Research in English Language Instruction

Research in English Language Instruction Sumalee Chinokul

Research in English Language Instruction Sumalee Chinokul

Research in English Language Instruction Sumalee Chinokul สมุ าลี ชโิ นกุล จดั พิมพโ์ ดย สุมาลี ชิโนกุล พพิ มค์ ร้งั ท่ี 1 กันยายน 2564 จำนวน 200 เล่ม ข้อมูลทางบรรณานกุ รมของสำนกั หอสมุดแห่งชาติ National library of Thailand Cataloging in Publication Data สุมาลี ชโิ นกลุ , Research in English Language Instruction._ _ กรุงเทพมหานคร: สมุ าลี ชโิ นกลุ คณะครศุ าสตร์ จฬุ าลงกรณ์มหาวิทยาลยั , 2564. 318 หนา้ 1. Research 2. English Language Teaching I ชือ่ เรอื่ ง ISBN (e-Book): 978-616-586-616-3 สงวนลิขสทิ ธต์ิ ามพระราชบญั ญัตลิ ขิ สิทธ์ หา้ มทำซำ้ ดัดแปลง หรือนำขึ้นไปเผยแพร่ ไมว่ ่าส่วนใดสว่ นหนงึ่ ของหนงั สอื เล่มนี้ นอกจากจะไดร้ บั อนุญาตเปน็ ลายลกั ษณ์อกั ษร ผ้รู ับผดิ ชอบพมิ พ์ รองศาสตราจารย์ ดร.สุมาลี ชโิ นกุล คณะครศุ าสตร์ จฬุ าลงกรณ์มหาวิทยาลยั 254 ถนนพญาไท แขวงวงั ใหม่ เขตปทุมวนั กรงุ เทพมหานคร 10330 ออกแบบปก บริษทั กราฟฟคิ สเปซ จำกดั ราคา 250 บาท ii

Contents Chapter 1: Introduction to ESL/EFL Research ......................................................................1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................1 1.1 What are counted as ‘ELT research’? .....................................................................2 1.2 Types of Academic Research.....................................................................................2 1.3 ESL/EFL Research Design..............................................................................................4 1.4 Research Design Commonly Used in English Language Education...............5 1.5 Activities.............................................................................................................................9 References............................................................................................................................. 18 Chapter 2: ESL/EFL Research Process Initiation................................................................ 19 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 19 2. Research Process Initiation ............................................................................................. 19 2.1 Initiating Research: Identifying Research Topic/Interest..................................... 20 2.2 Clarifying the Initiation: Becoming aware of research problems, research questions and research objectives................................................................................... 27 2.3 Scoping the Research: Getting Focused and Formulating Research Problem Statement ........................................................................................................... 40 2.4 Structuring the Research: Building a Theoretical Framework and Developing a Conceptual Framework.................................................................................................... 50 What is a conceptual framework? ................................................................................ 56 References............................................................................................................................. 59 Chapter 3: Survey Research..................................................................................................... 64 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 64 3. Survey Research.................................................................................................................. 64 3.1 What is survey research?........................................................................................... 65 iii

3.2 Why is survey research used in the English language instruction context? .................................................................................................................................................. 66 3.3 Guideline in Conducting Survey Research Through Questionnaire........... 67 3.4 Guideline in Conducting Survey Research Through Interview .................... 78 3.5 Avtivities.......................................................................................................................... 85 References........................................................................................................................... 117 Chapter 4: Experimental Research......................................................................................122 Introduction ............................................................................................................................122 1. The research design and the design notation.......................................................125 2. Population, sample and representativeness..........................................................127 3. Guidelines for reading quantitative research.........................................................129 4. Data elicitation for ESL/EFL research ........................................................................130 5. Activities ..............................................................................................................................137 References ............................................................................................................................... 148 Chapter 5: Case study .............................................................................................................150 Introduction ............................................................................................................................150 1. Defining Case Study....................................................................................................150 2. Case Study Research Design ....................................................................................150 3. Case Study Research in English Language Teaching .......................................153 4. Selection of the Cases ...............................................................................................155 5. Validity and Reliability of Case Study Research...............................................155 6. Data in Case Study Research...................................................................................155 7. Activities..........................................................................................................................161 References........................................................................................................................... 168 Chapter 6: Action Research Design.....................................................................................172 iv

Introduction ............................................................................................................................172 1. About action research................................................................................................172 2. Action research in education ..................................................................................179 3. Data from diaries..........................................................................................................181 4. Data from verbal report............................................................................................184 5. Sample of action research conducted in the ESL/EFL context ..................186 6. Activities..........................................................................................................................187 References:.......................................................................................................................... 199 Chapter 7: Research and Development............................................................................201 Introduction ............................................................................................................................201 1. What is research and development?....................................................................201 2. What should researchers consider for research and development being conducted in the ESL/EFL context?...........................................................................203 3. How to develop a research and development (R&D) work?........................203 4. Activities..........................................................................................................................212 References........................................................................................................................... 220 Chapter 8: Conclusion.............................................................................................................221 Suggested Answers....................................................................................................................226 References ...................................................................................................................................295 v

Preface This book has been designed as an introduction to research for the graduate students in the English language instruction and novice EFL teachers who may want to start conducting research in English language teaching. With this target group in mind, the presentation of this book as well as the layout are intentionally designed to be user friendly. The readers will be put in an active mode and engage in series of activities that will help them learn and acquire knowledge and skill of research in the field. Through the content and activities presented in the book, the readers will learn: 1) to read research articles and samples of thesis and dissertation, 2) to notify some important characteristics of each type of research being focused, 3) to discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the research that they have read 4) to handle data commonly used by the ELT researchers, and 5) to keep themselves updated with the trends in ELT research. The book is separated into 8 chapters: Chapter 1: Introduction to ESL/EFL Research, Chapter 2: ESL/EFL Research Process Initiation, Chapter 3: Survey Research, Chapter 4: Quasi Experimental Research, Chapter 5: Case Study, Chapter 6: Action Research Design, Chapter 7: Research and Development and Chapter 8: Conclusion. Sumalee Chinokul August 2021 vi

Chapter 1: Introduction to ESL/EFL Research Introduction This chapter is aimed at raising awareness of the readers with general background knowledge about research in the field of English language instruction. The learning, sharing, and discussion sections are designed to review the knowledge being focused upon. It is suggested that the activities and tasks provided in the chapter are recommended for novice teacher researchers who teach English as a foreign language to review and discuss some of their initial thoughts on research in the field. Towards the end of the chapter, some common concepts of research in English language teaching areas are discussed and research design commonly employed in the field are presented. 1. Introduction to ESL/EFL Research What ESL/EFL research has in common with other types of research is that it seeks and explores some answers in order to explain phenomena which, in this particular instance, educational phenomena. The way people find answers to unknown areas may be different. Mills and Gay (2018) stated that the common approaches to knowing includes experience, authority, and inductive and deductive reasoning. However, when combined with the scientific method, an orderly process involving a number of steps, they become very effective. The scientific method involves recognition and definition of a problem, formulation of hypotheses, collection of data, analysis of data, and statement of conclusion regarding confirmation or disconfirmation of the hypotheses. English language teaching is a specialized field with a distinct focus and set of expectations in its community of practice. Novice researchers may need to become aware of what people in the field are interested in, what issues are being explored, how they may create a new body of knowledge in the field, and what and how they can share or contribute to some of the research findings for the benefits in the area. 1

Therefore, it may be a good starting point to address some basic knowledge to understand the research in the field, some common research types conducted in the field, as well as innovation and new areas which the field aspires researchers to explore. 1.1 What are counted as ‘ELT research’? Centre for Applied Linguistics, University of Warwick has defined ELT research as follows: • ‘ELT research’ refers to any research whose data and/or findings relate directly to the teaching, learning or assessment of English as a Foreign, Second or Additional Language in any other context. • It does not, for example, cover research in fields such as English Literature or Intercultural Communication unless the data/findings relate directly to English language teaching, learning or assessment. 1.2 Types of Academic Research Academic research can be categorized into several types based on the research purposes, characteristic of the data, research resources, research process and methods, types of data and disciplines. The following are examples of types of research based on the aforementioned categories. 2

Category of Academic Research Types of Research 1. The research purposes  Basic research 2. Characteristic of the data  Applied research 3. Research resources  Action research 4.Research process and methods  Quantitative research 5.Types of data  Qualitative research 6.Diclipline  Primary research  Secondary research  Meta-analysis of research  Descriptive research (e.g. historical research, survey research, ex post facto research, case study)  Experimental research (pre- experimental research, quasi-experimental research, true-experimental research)  Correlation research  Causal comparative research  Evaluative research  Research and development  Documentary research  Empirical research  Physical science research  Biological science research  Social science research  Behavioral science research  Interdisciplinary research 3

1.3 ESL/EFL Research Design Defining ‘Research’ and ‘Design’ How do you define the terms ‘research’ and ‘design’? Discuss and share your answers with the class. Then, study the following answers shared by the participants from the previous course. Compare it to your answers and discuss the differences. Defining ‘Research’ and ‘Design’ in Context Answers Shared by the Course Participants Research  ‘Research’ in this course, it is normally understood as the study of how people learn and acquire the L2 (English) and become proficient language users. All of the process language learners have encountered, whether it is the struggles or the smoothness during the language learning process, are of interest to people in the field. The product or evidence of learning is also of their interest.  In addition, research in the field also involves how people learn to teach language.  Therefore, the questions which lead to studies may be reflective and autobiographical (with participants examining their own professional learning) or they can be focused on the learning of others (e.g. colleagues, peers, etc.) in a particular design. Design  ‘Design’ is understood to focus on innovations in a particular teacher education activity and new ways/designs of exploration/investigations to seek evidence to improve L2 learning and teaching. Note: When conducting your research proposal, consider the research and design in this learning and sharing point. 4

Activity In order to extend your understanding of the research in ESL/EFL context, watch the following video and share your opinions or experience regarding English language learning. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=na04NxGZuKU Description: In this global world, it is easy to meet multilingual speakers. Multilingual speakers are not people who are absolutely fluent or almost like a native in multiple languages, but they are learners of other languages. This talk explores how second language learners truly feel and think when finding limitations in their second (or other) languages. It further emphasizes the importance of having the courage to make mistakes and learn and improve based on their own experiences. It also asks native speakers to understand the experience of language learners. Yeonie Heo is a 16-year-old junior at an International School Bangkok. It has been 3 years now since she moved to Thailand from Korea. The past years were sometimes tough and challenging for her. There were several up and downs getting used to the culture and studies here in an international school. This talk was given at a TEDx event using the TED conference format but independently organized by a local community. 1.4 Research Design Commonly Used in English Language Education The following visual representations highlight the main focus of type of research being conducted in the field and the answers to questions ‘what, why and how’. Study the following diagram and complete the follow-up activity. 5

Common Research Design in English Language Instruction (Griffee, 2012) Survey research What?  A method of sociological investigation that uses questions based or statistical surveys to collect information about how people think and act.  Select participants through sampling procedures (identifying the population and decide samples which represent the populations). Why?  To gather meaningful opinions, comments, and feedback. How?  Collect three types of information which normally obtained. 1. Factual information 2. Behavior information 3. Attitudinal information  Use questionnaire and/or interview. Empirical (experimental and quasi-experimental) research What?  The population is the group of people whom the study is about.  The sample is the group of participants whom the researcher actually examines in an empirical investigation.  Experimental research tests a hypothesis and establishes causation by using independent and dependent variables in a controlled environment. Why? 6

Common Research Design in English Language Instruction (Griffee, 2012)  To find out which instructional method is most effective for which type of student under which conditions  To find the right way to solve particular problems How?  Set up hypotheses and variables.  Develop instruments/treatments.  Experiment them with group(s) of sample.  Measure their process, compare results with data obtained from another group or observe the progress. Case study research What?  The case can be a person, a group or an event.  Case study is a single instance of some bound system, which can range from one individual to a class, a school, or an entire community. Why?  To explain the casual links in real life situations  To describe an intervention and the context in which it occurred  To evaluate a particular case How?  Decide on the purpose.  Conduct the case study research  Collect sources of evidence  Analyze the data 7

Common Research Design in English Language Instruction (Griffee, 2012) Action research What? Action research can be:  classroom research (teacher observing the class)  self-reflective inquiry (students observing themselves)  teacher self-evaluation (teachers observing themselves)  Action research is the process of collaboration, improvement, practice, and communication. Why?  To try out new strategies in order to solve particular problem  To increase professional satisfaction/motivation/self- reflection How?  Plan, act, observe and reflect Research and development What?  R&D focuses on developing the product rather than obtaining data from people.  It is a kind of experimental research which focuses on the development of a prototype of the educational innovation. After the development, the results will be tried out to check for the effectiveness of the product. Why?  To develop products, such as teaching materials, tasks, teaching manual, teaching model, working system, etc. How?  Prepare for product development.  Develop a prototype of the product. 8

Common Research Design in English Language Instruction (Griffee, 2012)  Conduct the first tryout.  Conduct initial product revision.  Conduct the second try out.  Report the conclusion. 1.5 Activities Based on the explanation above, it may be of interest to explore what research topics are considered as the research in the area. The following activities are designed to help readers familiarize themselves with the research scenarios and types of research being conducted in the field of English as a second/foreign language, find possible research topics, narrow the research topics into feasible ones, formulate research questions, and write a problem statement of the research. Activity 1: Reviewing the research scenarios Identify which scenarios are considered research by indicating whether you think each one is 'definitely not research', 'probably not research', 'probably research' or 'definitely research'. Study the following research scenarios by Borg (2009) and complete the table with your answers. Then, discuss and compare your answers with the results reported in Borg’s study. Scenarios which teachers engaged in research (Borg, 2009) Scenario 1: A teacher noticed that an activity she used in class did not work well. She thought about this after the lesson and made some notes in her diary. She tried something different in her next lesson. This time the activity was more successful. Scenario 2: A teacher read about a new approach to teaching writing and decided to try it out in his class over a period of 2 weeks. Recorded some of his video lessons and collected samples of learners’ written 9

Scenarios which teachers engaged in research (Borg, 2009) work. He analyzed this information then presented the results to his colleagues at a staff meeting. Scenario 3: A teacher was doing an MA course. She read several books and articles about grammar teaching then wrote an essay of 6000 words in which she discussed the main points of those readings. Scenario 4: A university lecturer gave a questionnaire about the use of computers in language teaching to 500 teachers. Statistics were used to analyze the questionnaires. The lecturer wrote an article about the work in an academic journal. Scenario 5: Two teachers were both interested in discipline. They observed each other’s lesson once a week for 3 months and made notes about how they controlled their classes. They discussed their notes and wrote a short article about what they learned for the newsletter of the national language teachers’ association. Scenario 6: To find out which of the two methods for teaching vocabulary was more effective, a teacher first tested two classes. Then for 4 weeks she taught vocabulary to each class using a differentiated method. After that she tested both groups again and compared the results to the first test. She decided to use the method which worked best in her own teaching. Scenario 7: A headmaster met every teacher individually and asked them about their working conditions. The head made notes about the teachers’ answers. He used his notes to write a report which he submitted to the Ministry of Education. Scenario 8: Mid-way through the course, a teacher gave a class of 30 students a feedback form. The next day, five students handed in their completed forms. The teacher read these and used the information to decide what to do in the second part of the course. Scenario 9: A teacher trainer asked his trainees to write an article on the trainees’ idea about motivation. He submitted his article to a professional journal 10

Scenarios which teachers engaged in research (Borg, 2009) Scenario 10: The head of the English department wanted to know what teachers thought of the new course book. She gave all teachers a questionnaire to complete, studied their responses, then presented the results at a staff meeting According to the scenarios provided, put ✓ in the columns that correspond to your answers. Scenario Definitely Probably Probably Definitely Your not not research research Judgement/Reasons research research 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Discussion: Research or not research scenarios? According to the results reported by Borg (2009), each scenario was rated as research accordingly: scenario 1 (26.6%), 2 (40%), 3 (92%), 4 (98%), 5 (51.3%), 6 (75.3%), 7 (17.3%), 8 (16%), 9 (98.7%) and 10 (88%). How much do your answers agree with the result? The answers to these scenarios might prompt you to realize in some problematic scenarios which may be difficult for the teachers to decide whether they are research. Discussion may be whether these scenarios are research activities and how in-depth we can ensure that the logical and systematic functions are there. 11

What seem to be the core activities that we think are necessary for the ELT teacher researchers to get involved in conducting research? The top 3 reasons for doing research reported by teachers in Borg’s study are: because it is good for their professional development, to find better way of teaching, and to solve problem in my teaching. What are your reasons for conducting research? Do you think Thai EFL teachers would share similar reasons for doing research? Activity 2: Finding out your preference in types of research Response to the Preference Design Questionnaire in Griffee (2012) page 11 and find out the answer of your research preference on page 12. An Introduction to Second Language Research Methods: Design and Data http://www.tesl-ej.org/pdf/ej60/sl_research_methods.pdf Griffee (2012, p.11) 12

Griffee (2012, p.12) 13

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Activity 3: Learning from the research projects conducted by the M. Ed. TEFL and the EIL graduates Explore the research design and purposes in ESL/EFL field of study from the M. Ed. TEFL and EIL program in the area of English language instruction. 1. TEFL program website: http://portal.edu.chula.ac.th/pub/tefl/index.php/research 2. Chulalongkorn University Intellectual repository: http://cuir.car.chula.ac.th/ Use the provided table to help you collect the information as follows: 1. Make a summary of what types of research most graduates had conducted. 2. Identify what kind of context they conducted their research studies. 3. Discuss the main research processes you have learned. After you have completed the task, share and discuss your answers with the class. 15

Research design based on research from the M.Ed. TEFL and EIL program Research design Context of The research Survey Experimental Case Research and title research research study development the study research 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7 8 9 10 16

Review Questions 1. What is research? 2. How are research projects conducted in ESL/EFL field similar or different from others in the social science? Chapter Summary and Highlights This chapter provides an overview of type of research being conducted in the field of ESL/EFL. Through learning sharing, discussion, activity, novice teacher researcher in the area will be able to draw background knowledge and scenarios of type of research commonly used. Then, research design commonly used in the ESL/EFL context is presented. 17

References Centre for Applied Linguistics, University of Warwick. (n.d.). http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/al/research/projects/elt-research-uk/faqs/ Chulalongkorn University Intellectual Repository. (n.d.). http://cuir.car.chula.ac.th/ Dale T. Griffee. (2012). An Introduction to Second Language Research Methods: Design and Data. TESL-EJ Publications. http://www.teslej.org/pdf/ej60/sl_research_methods.pdf Mills, G., & Gay, L. (2018). Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis and Applications (12th ed.). Pearson. Simon Borg. (2009). English Language Teachers’ Conceptions of Research. Applied Linguistics, 30(3), 358–388. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amp007 TEDxTalks. (2019, April 11). Being a Second Language Learner | Seongyeon (Yeonie) Heo (Yeonie) Heo | TEDxYouth@ISBangkok [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=na04NxGZuKU TEFL. (2021). Faculty of Education, Chulalongkorn University. http://portal.edu.chula.ac.th/pub/tefl/index.php/research 18

Chapter 2: ESL/EFL Research Process Initiation Introduction This chapter begins with the discussion of how to get started with the research process followed by the tasks which are designed to help prompt learners to develop possible research topics, formulate research questions, identify research objectives, connect research questions with research objectives, and write research problem statement. With this research process initiation, at the end of the chapter, learners will be able to propose a research topic, research questions, research objectives, and problem statement. 2. Research Process Initiation The research process initiation discussed in this chapter is demonstrated in the following diagram. Research Process Initiation You will be guided through the following process to help you generate ideas for your research. 1. Initiating Research 2. Clarifying the Initiation 3. Scoping the Research k 4. Structuring the Research k 19

2.1 Initiating Research: Identifying Research Topic/Interest When beginning to work on research, the first question that researchers may have is, \"What should I start with?\" To get started with the research process, complete the following activities to help you initiate the ideas. Discussion How can we obtain ideas for research? What are the sources that may be beneficial to initiate research ideas? Discuss and share with the class. Ideas for developing research may derive from a variety of sources including considering teaching practice, attending conferences, discussing with other scholars, reading journals, reading books, or visiting websites that discuss about research skills and strategies, taking courses especially graduate courses which emphasize on researching, and becoming aware of problems in English language teaching. Activity 2.1.1: Identifying Research Topic/Interest The following table provides suggested activities and prompts that will help to initiate ideas for your research. Study the suggested activities and prompts. Then, complete the guided activity of each prompt. Suggested Activities Prompts Considering teaching TESOL Website  Explore the website of practice http://www.tesol.org/ and discuss what and how you can use this website to initiate research topics.  List what you are interested in from the website. Attending conferences Academic Conferences 20

Suggested Activities Prompts Considering teaching practice TESOL Website  Explore the website of Discussing with other scholars http://www.tesol.org/ and discuss what and how you can use this website to initiate research topics.  List what you are interested in from the website. Have you heard of these conferences: TESOL International Convention, IATEFL, JALT, RELC, Thai TESOL?  Search and explore about these conferences.  Identify one conference that you are most interested in. Also, provide your reasons to why you are interested in it. Special Interest Groups Have you ever participated in any activities conducted by the special interest groups in the professional association or shared information in the community of practice?  Visit the following website to find out what groups are available and which group you are interested in the most. https://www.iatefl.org/meet-iatefl-sigs There are 16 special interest groups accordingly. 1. Business English 2. English for Speakers of Other Languages 21

Suggested Activities Prompts Considering teaching practice TESOL Website  Explore the website of Reading journals http://www.tesol.org/ and discuss what and how you can use this website to initiate research topics.  List what you are interested in from the website. 3. English for Specific Purposes 4. Global Issues 5. Inclusive Practices and Successful Learning Environment 6. Leadership and Management 7. Learner Autonomy 8. Learning Technologies 9. Literature 10. Materials Writing 11. Pronunciation 12. Research 13. Teacher Development 14. Teacher Training and Education 15. Testing, Evaluation and Assessment 16. Young Leaners and Teenagers Academic Talk There are some free academic talks/sessions organized by many programs, universities, and public organization. Have you ever joined any of the academic talks/sessions?  Search for one of the sessions that are currently available and is of your interest.  Exchange your selected session with the class. Academic Journals 22

Suggested Activities Prompts Considering teaching TESOL Website practice  Explore the website of http://www.tesol.org/ and discuss what and how you can use this website to initiate research topics.  List what you are interested in from the website. A research topic can also be inspired by your interest when you read the research articles associating with teacher professional development, current trends in teaching, research from professional journals and scholars in the field, research methodology that are of the interest of your institutions, and challenges in teacher research.  Have you ever read some of these journals? Put ✓ in front of the one you have read.  TESOL Quarterly  Applied Linguistics Journal  System, ELT Journal  RELC Journal  TESOL Journal  Journal of English for Specific Purposes  Journal of Academic Journal  Modern Language Teaching Journal  Teaching and Teacher Research  Language Teaching Journal  Language Testing  FORUM  Second Language Teaching Writing Journal 23

Suggested Activities Prompts Considering teaching TESOL Website  Explore the website of practice http://www.tesol.org/ and discuss what and how you can use this website to initiate research topics.  List what you are interested in from the website.  ASIA TEFL Journal?  To help identify your interest of research, choose one of the journals and identify some of the focused topics or aspects that the journal emphasizes. Reading books and Books and Websites visiting websites which Reading books and visiting relevant websites discuss research skills may help you find some suggestions about how and strategies to formulate your research problem, how to narrow down the topic and how to set up the research title.  In your past experiences, think of the books or websites that may help obtain the ideas for your research and exchange with the class. Taking courses, Graduate Courses especially graduate During your study in graduate courses, you may courses come across new ideas which may later help you to develop the topic of your research. In addition, you may be able to co-construct the knowledge with the instructor and the course participants during the class discussions and/or presentations. You may also use your 24

Suggested Activities Prompts Considering teaching TESOL Website practice  Explore the website of http://www.tesol.org/ and discuss what and how you can use this website to initiate research topics.  List what you are interested in from the website. experiences from attending the courses to further develop your research ideas.  Exchange with the class on what you have learned so far from the graduate courses you have attended and how they have helped you to form the ideas for your research. Activity 2.1.2: Exploring Research Topics The following table of contents is from the book “Lessons from Good Language Learners” (Griffiths, 2008). Explore the titles of the article which are considered the state of the arts in English language instruction to help you identify your possible research topics. Which ones are eye- opening for you? Put ✓ in front of the topics you are interested in. Content Author Part I Learner variables  Ema Ushioda  1. Motivation and good language learners  Carol Griffiths  2. Age and good language learners  Carisma Nel  3. Learning style and good language learners  Madeline Ehrman  4. Personality and good language learners  Martha Nyikos  5. Gender and good language learners  Carol Griffiths  6. Strategies and good language learners 25

Content Author Part I Learner variables  7. Metacognition and good language learners  Neil J. Anderson  8. Autonomy and good language learners  Sara Cotterall  9. Beliefs and good language learners  Cynthia White  10. Culture and good language learners  Claudia  11. Aptitude and good language learners Finkbeiner Part II Learning variables  Leila Ranta  12. Vocabulary and good language learners  Jo Moir and Paul  13. Grammar and good language learners Nation  14. Functions and good language learners  15. Pronunciation and good language learners  Margaret Bade  16. Listening and good language learners  Zia Tajeddin  17. Speaking and good language learners  Adam Brown  18. Reading and good language learners  Goodith White  19. Writing and good language learners  Yasushi Kawai  20. Teaching/learning method and good  Karen Schramm language learners  Louise Gordon  21. Strategy instruction and good language  Carol Griffiths learners  22. Error correction and good language  Anna Uhl learners Chamot  23. Tasks and good language learners  Michael Roberts and Carol  24. The learners’ landscape and journey: A Griffiths summary  Joan Rubin and Patricia McCoy  Rebecca Oxford and Kyoung Rang Lee 26

2.2 Clarifying the Initiation: Becoming aware of research problems, research questions and research objectives After you have identified the topic that you would like to focus on in your study, the next stage is to identify research problem, develop research questions, and state research objectives. All of these processes will guide you to be ready to kick start your research. 2.2.1 Research Problem Before determining a research problem for your study, let’s start with understanding the definition of a research problem. What is research problem? http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/researchproblem Research problem A research problem is the main organizing principle guiding the analysis of your paper. The problem under investigation offers us an occasion for writing and a focus that governs what we want to say. It represents the core subject matter of scholarly communication, and the means by which we arrive at other topics of conversations and the discovery of new knowledge and understanding. Activity 2.2.2.1: Exploring an Example of Research Problem The following abstract is one of research studies in English language teaching. Read the abstract and exchange with the class whether you found it interesting. Identify the problem stated in the abstract and compare the problem to your experience or the similar situations you may have encountered. LESSON STUDY AS A TOOL TO IMPROVE TEACHING PEDAGOGY: A CASE STUDY OF AN ENGLISH NATIVE TEACHER WITH NEITHER EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND NOR TEACHING EXPERIENCE 27

Nanchareeya Ratanabhan & Sumalee Chinokul An Online Journal of Education http://www.edu.chula.ac.th/ojed OJED, Vol.8, No.2, 2013, pp. 70-84 Abstract Thai educational institutes emphasize recruiting native English teachers to teach classes, sometimes regardless of their qualifications. As a result, many students have suffered from native teachers’ pedagogical incompetence. This study aimed to facilitate a native English teacher to reflect and improve their teaching techniques in an English speaking and listening class of Matthayom 3 students at a private school in Bangkok. In this study, a research technique used for professional development called lesson study was employed while the researcher acted as a mentor. The instruments in this research were observation forms, teacher’s teaching logs and a semi-structured interview with students in the target class. The results suggested not only that students participated more in class, but also that the native teacher adjusted his teaching styles, became more confident in teaching, and had a better attitude towards the class and the students. KEYWORDS: LESSON STUDY/ TEACHING PEDAGOGY/ ENGLISH NATIVE TEACHER/ PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 28

Activity 2.2.2.2: Research Problem Identification To help you understand how to form a research problem, based on the given situations below, identify the following components of research problems. Situation Expected Current Problematic Situation/Context Situation/Context Situation/Context 1 2 3 4 5 Situation 1: In your classroom When you teach a class, you may find that your students are demotivated when they are assigned to work in a mixed ability group. In order to solve the issue, you may come up with various structures to form a group which may give different results, for example, 1 high 1 mid and 1 low achiever together; 2 high and 1 low achievers; 1 high and 2 mid achievers; 1 high and 2 low achievers; 2 mid and 1 low achievers; or 1 mid and 2 low achievers. 29

Situation 2: Research Abstract Approximations in English language arts: Scaffolding a shared teaching practice Kristine M. Schutz, Katie A. Danielson, Julie Cohen Teaching and Teacher Education, article in press Abstract Recent research highlights the importance of providing teacher candidates with opportunities to approximate practice. Less attention focuses on tools teacher educators use within and surrounding approximations to focus candidates’ attention on features of practice. This multi-case study investigates how three teacher educators use different approximations in ways that strategically reduce the complexity of learning to teach and scaffold the development of practice. Data indicate teacher educators capitalized on four tools that scaffolded and shaped approximations into spaces for co-constructing shared understandings of practice. These tools include instructional activities, representations of practice, planning templates, and specified texts and instructional goals. Situation 3: Research Abstract Evaluating the Impact of Professional Development Simon Borg First Published July 10, 2018, Research Article RELC Journal, 49(2), 2018 https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688218784371 Abstract Professional development is central to teacher competence and, with particular attention to larger scale, structured and formal professional development interventions (PDIs), this article discusses how the impact of professional development can be conceptualized and evaluated. Various kinds of impacts on teachers, organizations and systems, and students that PDIs can have are considered, and examples from actual PDIs in the field of English language teaching (ELT) are used to illustrate how such impacts can be assessed. Throughout, various challenges that arise in trying to demonstrate that PDIs make a difference are noted, and the article concludes by suggesting some criteria that can be used to guide the development of impact evaluation frameworks on PDIs. 30

Situation 4: Research Abstract Assessing English‐Medium Instruction Lecturer Language Proficiency across Disciplines Slobodanka Dimova, Joyce Kling TESOL Quarterly Volume 52, Issue 3 First published: 21 September 2018 https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.454 Abstract The rapid increase of English‐medium instruction (EMI) programs across Europe has raised concerns regarding the oral competencies of nonnative English- speaking lecturers and the implications for the quality of teaching. Consequently, lecturers’ English proficiency is under scrutiny and universities are implementing internal assessment procedures. Given the complexity of the local teaching and learning contexts in which these assessments are administered and used, answering the questions about whether and how to address the interface between language, disciplinary content, and pedagogy in the assessment procedure has been a struggle. This study is based on an oral English certification test for university EMI lecturers. Holistic scores and formative feedback reports (N = 400) from six raters, and interviews with lecturers (N = 10) were used to analyze questions related to (1) rater bias, (2) references to pedagogy, (3) reported lexical content, and (4) EMI lecturers’ perceptions about their disciplinary knowledge and vocabulary use. Rating data were examined using multifacet Rasch measurement (MFRM), while formative feedback reports and interview data were analyzed in NVivo10. MFRM results suggested no significant bias, or interaction, between raters and departments. In the written formative feedback, raters referred to linguistic aspects of pedagogy (e.g., “utilization of stress and intonation to convey pragmatic meaning”) rather than to lecturers’ classroom behavior. As for vocabulary references, results suggest that the identified problems align with general rather than domain‐specific vocabulary. Interview findings suggest that, despite awareness of their lack of nuanced vocabulary, lecturers’ content knowledge and teaching experience facilitate their language performance. 31

Situation 5: Research Abstract A2 is Normal’ – Thai Secondary School English Teachers’ Encounters with the CEFR Jens Franz, Adisa Teo RELC Journal, 49(3), 2018. First Published November 17, 2017, Research Article https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688217738816 Abstract Thailand has seen several English language curriculum reforms over the last 20 years, all of which were found to have failed to lift Thai students’ standard of English language proficiency across all levels of study. In 2014, the Thai Ministry of Education announced the introduction of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR), in combination with Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), as its latest policy to improve the standard of English learning and teaching in Thailand’s schools. The establishment of the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) in 2015 and concerns about the economic competitiveness of the Thai labor force were provided as the underlying rationale for this policy change. This case study, using Grounded Theory Methodology combining semi- structured in-depth interviews, a questionnaire and document analysis, addresses the question of how this education policy change was experienced and perceived by English language teachers at state secondary schools across four provinces in the south of Thailand. A marked divergence in individual teachers’ knowledge and appreciation of the policy plans was observed, with the majority of respondents displaying indifference to and ignorance of the policy. The Ministry had in 2015 tested all civil servant English teachers in a CEFR-referenced online placement test, where 94% had failed to reach the targeted proficiency level of B2. Consequently, the framework was perceived primarily as an English proficiency test for teachers, a European assessment scale which had been applied to them, but which had had no further application to either classroom teaching or student assessment. These 32

findings are framed in the wider context of curriculum reform and English language teaching in Thailand. Comparisons with other English curriculum reform policies based on the CEFR are made, and the emphasis on testing teachers’ language proficiency is reflected upon through the wider debate on language teacher proficiency. 2.2.2 Research Questions According to Lewak (2015), a research question is a fundamental core of a research project, study, or review of literature. It provides focus to the study, determines the methodology and guides all stages of inquiry, analysis, and reporting. Moreover, it provides a focus of investigation and clearly defines significant area of interest of an individual or a group. A research question begins with a research problem, an issue someone would like to know more about or a situation that needs to be changed or addresses such as areas of concern, conditions that could be improved, difficulties that need to be addressed, and questions seeking answers. Types of Research Questions The type of research question applied in each study depends on its research methodology whether it is qualitative or quantitative. The following diagram provides details to this consideration. The Connection of Research Questions and Research Types Original Text: https://examples.yourdictionary.com/types-of-research- questions-with-examples.html 33

1. Qualitative research Qualitative research is more concerned with understanding an event or phenomenon, its open-ended research questions focus more on a group's experience than on statistics or numbers. Qualitative research is primarily used in social sciences and includes surveys, case studies, focus groups, and ethnography studies. Here are the three types of qualitative questions for both research topics and survey questions. 1.1 Exploratory research questions An exploratory research project is an attempt to lay the groundwork that will lead to future studies or to determine if what is being observed might be explained by a currently existing theory. Most often, exploratory research lays the initial groundwork for future research. Questions under exploratory research, therefore; are designed to understand more about a topic without attributing bias or preconceived notions. o Example: How do students at in the school spend their weekends? 1.2 Predictive research question This type of research question uses past information to predict reactions to hypothetical events. o Example: Will students have positive attitudes toward learning English if they receive positive feedback in the class? 1.3 Interpretative research questions Interpretive research studies people in their natural settings. They interpret how a group makes sense of shared experiences and attributes meaning to various phenomena. These studies gather feedback on a group’s behavior without affecting the outcome. o Example: How do preschoolers in a play-based program handle transitions between activities? 34

2. Quantitative research Quantitative research uses measurable data to answer a new set of research questions. The quantitative research questions, therefore; prove or disprove a researcher's hypothesis through descriptions, comparisons, and relationships. Quantitative research questions are beneficial when choosing a research topic or when posing follow-up questions that gather more information. 2.1 Descriptive research questions Descriptive research question is the most basic type of quantitative research question. It seeks to explain when, where, why, or how something occurred. The attempts are to explore and explain while providing additional information about a topic. The data and statistics are used to describe an event or phenomenon. It aims at describing what is happening in more detail, filling in the missing parts and expanding understanding, therefore; a lot of information is collected in order to analyze and conclude. o Example: What percentage of college students have felt depressed in the last year? 2.2 Comparative research question Comparative questions are especially helpful when studying groups with dependent variables to compare one occurrence with another. o Example: Why is it easier for men to lose weight than it is for women? 2.3 Relationship-based questions Relationship-based questions are common in quasi-experimental and experimental studies. It tells how one variable affects or influences another. o Example: Do high school grades have an impact on future success? Developing a Research Question In order to develop a research question, there are steps and questions to address as follows. 35

Developing a Research Question Step Question Step 1: Choose your subject  What is the issue or overall and theme. topic that interests you as a researcher? Step 2: Choose a topic that interests you.  What is the underlying problem that makes your Step 3: Identify the context. question worth investigating?  Is this an actual problem or an assumed problem? Step 4: Create working  What is a specific research research question you want to questions. investigate?  Are your research questions focused and researchable?  Does your problem have social significance and/or contributions to your field Step 5: Evaluate your research of studies? questions.  Is your proposal both arguable and feasible in terms of data sources and methods, justification, practicalities (e.g., resources and skills), and ethical issues? 36

Activity 2.2.2.1: Drafting a Research Question Regarding the guideline for developing a research question above, answer the questions and provide explanations for the formulation of your proposed research questions in order to draft your research question. Drafting a Research Question From Step 1 Choosing your subject and theme and Step 2 Choosing a topic that interests you.:  What is the issue or overall topic that interests you as a researcher? From Step 3 Identifying the context:  What is the underlying problem that makes your question worth investigating?  Is this an actual problem or an assumed problem? From Step 4 Creating working research questions:  What is a specific research question you want to investigate? From Step 5 Evaluating your research questions: To complete this step, continue to the next part on ‘formulating a good research question’ and finish Activity 2.2.2.2. Formulating a Good Research Question How can you justify whether the research question you have developed is of good quality and will be able to answer when completing the research process? Therefore, after developing a research question, the next step is to justify the quality of your research question to ensure it is a good question. The criteria include justification for good research questions, data sources and methods, practicalities (e.g., resources and skills) and ethical issues. 37

Activity 2.2.2.2: Justifying a Research Question In order to justify the quality of your research question from Step 4, use the following checklist to evaluate your working research questions and provide more details about your research question in the table. Checklist to Evaluate Your Research Question Put ✓ in front of the checklist that apply to your research question.  1. Are your research questions focused and researchable?  2. Does your problem have social significance and/or contributions to your field of studies? 3. Is your proposal both arguable and feasible of all the following aspects?  3.1 Data sources and methods  3.2 Justification for good research questions  3.3 Practicalities (e.g., resources and skills)  3.4 Ethical issues? Justifying a Research Question Research Justification for Data Sources Practicalities Ethical Issues Question(s) Good Research and Methods (e.g., Resources and Questions Skills) 38

2.2.3 Research Objectives A research objective should explain what you would like to achieve through research, e.g., the problem you would like to solve. A research objective consists of two components: explaining about a problem to be solved and explaining about the knowledge to be produced. There are two major types of questions: 1. The theory-oriented research project objective which focuses on gaining knowledge in order to improve or expand the existing knowledge about a specific topic. 2. The practice-oriented research the objective which focuses on gaining knowledge in order to contribute to the solutions of a practical problem. Your research objectives should correspond to your research questions, for example, if your research question is “What are students’ attitudes toward learning English in the classroom?”, your objective can be “To investigate students’ attitudes toward learning English in the classroom” accordingly. Activity 2.2.3.1: Forming Research Objectives From your research questions in Activity 2.2.2.1 and Activity 2.2.2.2, form your research objectives. My Research Objectives: 39

2.3 Scoping the Research: Getting Focused and Formulating Research Problem Statement After identifying research problem, developing research questions, and stating research objectives, the next part to address is formulating research problem statement. This stage will help you develop a good and logical research problem statement. 2.3.1 Research Problem Statement After the problem has been identified, the researcher will then write research problem statement section to introduce the topic of the study, the research problem within this topic, a justification for the problem based on past research and practice, deficiencies or shortcomings of past research or practical knowledge, and the importance of addressing it for diverse audiences (Creswell, 2012, p. 12). Therefore, in this section, the purpose of writing problem statement, characteristics of a good problem statement, the structure of writing problem statement, and the move for writing a problem statement are clearly identified. The role of the research problem statement Many scholars have explained the role of the problem statement as follows: The Role of the Research Problem Statement by Scholars  “The crystallization of the issue, the essence of what I am doing” (Metoyer-Duran and Hernon, 1994, p. 107)  “A research problem connects the distinct elements in research and embodies the purpose of the study.” (Ellis & Levy, 2008).  “The heart of any research project is the problem.” (Selamat, 2008)  “Everything that goes into research has to do with the presentation, exploration and proof of the research problem” (Nenty, 2009).  “Researchers get off a strong start when they begin with an unmistakably clear statement of the problem.” (Nenty, 2009, p. 21). 40

significant. Purposes of a Research Problem Statement There are certain roles to why a research problem statement is Purposes of a Research Problem Statement Original Text: http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/introduction/researchproblem The purpose of a problem statement is to:  Introduce the reader to the importance of the topic being studied. The reader is oriented to the significance of the study.  Anchors the research questions, hypotheses, or assumptions to follow. It offers a concise statement about the purpose of your paper.  Place the topic into a particular context that defines the parameters of what is to be investigated.  Provide the framework for reporting the results and indicates what is probably necessary to conduct the study and explain how the findings will present this information. 41

Activity 2.3.1.1: Identifying Purposes of a Research Problem Read the following abstracts in JALT 2019 and underline the problem statement. Then, put ✓in front of the purpose that corresponds to each problem statement in the research. Abstract 1: Are You Teaching “What to say” or “How to talk”? Purpose:  1. Introduce the reader to the importance of the topic being studied  2. Anchors the research questions, hypotheses, or assumptions to follow  3. Place the topic into a particular context  4. Provide the framework for reporting the results Abstract 2: Assessing an in-house CEFR-based Placement Exam Purpose:  1. Introduce the reader to the importance of the topic being studied  2. Anchors the research questions, hypotheses, or assumptions to follow  3. Place the topic into a particular context  4. Provide the framework for reporting the results Abstract 1: Are You Teaching “What to say” or “How to talk”? Lee, Jackson Gifu University 12:45 PM-1:45 PM (60 min) College & University Education: Speaking/Communication (SC) Practice-oriented long workshop For most Japanese learners, their 10 years of English-language education resulted in a concrete belief that “I can’t speak English.” This lack of self-confidence is partially due to an overfocus on teaching students “what to say.” In this presentation, we will explore the importance of teaching students ‘how to talk’ and why it is crucial to improving high school and university students’ willingness and readiness for English communication in class and in their future. 42

Abstract 2: Assessing an in-house CEFR-based Placement Exam Randall, Ian Tokyo International University Umberger, Tyson P. Tokyo International University 1:20 PM-1:45 PM (25 min) College and University Education: Testing and Evaluation (TEVAL) Research-oriented Short Presentation The Global Teaching Institute’s (GTI) transition to a more CEFR-aligned program required the development of an “in-house” placement test that accurately assessed and grouped students by CEFR levels. Examining the different cohorts of students during different periods should provide insight into how the program is both facilitating and aiding students to improve their language skills as well as to maintain improvement throughout the program. Features of a Good Research Problem Statement A good problem statement begins by introducing the broad area in which your research is centered, and gradually leads the reader to the more specific issues being investigated. The statement need not be lengthy, but a good research problem should incorporate the following features. Features of a Good Research Problem Statement 1. Compelling Topic The problem that you choose to explore must be important to you, but it must also be viewed as important by readers, a larger academic group, and/or social community that could be impacted by the results of the study. 2. Multiple Perspective Supports The problem must be phrased in a way that avoids dichotomies and instead supports the generation and exploration of multiple perspectives. 3. Research ability The presented research problem must be eligible and supportable in some way by the resources available to you as a researcher. 43