Research in English Language Instruction

Developing a Research Problem Statement To develop a good research problem statement, consider these three elements when you start writing. Important Elements for Writing Research Problem Statement Original Text: https://wordvice.com/where-does-the-research- question-go-in-a-paper/ Key Elements Explanation What is known or  Provide a brief overview of knowledge or believed about the topic? previous studies which had been performed in the context of your research topic. What is still  Indicate or justify that your research is new to unknown or create a smooth transition into your research problematic question. about the topic?  Your research question is the question that What is the inevitably evolves from the deficits or problems question or revealed in the “Unknown” and clearly states hypothesis of the the goal of your research. investigation?  It is important to describe your research question in just one or two short sentences, but very precisely and including all variables studied, if applicable.  Use a transition to mark the transition from the Unknown to the research question  Using one word such as “Therefore” or “Accordingly,” or short phrases like “For this reason” or “Considering this lack of crucial information.” 44

Formulating a Good Research Problem Statement Writing research problem statement entails academic writing proficiency at a satisfactory level. The novice researcher needs to master linguistic accuracy and the rhetorical structure required by a professional discourse community (Williams, 2005). Understanding how to structure the “Statement-of-the-Problem” section of research is necessary for ESL/EFL students to develop a logical argumentation for a problem statement. In order to write a well-organized piece of a research problem statement section, a novice researcher needs to make a number of moves and take a number of steps. These moves and steps are rhetorical movements with specific communicative purposes or intentions. Some of the moves and steps are obligatory, but some are optional. The moves and steps may vary in patterns and sequencing (Swales, 1990). In terms of linguistics, this knowledge of writing is called genre analysis. To formulate a research problem statement based on its moves, Sheldron (2012) and Jalilifar et al. (2011), cited in Parsa and Tahririan (2017), has proposed the generic structure of a problem statement with three moves as follows. The generic structure of SP sections (Sheldon, 2012 ; Jalilifar et al., 2011) Original Text: https://ijal.khu.ac.ir/article-1-2827-fa.pdf Move 1: Establishing a territory Step 1: Topic generalization of increasing specificity 1a. Reporting the conclusions of previous studies 1b. Narrowing the field 1c. Writer’s evaluation of existing research 1d. Timeframe of relevance 45

1e. Research objectives/processes of previous studies 1f. Terminologies/definitions 1g. Generalizing 1h. Furthering or advancing knowledge Move 2: Establishing a niche Step 1A: Limitations of previous studies Step 1B: Stating the problem/need Step 1C: Indicating a gap Step 2: Presenting positive justifications Move 3: Presenting the present work Step 1: Announcing present work descriptively and/or purposively Step 2: Presenting research questions or hypotheses The rhetorical movement of writing a research problem statement involves three moves: M1 Establishing a territory, M2 Establishing a niche and M3 Presenting the present work. In each move, the intentions are expressed in the steps. In M1, there is only one intention which is topic generalization of increasing specificity. However, it is followed by eight sub-steps including 1a Reporting the conclusions of previous studies, 1b Narrowing the field, 1c Writer’s evaluation of existing research, 1d Timeframe of relevance, 1e Research objectives/processes of previous studies, 1f Terminologies/definitions, 1g Generalizing, and 1h Furthering or advancing knowledge. It should be noted that the researcher may use only some strategies of their choices by combining them or use one specific strategy when formulating a research problem statement. In M2, the intention to communicate with the audiences includes step 1A Limitations of previous studies, 1B Stating the problem/need, 1C Indicating a gap and Step 2 Presenting positive justifications. Finally, in M3, the intention is expressed in 2 steps: step 1 Announcing present work descriptively and/or purposively and step 2 Presenting research questions or hypotheses. 46

As far as the pattern of sequencing of the move is concerned, many scholars such as Sheldon (2013), Jalilifar et al. (2011), Samraj (2002), Swales (2004), and Shehzad (2008) suggest that M2 (Establishing a niche) is the most frequent, distinctive, and obligatory component of the problem statement section as the role of this move is “to criticize or refute previous claims of knowledge, allowing writers to create a niche for their contribution” (Sheldon, 2013). Move 2 is the key move to bridge the divide between Move 1 (what has been done) and Move 3 (what the present research is about) (Swales & Feak, 1994). Researchers tend to put more emphasis on Move 2, which is used repetitively to explain the reason for conducting research on the problem under investigation (Jalilifar et al., 2011). In addition to the overall selection of Moves, it is also important to focus on the overall sequencing patterns of Moves. The student researchers should be encouraged to be move-sensitive which refers to having explicit attention to the forms and functions of a problem statement section. They should be able to identify the linguistic features in each move and step in order to gain a better understanding of ‘move’ structures. These can be of considerable value to second/foreign language writers. As far as the SP section are concerned, the [M1-M2-M3] pattern is still the most frequent combination. The next most frequent pattern is [M1-M2] and the last common pattern is [M2], [M1-M2-M1-M2], and [M1-M2-M1-M2-M3]. The following activities are designed for the novice researchers to learn, practice, and take the advantage of genre analysis so that they can use this knowledge when they have to write the section. 47

Activity 2.3.1.1: Exploring an Example of Research Problem Match the given Moves and Steps to the statements. The statements in the left column are taken from the study of Soheila Parsa, Mohammad Hasan Tahririan (2017). Part 1 Move 1: Establishing a territory Step 1: Topic generalization of increasing specificity 1a. Reporting the conclusions of previous studies 1b. Narrowing the field 1c. Writer’s evaluation of existing research 1d. Timeframe of relevance 1e. Research objectives/processes of previous studies 1f. Terminologies/definitions 1g. Generalizing 1h. Furthering or advancing knowledge Statements: _________ 1. Strategic learning and pronunciation learning are both areas of study that have recently received wide-spread attention in second language research (Brown, 2001; Bruen, 2001a; Celce-Murcia, Brinton, & Goodwin, 1996; Dornyei & Skehan, 2003; Fan, 2003; Norton & Toohey, 2001). _________ 2. Adult ESL instructors are a professionally diverse population. Some have many years of experience in adult ESL and very little formal training in how to teach adults to acquire a second language. Others have extensive training and very little experience. Many have both training and experience, and still others have neither. _________ 3. Current research in NNS writing suggests that feedback using direct speech may be clearer and more indirect speech may be more polite. _________ 4. CEFR defines learning a language as the development of competences on the part of the learner. Competence includes not only knowledge, but also the ability to use that knowledge. _________ 5. Strategic learning research has sought to advance the understanding of how students tackle difficult language learning tasks using learning strategies. The 48

field of pronunciation learning research also has attempted to discover which areas of pronunciation are most beneficial for instructors to teach (Celce-Murcia, Brinton, & Goodwin). _________ 6. In order to achieve mastery of a foreign language, learners must develop four principal language skills: reading, writing, listening, and speaking. However, being able to interact orally with others is nowadays of the utmost importance. _________ 7. One way to investigate the effect of strategic learning on pronunciation learning is to examine the use of pronunciation learning strategies used intuitively by language learners. _________ 8. While Cummins' (1986) theoretical framework provides a starting point for studying a teacher's ideology and practice into empowering literacy teaching, several gaps in his framework need to be addressed to be able to apply it to a secondary analysis involving research of EAL classrooms and teachers. Part 2 Move 2: Establishing a niche Step 1A: Limitations of previous studies Step 1B: Stating the problem/need Step 1C: Indicating a gap Step 2: Presenting positive justifications _________ 1. There is no reported research that provides a correlation between successful teachers and training in adult ESL instruction. _________ 2. Despite the recognized importance of interaction in second language acquisition, only two studies investigated the impact of IWBs on foreign language instruction note, particularly the issue of classroom interaction. _________ 3. There was a great need to design an ESP curriculum that would help non-native English speaking UVRM housekeepers and others to gain proficiency in English in the area of nursing _________ 4. The grammar translation method, which is linked to preparation for the entrance examinations of Japanese universities, has demotivated students, and has not led to significant proficiency gains. 49

Part 3 Move 3: Presenting the present work Step 1: Announcing present work descriptively and/or purposively Step 2: Presenting research questions or hypotheses _________ 1. To summarize, the question I wish to answer in this study is: 1. Are linking adverbials used differently by ENL, ESL, and EFL speakers in their academic writing? _________ 2. This thesis investigates how the listening comprehension of intermediate ESL learners can be influenced by the availability of annotations. 2.4 Structuring the Research: Building a Theoretical Framework and Developing a Conceptual Framework After the initial processes of doing research is complete, the next stage is to build a theoretical framework and/or a conceptual framework which is a logical structure that will help guide the development of the research. Since a structure is a fundamental representation of the study, when discussing about structuring research, the two terms, theoretical framework, and conceptual framework, are usually involved. Although they are similar in many ways and sometimes are used interchangeably, they are inherently different. Discussion What is a theoretical framework? What is a conceptual framework? How are they different? How are they important? What do they comprise of? Discuss and exchange your answers with the class. 2.4.1 Building a Theoretical Framework In your attempt to write a research proposal, you will use theories to help explain, support and/or justify your argument. Often, this is realized as a theoretical framework. In order to understand a theoretical framework, study the information below to understand its concept and development. 50

Theoretical Framework Original Text: https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/theoreticalframework Definition of Theoretical Framework The theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support a theory of a research study consisting of concepts, definitions and reference to relevant scholarly literature, existing theory that is used in the study. It introduces and describes the theory that explains why the research problem under the study exists. Importance of Theoretical Framework The theoretical framework must demonstrate an understanding of theories and concepts that are relevant to the topic of your research study and that relate to the broader areas of knowledge being considered. The theoretical framework is most often not something readily found within the literature. You must review course readings and pertinent research studies for theories and analytic models that are relevant to the research problem you are investigating. The selection of a theory should depend on its appropriateness, ease of application, and explanatory power. Developing Theoretical Framework The theoretical framework is used to limit the scope of the relevant data by focusing on specific variables and defining the specific viewpoint, framework, that the researcher will take in analyzing and interpreting the data to be gathered. It also facilitates the understanding of concepts and variables according to given 51

definitions and builds new knowledge by validating or challenging theoretical assumptions. The theoretical framework strengthens the study in the following ways: 1. An explicit statement of theoretical assumptions permits the reader to evaluate them critically. 2. The theoretical framework connects the researcher to existing knowledge. Guided by a relevant theory, you are given a basis for your hypotheses and choice of research methods. 3. Articulating the theoretical assumptions of a research study forces you to address questions of why and how. It permits you to intellectually transition from simply describing a phenomenon you have observed to generalizing about various aspects of that phenomenon. 4. Having a theory helps you identify the limits to those generalizations. A theoretical framework specifies which key variables influence a phenomenon of interest and highlights the need to examine how those key variables might differ and under what circumstances. Strategies for Developing the Theoretical Framework 1. Developing the Framework Here are some strategies to develop of an effective theoretical framework: 1.1 Examine your thesis title and research problem. The research problem anchors your entire study and forms the basis from which you construct your theoretical framework. 1.2 Brainstorm about what you consider to be the key variables in your research. Answer the question, \"What factors contribute to the presumed effect?\" 1.3 Review related literature to find how scholars have addressed your research problem. Identify the 52

assumptions from which the author(s) addressed the problem. 1.4 List the constructs and variables that might be relevant to your study. Group these variables into independent and dependent categories. 1.5 Review key social science theories that are introduced to you in your course readings and choose the theory that can best explain the relationships between the key variables in your study. 1.6 Discuss the assumptions or propositions of this theory and point out their relevance to your research. 2. Purpose Think of theories as the conceptual basis for understanding, analyzing, and designing ways to investigate relationships within social systems. To that end, the following roles served by a theory can help guide the development of your framework.  Means by which new research data can be interpreted and coded for future use,  Response to new problems that have no previously identified solutions strategy,  Means for identifying and defining research problems,  Means for prescribing or evaluating solutions to research problems,  Ways of discerning certain facts among the accumulated knowledge that are important and which facts are not,  Means of giving old data new interpretations and new meaning,  Means by which to identify important new issues and prescribe the most critical research questions that need to be answered to maximize understanding of the issue,  Means of providing members of a professional discipline with a common language and a frame of reference for defining the boundaries of their profession, and  Means to guide and inform research so that it can, in turn, guide research efforts and improve professional practice. 53

Structure and Writing Style The theoretical framework may be rooted in a specific theory, in which case, your work is expected to test the validity of that existing theory in relation to specific events, issues, or phenomena. To understand the nature and function of a theoretical framework, you may answer these two basic questions: 1. What is the research problem/question? 2. Why is your approach a feasible solution? The answers to these questions come from a thorough review of the literature and your course readings (summarized and analyzed in the next section of your paper]) and the gaps in the research that emerge from the review process. With this in mind, a complete theoretical framework will likely not emerge until after you have completed a thorough review of the literature. Just as a research problem in your paper requires contextualization and background information, a theory requires a framework for understanding its application to the topic being investigated. When writing and revising this part of your research paper, keep in mind the following:  Clearly describe the framework, concepts, models, or specific theories that underpin your study. This includes noting who the key theorists are in the field who have conducted research on the problem you are investigating and, when necessary, the historical context that supports the formulation of that theory. This latter element is particularly important if the theory is relatively unknown, or it is borrowed from another discipline.  Position your theoretical framework within a broader context of related frameworks, concepts, models, or theories. As noted in the example above, there will likely be several concepts, theories, or models that can be used to help develop a framework for understanding the 54

research problem. Therefore, note why the theory you've chosen is the appropriate one.  The present tense is used when writing about theory. Although the past tense can be used to describe the history of a theory or the role of key theorists, the construction of your theoretical framework is happening now.  You should make your theoretical assumptions as explicit as possible. Later, your discussion of methodology should be linked back to this theoretical framework. Don’t just take what the theory says as a given! Reality is never accurately represented in such a simplistic way; if you imply that it can be, you fundamentally distort a reader's ability to understand the findings that emerge. Given this, always note the limitations of the theoretical framework you've chosen (i.e., what parts of the research problem require further investigation because the theory inadequately explains a certain phenomena). 2.4.2 Developing Conceptual Framework Slightly different from a theoretical framework, a conceptual framework is developed based on concepts instead of theories. It is applied when the existing theory is inapplicable or insufficient. Very often, a conceptual framework is accompanied with a visual presentation, such as a diagram or flow chart. The following information will help illustrate a conceptual framework. 55

Conceptual Framework What is a conceptual framework? A conceptual framework is a set of ideas, concepts or principles in the field which are used to structure or scaffold the research. A conceptual framework is often presented by using a flow chart, diagram, or mind map to help understanding the research. It shows variables that influence the research. However, not every conceptual framework is visualized. Sometimes, it is written narratively by summarizing variables that influence the research. Alternatively, both written and visual can be applied to present a concept of a research for clearer illustration. Example of a Conceptual Framework This is an example of a conceptual framework of a study on “Students’ Perceived Influence of Corrective Feedback in Learning Essay Writing” (Daud et al., 2016) 56

Review Questions 1. Discuss how you can get started with the research process and formulate research questions and research objectives. 2. Writing a research problem statement section may be quite difficult for a novice researcher. As a novice researcher yourself, can you briefly explain the strategies you may employ to do it? 3. Considering a rhetorical movement of writing a research problem statement and the sequence patterns of moves in research problem statement sections, which moves and/or steps may be obligatory and why? Chapter Summary and Highlights To summarize this chapter, it is best to present Latham (2016)’s research canvas components as follows: Original Text: https://www.drjohnlatham.com/wp- content/uploads/2018/06/Research_Canvas_20.pdf Research Canvas Components (Latham, 2016) 57

According to Latham (2016), the components are categorized into two groups, T and U. The T presents foundation to developing research which includes the problem, purpose, research questions and conceptual framework (No.1-4). The U presents methodology of developing research which includes the literature review, overall approach, data collection, data analysis, and drawing conclusions (No. 5- 9). The visual representation covers topics for developing a conceptual framework from drawing a problem to developing a conclusion. You can follow the steps to help you complete your conceptual framework which also determines your research. 58

Getting Started Now, it’s the time for you to start reading something to find your research interest. If you find it hard to start off, watch the following video on “How to Read an Academic Paper” by UBC iSchool (without losing your mind) to obtain ideas. URL: https://youtu.be/SKxm2HF_-k0 References Borg, S. (2018). Evaluating the Impact of Professional Development. RELC Journal, 49(2), 195–216. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688218784371 Brown, H. Douglas. (2001). Teaching by Principle and Interactive Approach to language pedagogy. New York: Longman Inc. Bruen J. (2001). The Parallel Development of Oral Proficiency and Use of Language Learning Strategies. Teaching German, 34(2), 158-168. Celce-Murcia, M., Brinton, D., M., & Goodwin, J., M. (1996). Teaching Pronunciation: A Reference for Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages. Cambridge University Press. Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research (4th ed.). Pearson. Cummins, J. (1986). Empowering minority students: A framework for intervention. Harvard Educational Review, 56(1), 18–36. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.56.1.b327234461607787 Daud, R. M., Jusoh, J. S., & Ali, N. Z. M. (2016, May). Students’ Perceived Influence of Corrective Feedback in Learning Essay Writing. Language, Education, & Civilisation International Conference. 59

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Randall, I., & Umberger, T. P. (2019, December). Assessing an in-house CEFR-based Placement Exam [Research-oriented Short Presentation]. College and University Education: Testing and Evaluation (TEVAL), Tokyo International University. Ravitch, Sharon, M., & Matthew, R. (2017). Reason and Rigor: How Conceptual Frameworks Guide Research (2nd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: SAGE. Robyn, S. (2004). Exploring the usefulness of a conceptual framework as a research tool: A researcher's reflections. Issues in Educational Research, University of New England, 14(2), 167-180. Samraj, B., & Monk, L. (2008). The statement of purpose in graduate program applications: Genre structure and disciplinary variation. English for Specific Purposes, 27, 193–211. Schutz, K. M., Danielson, K. A., & Cohen, J. (2019). Approximations in English language arts: Scaffolding a shared teaching practice. Teaching and Teacher Education, 81, 100–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2019.01.004 Selamat M. H. (2008). SAK 5090. Retrieved August 30, 2021 from http://www.csnotes.upm.edu.my/kelasmaya/web.nsf/de8cc2082fc4d31b48257 30e002 bd111/.../$FILE Shehzad, W. (2008). Move two: Establishing a niche. Ibérica, 15, 25–50. Sheldon, E. (2013). The research article: A rhetorical and functional comparison of texts created by native and non-native English writers and native Spanish writers. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Technology. httpa.org/Systemics/Print/Theses. Silke Haidekker. (n.d.). Where Does the Research Question Go in a Paper?. Wordvice. Retrieved August 31, 2021, from https://wordvice.com/where-does-the- research-question-go-in-a-paper/ Soheila, P., & Mohammad, H., T. (2017). Move Structures in “Statement-of-the- Problem” Sections of M.A. Theses: The Case of Native and Nonnative Speakers of English. Iranian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 20(2), 195-228. Sutton, Robert, I., & Barry, M., S. (1995). What Theory is Not. Administrative Science Quarterly, 40, 371-384. Swales, J., & Feak, C. (1994). Academic writing for graduate students. A course for nonnative speakers of English. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 62

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Chapter 3: Survey Research Introduction In this chapter, main consideration for survey research being conducted in ESL/EFL context and data from questionnaire and interview which are self-report pertaining for the opinion and attitudes of the students, teachers and other persons involved in the process of EFL instruction are discussed. 3. Survey Research This part will help you understand what survey research is, why it is used in EFL research, and how is it conducted. Survey Research You will be guided through the following process to enable you to conduct survey research 1. Understanding Survey Research 2. Exploring Survey Research in EFL Context 3. Using Questionnaire in Survey Research k 4. Using Interview in Survey Research k 64

Discussion What is survey research? Why is it used in EFL research? Discuss and exchange with the class. 3.1 What is survey research? When we would like to gain information directly from people such as their ideas, feelings, health, plans, beliefs, and social, educational, financial background, etc., we usually use a survey. A survey is a method of collecting information which can be a self-administered questionnaire that someone fills out alone or with assistance. A survey can also be an interview that is done in person or on other communication devices. Study the following information to help you understand more about survey research. Survey Research Original Text: https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/7-1- overview-of-survey-research/ Survey Research Survey research employs both a quantitative and qualitative method with two important characteristics. 1. Data collection: The data is collected with questionnaires or interviews. Researchers ask their participants or respondents, to report their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors directly. 2. Samples: To accurately investigate the phenomenon or issue, researchers would prefer large random samples as the data would provide the most accurate estimates. 65

Almost everything can be studied using surveys which means that it can be on any topics. Surveys can be long or short. To collect the data, researchers may reach the participants in person, via telephone, email or the Internet. Although survey data are often analyzed using statistics, qualitative analysis is also applied. 3.2 Why is survey research used in the English language instruction context? There are certain necessities why survey research is commonly applied in English language teaching context. Survey research can help policy makers to set or plan a program, evaluate the effectiveness of programs to change people’s knowledge, attitudes, health, or welfare, and assist a researcher to conduct a research study. Survey is one of the most popular research methods in TEFL studies according to Atmowardoyo (2018). Visit the article to read the full text about the study. Research Methods in TEFL Studies (Atmowardoyo, 2018) Original Text: https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/266996418.pdf Types of Research Methods in TEFL Studies The kinds of methods that may be beneficial in TEFL studies include the followings: descriptive research, case study, error analysis, and R & D. These four types are amongst the popular methods employed by today’s researchers in TEFL studies. Descriptive Research Descriptive research is defined as a research method used to describe the existing phenomena. The data is collected through the use 66

of research instruments such as test, questionnaire, interview, or even observation. The main goal of descriptive research is to describe systematically the existing phenomena under the study. Descriptive research covers some subtypes of research methods such as survey, correlation study, qualitative study, or content analysis. These subtypes are different not in the data availability, but in their procedures of data collection and/or analysis. Survey, for example, is usually designed to investigate a large population’s perspective about a particular event or problem. Data collection is commonly conducted through questionnaire administration, and its data analysis involves quantification. 3.3 Guideline in Conducting Survey Research Through Questionnaire This part will further discuss about conducting survey research by using questionnaire. Did you know? Questionnaire and interview are the two most common instruments for survey research. 3.3.1 Overview of a Questionnaire Questionnaire refers to a structured series of written questions, which usually generate written responses. Checklists and inventory are types of questionnaires presenting a list of items in a similar format and ask respondents to rate. However, questionnaires are one of the most common methods of collecting data on attitudes and opinions from a large group of participants. According to Griffee (2012), data collected using a questionnaire can be quantitative or qualitative. A data collection instrument must 67

measure a construct which a researcher states the interest or what to investigate. The construct-defining process takes place in the literature review and is reflecting in the purpose section. The instrument requires validation before administration. Validation is an argument by which evidence shows the analyzed interpretation based on data to some extent which reflects the construct. After collecting the data, raw data must be analyzed and interpreted to be valuable for the research purposes. Data analysis refers to the process by which a large amount of raw data is reduced. Interpretation refers to the assigning of meaning to the reduced data. 3.3.2 Types of Data Collected Using Questionnaires The three types of data about language learners that can be collected using questionnaires are factual, behavioral, and attitudinal data. Types of Language Learner Data  Factual data or description include background information about learners.  Behavioral data collect data on learners’ lifestyles, habits, and actions.  Attitudinal data prompt students to respond on their attitudes, beliefs, opinions, interests and values. If you plan to use self-report questionnaire, consider the following issues relating to data you will obtain. 68

Self-Report Self-report is one of the often-used methods for survey which involves getting reactions to questions or other stimuli from a representative sample of a target group, to which the researcher expects to generalize. Self-report methods such as questionnaire and interview ask the person for information directly. The advantage is they give the person’s perspective; the disadvantage is there are potential validity problem (i.e., people may deceive themselves and others). 3.3.3 Types of Questions and Responses The types of questions and responses used for collecting data in survey research include: Types of Questions and Responses  free-response questions  dichotomous questions  multiple-choice questions  checklists  ranking  ratings 3.3.4 Formulating Questions and Responses To formulate questions and responses for survey research, you may ask yourself these questions: How long is your survey? What types of questions are asked? The following description may help you answer these questions. 69

Questions and Responses in Questionnaires Types of questions What type of questions will you be asking?  Open-ended questions allow the participant any type of response. They provide richer responses, but are hard to analyze due to the details of the data obtained.  Closed questions set up possible responses, such as yes/no, Likert scales, and specific choices which make them easier to analyze. However, they may not provide the rich responses. What to Ask Respondents Consider questions and goal of asking the question when you form the question to collect data. Carefully choose and consider wording in your questions. Make sure it is not too complicated to understand. Before you conduct the questions, also consider first sampling a small population to refine question or piloting the questionnaire. 3.3.5 Quality of Questions Another issue regarding questions in survey research is the quality. Before distributing the questionnaire, you would want to check how your questions appear to participants. Here are some criteria of good questions. Quality of Good Questions  clear  direct to the point  understandable  appropriate generality and specificity  relevant  not leading 70

3.3.6 Quality of Questionnaire After the questions are ready and combined, the next part to check is the quality of the whole questionnaire. This is mostly to do with the outer look and some general views. Quality of Good Questionnaire 1. Appearance  Neat and professional  Proper space, easy to read  Consistent positioning of response boxes  Font style with maximized legibility 2. Question Arrangement  Differentiable between instructions and questions  Proper length or concise  If a long questionnaire is necessary, consider its appearance.  Questions are arranged in logical order  Essential questions early; less important questions towards end  Provoking questions should be asked at end. 3. Overall  The questionnaire is designed with coding in mind.  Issues and concerns of the survey highlight: o “What am I investigating?” (Construct; operational definition) o Who will be surveyed? (Population: create a working population which is a list of persons from your general population or target population with unit of analysis you plan, and representing the sample frame) 71

3.3.7 Population, Sample, and Sampling Techniques Novice researcher may have certain questions regarding sampling techniques. How many of the following questions do you have? Try answering some of the questions you may have. Questions about Sampling Techniques  Q 1: Should you survey everyone or just a sample? (The answer depends on how quickly you need a result.)  Q2: How many should be included?  Q3: How do you select a sample?  Q4: How large should it be?  Q5: How long should a survey be?  Q6: How to ensure survey reliability and validity?  Q7: What are some of the ethical issues concerning the design and the use of the survey?  Q8: What should be an acceptable response rate? In additions to the questions above, researchers may have questions about types of sampling. For example: How should I select my respondents? (Type of sampling: nonprobability or probability), How many samples should I survey? (Sample size). Study the following information about types of sampling to help you become clearer. Types of Sampling with Working Definition (Griffee, 2012, p. 58) 1. Probability (Subjects selected by random mechanism)  Simple random: Pull names out of a hat e.g., write the names and put in a container and have a person who cannot see the 72

names pull out the desired numbers. This is a good technique if it is a homogeneous group.  Systematic random: Computer generated numbers to select. This is a good technique when a sampling frame is large.  Stratified: The sample divided into group called strata. Operationally, a stratified random sample is taken in the same way as a simple random sample, but the sampling is done separately and independently within each stratum” (Levy & Lemeshow, 1991, p. 99). In this way, you can be reasonably sure that both groups will be represented in your sample in about the same proportion as you estimate they are represented in the population.  Cluster: Group called strata. Cluster sampling is used with very large populations because lists of unite analysis may not be found or not even exists. E.g., all 3rd grade ESL students in the state of Texas. This list may not be found as the K-12 schools are grouped in the school districts. The first cluster may be identified as all school in the state. From the list a sample may be made. From the sample all the elementary schools may be identified. From this list, the number of 3rd grade classes may be identified and from this list a sample may be drawn. 2. Nonprobability (Subjects selected by the researcher)  Convenience: A group already formed and easy to use e.g., intact class, participants at the conference or workshop, volunteer  Purposeful: Knowledgeable and available persons e.g., the students, the instructors, the stakeholders (parents, employers, administrators)  Snowball: Selected respondents suggest other respondents e.g., each one fond one or each one find several  Quota: Stratified but not randomly chosen e.g., the ratio of female and male in the program is 60:40 the sample will be arranged to get the representatives of the 60% of females and 40% of males. 73

3.3.8 Data Collection When the questionnaire is ready, data collection may start right after. Important aspects to consider when collecting data include how to administer and ethical principles of administration. Administering the Questionnaire Once the questionnaire is verified and the sample is selected, the next stage is to distribute it. More questions may arise regarding this issue. How are you going to survey? The decision is made based on length and types of questions which are available as:  in person  on paper  via the Internet However, during the pandemic, certain ways of questionnaire administration is likely to be impossible. Study the following information on “How to pick the right survey tool for your COVID-19 context” by Dooley (2020) to help you make the decision and find the best option. How to pick the right survey tool for your COVID-19 context (Dooley, 2020) Original Text: https://researchforevidence.fhi360.org/how-to-pick-the- right-survey-tool-for-your-covid-19-context 74

If you are uncertain as to when the face-to-face interactions could safely resume, consider the following possibilities in your survey context. The options are proposed into three categories and six types: 1. In-person  offline mobile forms  paper data collection 2. Remote by text  online surveys  SMS surveys 3. Remote by voice  phone calls  IVR (Interactive Voice Response) Basic Ethical Principles of Data Collection While collecting data, there are five principles of ethical issues in survey research to consider. Basic Ethical Principles of Data Collection  Principle 1: No harm should come to the respondents as a result of their participation in the research. This is the primary ethical principle governing data collection and it overrides all other considerations.  Principle 2: The respondent’s right to privacy should always be respected, and no undue should be brought to bear. That is, respondents are perfectly within their rights to refuse to answer questions without offering any explanation, and they have the right to decide to whom and under what conditions the information can be made available. No information can be 75

published about identifiable persons or organizations without their permission.  Principles 3: Respondents should be provided with sufficient initial information about the survey to be able to give their informed consent concerning participation and the use of data. The key issue here is what we consider ‘sufficient’; I believe that providing true information about the extent to which answers will be held confidential as well as how and for what purpose the data will be used is a minimal requirement. In some contexts, the respondents’ consent must be confirmed with their signature; however, we should also note that a request for a consent too formalized a manner can raise undue suspicions that something is not quite right about the survey, and this can reduce the response rate.  Principle 4: In case of children, permission to conduct the survey should always be sought from some persons who have sufficient authority. 3.3.9 Data Analysis To analyzed data obtained from the surveys, some methods commonly used to analyze survey data are: Data Analysis Methods 1. Descriptive statistics. These include counts, portfolios, measures of central tendency, and measure of variation 2. Correlations. These show relations. 3. Differences. These include chi-square, t test, and analysis of variance (ANOVA). 4. Changes. Special forms of t tests and ANOVAs can be used to measure change over time 76

When reporting the data, the following guideline can be applied. Guideline for Reporting Data  Top line data: reporting how many respondents answer certain questions in certain ways  More detail description by reporting bivariate or multivariate analysis. Gives more details about particular subgroups and subcategories.  Explain data within the framework of the research aims and objectives.  Main statistical methods for analysis: frequency, proportions, percentages, ratios  Calculate the average: mode median and mean 3.3.10 Data Analysis When collecting data using surveys, researchers should be aware of pros and cons of the data as follows: Pros Cons  can be anonymous (avoids  might not get careful feedback embarrassment of recipient)  wording can bias responses  impersonal  can be inexpensive to  doesn’t get full story administer (many multimedia  could have design flaws tools)  often get low response rate  assumes no literacy issues  easy to compare and analyze  administer to many people 77

 can get lots of data quickly  problems with incomplete  many sample questionnaires responses already exist  respondent has choice of  can hit wide geographic areas whether to complete or not  no interview bias  high validity (if well-  must be kept short  respondents may lack constructed)  open-ended questions utilizes information or self-awareness to complete respondents’ words  differences in verbal ability  closed-ended questions  open-ended questions are time consuming to analyze provides exact info needed by and may reflect measures researcher need validation  closed-ended questions are easy to analyze  useful for exploration as well as confirmation 3.4 Guideline in Conducting Survey Research Through Interview This part will further discuss about conducting survey research by using interview. 3.4.1 Overview of an Interview An interview is a direct face-to-face attempt to obtain reliable and valid measures in the form of verbal responses from one or more respondents. It is a conversation in which the roles of the interviewer and the respondent change continually. When to use? • Required detailed information. • Obtaining data related to emotions, experience and feeling. 78

• Obtaining data based on sensitive issues. • Obtaining data based on privileged information. (e.g., what students say about rubric) Interview can be used to • Prepare for a set of questions • Follow-up to a questionnaire • Triangulate with other methods 3.4.2 How to conduct an interview The interview can be conducted as follows: individual, group interview, focus group (consisting of 6-9 people who are brought together by a trained moderator. It revolves around a prompt introduced by the moderator to ‘focus’ the discussion. The moderator does not adopt a neutral role. It focuses on interaction and emphasizes ‘collective view’). 3.4.3 Types of interviews • Structured interview • aim to maximize comparison across responses to interview questions • pre-set list of questions asked in a fixed order • e-mail interview • large number of subjects • Semi-structured interview • a list of pre-prepared questions (but used it as a guide) • open to important but unforeseen info. or points of discussion • never be repeated in exactly the same way with each interview 3.4.4 Developing an interview guide • Write suitable warm-up questions • This should call for an extended response based on something with which the interviewee is very familiar. • Analyze, apply, review, revise 79

• When you’ve planned your guide, analyze it carefully from the point of view of the interviewee and try to spot potential difficulties or opportunities, then conduct a pilot interview and review the guide critically. Revise it where necessary and be prepared to develop it further as the interview progresses. 3.4.5 Question Types Opening Begin by inviting a fairly lengthy response. Provide a natural ‘springboard’ for further questions. Check/reflect When in any doubt about whether you’ve understood something, it’s worth checking this or reflecting a statement back to the speaker. This may prompt the speaker to develop a point further. - What did you mean when you said xxx? - Am I right to say that xxxx? - Can you clarify xxx? Follow-up When the speaker has raised something that there is more to be discovered on this topic, the interviewer may decide to follow it up Probe (to ask questions in order to find things out, especially things that other people do not want you to know) It is necessary to establish how the interviewees see the world and how they structure their understanding of it, which will involve more careful questioning designed to elicit from the speaker categorizations or rankings. • What do people think about X? Vs. What do you think about X? • Could you say something more about that? 80

• Do you have further examples of this? Structuring It may be necessary to mark a shift of topic by using structuring moves such as ‘Can we move on to….?, I would like now to introduce another topic.. It may be necessary to mark a shift of topic by using structuring moves such as ‘Can we move on to….?, I would like now to introduce another topic.. 3.4.6 Techniques for questioning • Progressive focusing • How do you feel about pre-reading activities? • Could you describe some of the activities you use? • What are the pros and cons of that activity? • Would you use it with beginners? • If you had to recommend a particular type of pre-reading activity to a new teacher, what would it be? • What features made you choose this? • Examples of use from your own teaching Variations? Some Dos and Don’ts Dos • Listen carefully (e.g., non-verbally say, I’m listening) • Offer supportive feedback (e.g., ‘hmm’, ‘yes’) • Respond to emotion (give interviewee a chance to talk about it) • Let the interview take its own shape – let the interviewee discover things as well Don’ts • Close off interview space • Interpret for the interviewee 81

• Judge (e.g., offer moral comment, advice, or consolation) • Strict to the topics you think are important • Interrupt unthinkingly 3.4.7 How to prepare yourself before the interview • Prepare questions • Predict answers (so that you know what you should ask later) • Set the time and tell the subject (not applicable to free interview) • The second and especially the third method will catch the reader's eye, so make sure you are quoting something important. • Don't bore the reader with uninteresting quotes or statements that are trivial or obvious. • Citing the interviewees and using quotes. There are several ways you can refer to the information from the interviews: (1) summarize in your own words what he or she said, (2) use short quotes (for phrases and one or two short sentences) that you embed into a paragraph, and, (3) use a separate indented paragraph (a \"block\") for longer quotes (three or more sentences). • Identifying the Interviewees. • In the method section of the paper you should describe who each of the interviewees are, why you asked them to participate in the study, and how you located them. • Interviewees who are professionals or \"experts\" on some topic should be identified by name, profession, where they work, the details of their expertise, and any other information about them that is relevant to your project. • Other interviewees should be identified by name, age, marital status, occupation, and why specifically they were selected for your project. 82

• In some projects the identities of the interviewees must NOT be mentioned in your paper. • You must always obtain permission (as part of the informed consent) to mention their names in your paper. • For people who wish to remain anonymous, you can mention their real age, marital status, occupation, and any other information about them that is relevant to your project. BUT USE A FALSE NAME. • Also, never mention ANY information (like occupation) if that information is so specific or unique that it could reveal who they are. 3.4.8 Approaches to analysis • Make notes immediately after the interview, paying particular attention to relational issues. • Reflect on the interview from the perspective of the relationship of interviewer and interviewee, its broader context (professional setting, previous interviews, etc.) and its development. Note points to bear in mind. • Read the interview from an interactional perspective. How does the relationship between interviewer and interviewee develop? Highlight and comment on any key shifts or passages. 3.4.9 Approaches to analysis • Look for clues to shifts in perspective or orientation (e.g., explicit comments about perceived formulations to earlier ones). • Look closely at the way the interviewee’s positions develop. Where possible, relate later formulations to earlier ones. • Highlight problematic passages. • Sum up implications of the above for a developing analysis. If possible, arrange a further interview to the process of clarification. 83

3.4.10 Approaches to analysis Pros Cons  get full range and depth of  can be time consuming information  can be hard to analyze and  develop relationship with compare respondent  can be costly  can be more flexible with  interviewer can bias client’s respondent responses (ex: eagerness to  accurate information please interviewer, antagonism  interviewer has control and towards interviewer, interviewer can give help if necessary may seek information based on  can record using multi-media their preconceived notions)  characteristics of respondents  geographic limitations can be evaluated (tone,  respondents bias (tend to expression, hesitation) please, create false image for  one interviewer provides interviewer, or to end interview uniformity quickly)  allow for probing and follow-  embarrassment up questions  untrained interviewers could  insight into respondents “way distort data of thinking”, opinions and  measures need validation feelings  can provide quick turnaround (in-person, telephone or email format)  high validity if constructed well 84

3.5 Avtivities Activity 1: What is self-report? • Directions: Please read all 15 statements. Then select 5 statements that most closely reflect your beliefs about how English as a second language is learned and how English as a second language should be taught. • Please choose 5 statements by circling the numbers here: 12345 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Teachers’ belief inventories (Johnson, 1992). 1. Language can be thought of as a set of grammatical structures which are learned consciously and controlled by the language learner. 2. As long as ESL students understand what they are saying, they are actually learning the language. 3. When ESL students make oral errors, it helps to correct them and later teach a short lesson explaining why they made that mistake. 4. As long as ESL students listen to, practice, and remember the language which native speakers use; they are actually learning the language. 5. ESL students generally need to understand the grammatical rules of English in order to become fluent in the language. 6. When ESL students make oral errors, it usually helps them to provide them with lots of oral practice with the language patterns which seem to cause them difficulty. 7. Language can be thought of as meaningful communication and is learned subconsciously in non-academic, social situations. 8. If ESL students understand some of the basic grammatical rules of the language they can usually create lots of new sentences on their own. 9. Usually it is more important for ESL students to focus on what they are trying to say and not how to say it. 85

10. If ESL students practice the language patterns of native speakers they can make up new sentences based on those language patterns which they have already practiced. 11. It is important to provide clear, frequent, precise presentations of grammatical; structures during English language instruction. 12. Language can be described as a set of behaviors which are mastered through lots of drill and practice with the language patterns of native speakers. 13. When ESL students make oral errors, it is best to ignore them, as long as you can understand what they are trying to say. 14. ESL students usually need to master some of the basic listening and speaking skills before they can begin to read and write. 15. It’s not necessary to actually teach ESL students how to speak English. They usually begin speaking English on their own. 86

Activity 2: What are some of the instruments employed to collect self-report data? Based on the following research titles, let’s have a guess how the author collected the data from these studies. Research title Research Research Expected data/ purposes instruments data analysis used 1. A Study of Teachers’ Beliefs, Perceptions, and Practices of Multiple Assessments in Thai EFL Classroom 2. Why Not Non-native Varieties of English as Listening Comprehension Test Input? 3. Exploring the Development of ‘Interest’ in Learning English as a Foreign/Second Language 4. Examining How Teachers’ Beliefs about Communicative Language Teaching Affect Their Instructional and Assessment Practices: A Qualitative Study of EFL University Instructors in Colombia 87

Activity 3: How do you feel as a respondent? • Check the website http://www.public.asu.edu/~eagle/spssintro/esteem.htm Case #______ Sample Questionnaire Self Esteem Study 1. What is your gender? (circle one) f Female m Male 2. What is your age in years? ____ 3. What is the highest level of education that you have completed? (circle one number) 1 No formal education 2 Some grade school 3 Completed grade school Skip to Question 5. 4 Some high school 5 Completed high school 6 Some college 7 Completed college 8 Some graduate work Please answer Question 4. 9 A graduate degree 4. If you have attended college, what was your most recent major? ____________________________ 5. What is your height? _____ feet _____ inches 88

Please indicate your level of agreement with Strongly Strongly the following statements (check one box for Disagree Disagree Agree Agree (4) each statement): (1) (2) (3)  6. I feel that I’m a person of worth, at least     on an equal basis with others.  7. I feel that I have a number of good    qualities.  8. All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a     failure. 9. I am able to do things as well as most    other people. 10. I feel I do not have much to be proud    of. Self-Esteem Study Codebook VARIABLE FORMAT DESCRIPTION / VARIABLE LABEL / CODED NAME VALUE / VALUE LABEL CASENO Numeric Case number SEX Width = 3 Case number Decimals =0 String 1. What is your gender? Width = 1 f Female m Male 89

AGE Numeric 2. What is your age in years? EDUC Width = 2 (Code actual age in years.) Decimals MAJOR =0 HT_FEET HT_INCH Numeric 3. What is the highest level of education Width = 1 that you have completed? Decimals =0 Education level| 6 Some college 1 No formal 7 Completed college education 8 Some graduate work 9 A graduate degree 2 Some grade school 3 Completed grade school 4 Some high school 5 Completed high school String 4. If you have attended college, what was Width = your most recent major? 25 Most recent college major Numeric 5. What is your height? Width = 1 Height in feet Decimals =0 Numeric 5. What is your height? Width = 4 Height in inches 90

Decimals =1 ESTEEM1 Numeric 6. I feel I am a person of worth, at least Width = 1 on an equal basis with others. Decimals =0 I am a person of worth 1 Strongly disagree 2 Disagree 3 Agree 4 Strongly agree (Use the same codes as above for all ESTEEM items below.) ESTEEM2 Numeric 7. I feel that I have a number of good ESTEEM3 Width = 1 qualities. Decimals ESTEEM4 =0 I have good qualities Numeric 8. All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am Width = 1 a failure. Decimals =0 I am a failure (Reverse codes before computing overall self-esteem score.) Numeric 9. I am able to do things as well as most Width = 1 other people. Decimals =0 I can do things as well 91

ESTEEM5 Numeric 10. I feel I do not have much to be Width = 1 proud of. Decimals =0 I am not proud (Reverse codes before computing overall self-esteem score.) • As a respondent, do you like the overall look of the questionnaire? • Do you agree with the way the items were framed? Then do task 5. 92

Activity 4: There are many issues and concerns involved with constructing a questionnaire such as stating its purpose, defining a construct, deciding on the participants, constructing a pilot study, and validating the questionnaire including selecting a form of reliability to report. Which could you begin on your own and which would you need help to do? I know how to begin ……………………..……….I would need help 1. _________________________ … 1. _________________________ 2. _________________________ … 2. _________________________ 3. _________________________ … 3. _________________________ (Introduction to second language) Activity 5: Watch video clips in the following YouTube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gs-gLeYuDZw https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pTuj57uXWlk Then, study the explanation of population and sampling techniques from the website https://www.umsl.edu/~lindquists/sample.html and match the information and the terms. Terminology Explanation 1. population A. The portion of the population to which the researcher has reasonable access; may be a 2. target population subset of the target population B. A list of all the elements in the population from which the sample is drawn 93