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Research in English Language Instruction

Published by muaz abdullahmae, 2021-09-30 13:15:05

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Affective Factors Tally Marks Lines Samples 2. Inhibition ////// = 6 10 When I got stuck, the teacher ignored me and passed to others. 10-11 I lost face and felt unhappy to learn 23-24 that class. 23-24 ...but he didn’t change , so I had to stop practicing. 3. Anxiety 24 4. Motivation 25-26 When I spoke, I also felt that he tried to observe my mistakes and he acted // = 2 6-7 as a teacher to correct mine. 29-30 I disliked what he did. ////// = 6 12-23 I prefer to change the pair in the future 13-14 if I can. 18 Sometimes, I am anxious to ask… 30 30-31 I use Thai a lot; and my daily life Japanese is not progressed much . 33 In some classes, I willingly learned and got enjoy to ask what I want to know. I prefer to learn gradually and make clear step by step ( not to fast)... I love to learn through VDO… I try to practice Kanji at least one hour a day. I often note and do homework by using Kanji as much as I can… I will practice more. 194

8/11/04 Japanese Class and Kyoto Trip Affective Factors Tally Marks Lines Samples 1. Self-Esteem ////// = 6 1-3 I cannot apply Japanese well in my 5 daily life, although I have learned it for a month. 22-23 27-29 Maybe I was too lazy to review the lessons because those are what I have 2. Inhibition // = 2 26-27 known. (Evaluates his/her capability) For a long time, I spent my time 31-32 uselessly. (Evaluates own self in accordance with. some values) Sometimes , I can understand her by liking the words I have already known and noticing her gestures. (Evaluates his/her capability) I often make mistakes when speaking. I cannot use these words automatically, Koko, Soko Asoko, Kore, Sore and Are, and take a while to memorize when to use each of them. (Evaluates his/her capability) ...spoke with lacking my confidence because I often make mistakes when speaking. (Not confident to say what he/she want to) I afraid if they might be bored to speak with me; and I cannot do as they do. (Not confident to do) 195

Affective Factors Tally Marks Lines Samples 3. Anxiety //// = 4 1 Today, the class started again after a longweekend passed. I worry … 25-26 However, I was quite hard to 4. Motivation 30-31 understand what they said; and I felt 13-14 depressed couldn't totally understand them, When I spoke Japanese, I was 18 nervous. I usually feel depressed when speaking with someone who has high Japanese ability than me. I think it is a good strategy for acquiring a new language. (Intrinsic motivation) apply it in the following lesson to make my sentences much more interesting . (Inner power drives him/her to try to make sentences much more interesting) It was a great opportunity to learn Japanese culture and language by traveling. (Enjoyment) 196

Demonstration by color shading Today, the class started again after a long weekend passed. I worry that I still cannot apply Japanese well in my daily life, although I have learned it for 1 month. Maybe I was too lazy to review the lessons because those are what I have known already: I just did the homework the teachers assigned which is not enough for daily life conversation. For a long time, I spent my time uselessly. I took more than one and a half hour to talk with Thai students at the dinner every night until it became too late to review the lessons. Therefore, I have to change my life style and better manage my time for reviewing and preparing the lesson in advance. I started to reschedule for doing my homework, reviewing, preparing the lesson, and so on. I set the time for doing these necessary things in each day and try to follow it as much as possible. It was a great opportunity to learn Japanese culture and language by traveling. Along the trip to Kyoto, Japanese language was used to communicate, such as introducing the tourist destinations by a tour guide and other general talking among members. For the guide, she cannot speak English but she tried to speak slowly as well as use her gestures. Sometimes, I can understand her by liking the words I have already known and noticing her gestures. For example, I knew that we were going to pass some places because she said BYE…BYE again after she spoke by Japanese. However, I was quite hard to understand what they said; and I felt depressed because I couldn’t totally understand them. When I spoke Japanese, I was nervous and spoke with lacking my confidence because I often make mistakes when speaking. I cannot use these words automatically, Koko, Soko Asoko, Kore, Sore and Are, and take a while to memorize when to use each of them, although I am sure that I understand them well from my Japanese class. Also, I usually feel depressed when speaking with someone who has high Japanese ability than me. Maybe, I afraid if they might be bored to speak with me; and I cannot do as they do. 197

Table of the quantitative result Type of Affective Factor Frequency Percentage Self-esteem 3 25% Inhibition 2 16.67% Anxiety 4 33.33% Motivation 3 26% Total 12 100% The table shows the percentages of each affective factor. Anxiety got the highest percentages as 33.33% followed by self-esteem and motivation which are the same as 25%. And the lowest factors is inhibition. It could be seen that the student is in the stage of anxiety overall, but still with motivation with the 2nd place. Review Questions 1. What seems to be a common action research study? 2. Can you identify key problem statement and the purposes of this research? Chapter Summary and Highlights This chapter provides an overview of characteristic of action research and several examples of how the research is implemented in both general educational setting and ESL/EFL setting. The action research is small-scale research in which teachers conduct to solve particular problem in the classroom. It focuses on finding appropriate solutions to help students in specific setting. The research is clearly relevant to repetitive or cyclic process where modification of the action plan can be made until teacher/researcher is satisfied with the solution of the problem. 198

References: Brown, H. D. (2014). Principles of language learning and teaching (6 ed.). Pearson. Brown, J.D. & Rodgers, T.S. (2002). Doing second language research. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Burns, A. (1999). Collaborative action research for English language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Burns, A. (2012). Qualitative Teacher Research. The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics. Published. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0986 Carr, W. & Kemmis, S. (1986). Becoming Critical: education, knowledge and action research. Lewes, Falmer. Christina, G. (2013). A diary study on the causes of English language classroom anxiety. International Journal of English Studies, 13 (1), 51-68. Coghlan, D. & Brydon-Miller, M. (2014). The Sage Encyclopedia of Action Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Efron, S. E. & Ravid, R. (2013). Action Research in Education: A Practical Guide. New York: Guilford. Elliott, J. (1991). Action Research for Educational Change. Open University Press, Milton Keynes. Gorard, S. (2013). Research Design: Creating Robust Approaches for the Social Sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Haidara, Y. (2016). Psychological Factor Affecting English Speaking Performance for the English Learners in Indonesia. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 4(7), 1501-1505. http://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2016.040701 Hishop, J. & Stracke, J. (2017). ESL students in peer review: An action research study in a university English for Academic Purposes course. University of Sydney Papers in TESOL, 12, 9-44. Jing, H. (2005). A diary study of difficulties and constraints in EFL learning. System. 33, 609-621. Doi: 10.1016/j.system, 2005.04.001. Juhana. (2012). Psychological Factors That Hinder Students from Speaking in English Class (A Case Study in a Senior High School in South Tangerang, Banten, Indonesia). Journal of Education and Practice, 3(12), 100-110. 199

Kemmis, S. & McTaggart, R. (2000). Participatory Action Research. In Norman, D. & Yvonna, S. L. (Eds.)., Handbook of Qualitative Research (2nd ed.) (pp. 567-605). (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2000). Khamprated, N. (2012). The Problems with the English Listening and Speaking of Students Studying at a Private Vocational School. Unpublished master's project, Srinakharinwirot University, Bangkok. Leung, C. Y. (2002). Extensive Reading and Language Learning: A Diary Study of a Beginning Learner of Japanese. Reading in a Foreign Language, 14(1), 66-81. McNiff, J. (1988). Action Research: Principles and Practice. Macmillan Education. McNiff, J. (2014). Writing and Doing Action Research. London: Sage. Meredith, G. (2007). Educational Research: An Introduction (8th ed). Chapter 18, Action Research. Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon. Nunan, D. (1992). Research Methods in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rose, H. (2020). Diaries and journals: Collecting insider perspectives in second language research. In McKinley, J. & Rose, H. (Eds.). Routledge Handbook of Research Methods in Applied Linguistics (pp. 348-356). Abingdon: Routledge. Rubio, F. (2007). Self-esteem and foreign language learning. Cambridge Scholars Publishing Salazar, K. (2016). Diary Studies: Understanding Long-Term User Behavior and Experiences. Retrieved from https://www.nngroup.com/articles/diary-studies/ Smith, R. & Rebolledo, P. (2016). Teaching English: A Handbook of Exploratory Action Research. British Council. The Northeast Florida Science, Technology, and Mathematics Center for Education. (n.d.). Action Research for Teachers. Retrieved from http://www.nefstem.org/teacher_guide/intro/purpose.htm Wilson, K. (n.d.). Practice Analyzing and Interpreting a Diary. Retrieved from https://study.com/academy/lesson/practice-analyzing-and-interpreting-a- diary.html 200

Chapter 7: Research and Development Introduction This chapter presents the definitions of research and development and main consideration in the ESL/EFL context. Some examples of R&D, its steps and the writing rhetorical movement were also compiled and exhibited for more understanding of R&D formulation. Towards the end of this chapter, there are exercises and discussion topics provided to review the chapter content. 1. What is research and development? Research and Development is a kind of research method which was historically invented in the business field to develop a commercial product that best fits the custumer. Later, researchers in language teaching adopted this methodology into ESL/EFL context. Many universities approved R&D as a research method for degree dissertation since it potentially supports researchers to create a new product that meets the research population’s needs with entrepreneurial spirit in accordance with the university vision. To support this statement, Atmowardoyo (2018) did documentary research analyzing 5 doctoral dissertations of English Language Education and found that the R&D process facilitated the researchers to invent educational product which served the needs. Summarization of the mentioned research are as follows. Pongsapan et al (2016) began a study with exploring the needs of nursing students in a city in Indonesia by observing the materials used in the English course. The result displayed the reason why the course material should be developed and the students’ learning needs. To fill the gap, the researcher developed a textbook entitled “English for Nurses”. Hasmiati et al (2015) wrote an English course book for high school students based on a curriculum and limited instructional materials. The research used the ADDIE model: an instructional design framework which included needs assessment and designing process to do material development. The output of the study was an English textbook. 201

Sunubi et al (2016) followed the R&D process. The ADDIE model was also applied as the study process. The result showed the needs of Islamic university students in language learning. This information was interpreted and used as a source to develop vocabulary instructional materials which were meaningful and encouraged them to develop a range of lexical knowledge. Latifa et al (2016) researched speaking assessment tools and found that there was a lack of practical scale for speaking examination in Indonesia. The speaking rubrics which were available at the time did not match with the teaching task because of their complication. An innovative scale had been designed, validation tested, piloted, and revised. Consequently, the researchers generated a prototype of a speaking rubric for Indonesian students from this R&D research. Atmowardoyo et al (2017) developed an assessment tool for EFL teachers’ performance based on students’ perceptive. This research was divided into 2 phases including a quantitative survey on students’ opinions, and a qualitative experiment on the effectiveness of the tool. In the finding of the first phase presented some qualities, competences, and attributes of successful EFL teachers and failed EFL teachers in terms of teaching. Along with this piece of information, a 5-score-rating scale was conducted. The validation process, revision and pilot test were examined. From the examples above, it is considerable that R&D is an explicit and productive practice. The method comprises of exploration of expanding knowledge and innovative implementation of the knowledge. R&D covers 3 types of activity including basic research, applied research and experimental research. Generally, a complete research cycle composes of basic research or applied research, and an experiment. The loop can be repeatedly and infinitely done until either the research objective is completed, or any limitations occur in which the research project is stopped. For more clarification, the explanation of 3 types of activity is as follows. 1. Basic research is also called fundamental research. This type of research aims to obtain new knowledge or observable fact from certain circumstance. Properties, components, and relationships are analyzed in basic research and real application may not be realized. 2. Applied research is to determine if original work or theory is to solve specific problems. This type of research facilitates apply abstract knowledge into more concrete practice. 202

3. Experimental research consists of systematic workflow associated with original knowledge and/or practical experience. This type of research provides opportunity to create new materials, products, processes, or the development of those already existed. Therefore, when we take a close look to the content and process of the research and development method, we could say that research and development is pretty similar to applied research. R&D contains more clear and systematic process of both exploration and experimentation and seems like the combination of both. However, there are some more considerations for researcher as discussed in the next topic. 2. What should researchers consider for research and development being conducted in the ESL/EFL context? R&D is always aimed to create a new and creative, but possible solutions based on existing knowledge or testing statement whether it will be successful or fail. Valuable innovation in any form is expected as the result of the study. This practice. OECD (2015) stated that R&D has to achieve these following properties. Novel New findings are expected. Creative Create possibility on original knowledge Uncertain Take risk and accept uncertainty about the outcome Systematic Well design the study and the budget Transferable Lead to the possible implementation or reproduction 3. How to develop a research and development (R&D) work? As research and development focuses on developing a prototype of an educational innovation and experimenting the effect of the innovation. The output of a loop of R&D research are mainly 2 products which are an innovation created for enhanced learning or teaching, and a concrete prototype created as a result of the process. The effectiveness of the prototype is considered as the value of the research. To ensure the significant effect of the research, the research design is vital. The R&D process in education is systematic and reasonable including needs assessment or theory review and product development. The product can be a teaching material, a learning material, a set of educational objectives, a program, a curriculum, or other 203

products related to teaching and learning to satisfy the target context. There were various steps to conduct R&D as follows: Borg & Gall (1983) provided a systematic and easy process to follow. The steps are organized in the following order: Research and Planning Developing Preliminary Information Preliminary Field Testing Collection Form of Product Revising Main Main Field Revising Operational Product Testing Operational Field Testing Product Revising Final Disseminating Product and Implementing 1. Research and Information Collection The research is started by studying the related literatures, need analysis, and framework preparation. 2. Planning It includes formulating skills and expertise regarding the problem of the research, formulating objectives of each stage, and designing research steps and necessary feasibility study. 3. Developing Preliminary Form of Product In this step, the preliminary educational product, some named it the ‘trial product’, is developed by preparing and evaluating the supporting components, and its guidelines and manuals. 204

4. Preliminary Field Testing The preliminary product is tested in limited scale to some selected parties (3- 4) through interview, questionnaire, or observation to gain and analyze the data for next step. 5. Revising Main Product The preliminary/trial product is revised using the data gained in step four. The revision is likely to be done more than once depends on the results of trial product. The revision is ready for wider testing. 6. Main Field Testing This step is also called ‘main testing’ in which the revised educational product is tested on a wider scale to many parties (5-15). The data is commonly collected by qualitative method. Some products need to be carried out in an experimental research design to get the precise feedback/data for the next step. 7. Revising Operational Product The revised product in this step is revised again based on the gained data in step six. The product is then developed as an operational model design to be validated. 8. Operational Field Testing The validating of the operational model is conducted to massive parties (30- 40) through interview, observation, or questionnaire. The data is the basis for revising the product in the final step. It is intended to ensure the model is completely set for using in educational fields without the researchers as counsellors. 9. Revising Final Product The product is completely revised by the gained data in step eight and launched as the final educational product. 10. Disseminating and Implementing The product dissemination is conducted to the public, especially in education fields through seminars, publication, or presentation to related stakeholders. Another easy method of R&D research is comprised of 6 steps. 205

1. Preparing for product development and analyzing needs analysis for product design 2. Prototype product development. (D1) 3. First, try to examine the effectiveness of the developed product with a small group of sample. (R1) 4. Initial product revision. (D2) 5. Second, try out with a bigger sample group (R2) and revise till the quality of the product reaches the criteria being set up. 6. Reporting conclusion of what was found of the product and dissemination for use in institution. Discussion point: Discuss the research steps for R& D Design-based research proposed by Reeves (2006). ▪ Addressing complex problems in real contexts in collaboration with practitioners. ▪ Integrating knowledge and hypothetical design principles with technological advances to render plausible solutions to these complex problems; and, ▪ Conducting rigorous and reflective inquiry to test and refine innovative learning environments as well as to define new design principles. Checklist of what should be included in your R&D ▪ What is the product being developed? ▪ How was the product being developed? ▪ What were some of the attempts for verifying the developed products? 206

Discussion point: What can you learn from the following sample research studies? Thesis samples: A development of self-instructional materials (SIMS) to enhance English listening skills for students nurses https://bit.ly/3u7sL1q A new bilingual teaching bilingual teaching model for health studies based on the experiential learning theory (ELT) and the content and language integrated learning approach (CLIL) http://repo.uum.edu.my/1975/1/LLL_-_T4_-_01.pdf Master project sample: The effect of integrated instructional media using movies and movie subtitles (IMS) to help improve vocabulary comprehension A research article: SugengSusiloAdi. (2016). The Development of English Language Learning Instruments Using Audio-Based Media. Journal of Research & Method in Education, 6 (2) (Mar. - Apr. 2016), PP 01-12. https://iosrjournals.org/iosr-jrme/papers/Vol-6%20Issue-2/Version- 3/A0602030112.pdf 207

Discussion point: Framing your research after you found your topic of interest, try to formulate your own research purposes and design. What are your problem statements? What are some of the research questions you plan to tackle in your research? What type of research you plan to study? 208

What is a statement of problem? A problem statement is generally one or two sentences to briefly identify the research problem. It explains a gap between the present situation and the expectation or the desired state. It is comparable to a topic sentence of a paragraph controlling the idea of the research. Mirihangu (2012) stated that a good statement of problem should have the following key characteristics. 1. The research gap should be addressed. 2. The statement is so obvious and significant that the researcher can contribute the best part of the research. 3. The statement is vital and leads to further research. 4. The statement is examinable via data collection. 5. The researcher should create an attractive and practical statement. 6. The research and its statement are ethical. To state a strong statement of problems, the researcher could follow four steps and write by using this genre. The four steps are: 1. Statement 1 identifies a goal or the state of expectation. 2. Statement 2 describes the condition and obstacles to the goal and explains why the goal could not be achieved at the present time. This statement convinces the reader of the reality of the current situation. 3. The conjunctions, \"but\", \"however\", \"unfortunately\", or \"in spite of\", are usually used to show the contrast of statement 1 and 2. 4. Statement 3 specifies more details of statement 2 and benefits of the consequences of the innovated solution. 209

Move in writing a statement problem From the articles in R&D that we have looked at so far, can you identify the move the authors used to state the problem statement in the background section? Move 1: Establishing one of the territory of one’s own research. Move 2: Creating a research niche. Move 3: Occupying the research niche Move 1 the attempt is to show that the general research area is important, central, interesting, problematic, or relevant in some way, and thus this move is to introduce and review items of previous research in the area. Note particularly the language used in the first two sentences to express Move l.  The increasing interest in ... has heightened the need for ....  Of particular interest and complexity are ....  Recently, there has been growing interest in ....  The development of ... has led to the hope that....  The ... has become a favorite topic for analysis ....  The study of ... has become an important aspect of ....  A central issue in ... is ....  The ... has been extensively studied in recent years.  Many recent studies have focused on .... Move 2 the point is to indicate a gap in the previous research by raising a question about it or extending previous knowledge in some way. In many ways, move 2 is the key move in Introductions. It connects Move 1 (what has been done) to Move 3 (what the present research will do). Move 2 thus establishes the reason for the study. By the end of Move 2, the reader should have a good idea of what is going to come in Move 3. Move 2’s establish a niche by indicating a gap. Probably the most common way to indicate a gap is to use a \"negative\" subject. Presumably, negative subjects are chosen because they signal immediately to the reader that Move 1 has come to an end. Note the following uses of little and few: 210

 However, little information/attention/work/data/research ....  However, few studies/investigations/researchers/attempts .... Of course, not all RP Introductions express Move 2 by indicating an obvious gap. You may prefer, for various reasons, to avoid negative comment altogether. In such cases, a useful alternative is to use a contrastive statement.  The research has tended to focus on ...,rather than on ....  These studies have emphasized ...,as opposed to ....  Although considerable research has been devoted to ... , rather less attention has been paid to ....  The previous research ... has concentrated on ....  Most studies have been content to ....  So far, investigations have been confined to ... Move 3 is to outline purposes or state the nature of the present research and indicate the structure of the research proposal. The third and final step is to show you want to fill the gap (or answer the question) thathas been created in Move 2.  The purpose of this paper is to ...  The purpose of this investigation is to ...  The aim of this paper is to ...  This paper reports on the results obtained ....  This study was designed to ...  In this paper, we give results of ...  In this paper, we argue that ....  This paper argues that ....  We have organized the rest of this paper in the following way ....  This paper is structured as follows ....  The remainder of this paper is divided into five sections .... 211

Discussion point: Write a statement of problem and background of the study ▪ Did you use what we have learned about literature review to lead your background of the study and identify your statement of problem? ▪ Indicate in your research proposal of which statement(s) you try to point out: Move1: Establishing one of the territory of one’s own research. Move2: Creating a research niche. Move3: Occupying the research niche. 4. Activities Activity 1: Read the following article. Note on the explanation for the R&D research design that the researcher employed and explain how the framework may be different from what the experimental study used. Sugeng SusiloAdi. (2016). The Development of English Language Learning Instruments Using Audio-Based Media. Journal of Research & Method in Education, 6 (2) (Mar. - Apr. 2016), PP 01-12. Ehsan Namaziandost, Mehdi Nasri, Samira Akbari. (2019). The Impact of Teaching Listening Comprehension by Audio and Video Aids on the Intermediate EFL Learners Listening Proficiencies. Language, Literature and Culture, 2(3), 121-128 The research design The research design employed in The employed in the R&D the experimental study by Ehsan different research by Sugeng Namaziandost, Mehdi Nasri, Samira aspects SusiloAdi (2016) Akbari (2019) 212

Activity 2: Read the following case studies of R&D research. Note the research purposes, research design and procedures, research findings, and the claims on effectiveness of the products and/or prototypes of the study. Case Research Research Research Claims on effectiveness study purposes design and findings of the products and/or procedures 1 prototypes of the study 2 3 4 5 Case study 1 Rungrawee Samawathdana, Sumalee Chinokul, & Aimutcha Wattanaburanon. (2010). A new bilingual teaching model for heath studies based on the experiential learning theory and the content and language integrated learning approach. Paper presented in the proceeding. Abstract The purpose of this study is to describe the development of a new bilingual instructional model for Health Studies in a Thai secondary school. It is recognized that Health Studies is one of the most difficult subjects for the bilingual students within an L1 environment; the main obstacle being the complicated English topical terminology that is used. Therefore, it made sense that a new instructional model, which incorporated Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) and Content and Language Integrated Learning Approach (CLIL) should be developed. Consequently, in an attempt to promote more effective bilingual learning, this model is now in an experimental stage. The model is named \"HEC\" (A new Health Studies module based on the Experiential Learning Theory and the Content and Language Integrated Learning Approach). So far the student response has been positive in both their attitude to 213

learning and their task performance. HEC has been evaluated by focusing on several different aspects of the model and by using a questionnaire employing a 5-point Likert scale; this was then analyzed by seven qualified experts with an average result of 4.87. It is hoped that this HEC model will contribute to the development of an innovative and effective bilingual teaching model within an L1 environment. Key Words: Bilingual, Instructional Model, Health Studies, Experiential Learning Theory (ELT), Content and Language Integrated Learning Approach (CLIL), HEC, Attitude, Task Performance Case study 2 Phatchareporn Supphipat and Sumalee Chinokul (2019). The Development of the English Content-Based Reading Materials for Buddhist Student Monks. Suranaree Journal Social Science, 13(1), January-June 2019, 1-22. Abstract The objectives of this study were 1) to develop the English content-based reading materials for Buddhist student monks, 2) to explore quality of the English content- based reading materials by examining the attitude of student monks, and 3) to explore quality of the English content-based reading materials by examining the attitude of teachers. The study was conducted in 6 stages starting from the identification of needs to create materials to the evaluation of the effectiveness of the developed materials. The participants of 42 student monks and 3 English teachers were selected from the Education Department of Wat Phra Dhammakaya in academic year 2017. Instruments used were semi-structured interview, needs analysis questionnaires, and evaluation questionnaires. The qualitative data was analyzed by the content analysis. The statistics used to analyze the quantitative data were frequency, percentage, mean, and standard deviation. The findings revealed that the English content-based reading materials for Buddhist monks were effectively developed by using the materials development framework of Tomlinson (2011), embedded with Six-T’s approach of Stoller and Grabe (2017), and the quality was the academic and physical aspects and the effectiveness in enhancing reading comprehension. In terms of the quality of academic and physical aspects, student monks had a positive attitude towards 6 criteria including: content, organization of 214

content, presentation of content, language use, activities applied, and layout and design, and teachers had a positive attitude towards 7 criteria, 6 of which were exactly the same as those of student monks plus the criterion of the teachers’ manual. This study clearly demonstrates theoretical processes of developing instructional materials of good quality and could be used as an example to illustrate the connection between developing instructional materials and English language learning research for teachers, materials developers, and researchers in the field. Case study 3 Nonglak Pangroean (2015). Development of a curriculum to enhance an informative English-speaking ability based on competence-based approach for upper secondary school students. Dissertation, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Faculty of Education, Chulalongkorn University. Abstract This was a research and development study. The main purposes of this study was to develop and evaluate the effectiveness of the curriculum, enhancing informative speaking ability in English based on competency-based approach for upper secondary school students. The study procedure included 4 main stages: 1) studying fundamental information and preparation; 2) designing and developing curriculum; 3) pilot studying and implementing the curriculum; 4) evaluating and adapting the curriculum. The curriculum was then verified by experts and was tried out. The pre- experimental research, a one group pretest-protest design was used to investigate the effectiveness of the curriculum. The samples consisted 40 Grade 11 students from x school, in the academic year of 2015. The experiment took one semester. The research instruments were English informative speaking achievement test. English informative speaking ability assessment with rubric scoring and English informative speaking attitude assessment. Data were analyzed through arithmetic mean, standard deviation, pair t-test and content analysis. The finding were as follows: 1. The developed curriculum to enhance informative speaking ability in English 215

based on competency-based approach for upper secondary school students was consisted of 10 components: 1) principles of curriculum, 2) aims of curriculum, 3) English informative speaking standard competences consist of 15 standard competences, 4) student description, 5) learning outcomes, 6) learning time structure of curriculum, 7) units of teaching, 8) instructional design, 9)teaching materials and 10) evaluations guideline. 2. The results of implementing the developed curriculum were 1) The English informative speaking ability of students after learning through the curriculum was significantly higher than that of before at .05 level of significance, classified by factors of English informative speaking ability find that the English informative speaking literacy and performance skills in both preparation and presentation dimension were significantly at .05 level of significance as well which proves the hypothesis. 2) the good attitude for English informative speaking activities of significance which proves the hypothesis and 3) hundred percent of students had an improvement trend of English informative speaking ability in upward direction respectively which proves the hypotheses. Case study 4 Ponsawan Suphasri. (2015). Development of a blended learning supervision model to enhance English-majored student teachers’ reflective ability and teaching performance. Doctoral thesis in English as an International Language. Graduate school, Chulalongkorn University. Abstract The research objective were (1) to develop a blended learning supervision model to enhance English-majored student teachers’ reflective ability and teaching performance, (2) to evaluate the effectiveness of the model in terms of the student teachers’ reflective ability and teaching performance, and (3) to explore the student teachers’ and the supervisor’s opinions towards the model. This research employed the research and development approach (R&D) as the research design. The procedure consisted of 4 stages: problem analysis, solution design, pilot study, and implementation. The participants were 4 English-majored student teachers from a 216

Thai public university who were attending the 2nd semester teaching practicum of the academic year 2011.The research instruments were: 1) reflective journal and reflective ability scoring rubrics, 2) classroom observation form, and 3) open-ended interview questions. Data were analyzed using mean and content analysis. The research findings were: 1. The blended learning supervision model comprised of 4 components: 1) environment, 2) agents, 3) supervision activities, and 4) technologies; and covered 3 supervision stages: 1) pre-observation, 2) observation, and 3) post-observation. 2. The effectiveness of the blended learning supervision model on English-majored student teachers’ reflective ability revealed that the participants’ reflective ability remained at the descriptive level (level2) as a group. However, there were two individual participants whose reflective ability increased to reach the pedagogical level (level3). Two factors that influenced the participant’s reflective ability were 1) face-to-face interaction with supervisor at the post-observation stage, and 2) online self-reflection. 3. The effectiveness of the blended learning supervision model on the participant’s teaching performance indicated that the participants’ teaching performance increased from initial level (level 2) to proficient level (level 3) in general. Three factors that influenced the participants’ teaching performance were 1) online scaffolding on lesson planning; 2) face-to-face interaction with supervisor at the post-observation stage, and 3) online self-reflection. 4. Both English-majored student teachers and the supervisor had positive opinions towards the blended learning supervision process as well as the online technologies and the feedback given by the supervisor. 217

Activity 3: Read, summarize, and discuss how advanced technology can be employed in actual EFL classes. Crowdsourcing Miloshevska, L., Delibegović Džanić N., Hatipoğlu Ç. & Gajek E. (2021) Crowdsourcing for language learning in Turkey, Bosnia and Google Herzegovina, Republic of North Macedonia and Poland, Journal translation of Narrative and Language Studies, 9(16), 106-121. Odo, D. M. (2016). Crowdsourced Language Learning: Lessons for TESOL from Online Language-Learning Enthusiasts. English Teaching Forum 54(4), 14–23. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1123197.pdf. Shu-Chiao Tsai (2019) Using google translate in EFL drafts: a preliminary investigation, Computer Assisted Language Learning, 32:5-6, 510-526, DOI: 10.1080/09588221.2018.1527361 Activity 4: Practice how to handle data from various sources. Answer these following questions. Questions for framing your research  How do you plan for data collection and analysis stages? Review questions  What is R&D?  Identify key problem statements of these two research studies? The effects of integrated instructional media using movie and movies subtitles (IMS) to help improve vocabulary comprehension Research objectives 1. To develop integrated instructional media by using movies and movie subtitles (IMS) to help improve English vocabulary comprehension 2. To investigate students’ opinions about IMS. A development of Self-instructional Materials (SIMS) to Enhance Listening Skills for Student Nurses 218

Research Questions 1. What are the needs of English skills of student nurses? 2. How can self-instructional materials to enhance English listening skills for student nurses be developed? 3. How effective are the developed self-instructional materials? 4. What is the attitudes of student nurses towards the developed self- instructional materials? Chapter Summary and Highlights Definition: ▪ It’s a kind of experimental research which focus on the development of a prototype of the educational innovation. ▪ Focuses on the interaction between research and the production and evaluation of a new product. It can be ‘formative’ and ‘summative’ Strengths: ▪ The product which could be claimed on its effectiveness. ▪ Produce a prototype of the educational innovation. Weaknesses: ▪ Quite time consuming Components: ▪ Preparation (Needs analysis) ▪ Prototype ▪ Sample groups ▪ Conclusion 219

References Akker, J., Gravemeijer, K., McKenney, S., & Nieveen, N. (Eds.). (2006). Introducing educational design research. Routledge. Atmowardoyo, H. (2018). Research Methods in TEFL Studies: Descriptive Research, Case Study, Error Analysis, and R & D. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 9(1), 197. https://doi.org/10.17507/jltr.0901.25 Developing an Assessment Instrument for Indonesian EFL Teachers’ Performance Based on the Students’ Perceptions. (2017). International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), 6(7), 608–614. https://doi.org/10.21275/art20175363 Gall, M. D., & Borg, W. (1983). Educational Research: An Introduction. Longman Education. Hasmiati, H., Hamra, A., Atmowardoyo, H., & Dollah, S. (2015). Designing an English Course Book for High School Students Based on 2013 Curriculum with Local Content Materials. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 6(6), 1240. https://doi.org/10.17507/jltr.0606.11 Latifa, A., Rahman, A., Hamra, A., Jabu, B., & Nur, R. (2015). Developing a Practical Rating Rubric of SpeakingTest for University Students of English in Parepare, Indonesia. English Language Teaching, 8(6). https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v8n6p166 Organisation For Economic Co-Operation And Development, Oecd. (2015). The Measurement of Scientific, Technological and Innovation Activities Frascati Manual 2015: Guidelines for Collecting and Reporting Data on Research and Experimental Development: Edition 2015 [E-book]. Oecd Publishing. Pongsapan, N. P., Wello, B., & Jabu, B. (2016). Developing Instructional Materials for Nursing Students at Toraja South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Journal of Literature, Languages and Linguistics, 23, 8–24. 220

Chapter 8: Conclusion Research in English Language Instruction book was designed to be an introduction for the graduate EFL students and novice EFL teachers who would like to conduct research in English language teaching area. I will summarize the points that each chapter covers and make a conclusion for the readers. The first two chapters provided an overview of basic and general knowledge and skills to begin the process. Chapter one begins to lay background knowledge in the first topic: introduction to ESL/EFL research. Within this topic, the further sub-topics cover what are counted as ‘ELT research’?, Types of academic research, ESL/EFL research design, and Research design commonly used in English language education. The chapter also covers learning and sharing, discussion and activities which will help novice teacher researchers in the ELT field equip with the solid background of the basic concepts of research within ESL/EFL. Chapter two provides the knowledge specific to begin the ESL/EFL research process. It covers the initial questions of ‘how to’. These include: how to get started with the research process, how to identify research problems, how to formulate research questions and narrow it down until it is feasible, how to build theoretical framework, and how to write a research proposal. The discussion and activities are to lead the novice teacher researchers to think about what they may encounter when they want to conduct research. After the background in research is provided in the first two chapters, the focus of the book then shifts to the common types of research in the English language instruction field. The readers are provided with the necessary information about the research and some selected specific samples of each research types are discussed as 221

case studies. In each chapter data which are commonly used in each type of research are presented and practiced. Chapter three focuses on survey research. What and why survey research is used in EFL research? Then guidelines in survey research, i.e., questionnaires and interviews are discussed. Issues and concerns involved with constructing a questionnaire and interview questions as well as the data collection are discussed. Case studies of survey research in ELT are provided. Population and sampling techniques are highlighted if the generalizability of the research is concerned. Self- report data such as those from the questionnaire and interview are practiced in this chapter. Chapter four is targeted at experimental research. The main focus is quasi- experimental often used in ELT. The highlights are the design notation being used in experimental research, the case studies of the experimental research conducted in ELT, data elicitation for ESL research; data from external sources and prompted response such as the strategy inventory for language learning, stimulated recall, think aloud, role pay and discourse completion task. Activities are provided for the readers to practice with the data. Chapter five presents case study research. This chapter starts off with defining the case study and provides background of case study research design in general, following by the case study research in the ELT. Selection of the cases, validity and reliability of case study research are highlighted. Case study research samples are presented so the readers are to explore and notify of the strengths and weaknesses of the research. Data from observation is targeted for the readers to learn and practice. Chapter six presents action research design. The chapter provides background about the action research its characteristic, challenges of action research, differences between action research and general formal educational research, action research process. Data from verbal report are discussed. Data from diary are targeted for this chapter. Activities highlighted in this chapter include the exploration of the video scene 222

of classroom prompted the readers’ thought for action research process. Case study research samples and diary data set are presented for the readers to practice. Chapter seven Research and Development (R&D) is presented as one of the common type of research in ELT field. The chapter begins with the introduction to R&D and how to develop R&D research. Case study samples of R&D research are presented and discussed. This chapter also encourage the readers to update themselves with advanced technology which have been of interest in the ELT field. Chapter eight provides the overall picture of the whole book and conclusion of some important points in conducting research in English language instruction. Suggested answers are presented at the end of the book. Doing research requires passion to seek a new way to tackle the problems that are around us as EFL teachers, to be patient with obstacle of the workload that tends to purse the teacher away from conducting research thinking that research is extra work. From the discussions, practices, and sample case study research presented in each chapter, I would like to encourage the EFL teachers that the role of teacher researcher can be a good solution for us. For some EFL teacher conducting research may be painful experiences as it is perceived to be difficult, unapproachable, and burdened. I would like to encourage that we may be able to find a new way in blending research into our instruction. Integrated research and teaching may be a win-win scenario for EFL teachers to improve their teaching and grow in terms of their research experiences, which will in turn benefit the student in the field. May I end this chapter and book with the idea that conducting research is a way to find a missing piece of jigsaw puzzle and it is quite similar to how we try to create a new salad with a new way of mixing some common ingredients into salad bowls. The process may look like we try to purify our water. These metaphors may help us see that research is more or less adapted to fit with our teaching routines. You may need time to adjust yourselves but it is doable. Conducting research may not be that difficult. It may be challenging but it can be a worthwhile experience to have a trial. Let’s begin and enjoy the research process. 223

Triangulation Data Source Data Source Data Source Organizing & Foci Chunking Data analysis: What it is Making meaning Knowing the data Interpreting themes 224

225

Suggested Answers Chapter 1: Introduction to ESL/EFL Research Activity 1: Reviewing the research scenarios Answers will vary. However, responses may involve key factors, such as method, variables, sample, population, generalization, and quality of the research. Activity 2: Finding out your preference in types of research Answers will vary. The answers can be interpreted as follows: 226

Activity 3: Learning from the research projects conducted by the M. Ed. TEFL and the EIL graduates Answers will vary. When answers are shared, students will be able to identify that most of the studies are experimental, done in classroom or educational context, and conducted with mixed-methods. Review Questions 1. What is research? According to Mills and Gay (2018) research is “the formal, systematic application of the scientific method to the study of problems” and educational research is “the formal systematic application of the scientific method to the study of educational problems”. 2. How are research projects conducted in ESL/EFL field similar or different from others in the social science? The major similarities of research projects conducted in ESL/EFL comparing to others social science studies include the goals which are to describe, explain, predict, or control phenomena. However, the ESL/EFL studies are particular to English language learning context. 227

Chapter 2: Chapter 2: ESL/EFL Research Process Initiation  Activity 2.1.1: Identifying Research Topic/Interest Answers will vary. Students may have questions during the discussion which can be shared and clarified by the instructor.  Activity 2.1.2: Exploring Research Topics Answers will vary. After students have completed their answers individually or in small groups, instructor may ask them to share with the whole class.  Activity 2.2.2.1: Exploring an Example of Research Problem Some part of the answers will vary, however, the research problem which can be identified in the abstract is the highlighted part as follows: 228

 Activity 2.2.2.2: Research Problem Identification Situation Expected Current Problematic Situation/Context Situation/Context Situation/Context Students are Students are When you teach a motivated when demotivated when class, you may find working in groups. working in mixed that your students 1 ability group in groups are demotivated which may affect when they are their learning. assigned to work in a mixed ability group. Less attention focuses on tools teacher educators use within and 2 surrounding approximations to focus candidates’ attention on features of practice. 3 4 5 229

 Activity 2.2.2.1: Drafting a Research Question Answers will vary.  Activity 2.2.2.2: Justifying a Research Question Answers will vary.  Activity 2.2.3.1: Forming Research Objectives Answers will vary.  Activity 2.3.1.1: Identifying Purposes of a Research Problem Abstract 1: Are You Teaching “What to say” or “How to talk”? The problem statement: For most Japanese learners, their 10 years of English-language education resulted in a concrete belief that “I can’t speak English.” This lack of self-confidence is partially due to an overfocus on teaching students “what to say.” R 1. Introduce the reader to the importance of the topic being studied R 2. Anchors the research questions, hypotheses, or assumptions to follow Abstract 2: Assessing an in-house CEFR-based Placement Exam The problem statement: The Global Teaching Institute’s (GTI) transition to a more CEFR-aligned program required the development of an “in-house” placement test that accurately assessed and grouped students by CEFR levels. R 3. Place the topic into a particular context 230

 Activity 2.3.1.1: Exploring an Example of Research Problem Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 1. 1d 1. 1C 1. 2 2. 1g 2. 1A 2. 1 3. 1a 3. 2 4. 1f 4. 1B 5. 1e 6. 1b 7. 1h 8. 1c 231

Chapter 3: Activity 1: What is self-report? Answers will vary. When answers are shared, students will be able to reflect their beliefs about how English as a second language is learned and how English as a second language should be taught according to Teachers’ belief inventories (Johnson, 1992). Activity 2: What are some of the instruments employed to collect self-report data? Answers will vary. When answers are shared, students will be able to identify how the author collected the data from research titles. Activity 3: How do you feel as a respondent? Answers will vary. When answers are shared, students will be able to identify major aspects in the sample questionnaire. Activity 4: Issues and concerns involved with constructing a questionnaire Answers will vary. When answers are shared, students will be able to identify issues and concerns involved with constructing a questionnaire. 232

Activity 5: Match the explanation of population and sampling techniques Terminology Explanation 1.population E A. the portion of the population to which the researcher has reasonable access; may be a subset of the target population 2.target population C B. a list of all the elements in the population from which the sample is drawn 3.cluster sampling G C. The entire group of people or objects to which the researcher wishes to generalize the study findings 4 quota M D. the selected elements (people or objects) chosen for participation in a study; people are referred to as subjects or participants 5 purposive sampling L E. a complete set of elements (persons or objects) that possess some common characteristic defined by the sampling criteria established by the researcher 6 sample D F. the process of selecting a group of people, events, behaviors, or other elements with which to conduct a study 7.snow ball K G. sample must be as much like the population in as many ways as possible 8.systematic random G H. Everyone in the population has equal opportunity for selection as a subject 9. random sampling H I. Population is divided into subgroups, called strata, according to some variable or variables in importance to the study 10. convenient sampling N J.A random sampling process in which every kth (e.g. every 5th element) or member of the population is selected for the sample after a random start is determined 11. stratified random I K. Network sampling 233

Terminology B Explanation 12.sampling frame L. Researcher uses personal judgement to 13.sampling F select subjects that are considered to be representative of the population 14. representativeness G M. Selection of sample to reflect certain 15. accessible population A characteristics of the population N. Selection of the most readily available people or objects for a study O. A random sampling process that involves stages of sampling Activity 6: Case studies for claiming on representativeness of the population in survey research Answers will vary. When answers are shared, students will be able to identify representativeness of the population in given survey research. Activity 7: Read the case studies below in each case, identify what type of sampling the study recruited the research participants or respondents. What justification each study has made, can you explain? Answers will vary. When answers are shared, students will be able to identify type of sampling the study recruited the research participants or respondents. 234

Activity 8: Consider the initial interview questions and how the author report findings from the articles Answers will vary. When answers are shared, students will be able to identify how the author report findings from the articles. Activity 9 Interview task Answers will vary. When answers are shared, students will be able to edit the questions and design the IOC form to give to the experts to validate the questions. Activity 10 Read the following research articles and answer the questions listed Answers will vary. When answers are shared, students will be able to identify concepts of survey research design in the following research articles. Review Questions: Guidelines for using questionnaire • Read Chapter 3 Griffee, D.T. (2012). An Introduction to second research methods design and data • Read the guideline from Colorado State University Survey Research. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University. Available at http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/guide.cfm?guideid=68 and discuss the main issues raised in the book. • Read Brown, J.D. (2001).Using surveys in language programs • Read Dornyei, Z. (2003). Questionnaire in second language research 235

• Read Spada, N.; K. Barkaoui; C. Peters; M. So; A. Valeo. (2009). Developing a questionnaire to investigate second language learners’ preferences for two types of form-focused instruction System, 37,70–81. • Read Block, D. (1998). Exploring interpretations of questionnaire items, System 26, 403-425. • Read references for survey research in Appendix A. 236

Chapter 4: Activity 1 Case studies in ELT using experimental research design or quasi- experimental research design Case Research Research Justification for using Study objective(s) Design/Participants the research design 1 To investigate the Quasi-experimental: To check whether the effects of three time-series design with use of the vocational English one pre-experiment concentrated language classes and using and two encounter approach the post-experiments and concentrated reciprocal peer language encounter 3 second-year English teaching strategies approach and teachers in three produce the consistent reciprocal peer vocational classes at result on the overall teaching strategies. SIBA College (Bangkok, use of Thailand) the teacher’s English language and the students’ performance of English four skills. 2 To find out the Solomon four groups To examine the effect effects of strategies- experimental design of the pretest on the based reading dependent variables instruction on the 111 second class (students’ strategy students’ strategy students enrolled in use and reading use and reading English class at a state comprehension level) comprehension college in Turkey. level. - 2 experimental groups (one of them takes pre- test) - 2 control groups (one of them takes pre-test) 237

Case Research Research Justification for using the research design Study objective(s) Design/Participants Randomly assigning the 50 participants into 3 To investigate the A quasi-experimental control and treatment groups was difficult. In effects of WCF on design fact, random assignment of students Omani students’ is commonly impossible in accuracy in the use Foundation year educational institutions (Gass, 2010, p. 11; of English students studying Dörnyei, 2007, p. 117) prepositions and to English Level B in the This research study is the same as the case explore the National Foundation study 6. students’ Program (NFP) Since the researchers aim at exploring a perceptions about very big population across the country, the types and of multi-stage sampling is appropriate for this the scenario. Also, this method will help the effectiveness of researchers analyze the result and WCF on their compare them misuse of English prepositions in their written work. 4 To investigate One shot single group primary school students’ receptive 453 Grade 6 students and productive (201 males and 252 vocabulary females) knowledge based on Nation’s vocabulary size receptive and productive tests 238

Case Research Research Justification for using Study objective(s) Design/Participants the research design 5 To investigate the G1 : Experimental between each group at the same level effect of the Access Group (urban vs rural) as well as between the Program (AP) and (Access Teaching provincial level (Loei, Nong Khai, BuengKan, public school (PS) Method) and Nongbualamphu), ELT practices on = and the result can be statistically linguistic G2 : Controlled Group inferred to the regional level as a achievement of (Traditional Method) whole picture. students The reason of using multiple sampling Every student who techniques is because the showed up for the data were collected more than one location and that there were the differences of the target group. Access Entry Test including those who passed, failed, and did not complete the course. 239

Discussion Four group Solomon design • First, the comparison between posttest results of the Experimental Groups. It allows the researcher to determine the effect that the pretest has had upon the treatment. If the posttest results for these two groups differ, then the pretest has had some effect upon the treatment • Second, the comparison between posttest results of the control groups. It shows whether the pretest itself has affected behavior, independently of the treatment. If the results are significantly different, then the act of pretesting has influenced the overall results and needs refinement. • Third, as Oliver and Berger (1980) have argued, conclusions may become far more complicated using the Solomon design because of the number of comparisons it permits. This complexity may dissuade researchers from using the design. Although such a motivation is understandable, the complexity of a phenomenon or an analysis is certainly not a scientifically justifiable reason to fail to conduct it. • A last barrier to the use of this design is often cited as being the complex statistical analysis needed. There is more than one method for analyzing data gathered using this design, and the methods used are dependent on the questions under investigation. Activity 2: Read the following articles and note on the explanations, procedures, and sample of tasks 1. The use of picture differences task, consensus task and map task in Gass, S., Mackay, S. & Ross-Fieldman, L. (2005). Task-based interactions in classroom and laboratory settings. Language Learning, 55(4), 575-611. 2. The use of discourse completion task in Garcia-Fuentes, C & McDonough, K. (2018). The effect of explicit instruction and task repetition on Colombian EFL students’ use of politeness strategies during disagreements, The Language Learning Journal, 46(4), 470-482. 3. The use of film in Iscan, A. (2017). Using films in vocabulary teaching of Turkish as a foreign language, Journal of Education and Training Studies, 5(5), 27-35. 240

4. The use of Stimulated recall inEgi, T. (2008). Investigating stimulated recall as a cognitive measure: Reactivity and verbal reports in SLA research methodology. Language Awareness, 17(3), 212-228. 5. The use of think aloud inYasemin Sonmez &Suleyman Erkam Sulak. (2018). The effect of thinking-aloud strategy on the reading comprehension skills of 4th grade primary school students. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 6(1), 168-172. 6. The use of picture description inBui Hue Phuongii. (2018). Can using picture description in speaking sessions help improve EFL Students’ coherence in Speaking? European Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 3(3), 33-51. Study Research The use of task to Procedures/interpretation Question respond to RQ Picture differences task - Divide the participants into 1 1. How does - spot 10 differences 2 group; classroom setting task-based between pictures and laboratory setting interaction in - allow students to use - 44 students from 2 classes the classroom ‘authentic’ and are in classroom setting, compared to meaningful language while 30 students from 2 task-based classes are in laboratory interaction in a Consensus task setting. laboratory - help a friend to - All interaction during tasks setting? decide which university were audiotaped 2. How do to attend (six choices) - The researcher created a different tasks coding for interactional influence Map task features: interaction in - share knowledge of a) negotiation for meaning classrooms and the street conditions b) language-related episodes laboratories? and cooperate with c) recasts each other to successfully locate them on the map 241

Study Research The use of task to Procedures/interpretation Question respond to RQ - Pre- and post-tests were administered in the lab using 2 1.Does - Pre- and post-tests a tape-mediated format during the first 15 minutes of participation in a - Communicative regular classes. The tests were structured oral stimulated activities production tasks consisting of 15 pictures designed to recall interview - Stimulated recall elicit the target forms. - Communicative activities: a affect L2 - Stimulus viewing picture placement task and then a spot the difference development? task - Stimulated recall: watch 2.Does exposure the record from the class. When the video was paused, to recall stimuli learners have to recall in English what they were affect L2 thinking at the time the video development? was taken. - Stimulus viewing: watch 3.Does the record from the class and answer comprehension verbalisation questions. affect L2 development? 242

Activity 3: Read the following dissertation and thesis and answer the focused questions below: • Case study 1: The effects of types of corrective feedback on student oral pragmatic competence on the use of refusals • Case study 2: The effects of error treatments and students’ language abilities on the usages of tenses through the use of computer-assisted language learning • Case study 3: Effects of differentiated writing instruction by tier assignment on writing ability of ninth grade students Focusing on experimental research • What are research questions in each case? • What are the population and sample? How were the samples justified? • What are the focused variables? How were they operationalized? • What are the research tools the researcher used? • How did the researcher explain the construction and validation process of the research tools? • What were the research design? • How did the researcher collect data? • How did the researcher analyze the data to answer the research questions? Case study 1: The effects of types of corrective feedback on student oral pragmatic competence on the use of refusals 1. What are research questions in each case? Research questions are 1) Does learners' production of pragmatically appropriate refusals improve after receiving explicit feedback and prompts? If so, which kind of feedback is more effective? 2) Does learners’ awareness of pragmatically appropriate refusals improve after receiving explicit feedback and prompts? If so, which kind of feedback is more effective? 243


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