English Syntax I

Teaching Handbook English Syntax 1 (1552105) Suphakit Phoowong Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Buriram Rajabhat University 2014

Teaching Handbook English Syntax 1 (1552105) Suphakit Phoowong M.A. (Linguistics) Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Buriram Rajabhat University 2014

((11)) Preface For many years, it has been being an outcome of my experiences in teaching the second year students in Bachelor’s degree program in English at Buriram Rajabhat University (BRU). I have seen many different problems of the second year students’ learning English Syntax, starting from 1552102 Syntax 1 in the previous course to 1552105 English Syntax 1 in the latest course. This is intentionally the purpose of writing this teaching handbook for the students who are taking the course of “English Syntax 1”. I am sure that it is useful for learners or students who are learning English Syntax 1 or for those who are learning and teaching other related courses such as Linguistics, Introduction to Linguistics or English syntax. This teaching handbook is divided into six chapters organized according to the course description set by BRU and taught in my English Syntax classes. Each chapter provides exercises to express their idea and understanding. All six chapters not only encourage English students to practice analyzing the English structures, including morphemes, words, phrases, clauses, and sentences but also help them develop reading skill (analyzing the meaning of words) and writing skill (analyzing the structures of phrases, clauses and sentences). Hopefully, this handbook will help learners or students to develop their skills as mentioned above, use correct English structures, and understand the basic sentence structures of native speakers more or less, and they should be able to apply their knowledge in their daily life more correctly, efficiently and strategically than they were before. Finally, I am very thankful to my senior lecturers, the heads of English program and Business English Program, and Buriram Rajabhat University that encourage me to write this teaching handbook. Suphakit Phoowong 2014

((22)) TABLE OF CONTENTS Pages Preface…………………………………………..…………………......................... (1) Table of Contents………………………………………………………………….. (2) List of Figures……………………………………………………………….……... (6) Course Lesson Plan ………...………………………………………………….…... (9) Lesson Plan Chapter 1…………………………………………………….……….. 1 Chapter 1 The morphology………...………………………………….……….3 What is morphology?.........................................................................3 What is a morpheme?....................……………………….................4 1. Characteristics of a morpheme………………………….. 5 2. Types of morphemes……………………………………..6 Morphological description……………………………...…..……… 7 What is a morph?............................................................................... 8 What is an allomorph?....................................................................... 9 Types of allomorphs……………………………………….………..10 1. Phonologically conditioned allomorphs……………….…10 2. Morphologically conditioned allomorphs………………. 13 3. Lexically conditioned allomorphs………………..………15 What is a base?.................................................................................. 15 Types of bases……………………………………………….…….. 15 1. Free base………………………………………….….….. 15 2. Bound base…………………………………….………... 16 What is an affix?................................................................................ 17 Types of affixes………………………………………….………… 17 1. Prefixes……………………………………….…………. 17 2. Suffixes……………………………………….…….….... 17 Summary……………………………………………….….…….…. 20 Exercise……………………………………………………….….…21 References………………………………………………….….…... 22

(32) TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.) Pages Lesson Plan Chapter 2………………………………………………………….….. 25 Chapter 2 The word-formation………………………………….……………. 27 The word-formation…………………………………………….…. 27 Morphological processes of forming new words………………….. 27 1. Affixation……………………………………………….. 27 2. Functional shift…………………………………….….… 41 3. Compounding…………………………………………… 41 4. Reduplication……………………………………….…… 46 5. Clipping…………………………………………………. 47 6. Blends…………………………………………………… 47 7. Acronyms……………………………………………….. 48 Summary……………………………………………………............ 50 Exercise………………………………………………………….….50 References…………………………………………………………..53 Lesson Plan Chapter 3……………………………………………………………... 55 Chapter 3 The word…………………………………………………..…….… 57 What is a word? …………………………………………………… 57 The classification of words……………………………………..…. 58 1. Simple words……………………………………….…… 58 2. Complex words………………………………………..… 58 3. Compound words……………………………………….. 59 4. Compound-complex words………………………………59 Word classes…………………………………………………………60 1. Content words…………………………………………… 60 2. Function words……………………………………………60 The morphosyntactic categories and properties of words……….… 61 1. Nouns………………………………………………….... 61 2. Adjectives…………………………………………..…… 62 3. Adverbs……………………………………………..…… 63

((24)) TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.) Pages 4. Verbs……………………………………………………. 64 Constituent structure of words…………………………..………… 66 Immediate constituents of words………………………..………… 66 Summary……………………………………………………........... 68 Exercise………………………………………………………….… 68 References……………………………………………….……….…71 Lesson Plan Chapter 4…………………………………………………….……...…73 Chapter 4 The phrase……………………………………………………..……75 What is a phrase? ………………………......... ………………..….. 75 The structure of phrases………………………..................................76 1. Simple phrase………………………..................................76 2. Ways to identify phrases………………………................77 3. Heads and modifiers of phrases………………………..... 78 4. Phrases within phrases………………………................... 79 Function of phrases………………………........................................ 80 1. Phrase as noun………………………............................... 80 2. Phrase as verb………………………................................ 81 3. Phrase as adverb……………………….............................81 4. Phrase as adjective………………….……........................ 81 Types of phrases………………………………………….…………81 1. Noun phrase………………………................................... 81 2. Verb phrase……………………….................................... 89 3. Adjective phrase………………………............................ 93 4. Adverb phrase………………………................................ 96 5. Prepositional phrase………………………....................... 97 Summary…………………………………………….………........... 99 Exercise……………………………………………………….….…100 References…………………………………………….……….……102

((25)) TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.) Pages Lesson Plan Chapter 5……………………………………………………………... 103 Chapter 5 The clause………………………………………………………….. 105 What is a clause? …………………………...................................... 105 Clause vs. phrases…………………………...................................... 106 Classification of clause………………………….............................. 107 1. Structure of clauses………………………….................... 107 2. Function of clauses………………………….................... 110 Summary……………………………………………………............ 125 Exercise…………………………………………………………..…125 References…………………………………………………………. 132 Lesson Plan Chapter 6…………………………………………………………...… 131 Chapter 6 The sentence……………………………………………………….. 133 What is a sentence? ……………………………….......................... 133 The classification of the sentence………………………………...... 135 1. The simple sentence……………………………….......... 135 2. The compound sentence……………………………….... 136 3. The complex sentence………………………………....... 137 4. The compound-complex sentence………………….…… 138 The sentence constituent and word order………………………….. 139 The basic sentence constituents………………………………........ 140 1. Form……………………………….................................. 140 2. Function………………………………............................. 145 The syntactic analysis of the simple sentence structures…………... 148 Analyzing the simple sentence structures……………...................... 149 Summary……………………………………………………............ 152 Exercise……………………………………………………………. 152 References……………………………………………………….… 155

(26) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 Pages Figure 1.2 Figure 1.3 The classification of morphological description………………..… 8 Figure 3.1 The classification of Bases and Affixes………………………..…. 19 Figure 3.2 Review of classifying the manner of morphemes………………… 20 Showing the morphosyntactic categories and properties of nouns… 62 Figure 3.3 Showing the morphosyntactic categories and properties of Figure 3.4 the degree of adjectives……………………………………………. 63 Figure 3.5 Showing the morphosyntactic categories and properties of Figure 3.6 the position of adjectives………………………………………… 63 Showing some irregular verb forms in English………….………. 65 Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2 Summary of the morphosyntactic categories and properties of English lexemes………………………………………………….. 65 Figure 4.3 Figure 4.4 The presentations given show the constituent structure of Figure 4.5 the words analyzed………………………………………………. 66 Figure 4.6 Tree diagram indicating heads and their modifiers of phrases…… 78 Figure 4.7 Figure 4.8 Box diagrams showing a number of shorter phrases within Figure 4.9 longer phrases………………………………………..…………….. 79 Figure 4.10 Tree diagrams showing the smaller parts of phrases………………. 80 Tree diagrams of noun phrase (1)………………………………….. 82 Figure 4.11 Tree diagrams of noun phrase (2)………………………………….. 82 Tree diagrams of noun phrase (3)………………………………….. 82 Figure 4.12 Tree diagrams of noun phrase (4)………………………………….. 83 Tree diagrams of noun phrase (5)………………………………….. 83 Tree diagrams of noun phrase (6)………………………………….. 83 Showing functional and formal constituents of noun phrase in English…………………………………………….. 88 Tree diagram of verb phrase with lexical verb and auxiliary verb (1)……………………………………………………88 Tree diagram of verb phrase with lexical verb and auxiliary verb (2)……………………………………………………88

(27) LIST OF FIGURES (cont.) Figure 4.13 Pages Figure 4.14 Tree diagram of verb phrase with lexical verb and Figure 4.15 auxiliary verb (3)……………………………………………………90 Figure 4.16 The relationships between form and function in the verb phrase…...93 Figure 4.17 Tree diagram of adjective phrase (1)………………………………. 93 Figure 4.18 Tree diagram of adjective phrase (2)………………………………. 94 Tree diagram of adjective phrase (1)………………………………. 94 Figure 4.19 Figure 4.20 Examples of adjective phrases according to their function and form…………………………………………….. 95 Figure 4.21 Tree diagram of adverb phrase…………………………………….. 96 Figure 4.22 Figure 4.23 Examples of adverb phrases according to their function and form…………………………………………….. 97 Figure 6.1 Tree diagram of prepositional phrase (1)………………………….. 97 Tree diagram of prepositional phrase (2)………………………...…98 Figure 6.2 Examples of prepositional phrases according to their function and form…………………………………………….. 99 The syntactic constituent of the sentence shown by box diagram……...................................................................................... 139 The syntactic constituent of the sentence shown by three diagram……...................................................................................... 139 Figure 6.3 The syntactic constituent of complex-NPs (45) and (46)………….. 140 Figure 6.4 The syntactic constituent of complex-NPs (47) and (48)………….. 141 Figure 6.5 the syntactic constituent of complex-NPs (49) and (50)……….….. 141 Figure 6.6 The syntactic constituent of single-word VPs (51), (52), and (53)…142 Figure 6.7 The syntactic constituent of APs (65), and (66) ……………………143 Figure 6.8 The syntactic constituent of APs (67), and (68) ……………………143 Figure 6.9 The syntactic constituent of APs (69)……………….……………...143 Figure 6.10 The syntactic constituent of AdvPs (70), (71), and (72)………...….144 Figure 6.11 The syntactic constituent of PPs (73) and (74)……….………….… 144

(28) LIST OF FIGURES (cont.) Pages Figure 6.12 The syntactic constituent of PPs (75)………………….……………144 Figure 6.13 The syntactic constituents of the subjects and the predicates in a sentence…………………………………………145

(99) Subject: Course Lesson Plan Subject code: Credits/Hours English Syntax 1 1552105 3 (3-0-6) 3hours/week Course description This is a morphological analysis based on word formation, classification of words word ordering, syntactic analysis, simple sentence structure, based on English. General objectives At the end of this course, students will be able to….. 1. know the basic knowledge of terminology used in a language analysis. 2. describe the basic principles of grammatical description used in morphological analysis. 3. identify the basic rules of word formation and the classification of word orders used in English words 4. identify the syntactic structures of words, phrases and simple sentences correctly and effectively. 5. improve their ability in terms of English communication skills: especially in reading and writing skills which are essential for effective working in their real life situations. 6. apply the basic knowledge learned in lessons in their future jobs.

(1100) Lesson Plan 16 Weeks 48 hours Hours/ Hours/ Week Contents Theory Self-Practice 1 Introduction to Course Description & Pre-test 36 2-3 Chapter 1: The morphology 6 12 What is morphology? What is a morpheme? Types of morphemes: 1. Characteristics of a morpheme 2. Types of morphemes Morphological description What is a morph? What is an allomorph? Types of allomorphs: 1. Phonological conditioned allomorphs 2. Morphological conditioned allomorphs 3. Lexically conditioned allomorphs What is a base? Types of bases: 1. Free base 2. Bound base What is an affix? Types of affixes: 1. Prefixes 2. Suffixes Summary Exercise

(1111) Hours/ Hours/ Week Contents Theory Self-Practice 4-5 Chapter 2: The word-formation 6 12 The word-formation Morphological processes of forming new words: 6 12 1. Affixation 2. Functional shift 3. Compounding 4. Reduplication 5. Clipping 6. Blends 7. Acronyms Summary Exercise 6-7 Chapter 3: The word What is a word? The classification of words: 1. Simple words 2. Complex words 3. Compound words 4. Compound-complex words Word classes: 1. Content words 2. Function words The morphosyntactic categories and properties of words: 1. Nouns 2. Adjectives 3. Adverbs

((111222)) Hours/ Hours/ Week Contents Theory Self-Practice 4. Verbs 36 Constituent structure of words 6 12 Immediate constituents of words Summary Exercises 8 Chapter reviews & Midterm test 9-10 Chapter 4: The phrase What is a phrase? The structure of phrases: 1. Simple phrase 2. Ways to identify phrases 3. Heads and modifiers of phrases 4. Phrases within phrases Function of phrases: 1. Phrase as noun 2. Phrase as verb 3. Phrase as adverb 4. Phrase as adjective Types of phrases: 1. Noun phrase 2. Verb phrase 3. Adjective phrase 4. Adverb phrase 5. Prepositional phrase Summary Exercise

(13 ) Hours/ Hours/ Week Contents Theory Self-Practice 11-12 Chapter 5: The clause 6 12 What is a clause? Clause vs. phrases 6 12 Classification of clause 1. Structure of clauses 36 2. Function of clauses 48 90 Summary Exercise 13-14 Chapter 6: The sentence What is a sentence? The classification of the sentence: 1. The simple sentence 2. The compound sentence 3. The complex sentence 4. The compound-complex sentence The sentence constituent and word order The basic sentence constituents: 1. Form 2. Function The syntactic analysis of the simple sentence structures Analyzing the simple sentence structures Summary Exercise 15 Chapter reviews 16 Final examination

(114) Activities and methods of teaching 1. Study from the teaching handbook on “English Syntax 1”. 2. Study from PowerPoint presentation or printed materials from internet related to the lessons. 3. Single or pair or group work and presentations. 4. Demonstration and in-class presentations. 5. Group discussion 6. Teacher’s explanation and conclusion 7. Sharing ideas and collaborative discussion 8. Asking and answering the questions 9. Exercises both in class and as homework. Instructional materials 1. Teaching handbooks & Textbooks 2. Worksheets 3. PowerPoint 4. Word cards 5. Internet 6. Handouts 7. Teaching charts Assessment and evaluation 1. During Semester 60% 1.1 Class attendance & participation 10% 1.2 Mini-test 15% 1.3 Midterm 20% 1.4 Assignments & Exercises 15% 40% 2. Final Examination

(1155) Grading Criterion Mean Percentile GPA Grade Excellent 80-100 4.0 A Very Good 75-79 3.5 B+ 70-74 3.0 B Good 65-69 2.5 C+ Fairly Good 60-64 2.0 C 55-59 1.5 D+ Fair 50-54 1.0 D Poor 0-49 0.0 E Very Poor Fail

Lesson plan: Chapter 1 The morphology Content topics In this chapter the main topics of contents are as follows: 1. What is morphology? 2. What is a morpheme? 3. Morphological description 4. What is a morph? 5. What is an allomorph? 6. Types of allomorphs 7. What is a base? 8. Types of bases 9. What is an affix? 10. Types of affixes 11. Summary 12. Exercise 13. References Behavioral objectives After the end of this chapter students are able to: 1. explain the meaning of the morphology: morphemes, morphs, allomorphs. 2. explain the characteristics of morpheme and the rules of combination— word formation rules 3. identify morphemes in terms of morphological description: lexical, functional, inflectional and derivational. 4. identify different forms of morpheme in terms of phonological, morphological and lexical conditioned distributions. 5. distinguish between bases and affixes.

2 Activities and methods of teaching In this chapter activities and methods are as follows: 1. Lecture 2. Demonstration and in-class presentation 3. Group discussion 4. Work in individual or pairs or groups to practice analyzing English words 5. Asking and answering the questions 6. Exercises both in class and as homework Instructional materials In this chapter activities and methods are as follows: 1. Teaching Handbook on English Syntax 1 2. Power Point 3. Worksheet 4. Course syllabus 5. Exercises Assessment and evaluation In this chapter assessment and evaluation are as follows: 1. Class observation 2. Checking exercises and homework 3. Asking and answering the questions 4. Group discussions

CHAPTER 1 THE MORPHOLOGY In linguistics, morphology is derived from Greek word, consisting of ‘morph’—meaning ‘shape’ or ‘form’, and ‘ology’—meaning ‘the study of something’. The term ‘morphology’ is a subfield of linguistics used for the study of the form of words. The first step towards learning the morphological process is to focus on morphology in linguistics as the scientific study of the internal structure of words. Before learning words, phrases, and sentences respectively in the next chapters, students will get some basic knowledge of morphology—morphemes and allomorphs, which are now described in this chapter. What is morphology? In terms of morphology we will learn about some definitions that were widely defined by many linguists all over the world. Some definitions of morphology are as follows. “Morphology (Varshney, 2000-2001) is the science and study of the smallest grammatical units of language, and of their formation into words, including inflection, derivation and composition.” “Morphology (Matthews, 1997) is the study of the grammatical structure of words and the categories realized by them.” “Morphology or morphemic is the study of words—it shows word structure in terms of classes of morphemes.” (Verma and Khrishnaswamy, 2000) “Morphology is the branch of grammar which studies the structure or forms of words, primarily through the use of the morpheme construct.” (Crystal, 1995) “Morphology, in linguistics, is the study of the forms of words, and the ways in which words are related to other words of the same language.” (Anderson, 1992) As all definitions mentioned above, we can assumed that “morphology is the study of the smallest grammatical structure of words—it shows the internal word- structure realized by morphemes, including word formation rules: bases, prefixes, and suffixes.”

4 Words can be related to other words, e.g. “help”– “helpful”. The rules relating such set of words are called ‘word formation rules’. Words as in “helpful” consisting of more than one component (morpheme) are called morphological process. In the case of ‘helpful’ there are two morphemes which contain: {help} and {ful}. Thus, the study of morphology consists of 1) basic components: morphemes and 2) rules of combination: word formation rules. We can also deduce from some observations about words and their structure (Packer, 2001) as follows: 1. Some parts into which words that can be divided still contain meaning; 2. Many words contain meaning by themselves, but some contain meaning only when used with other words; 3. Some parts into which words can be divided can stand alone as words, but others cannot; 4. These parts of words that can occur only in combination must be combined in the grammatical way; and 5. Languages create new words in systematical process. What is a morpheme? Some definitions of morpheme defined by various linguists are as follows. “Morpheme is the minimal distinctive unit of grammar, and the central concern of morphology.” (Crystal, 1995) “Morpheme (Matthews, 1997) is a unit of grammar smaller than the word.” “A morpheme is the smallest unit of form that has meaning in a given language.” (Verma and Khrishnaswamy, 2000) “A morpheme (Packer, 2001) can be defined as a minimal unit having more or less constant meaning and more of less constant form.” Some definitions of a morpheme, as mentioned above, can be summarized that “a morpheme is a minimal meaningful unit of grammatical forms in a given language”. Let’s clarify the definitions of a morpheme with some examples. We can say that the word ‘reopened’ consists of three successive morphemes: the form {open}— meaning ‘to make it possible for people, cars, goods, etc. to pass through a place’; the

5 form{re}—meaning ‘again’, and the grammatical form {ed}—meaning ‘indicating past tense’. 1. Characteristics of a morpheme As all meanings stated above we can say that a morpheme has the characteristics as follows. 1.1 It can be divided into the smallest part that still has the same meaning, e.g. the word like ‘rewrite’ can be divided into two parts: re—meaning again, back and write—meaning to produce something in written form. 1.2 It can add meaning to a word—to create a new word, e.g. the word like ‘cat’—meaning a kind of small pet with soft fur, and the word like ‘bird’—meaning a kind of creature with two wings that can fly are combined together to create a new meaningful word: ‘catbird’—'a species of songbird that sounds somewhat like a cat', called a compound word. 1.3 It can occur in many different words without changing its meaning, that is recyclable because the same morpheme can occur over and over in many different words, e.g. the Latin morpheme like ‘duce’—meaning ‘lead, draw, pull’ can appear in its different forms as follows: Words Meaning Thai meaning reduce to pull back (ลด, ลดลง) deduce to draw away from (สรปุ จาก, อนมุ านจาก) seduce to lead apart (ลอ่ ใจ, ลอ่ ลวง, ย่วั ยวน) produce to pull forwards (ผลติ , สร้าง, กอ่ ให้เกดิ ) induce to lead into (ชวน, เชญิ ชวน) 1.4 It may have any number of syllables, which may be ‘monosyllabic’(that has one syllable) or ‘polysyllabic’(that has more than one syllable). We will designate them in braces—{ }, e.g. the monosyllabic words like {man}, {good}, {the}, {in}, and the polysyllabic words like {happy}, {many}, {elephant}. (University of Oregon, 1998)

6 2. Types of morphemes Morphemes in English can be classified into two types as follows:- 2.1 Free morpheme A morpheme is a meaningful unit which can occur alone as an independent word is called a free morpheme (also called a free form), e.g. cat, man, the, go, good, like, angry, house, you, we, they. These free forms can occur on their own as words; they do not have to be attached to another morpheme. A free morpheme can be divided into types as follows: 2.1.1 Lexical morpheme: Free word-forms which have meaning by themselves—boy, man, house, tiger—are called ‘lexical morphemes’, mainly composed of nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs. 2.1.2 Functional morpheme: Free word-forms which function to specify the grammatical relationship between one lexical morpheme and another— and, at, the, on, she, when—are called ‘functional morphemes’, (also called grammatical morphemes) consisting largely of conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns. 2.2 Bound morpheme Likewise, a morpheme is a meaningful unit which cannot occur alone as a dependent word is called a bound morpheme, e.g. the s of hats cannot occur alone. It represents the plural, a bound morpheme in English, and the suffix— ing cannot also occur alone, but it must be attached to a verb stem: looking, walking, standing, living, etc. These bound forms cannot occur on their own as words. Each must be affixed to some other morphemes, which can only occur as a part of a word. These bound forms are commonly prefixes and suffixes. A bound morpheme can be further divided into two types as follows: 2.2.1 Inflectional morpheme: Inflectional morphemes are the bound morphemes that do not create new separate words and never change the parts of speech or the basic meaning of a word. They simply modify the words in which they occur in order to express grammatical features, such as the plurality {-s} like bat and bats and the past tenses{ed} like walk and walked, which are both two different forms of the same words; The option between them (singular vs. plural or present vs.

7 past) is the grammatical function In English there are eight types of inflectional morphemes, we will described below. Nouns: {-s} (1) plural (the girls) (2) possessive (the girl’s ring) Noun phrases: {-‘s} Adjectives: {-er} (3) comparative (taller) (4) superlative (tallest) Verbs: {-s} (5) 3rd person singular (proves) present tense {-ed} (6) past tense (proved) {-ing} (7) present participle ( is proving) {-en} (8) past participle (has proven) (was proven) 2.2.2 Derivational morpheme: Derivational morphemes are the bound morphemes that make new separate words from the old ones and change the parts of speech or the basic meaning of a word, e.g. the prefix {dis-}—meaning ‘not’— is added to the verb like to make the opposite meaning—dislike (not like) and the suffix {-ness}—meaning ‘the quality of’— is added to the adjective good to make the noun—goodness (the quality of being good). Morphological description In the description of language, any description needs some basic terms in morphology to set out its description. With the terms of different types of morphemes, we can take the sentences in English apart and list the ‘elements’ (morphemes). As a useful way to remember the different types of morphemes, the following can be described below. 1. A free word-form which has meaning by itself can be described by the term of lexical morpheme. (L) 2. A free word-form which has the grammatical function in the sentence can be described by the term of functional morpheme. (F) 3. A bound word-form which expresses the grammatical features without changing the part of speech or the basic meaning can be described by the term of inflectional morpheme. (I)

8 4. A bound word-form which expresses the grammatical features and changes the part of speech or the basic meaning of words can be described by the term of derivational morpheme. (D) For example: The sentence in English: “The girl’s wildness shocked the teachers.” contains 11 elements: {The} + {girl} + {-’s} + {wild} + {-ness} + {shock} + {-ed} + {the} (F) (L) (I)) (L) (D) (L) (I) (F) + (teach}+ {-er} + {-s} (L) (D) (I) Morphemes Free morphemes Bound morphemes (L)exical (F)unctional (I)nflectional (D)erivational Figure 1.1 The classification of morphological description What is a morph? “A morpheme (Crystal, 1995) is abstract unit, which is realized in speech by discrete unit, known as a morph.” “The smallest sequence of phonological units into which words are divided in an analysis of morphemes is called a morph.” (Matthews, 1997) “Morph (Wiegecko, 2012) is the phonetic realization of a morpheme which study the unit of form, sounds, and phonetic symbol.” From all the meanings above, we can say that “morph is any phonemic shape of a morpheme which can be divided into the smallest parts”, e.g. the word ‘taller’ can be divided into two morphs represented by the phonemic shape: [l] {tall}, realizing the base morpheme and [] {-er}, realizing the comparative inflectional morpheme. They also have two morphemes. Each morph can represent a particular morpheme. However, each morpheme cannot have a morph. For example, the plurality of the noun: deer has one morph in the phonemic shape: [] {deer}, but it has two morphemes: {deer} and {} (zero plural morpheme).

9 What is an allomorph? Some definitions of an allomorph are as follows: “The alternative phonological manifestation or representation of such a morpheme is called an allomorph or a morpheme alternant or a morpheme variant.” (Varshney, 2000-2001) “The member or variant of a morpheme is called an allomorph or a morpheme alternant.” (Verma & Krishnaswamy, 2000) “The different phonemic shape of a morpheme (Wardaugh, (1977) is called an allomorph.” “An allomorph is one of two or more complementary morphs which manifest a morpheme in its different phonological or morphological environments”. (SIL International, 2004) As some definitions given above, we can say that “the allomorph is the different forms of a morpheme which occur in alternative phonemic or morphemic representations.” Different allomorphs of a morpheme occur in complementary distribution, that is, when one segment occurs in an environment where the other segment never occurs. Each segment occurring in different environments may have both different written forms and sounds. “A morpheme may have one or more allomorphs and it can be described in terms of phonemes”. (Verma & Krishnaswamy, 2000) In English, for example, the plural morpheme usually written as {-s} has at least three allomorphs represented by three alternative phonemic representations: //, //, and //, as in cats //; dogs //; and boxes //. They are all allomorphs of the same plural morpheme{s}, signifying the same grammatical function.

10 Types of allomorphs “Allomorph (Wiegecko, 2012), is variant form of morpheme about the sounds and phonetic symbols but it doesn’t change the meaning. There are three types of allomorph: phonologically conditioned allomorphs; morphologically conditioned allomorphs; and lexically conditioned allomorphs,” as follows: 1. Phonologically conditioned allomorphs “When the distribution of the various allomorphs (Wardhaugh, 1977: 78) can be stated in terms of their phonemic environments, the allomorphs are said to be phonologically conditioned,” which can be described as follows: “To signify some difference in meaning, something is added to a word.” Banjar (2012) Most of the allomorphs we distribute are called additive allomorphs—forming words by adding prefixes and suffixes to bases, which are as follows: 1.1 Plural morpheme, usually written as ‘-s’ or ‘-es’, has at least three different phonemic forms in different environments, varying in sound without changing meaning, e.g. // in hats//; // in birds//; and // in classes/l/—indicating the different forms of the same plural morpheme {-s}, as shown below: Morpheme: classes: {class} + {-es} classes {class} {plural: -s } Thus, ‘classes’ has two morphemes: {box} and {plural:-s}. Allomorph: // in hats; // in birds; // in classes // in hats Plural morpheme {-s} // in birds // in classes Thus, // in hats, // in birds, and // in classes are all allomorphs of the same plural morpheme{s}.

11 1.2 Possessive morpheme indicating the possession {-’s} has at least three different forms of possessive morpheme like the plural morpheme, depending upon the final sound of the words, e.g. // in Jack’s //; //in Susan’s //; and / in James’s //, as shown below: Morpheme: Jack’s: {Jack} + {possessive-’s} Jack’s {Jack} {possessive: -’s} Thus, ‘Jack’s has two morphemes :{Jack} and {possessive: -’s} Allomorph: // in Jack’s; //in Susan’s; and / in James’s. //in Jack’s; Possessive morpheme: {-’s} //in Susan’s /in James’s Thus, // in ‘Jack’s’, // in ‘Susan’s’, and // in ‘James’s’ are allomorphs of possessive morpheme {-’s}. Here, the plural morpheme {-s} and the possessive morphemes can be explained in different environments as follows: The plural morpheme {s} and the possessive morpheme {-’s} are pronounced // after the singular forms of nouns ending in voiceless consonants:/,, , ,/, except the sibilants and affricates; // after the singular forms of nouns ending in voiced consonants: /, , , , l, , , ,  /or vowels, except the sibilants and affricates; and // after the singular forms of nouns ending in the sibilants and affricates: /, , , , /. 1.3 Third-person singular present tense morpheme—like plural morpheme—written as ‘-s’ or ‘-es’ occurs with a third-person subject morpheme. In the present simple tense, when using a third-person subject, we must add after each verb. These –s and –es morphemes also have three allomorphs, e.g. // in likes /l/; // in goes //; and // in rises //, as shown below: Morpheme: likes: {like} + {present:-s} likes (v) {like} {present: -s} Thus, ‘likes’ has two morphemes: {like} and {present: -s}.

12 Allomorph: /s/ in likes Third-person singular present tense morpheme {-s} /z/ in goes /iz/ in rises Thus, // as in likes, // as in goes, and // in rises are allomorphs of the third- person singular present tense morpheme {-s}. Here, the rule governing their distribution is as follows—// occurs after the verb presents with a third-person subject morpheme ending in voiceless consonants:/,, , /, except the sibilants and affricates; // occurs after the verb presents with a third-person subject morpheme ending in voiced consonants: /, , , , , , , ,  / or vowels, except the sibilants and affricates; and // occurs after the verb presents with a third-person subject morpheme ending in the sibilants and affricates: /, , , , /. 1.4 Past tense morpheme mostly formed by adding {-ed} has at least three different forms of phonologically conditioned distributions, e.g. // in talked //; // in lived /l/, and // in wanted //, as shown below: Morpheme: talked: {talk} + {-ed} talked {talk} {past:-ed} Thus, ‘talked’ has two morphemes: {talk} and {past:-ed} Allomorph: // in talked; // in lived; and // in wanted // in talked Past tense morpheme {-ed} // in lived // in wanted Thus, // in liked, // in lived, and [] in wanted are allomorphs of past tense morpheme {-ed}. Here, the rule governing their distribution is as follows—// occurs after voiceless phonemes:/, , / except /t/; // occurs after voiced phonemes:/, , , , l, , , ,  / or vowels except /d/; and // occurs after alveolar stops /t/ and /d/.

13 2. Morphologically conditioned allomorphs In pairs such as foot-feet and deer-deer, in which the second item can be said to contain the ‘plural morpheme’, we cannot distribute the variation between the two forms in terms of phonemic environments. Instead we must refer to the morphemes: foot and deer or alternatively to their phonemic shapes: // and //, and specify the allomorph of the plural morpheme separately for each. This type of variation among allomorphs is called morphological conditioning, (Wardhaugh, 1977) which can be described as follows: 2.1 Replacive allomorphs To distribute some difference in meaning, a sound is used to replace another sound in a word. The singular vowel [] in goose (Varshney, 2000-2001) replaced by the plural vowel [] in geese should be a special type of morpheme element called a replacive. Again,Verma and Krishnaswamy (2000) stated that “in cases the plural meaning is manifested through the phonological modification such as a change in the vowel of the noun as in ‘man’, ‘men’, the allomorph shows a process; it is called a process allomorph.” Thus, some nouns changing from singular vowel- forms to plural vowel-forms require the change of vowel: /.. / > /../, such as: singular form plural form // in tooth > // in teeth // in foot > // in feet // in man > // in men // in mouse > // in mice Besides, some nouns may have more than one change when the plural morpheme is added—[f] replaced by [v]—then added by the plural morpheme{s}, such as: singular form plural form life > lives wife > wives knife > knives wolf > wolves

14 Likewise, some irregular verb-forms also require the change of vowel to indicate the simple past, such as: /Ι/ in drink > /æ/ in drank // in run > // in ran // in take > // in took 2.2 Suppletive allomorphs Banjar (2012) stated that “to signify some difference in meaning, there is a complete change in the shape of a word”; it is thus called a suppletive allomorph or a suppletive variant, which is the replacement of a totally different form—indicating the same grammatical functions, such as: In English the different forms—‘is’, ‘am’, ‘are’, ‘was’, ‘were’ are the suppletive allomorphs of the form ‘be’. Likewise, the forms—‘went’ is the suppletive allomorph of ‘go’, indicating the past tense. 2.3 Zero allomorphs “In cases where there is no marker for the plural (as in ‘sheep’, ‘deer’, etc.) the allomorph of the plural morpheme is shown as {Ø}—meaning ‘zero’; it is called a zero allomorph (Verma and Khrishnaswamy, 2000).” A zero allomorph (also called a null allomorph) is the form which has no change in the form of a word when the plural morpheme and the past tense morpheme are added. In English, the plural form of fish is formed by adding the zero allomorph /Ø/, e.g. two fish-Ø, which cannot be two fish-es. Some of other examples of a zero allomorph of a plural morpheme are as follows: (two) deer-Ø (two) sheep-Ø (two) cod-Ø (two) swine-Ø (two) salmon-Ø (two) trout-Ø Likewise, the past tense form of shut is added by the zero allomorph /Ø/, e.g. shut-Ø—meaning the past tense. There is no change in the form of the verb; but the meaning added indicates ‘past tense’. 1. I shut the window every night. (Present tense) 2. I shut the window before I went out last night. (Past tense) Thus, the verb form of shut in 1) has only one form, but in 2) has two forms: {shut} + {Ø past}—the past tense form of shut has one allomorph, called a zero allomorph /Ø/.

15 3. Lexically conditioned allomorphs The plural marker to produce a plural out of a singular form is usually the suffixation of ‘-s’. However, if the plural form of the noun ‘ox’, is ‘oxen’, so the plural marker is ‘-en’. This plural marker is lexically conditioned because ‘oxen’ is the only word in the English language with this special plural form (ELLO, n.d.). “The choice of allomorph (Wiegecko, 2012) is unpredictable, thus memorized on a word by word basis.” Such unpredictable form of plural morpheme—oxen: {ox} + {-en} is lexically said to be a special allomorph. Here are some examples of the special allomorphs of the plural morpheme. child - children ox - oxen memorandum - memoranda datum - data What is a base? A base is a term used in morphology. “The base which functions as the nucleus is also called the root; it may be bound or free.” (Verma and Khrisnaswamy, 2000: 64) A morpheme to which other morphemes may be attached is called ‘base’. Bases may have only one morpheme or more than one. The ‘base’ morpheme is the central part of the words which is left when all affixes have been removed. The word as in unfaithful—{faith} is the base, {un-} and {-ful} are affixes; {un-} is a prefix, whereas {-ful} is a suffix—is shown here: un-faith-ful prefix + base + suffix Types of bases Bases are classified into free base and bound base as follows: 1. Free base The base that can occur alone is called a free base. For example, each of the following underlined words is the free base: teacher = teach + er childish = child + ish

16 sadness = sad + ness typist = type + ist dislike = dis + like unhappily = un + happy + ly teacher = F + B {teach} {-er} F B {teach} is the free morpheme: base and {-er} is the bound morpheme: suffix 2. Bound base The base that cannot occur alone is a bound base. It is always attached to other morphemes. Some examples of the underlined parts of words are the bound base: audience = aud(i) + ence permit = per + mit inject = in + ject intervene = inter + vene export = ex + port prediction = pre + dict + ion interrupt = inter + rupt audience = B + B {audi} {-ence} B B “audi” means “to hear” “-ence” means “the quality or state of being” {audi} is the bound morpheme: base and {-ence} is the bound morpheme: suffix. Note that bound base cannot be used as an English word which can indicate the word classes or parts of speech in the sentence if it is not added by the suffixes or prefixes. For example, in the bound base ‘dict’, we cannot indicate the word classes. However, if it is added by the prefix ‘pre-’ as in the word ‘predict’, we can say that it

17 is a verb in English. Also if we add the suffix ‘-ence’ to the bound base ‘audi’ as in the word ‘audience’, we can say that it is a noun. What is an affix? Morphemes added to free or bound forms (bases) to make other free forms are called “affixes”. All affixes are bound morphemes because they cannot occur alone. The purposes of attachments are to add or change the meaning or function of the bases or to signal grammatical relationships. Type of affixes Affixes are classified into prefixes and suffixes which are described as follows: 1. Prefixes The bound morphemes which are added before the bases or stems and cannot occur independently are called prefixes. In the English words such as: remove = re + move unhappy = un + happy dislike = dis + like prescribe = pre + scribe irregal = ir + regal superman = super + man internet = inter + net “ re-, un-, dis-, pre-, ir-, super-, and inter,” are all prefixes. 2. Suffixes The bound morphemes which are added after the bases or roots and cannot occur independently are called suffixes. They may add up to the number of three or four within one base or root. In the English words such as: happiness = happy + ness beautiful = beauty + ful unbelievable = un + believe + able learner = learn + er freindship = friend + ship

18 The final position formatives above “-ness, -ful, -able, -er, -ship” are called suffixes. 2.1 Types of suffixes Suffixes are classified into inflectional suffixes and derivational suffixes, which are described as follows: 2.1.1 Inflectional suffixes: Morphemes which do not allow further suffixes are called inflectional suffixes. The inflectional suffixes are ‘terminal’, and their termination never changes the class(part of speech) of the base or root, for example, in taller and tallest, the termination of –er and –est does not change the part of speech; both the forms remain adjectives. An inflectional suffix occurs at the end position of a form; no further affixation in a form is possible after an inflection as shown here: manage+ s (base + inflectional suffix) manage + ment + s (base + derivational suffix + inflectional suffix) but not manage + s + ment (base + inflectional suffix + derivational suffix) So an inflectional suffix is essentially terminal, whereas a derivational suffix is not essentially terminal. Derivational suffixes can occur medially and/or finally, but inflectional suffixes occur only finally. 2.1.2 Derivational suffixes: Morphemes which do allow further suffixes are called derivational suffixes. They always change the part of speech of the word to which they are added. They are not essentially terminal, as shown below: develop (v) + ment = development (n) lazy (adj) + ness = laziness (n) beauty (n) + ful + (adj) + ly (adv) = beautifully (adv) 1) Types of derivational suffixes Derivational suffixes (Varshney, 2000-2001) can be sub- classified into two types as follows: 1.1) Class-maintaining derivational suffixes are those which produce a derived form of the same class as the underlying form; they do not change the class of a part of speech. In the English words such as

19 child (n) + hood = childhood (n) kin (n) + ship = kinship (n) friend (n) + ship = friendship (n) king (n) + dom = kingdom (n) “-hood, -ship and -dom” are class-maintaining derivational suffixes. 1.2) Class-changing derivational suffixes are those which produce a derived form of another class; they change the class of a part of speech. e.g., In the English words such as teach (v) + er = teacher (n) child (n) + ish = childish (adj) develop (v) + ment = development (n) nation (n) + al = national (adj) “-er, -ish, -ment, and -al” are class-changing derivational suffixes. Morphemes Free Base Bound Affixes Prefix Suffix Inflectional Derivational Class-maintaining Class-changing Figure1.2 The classification of Bases and Affixes Source: adapted from Varshney, (2000-2001)

20 We can further review the examples of morphemes in the following manner: Free Bound morphemes morpheme Suffix (base) Prefix Derivational suffix Inflectional suffix Words Class- Class- maintaining changing developments develop -ment -s disagreements agree dis- -ment -s friendships friend -ship -s international nation inter- -al replayed play re- -ed unfaithfulness faith un- -ful -ness Figure 1.3 Review of classifying the manner of morphemes Source: adapted from Varshney, (2000-2001) Summary In linguistics, ‘morphology’ is a subfield used for the study of the forms of words in a given language. Morphology is the study of the smallest grammatical unit of the internal structure of words—realized by morphemes, including word formation rules: bases, prefixes, and suffixes. Morphemes are the smallest grammatical unit that has meaning. It is mainly divided into two types: free morpheme and bound morpheme. The free morphemes are classified into lexical and functional morphemes. The bound morphemes are also divided into two types: inflectional and derivational morphemes. Allomorphs are the different forms of a morpheme which occur in alternative complementary distribution in terms of phonological conditioning; morphological conditioning; and lexical conditioning. In morphology, the base functioning as the nucleus or the central part of word is also called the root; it may be bound base or free base and the morphemes added to free or bound bases to make other free forms are called “affixes”. All affixes are bound morphemes because they cannot occur alone.

21 Exercise 1. What is morphology? 2. What is morpheme? And how many s of morphemes are there? 3. What is an allomorph? And how many types of allomorphs are there? 4. Give morphological description in the following sentences: 4.1 The girls talked to her teachers in the class. 4.2 She must go to see her boss suddenly. 5. What is the difference between free morphemes and bound morphemes? 6. What is a base? And how many types of base are there? 7. Identify the types of inflectional morphemes given in the underlined words of each sentence. 7.1 This box is smaller than that one. 7.2 She smiled at me this morning. 7.3 He is walking to his office now. 7.4 That is my brother’s son. 7.5 The elephant is the biggest animal in the world. 7.6 There are many students in the library. 8. Give three examples of the following morphemes from English words; states the allomorphs of each morphemes and its distribution. 8.1 Past tense 8.2 Plural 8.3 Possessive 9. Identify the affixes in the following words and say which ones are prefixes and which ones are suffixes. 9.1 unwanted 9.2 unfriendly 9.3 mismanagement 9.4 players 9.5 likelihood 10. Distinguish between inflectional suffix and derivational suffix. References

22 Anderson, SR. (1992). A-morphous morphology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ariyapitipun, S. (2003). Introduction to Linguistics. Chulalongkorn University Printing House. Banjar, S.Y. (2012). Lane333-Allomorphs. [online]. Retrieved January, 12, 2015, from http://wwwdrshadiabanjar.blogspot.com/2012/04/ lane-333-allomorphs.html. ELLO. (nd.). Morphology. [online]. Retrieved January, 12, 2015. From www.ello.uos.de/field.php/Morphology/Allomorph. Forrest, L .B. (2008). Web Lecture 1.2 Analyzing words. [online]. University of Oregon. Retrieved January 5, 2015, from http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~l150web. Kotcharat, S. (2005). English Syntax. The faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences. Buriram Rajabhat University. Linguistic 323. (2005). Morph, Allomorph, Morpheme. [online]. Retrieved January, 8, 2015, from www.sfu.ca/person/dearmond/323/.../323.morph.htm. _____. (n.d.) Morphology. [online]. Retrieved January 10, 2015, from www.mathcs.duq.edu/~packer/.../Ling-Morphology.pdf. Pike, Kenneth. (1947). Phonemics: A technique for reducing languages to writing. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan. SIL International. (2004). What is an allomorph? [online]. Retrieved January 6, 2015, from http://www-01.sil.org/linguistics/glossaryoflinguisticterms /WhatIsAnAllomorph.htm. University of Sheffield. (2013). Morphology. [online]. Retrieved December 12, 2014, from http://allaboutlinguistics.com. Verma & Krishnaswamy. (2000). Modern Linguistics. An introduction. Oxford University Press. Varshney. (2000-2001). An Introduction Text book of Linguistics and Phonetics. Suneet Printers. Bareilly. Watcharaporn Nimnual. (2007). English Structure. Triple Education Co., Ltd.

23 Wardhaugh R. (1977). Introduction to Linguistics. University of Toronto. McGraw-Hill, Inc. Wiegecko. (2012). Morph and Allomorph. [online]. Retrieved January 8, 2015, from https://wiegecko.wordpress.com/2012/03/24/morph-and-allomorph/

LESSON PLAN: CHAPTER 2 THE WORD-FORMATION Content topics In this chapter the main topics of contents are as follows: 1. The word-formation 2. Morphological processes of forming new words 2.1 Affixation 2.2 Functional shift 2.3 Compounding 2.4 Reduplication 2.5 Clipping 2.6 Blends 2.7 Acronyms 3. Summary 4. Exercise 5. References Behavioral objectives After the end of this chapter students are able to: 1. tell the meanings of word formation and the morphological processes 2. explain the morphological processes of forming new words, such as affixation, functional shift, compounding, clipping, and acronym 3. identify the words that are formed by the morphological processes. Activities and methods In this chapter activities and methods are as follows: 1. Lecture 2. Demonstration and in-class presentation 3. Group discussion

26 4. Work in individual or pairs or groups to practice analyzing English words 5. Asking and answering the questions 6. Exercises both in class and as homework Instructional materials In this chapter activities and methods are as follows: 1. Teaching Handbook on English Syntax 1 2. Power Point 3. Worksheet 4. Exercises Assessment and evaluation In this chapter assessment and evaluation are as follows: 1. Class observation 2. Checking exercises and homework 3. Asking and answering the questions 4. Group discussions

27 CHAPTER 2 THE WORD-FORMATION In chapter 1 we have already introduced the morphology—the study of words—it shows word-structure in terms of morphemes. This chapter will introduce the process of creating new words. Words can be related to other words, e.g. happy— unhappy—unhappier. Such sets of words are related to the rules of combination called word formation rules. The processes of forming new words in English mainly consist of affixation, function shift, compounding, clipping, blending and acronym. Here in the processes of having new words will be discussed below. The word-formation The word-formation is the process of creating new words. With reference to the term „word-formation‟ Crystal (1995) stated that it is the whole process of morphological variation in the constitution of words. New words are generally made up when words such as bases (or roots) and affixes are combined together to form new words. Morphological processes of forming new words In English the general morphological processes of forming new words are mainly as follows. 1. Affixation The morphological process by which grammatical or lexical information (Crystal, 1995) is added to a base is called affixation. In English affixation is the morphological process for modifying a base (or a root) by adding derivational affixes that are classified into prefixes and suffixes, with or without changing word classes (parts of speech) to create new words, as in: hope (n) hopeful (adj) understand (v) misunderstand (v) help (n) unhelpful (adj).

28 In English, derivational affixes are the forms of affixation producing new words, which are shown below: 1.1 Affixes In forming a new word, the bound morphemes (Preecha Kanetnog, 2002) are called „affixes‟. Affixes are grammatical morphemes which are attached to base words. The words to which the affixes are added are called „base words‟ (free morphemes). Example: learn (v) learner (n) (learn +er) base word affix like (v) dislike (v) (dis + like) affix base word In English the affixes can be classified into prefixes and suffixes, which are shown below. 1.1.1 Prefixes that are added at the beginning of the base are called prefixes. In English we can coin new words by adding prefixes to other words or bases. Prefixes can be written with the hyphen, e.g. pre- dis-, re-, un-, inter: Example: preview (n/v) (pre- + view) view (n/v) discredit (v) (dis- + credit) credit (v) replay (v) (re- + play) play (v) unclear (adj) (un- + clear) clear (adj) interchange (n/v) (inter- + change) change (n/v) Many other prefixes are used in English. Here is a list of prefixes which are useful in helping you to understand unfamiliar words.

29 Prefix Meaning Example anti- auto- against anti-war, antisocial, antibody, bi- co-, cor-, col-, antibiotic, antislavery con-, com- contra-, contro- of or by oneself autograph, auto-pilot, autobiography, de- automate dis- ex- two, twice bicycle, bi-monthly, bilingual, biannual, ex- fore- with; together co-worker, cooperation, correlation, im-, in-, il-, ir- correspond, colleague, confront, in-, im-, inter- context, combine, compile hetero- against, opposite contradict, contravene, controversy opposite of, taking sth decompress, deconstruct, defrost, away, down decentralize decrease, debility, degrade not, opposite of dislike, disorder, discredit, discontinue, disrespect, dissuade former ex-wife, ex-student, ex-president, ex-governor, ex-boyfriend out (of), from extract, exhale, export, exclude, excrete, excommunicate before, in advance foretell, forehead, forenoon, forename, forecast not impossible, immortal, incomplete, inadequate, illegal, illegible, irrelevant, irregular in, into, within, toward, import, inhale, increase inscribe up between, from one to international, interchange, interrupt, another intervene, intermarry, interlink, interstate, different, opposite heterogeneous, heterosexual,

30 Prefix Meaning Example homo- kilo- the same homosexual, homogeneous, maxi- macro- homograph, homonym, homophone, micro- mid- thousand kilogram, kilometre, kilowatt, mis- mono- kilohertz, kilobyte multi- very large maximum, maximize over- large, long, extending macrobiotic, macroeconomics, pre- post- macrocosm non- pro- small micro-computer, microwave, microscope, microchip in the middle of midday, midnight, midway, midweek, midterm badly, wrongly misunderstand, mistranslate, misinform, mislead one; single monosyllable, monologue, monorail, monogamy many multi-media, multi-purpose, multi-national, multi-lingual, multi-party, multi-cultural too much, above, extra, overdo, oversleep, overeat, overtired, completely overpay, overjoyed, overtime, overcoat, overcast, overhang before predict, preview, prescribe, prepay, pre-war, after postscript, post-war, post-date, postgraduate not nonsense, non-stop, non-resident, non- smoker in favour of, pro-American, pro-manager, pronoun, supporting, pro-democracy, pro-government

31 Prefix Meaning Example re- semi- again or back rewrite, rebuild, replace, return, repay, self- sub- refund super- tele- half semivowel, semicircle, semi final, semi- trans- detached tri- ultra- of, to or by oneself self-confident, self-control, self- un- important, uni- up- under; less than subsonic, subway, subtitles, subdivide, subdue extremely; more than superman, supersonic, supernatural, superstar far; over a long distance telecommunications, television, telephone, telephoto lens, telegram, telescope, telepathy across; through transatlantic, transplant, translate, transport three triangle, tricolour, trilogy, trinity, tripod extremely; beyond a ultraviolet, ultraman, ultra-modern, certain limit ultramarine, ultrasonic, ultrasound not; opposite of uncomfortable, undo, unbelievable, unlimited one; single uniform, unicycle, unilateral, unicameral, (union, unify, unity) higher; better uphill, upstairs, update, upgrade, upmarket

32 1.1.2 Suffixes The affixes that are added at the end of other words or bases are called suffixes. In English, suffixes are divided into two types—inflectional suffixes and derivational suffixes. Forming a new word by adding derivational suffixed is mainly discussed. When added to the end of a word, derivational suffixes can change the function of word and its meaning, Suffixes can be written with the hyphen, e.g. - ness, -ful, -ly, -en, -er, which are shown here: happy (adj) happiness (n) (happy + -ness) beauty (n) beautiful (adj) (beauty + -ful) quick (adj) quickly (adv) (quick + -ly) sharp (-en) sharpen (v) (sharp + -en) teach (v) teacher (n) (teach + -er) Many other derivational suffixes are used to create new words. Here is a list of derivational suffixes which are useful in helping you to understand unfamiliar words. In the formation of new words, they are classified into four main types as follows: 1) Nominalization A process of forming a noun by adding some derivational suffixes to some word classes is called a „nominalization‟. It can be classified into three main groups as follows: 1.1) Suffixes added to a verb to form a noun —they are the derivational suffixes added to a verb to form a noun, which are shown below. Suffixes Meanings Verbs Nouns -al condition or the act of survive survival arrive arrival propose proposal withdraw withdrawal try trial refuse refusal

33 Suffixes Meanings Verbs Nouns -ance, -ence performance an action, process or state perform appearance -ant, -ent assistance -ation appear existence difference -ee assist dependence -eer correspondence -er, -or exist attendant differ assistant servant depend student correspondent correspond examination imagination a person who does something attend organization occupation assist reservation expectation serve employee trainee study devotee refugee correspond referee engineer a state or an action examine mountaineer racketeer imagine rider painter organize driver actor occupy reserve expect a person to whom something employ is done train devote refuge refer a person or thing that has to engine do with mountain racket a person who does something ride paint drive act

34 Suffixes Meanings Verbs Nouns -ery, -ry, -y an action or process or its discover discovery result deliver delivery -action condition or the act of rob robbery -cation condition or the act of expire expiry -tion a state or an action satisfy satisfaction -ment a state, an action or quality classify classification simplify simplification -sion a state , an action or process apply application repeat repetition -ion a state or process compose composition compete competition -ure an action or process of manage management entertain entertainment agree agreement develop development divide division decide decision permit permission conclude conclusion include inclusion attend attention protect protection produce production collect collection act action fail failure seize seizure close closure enclose enclosure press pressure