confusions as well as ‘right answers.’ Data collection: The teacher kept notes the students on students’ participation. Results: She also interviewed the students. The shy students began to participate more. 179

Scenario 2 - Motivation learning problem Problem: A teacher noticed that students were not very motivated to Research engage in the study of history. Would using personal anecdotes or current real-world question: examples about the concepts they were studying (such as conflict and conflict resolution) would make the lesson more Data collection: valuable to students? Results: The teacher had students keep journals about what they were learning from traditional lessons and the more connected lessons. Students’ learning improved. Scenario 3 - Classroom structure problem Problem: A teacher had difficulty getting students engaged in classroom discussion. Research Would changing the seating arrangement encourage more question: students to participate in discussions? Action plan: The teacher moved students out of single row, front-facing arrangement into a large circle with the teacher as part of the circle for discussion. To get discussion going, the teacher had to use 8 to 10 stimulus questions. He hypothesized that, with greater participation, fewer questions would be needed. Data collection: The teacher kept notes on the students’ participation, fewer questions would be needed. Results: When he reviewed his data, he found he only needed to use three of the stimulus questions to start the 20-minutes discussion period. He kept that arrangement for discussion. 180

Scenario 4 - Using contracts Problem: One student was not completing reading assigned for homework. Research Would using a contract with students raise the rate of question: homework completion? Data collection: The teacher kept records of how much homework was turned in before and after the contract. Results: The amount of homework completed by that student increased. 3. Data from diaries What is a diary study? The diary study is an in-depth reflection on learning processes or teaching experiences regularly kept by an individual and then analyzed to look for recurring patterns or significant events (Bailey, 1990). It is often used in qualitative studies and can be analyzed by diarists themselves or by researchers. It involves systematic personal accounts of the feelings, thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, and reactions over a period of time. It is a kind of self-observation, introspection, and retrospection. Diarists can freely write about their thoughts and have no need to answer some previously imposed questions for the research (Mackey & Gass, 2008). We can often find unexpected underlying factors, especially affective factors through diary studies. Common external research tools such as observation can’t reach the affective part so far. Types of diary study Learning diaries It is also known as learner diaries, can be documented as a pedagogical tool for teachers in the EFL classroom to discover learners’ perception of classroom activities, learning difficulties and their interaction with teachers and peers. They can be adopted as a research tool to gain insight into learners’ language learning experiences (McDonough, 2006). Learners’ diaries can be documented as a teacher training tool in teacher education programs to help pre-service teachers have varied and rich perceptions about teaching. A learner diary can not only fill gaps between what we generally think and what diarists really think, but also enhance learner autonomy. By keeping the 181

diary, learners can have a clearer idea of their current learning progress and try to find different strategies to manage their own learning. Consideration • It should be confidential between teacher and student and require permission. • If it is L1 or L2? • It should not be used as a tool for error correction. Teaching diaries The teaching diaries offer a fresh perspective of teachers’ experiences, their teaching styles and strategies, their feelings about the students, and their judgments in the classroom. They can help teachers to find the patterns in their classroom, make appropriate instructional decisions, adjust their teaching, and reconsider their future roles while teaching. Consideration • They rely heavily on the diarist’s willingness to keep the diary regularly. If the diarist does not write regularly, the original entries collected may not be enough for analysis. • The data may also be contaminated because the diarist doesn’t want their thoughts and feeling to be published or they may make up their entries to please to the researcher’s needs. • It is time consuming to collect and analyze all the entries. Note on how leaner diaries were explained in the research instrument section of the research paper. Christina, G. (2013). A diary study on the causes of English language classroom anxiety. International Journal of English Studies, 13 (1), 51-68. The most comprehensive definition of a diary study has been given by Bailey (1990): “a diary study is a first-person account of a language learning or teaching experience, documented through regular, candid entries in a personal journal and then analyzed for recurring patterns or salient events”. Diaries as classroom-oriented research tools are not without their faults though. Catering for both introspection and 182

retrospection from the part of the learners (McDonough & McDonough, 1997), diary data are occasionally subject to memory gaps from the part of the diarists. As Fry (1988) points out, “with retrospective data, all the problems of cognition in introspective data are magnified by the lapse of time between the event and the reporting of it” (p. 160). Issues of data reduction and reliability of categorization and coding have also been listed among the drawbacks of diary studies (Bailey, 1991). Still, diaries are valuable in second language acquisition research. They account for “the unexplored processes of classroom language learning”, or, to quote Long (1983), they provide data from “inside the black box”. Diaries give researchers the opportunity to study each learner’s views on affective factors, such as sources of stress in second language learning, in an unobtrusive way (Bailey & Oschner, 1983; Bailey, 1991; Dörnyei, 2007). Bailey (1991) strongly argues that diary studies are absolutely essential to advancing our understanding of classroom language learning. At the present time we are working with an unrefined tool to craft an only dimly understood representation of language learning. Properly done, the diary studies can provide us with important missing pieces in this incredibly complex mosaic – pieces which may not be fully accessible by any other means... An appreciation for individual differences... leads directly to the importance of studying single learners in depth (pp. 87-88). Learner diaries were therefore selected as a means of following up the students’ responses to the questionnaire. The researcher looked at those entries with insights into the causes of ELCA that further delved into and justified the quantitative results. 64 entries were gathered in total. All eight participants reported on their experiences in their diaries once a week for a period of eight weeks. An event- contingent design was adopted in which the participants were required to provide an entry each time a lesson occurred (Dörnyei, 2007). The study took place between January and March 2011 for the purposes of avoiding beginning and end-of-year procedures, like adjusting to the new class or receiving transcripts of records, that by definition involve some amount of stress built in and might influence the originality and purposefulness of the study. The diarists were instructed to record activities that were anxiety provoking for them, and to clarify or expand on the issues raised. The diary entries were received either weekly or fortnightly. Focal points for keeping the diary were the following: 183

• the most and least anxiety-provoking aspects of the lesson • the level of anxiety experienced when dealing with the four skills • the symptoms of anxiety the learners were faced with • the coping strategies deployed by both teachers and students, and • the students’ thoughts regarding their teacher and their peers. Data analysis: The primary method of investigating the experiences of students with reference to their anxiety was qualitative content analysis. Berg (2007) defines it as “a careful, detailed, systematic examination and interpretation of a particular body of material in an effort to identify patterns, themes, biases, and meanings” (pp. 303-304). In a nutshell, content analysis constitutes a means of reducing, simplifying, and interpreting the data through systematic qualitative coding techniques. According to Dörnyei (2007), qualitative content analysis is often being referred to as “latent-level analysis” , since it focuses on a second-level interpretation of the deeper meaning of the data. Initial coding followed by second-level coding were applied to the analysis of the learner diaries. The researcher started by skimming through all the diaries to obtain a general idea of the data, and then scanned the texts to identify any passages relevant to the topic. Codes were assigned to each specific passage, and similar categories were clustered together under one general code. These variables were also counted in order to produce a hierarchical sequence of all labels. 4. Data from verbal report What is verbal report? Verbal report (think-aloud and stimulated recall) has been regarded ‘in the field of psychology as a method of uncovering participants’ cognitive states in processing information’ (Matsumoto, 1993). Due to the limitation of classroom observation to observe what happens inside the ‘black box’ (Long, 1993), in the studying of learner strategies, verbal report has been used up to tap the conscious mental processes involved in language learning (Cohen, 1987). Verbal reporting is especially suitable for process-oriented research which tries to understand the nature 184

of students and their strategies for learning. Verbal reporting focuses on what is going on in the students’ minds and reflects the actual reading and writing process while the students are making sense of an activity they are engaged in. Data from verbal report can be done by self-report, self-observation, self-revelation, and self-report. Drawbacks of verbal report • It cannot replace other research methods for exploring mental process (Cohen, 1998). • The obtained data might not be completed as the think aloud procedure is limited to conscious actions only. • Participants might not be able to verbalize some unconscious processes since they are too complex and too difficult to explain. • If the task is too easy subjects may not be able to access their own thought processes, because the process of comprehending will be too quick and automatic (Ericsson and Simon, 1980). • The process seems to work better with extrovert participants (introverts often fail to provide sufficient data), and if the researcher does not provide appropriate training and instruction, readers may tend to verbalize what the researcher wants, not what really occurs during the task. Procedures 1. Provide a clear indication of the tasks that the participants were asked to perform. 2. Conduct warm-up activity where tasks similar to the actual task are provided. 3. Implement the tasks as well as observe check sheet. 4. Interview participants by instructing them how to provide verbal report, as well as to coach them as they are providing it, e.g., requesting that they not report on the basis of what they usually do, but rather that they stick to what they are actually doing at the given instance. 185

Data analysis • Segmenting the transcript so that each segment represents an apparent thought of unit. • Doing coding analysis by identify important points/strategies/thoughts and put them into categories. • Considering if non-verbal data will be critical to the coding and analysis. 5. Sample of action research conducted in the ESL/EFL context Case 1: Jing, H. (2005). A diary study of difficulties and constraints in EFL learning. System, 33, 609-621. Doi: 10.1016/j.system.2005.04.001. Case 2: Hishop, J. and Stracke, J. (2017). ESL students in peer review: An action research study in a university English for Academic Purposes course. University of Sydney Papers in TESOL, 12, 9-44. Case 3: Leung, C. Y. (2002). Extensive Reading and Language Learning: A Diary Study of a Beginning Learner of Japanese. Reading in a Foreign Language, 14 (1), 66-81. Questions for the action research (Scan QR code to download the articles) 1. What is the problem in teaching and learning being focused on this action research/teacher research? 2. If you are to identify the steps of action research in the article, can you identify where and how the authors describe each of these steps: Plan, Action, Observation and Reflection? 3. Comments on the advantages of conducting action research and teacher research. 186

Discussion 1. Is the action research acceptable in the field of TEFL/TESL? 2. Should you employ the strategies of the action research for your own professional development or for your requirements to get a higher degree? 6. Activities Activity 1: Discuss of what action research is and how it is used in English language instruction based on the following articles: Article 1: Cornwell, S. (2001). Exploring L1 use in an English discussion class: An action research approach. The PAC Journal, 1(1), 93-107. Article 2: Sumalee Chinokul. (2015). Classroom observation: A self-study of a language teacher educator supervising preservice teachers, 43(3), Journal of Faculty of Education, July-September 1-22. Article 3: Bailey, K.M. (2001). What My EFL Students Taught Me. The PAC Journal, The PAC Journal, 1(1), 7-31. Discussion sheet (Scan QR code to download the articles) Article Problem Intervention Action Research Findings Identification Procedure 1 2 3 187

Activity 2: Watch the video clip to see a challenging or unsatisfactory situation that a teacher may face and answer the questions. Short Film - Class of Rowdies by Nitin Das (Scan QR code to see the video) Note: The content of the above activity was inspired and adapted from Smith, R. & Rebolledo, P. (2016).Teaching English: A Handbook of Exploratory Action Research. British Council. Question 1: What seem to be the sign of successful teaching experience that Sachi had done? Question 2: If you were Sachi, what seemed to be the signs of difficulties here in the classroom? 188

I saw….. I heard …. I felt …. Question 3: If you were Sachi, what evidence you may want to explore.  interview notes  Observation notes  Questionnaire notes  Students’ work record Exploring Focus Data question ❑Teacher’s own notes. ❑Notes from informal conversation How can the Explore teacher’s with other teachers. ❑Reflective writing by students. students be own perceptions ❑Notes or recordings of focus group. ❑Notes or recordings from chat or engaged in the individual interview. ❑Lesson’s recordings. learning content? Explore others’ ❑Pictures of the class. ❑Students’ works or students’ perceptions performances on tasks (written or recorded). Explore students’ behaviors (performance) 189

Activity 3: Practice how to handle data from diaries and journals and discuss the procedures of how the students analyzed the diary. The diaries were contributed by Associate Professor Dr. Pornapit Darasawang. The sample diary analysis was performed by a group of M.Ed TEFL students studied the course in the academic year 2020. 27/10/04 I’ve learned Japanese in class for 11 days already; I think the lessons still be what I’ve learned already. However, there were some language points I could better understand and make clear about them from the classes. Sometimes, I didn’t clearly understand what the teachers explained only by Japanese. I know that it is possible to use L1 to explain, but it isn’t suitable for the beginner learners. Sometimes, I am anxious to ask the teacher because I was often ignored when I confused the teacher’s instructions. I think her instructions were not clear: she just suddenly demonstrated what we were going to do but she didn’t give me the clear instructions. There were many learners quite confused what we were going to do next. When I got stuck, the teacher ignored me and passed to others. I lost face and felt unhappy to learn that class. I think classroom atmosphere is an important factor for language learning. In some classes, I willingly learned and got enjoy to ask what I want to know. This may come from the teaching style accords with my learning style. I prefer to learn gradually and make clear step by step (not too fast) before moving to another. And it might be better to check the learners understanding before moving, such as asking “Are there any questions?” or making the conversation with learners. When the teacher writes what she is explaining on the white board, I can better understand than just talking. I love to learn through VDO, because it is easier for remembering and I can easily imagine in the future. It is good for me. 190

27/10/04 (cont.) Sometimes, a classmate also affected my learning. There was a case that when a teacher asked us to practice the conversation in pair, a Russian classmate seemed to be bored to practice. Actually, we had to change the role while practicing conversation, but he didn’t change; so I had to stop our practicing. When I spoke, I also felt that he tried to observe my mistakes and he acted as a teacher to correct mine. I disliked what he did, but I prefer to keep in mind. Although it might be good for my improvement, I prefer to change the pair in the future if I can. For outside the Japanese class, I hardly use Japanese because there are many Thai students here. At this time, I often meet them, such as when learning, having dinner, and traveling. Therefore, I use Thai a lot; and my daily life Japanese is not progressed much. However, I try to practice Kanji at least 1 hour a day; and also I often note and do my home works by using Kanji as much as I can in order to retrieve them. When I go to JUSCO, I found that I can better guess the meanings of Kanji on goods and labels. Wow… It helps me a lot. I will practice more. 8/11/04 Japanese class Today, the class started again after a long weekend passed. I worry that I still cannot apply Japanese well in my daily life, although I have learned it for 1 month. Maybe I was too lazy to review the lessons because those are what I have known already: I just did the homework the teachers assigned which is not enough for daily life conversation. For a long time, I spent my time uselessly. I took more than one and a half hour to talk with Thai students at the dinner every night until it became too late to review the lessons. Therefore, I have to change my life style and better manage my time for reviewing and preparing the lesson in advance. I started to reschedule for doing my homework, reviewing, preparing the lesson, and so on. I set the time for doing these necessary things in each day and try to follow it as much as possible. 191

8/11/04 (cont.) In class, I notice that there are some learners who try to create their own idea when drilling the conversation: they don’t use only the word from the book but they create the complex sentences instead of the simple sentences. I think it is a good strategy for acquiring a new language. I begin to expand my sentences to be more complex and use the new vocabulary as much as possible in order to get familiar with them. For example, I have learned Kara, it means because, from the previous lesson, so I apply it in the following lesson to make my sentences much more interesting. I afraid if they might be bored to speak with me; and I cannot do as they do. Kyoto trip It was a great opportunity to learn Japanese culture and language by traveling. Along the trip to Kyoto, Japanese language was used to communicate, such as introducing the tourist destinations by a tour guide and other general talking among members. For the guide, she cannot speak English but she tried to speak slowly as well as use her gestures. Sometimes, I can understand her by liking the words I have already known and noticing her gestures. For example, I knew that we were going to pass some places because she said BYE…BYE again after she spoke by Japanese. However, I was quite hard to understand what they said; and I felt depressed because I couldn’t totally understand them. When I spoke Japanese, I was nervous and spoke with lacking of my confidence because I often make mistakes when speaking. I cannot use these words automatically, Koko, Soko Asoko, Kore, Sore and Are, and take a while to memorize when to use each of them, although I am sure that I understand them well from my Japanese class. Also, I usually feel depressed when speaking with someone who has high Japanese ability than me. Maybe, I afraid if they might be bored to speak with me; and I cannot do as they do. 192

Diary Analysis Definition of terms 1.1 Self-esteem Rubio (2007) defines self-esteem as “a psychological and social phenomenon” that an individual evaluates his/her capability and own self in accordance with some values. 1.2 Inhibition Brown (2014) explains that inhibition is a set of defenses built by humans to protect the ego from threats to the organization of values and beliefs. 1.3 Anxiety Anxiety is a feeling of pressure, apprehension and nervousness affecting the quality of language production, makes individuals appear less fluent and confident than they really are (Haidara, 2016; Juhana 2012; Khamprated, 2012). 1.4 Motivation Brown (2014) defines motivation in three different perspectives. First, from a behavioral perspective, motivation is the anticipation of reward. Second, in cognitive terms, motivation is the individual's decision to reach or avoid something. Finally, in a constructivism view, motivation is the individual's decision made from interaction in a social context and self-determination. Analysis results 27/10/04 Affective Factors Tally Marks Lines Samples 1. Self-esteem //// = 4 2-3 ...l could better understand and make 17-18 clear about them from the classes. 19 ...I can better understand than just 32-33 talking. ... I can easily imagine in the future. I found I can better guess the meaning ofKanji on goods and labels. 193