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Timelines of Everything

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TIMELINES OF EVERYTHING



smithsonian TIMELINES OF EVERYTHING

Senior Art Editor Smiljka Surla Traveling through time Senior Editor Sam Atkinson The earliest events in this book took place a very long Project Editors Steven Carton, Ben Ffrancon Davies, Sarah Edwards, Sarah MacLeod, time ago. Some dates may be followed by bya, short for Ben Morgan, Sophie Parkes, Laura Sandford, Pauline Savage, Amanda Wyatt “billion years ago,” mya, short for “million years ago,” or US Editors Kayla Dugger, Christy Lusiak ya, short for “years ago.” Other dates have bce and ce Project Designers Sunita Gahir, Alex Lloyd, Gregory McCarthy, after them. These are short for “before the Common Stefan Podhorodecki, Michelle Staples, Jacqui Swan, Sadie Thomas Era” and “Common Era.” The Common Era dates from when people think Jesus was born. Where the exact Illustrators Acute Graphics, Peter Bull, Edwood Burn, Sunita Gahir, Clare Joyce, date of an event is not known, “c.” is used. This is short KJA Artists, Arran Lewis, Alex Lloyd, Maltings Partnership, Gus Scott for the Latin word circa, meaning “around,” and DK Media Archive Romaine Werblow indicates that the date is approximate. Picture Researchers Sarah Hopper, Jo Walton Managing Editor Lisa Gillespie Managing Art Editor Owen Peyton Jones Producers, Pre-Production David Almond, Andy Hilliard Senior Producers Alex Bell, Mary Slater Jacket Designers Surabhi Wadhwa-Gandhi, Juhi Sheth, Smiljka Surla Jackets Design Development Manager Sophia MTT Jackets Editor Amelia Collins Publisher Andrew Macintyre Art Director Karen Self Associate Publishing Director Liz Wheeler Design Director Phil Ormerod Publishing Director Jonathan Metcalf Consultant Philip Parker Contributors Laura Buller, Peter Chrisp, Alexander Cox, Susan Kennedy, Andrea Mills, Sally Regan DK Delhi DTP Designers Jaypal Singh Chauhan, Syed Mohammed Farhan Senior DTP Designers Neeraj Bhatia, Jagtar Singh Jackets Designer Juhi Sheth Jacket Senior DTP Designer Harish Aggarwal Jacket DTP Designer Rakesh Kumar Jackets Editorial Coordinator Priyanka Sharma Managing Jackets Editor Saloni Singh First American Edition, 2018 Published in the United States by DK Publishing 345 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014 Copyright © 2018 Dorling Kindersley Limited DK, a Division of Penguin Random House LLC 18 19 20 21 22 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 001–306015–Oct/2018 All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under the copyright reserved above, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise), without the prior written permission of the copyright owner. Published in Great Britain by Dorling Kindersley Limited. A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN: 978-1-4654-7493-3 DK books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk for sales promotions, premiums, fund-raising, or educational use. For details, contact: DK Publishing Special Markets, 345 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014 [email protected] Printed and bound in the United Arab Emirates A WORLD OF IDEAS: SEE ALL THERE IS TO KNOW www.dk.com THE SMITHSONIAN Established in 1846, the Smithsonian—the world’s largest museum and research complex—includes 19 museums and galleries and the National Zoological Park. The total number of artifacts, works of art, and specimens in the Smithsonian’s collection is estimated at 154 million. The Smithsonian is a renowned research center, dedicated to public education, national service, and scholarship in the arts, sciences, and history.

T DHE ANCIENT WORL 12 The story of the Universe 3000 bce– 14 Life on Earth 16 The age of dinosaurs 500 ce 18 End of the dinosaurs 20 Human ancestors 36 Mesopotamia 22 Agriculture 38 Fun and games 24 Working with metals 40 Ancient Egypt 26 Towns and cities 42 Ancient monuments 28 The story of the wheel 44 The Great Sphinx 30 The written word 46 Sharing stories 48 Jewelry BEFORE 50 The story of sports 3000 bce 52 Ancient Greece 54 Mathematics PREHISTORY 56 The story of democracy 58 Rise of the Celts 60 The Persian Empire 62 The Battle of Issus 64 The story of philosophy 66 The story of sculpture 68 Early Imperial China 70 Measuring time 72 The Roman Empire 74 Roman technology 76 Religion 78 The destruction of Pompeii 80 Fun and festivals 82 Ancient Indian empires 84 The transformation of the Roman Empire

LD THE AGE OF EXPLORA TION 90 China’s Golden Ages 1450–1750 92 Early Islamic empires 94 Empires of the Americas 132 Technology of writing 96 Germanic peoples 134 Ships 98 Medieval Europe 136 Renaissance 100 The Battle of Crécy 138 Exploring the world 102 The Vikings 140 A route to India 104 The Crusades 142 The story of painting 106 Kingdoms of Southeast Asia 144 The Reformation 108 Angkor Wat 146 Spanish America 110 Rise of the samurai 148 The fall of Tenochtitlán 112 Castles 150 The Ottoman Empire 114 Early North America 152 Astronomy 116 Settling the Pacific 154 Big battles 117 The colonization of the Pacific 156 The Battle of Lepanto 118 African kingdoms 158 Edo Japan 120 The Mongol Empire 160 Colonial America 122 Maps and mapmaking 162 The Scientific Revolution 124 Plagues and epidemics 164 Slavery in the US 126 Weapons and armor 166 The Mughal Empire 168 Ming and Qing China 500–1450 170 Chemistry 172 The story of dance E MEDIEVAL WOR 174 The Golden Age of Piracy TH

D 180 The Enlightenment ION T HE MODERN WORL THE 182 The Great Lisbon Earthquake 184 Natural disasters AFTER 1914 186 The story of music 188 Imperial Russia 248 World War I 190 Birth of the US 250 The 1920s 192 Crossing the Delaware River 251 The 1930s 194 The Industrial Revolution 252 Archaeology 196 Aboriginal Australia 254 The Soviet Union 197 The colonization of Australia 256 The story of skyscrapers 198 The Storming of the Bastille 258 World War II in Europe 200 The French Revolution 260 War at home 202 Medicine 262 The Holocaust 204 The Napoleonic Wars 264 The D-Day landings 206 South American independence 266 The Pacific War 208 Trains 268 Indian independence 210 Spreading the news 269 African independence 212 Engineering 270 The story of spying 214 The US frontier 272 Middle East conflicts 215 Frontier wars 274 Household appliances 216 The 1848 Revolutions 276 The Korean War 218 Biology 277 The Vietnam War 220 The British Empire 278 The 1960s 222 The American Civil War 280 Postcolonial Africa 224 Colonialism in Africa 282 The Cold War 226 Telecommunications 284 Race to the Moon 228 Photography 286 Apollo launches 230 Crime detection 288 The Cuban Missile Crisis 232 Aircraft and aviation 290 The Civil Rights Movement 234 Getting the vote 292 Fashion 236 Physics 294 Space exploration 238 Cars 296 Booming nations 240 Great adventures 298 Computing 242 The voyage of R.M.S. Titanic 300 Feminism 302 The internet 1750–1914 304 Youth culture 306 The story of robotics AGE OF REVOLUT 308 US presidents 310 British rulers 312 Glossary 314 Index

PREHISTORY Before 3000 BCE 8



Prehistory The period before written records were invented around 5,000 years ago is known as prehistory. Most of what we know about this time comes from remains left behind, such as tools, bones, and ruined buildings. Until recently, it was difficult to tell how old these objects were, but scientific advances have allowed us to put together a much clearer picture of not only human history, but also the origin of life on Earth, and even of the Universe itself. 13.5 billion years ago 4.3 billion years ago 252 million years ago 1 million years ago The first stars are born. Life begins on Earth. Dinosaurs become the The ancestors of humans dominant life form on Earth. begin to use fire. 13.8 billion years ago 4.6 billion years ago 66 million years ago 7–6 million years ago 200,000 years ago The Universe comes The Sun, planets, and other The dinosaurs die out in Apes in Africa evolve the Modern humans first into existence with objects that make up our a mass extinction event. ability to walk upright. the Big Bang. solar system are formed. appear in Africa. The Big Bang Early life Dinosaurs Early humans The Universe started with the The first forms of life on Earth Millions of years ago, dinosaurs The ancestors of humans, Big Bang (see pages 12–13). were simple organisms, but they walked, swam, or flew on Earth known as hominins, evolved from Over billions of years, stars, evolved over time into the many galaxies, and eventually our own varieties of plants and animals (see pages 16–17). Until they tree-dwelling apes (see pages solar system were formed. known today (see pages 14–15). became extinct, they were the 20–21). Over time, they began dominant animals on the planet. 10 to use tools and make fire.

The wheel One of the most important technological developments of the prehistoric era was the wheel (see pages 28–29). Invented independently by different cultures around the world, the wheel revolutionized transportation. It was also crucial to later advancements in farming, construction, industry, and engineering. c.9000 bce 9000–4000 bce c.4000 bce c.3500 bce Metalworking begins Early farmers establish The first great cities The first wheels used in Mesopotamia the first villages. arise in Mesopotamia. for transportation appear in West Asia. in Mesopotamia. c.11,000–9000 bce The development of c.8000 bce c.3300 bce farming allows people to Communities begin to The Egyptians develop produce their own food. construct walls around hieroglyphs, the first system of writing. their settlements. Settling down Working with metal The first cities Writing Early humans moved from place As humans discovered the Some villages continued to With the invention of writing (see to place in search of food. With technology of creating items grow, becoming towns and pages 30–31), people could the development of farming (see from copper, bronze, and iron eventually cities (see pages (see pages 24–25), they crafted 26–27). These population hubs leave records to be read by later pages 22–23), people built stronger tools and weapons. were bustling centers of trade. generations. The period known villages and worked the land. as prehistory came to an end. 11

The Big Bang Matter forms First atoms Stars and galaxies The Universe materializes Within a second, the incredible It takes 300,000 years for the Gravity pulls thicker areas out of nothing. It is smaller energy of the expanding Universe Universe to cool sufficiently for of gas into clumps that get than an atom but has all produces tiny particles of matter. protons and neutrons to form the tighter and tighter. This the energy and mass it Most of these collide, destroy first atoms: hydrogen and helium. heats their cores, will ever have. In the first each other, and vanish, but a triggering nuclear trillionth of a trillionth of tiny fraction remain. These These gases form a thin cloud a trillionth of a second, it leftovers build up to form that fills the Universe. Light can reactions, and so giving expands to the size of a larger particles called protons now travel freely, making space birth to stars. The football—a process and neutrons—the building transparent. This ancient light newborn stars cluster known as inflation. blocks of atoms. can still be captured by by the billion in vast astronomers today. whirlpools—galaxies. 13.8 billion 1 second later 13.7997 billion 13.5 billion years ago years ago years ago The story of the Universe The Universe began 13.8 billion years ago in an event called the Big Bang. The Big Bang was not an explosion of matter in space, but the sudden appearance and expansion of space itself. The expansion has continued ever since, creating a cosmos of unimaginable vastness. Although light travels extremely quickly, it still takes it billions of years to cross the Universe. This means that peering into deep space allows us to look back in time and study the Universe’s early years. 12

The Solar System Life begins The Sun dies The Big Freeze Our local star, the Sun, forms Farther from the Sun than scalding About 5 billion years in the future, The Universe may continue from a cloud of gas and dust left Venus but not as far as freezing the Sun will turn into a red giant expanding forever. Matter by dying stars. Not all the material Mars, planet Earth is just the right star as its supply of fuel begins and energy will become is absorbed by the new star temperature for liquid water to to run out. It will swell in size, its ever more thinly dispersed, though—a gigantic disk of dust settle on its surface. A random outer layers engulfing the planets preventing new stars from and gas is left in orbit around it. Mercury, Venus, and probably forming. After the last star Over time, the particles of matter chemical reaction between Earth. The heat will vaporize burns out, the Universe will carbon-based chemicals in the any water left on Earth, and be permanently dark and in this disk stick together to form water produces a molecule that freezing cold—an endless the planets, moons, asteroids, and can make copies of itself, as DNA possibly our planet’s crust, void with no activity. comets of our Solar System. can today. It is the first form of life. too, making life impossible. Over 100 trillion 4.6 billion 4.3 billion 5 billion years years in the future years ago years ago in the future YOU ARE HERE 13

14 The Great Dying Death of the dinosaurs The greatest mass extinction in About half the world’s animal history occurs before the age of species disappear in a mass dinosaurs. Around 95 percent of extinction at the end of the age the world’s species disappear. It of dinosaurs. The likely cause is an asteroid hitting Earth. takes almost 30 million years for life on land to recover. 252 MYA 230–65 MYA 66 MYA 66–3 MYA 2.6 MYA to 10,000 BCE Age of the Dinosaurs The rise of mammals The Ice Age Dinosaurs become the Small mammals survive the Earth’s climate cools and sheets dominant animals on land. asteroid strike and evolve into a of ice cover much of the northern continents. The grasslands south Birds evolve from small wide range of new species, of the ice are home to mammoths, feathered dinosaurs, and the taking the place of dinosaurs. woolly rhinos, saber-toothed cats, first small mammals evolve Some mammals adapt to life in the ocean and become even and other ice-age mammals. from synapsids. Many of these species vanish as bigger than dinosaurs. humans spread around the globe. 299–252 MYA 359–299 MYA Reptiles and relatives Prehistoric rainforests Earth’s climate dries out, and deserts Earth’s climate is now warm and wet, Poisoned oceans replace forests. Reptiles and related and lush rainforests cover much of animals called synapsids become the the land. The forests are home to Another mass extinction takes place dominant vertebrates on land. Unlike giant millipedes and dragonflylike near the end of the Devonian Period. other vertebrates, which breed in water, insects as big as eagles. Fossils of the Most of the species that vanish lived reptiles and synapsids lay waterproof trees will eventually form the coal we in the ocean, including reef-building eggs and so can breed in dry places. use in the modern world. organisms and armored fish. Poisoning of the ocean by volcanic First steps on land eruptions may be to blame. Four-legged vertebrates evolve from fish. At first they use their muscular limbs for 360 MYA paddling, but their descendants eventually clamber onto land in search of prey. Plants have now colonized the land, and small animals such as millipedes, mites, and scorpions live among them. 363 MYA

Dunkleosteus Death in the ocean First vertebrates An explosion of life Around 85 percent of all The first vertebrates—animals The first animals with hard body cases, marine species disappear in a with backbones—appear. They jointed legs, biting mouthparts, and series of major extinctions. are fishlike animals that swim gripping claws appear. This apparently The cause is unknown, but like tadpoles and have simple sudden burst of evolution, called the some scientists suspect mouths for sucking. Later, their Cambrian explosion, gives rise climate change is to blame. descendants evolve hinged to all the major types of invertebrate jaws, allowing them to grab animals alive today. 419–359 MYA 444 MYA prey and tear flesh. 541 MYA 525 MYA The age of fish First cells Snowball Earth First animals Fish rule the ocean in the Devonian Single-celled organisms evolve. Earth’s surface freezes and a thick Soon after the Snowball era ends, Period, which is also called the age They will be the only forms of life layer of ice encases the whole complex organisms that may be the on Earth for most of the planet’s first animals appear. They are soft- of fish. Sharks are now common, history. Many grow in mounds on planet for millions of years. Life on bodied, leaf-shaped creatures with no but the most fearsome predator is the ocean floor, using sunlight to the surface is wiped out during this obvious organs, limbs, or mouthparts. photosynthesize. They release They probably live on the ocean floor Dunkleosteus, a 20 ft (6 m) long “Snowball Earth” period, but predator with an armored body and the gas oxygen as a waste, microorganisms survive under and feed on particles of food changing Earth’s atmosphere. absorbed through their skin. huge jaws equipped with a flesh- the ice in the ocean. cutting beak. Origin of life 3.7 BYA 780–630 million years ago (mya) 600 MYA Life begins in water, possibly Life on Earth near hot volcanic springs in the deep ocean. The first life forms After oceans first formed on Earth, it didn’t take long for life to are carbon-based molecules appear on the planet. How life began remains one of the great mysteries of science, but most scientists believe the first living that have the ability to make things developed from carbon-based chemicals in water. No copies of themselves. Once trace of these remains, but the animals and plants that evolved from them left numerous fossils behind. The fossil record they start multiplying, the shows that the story of life on Earth has had twists and turns, process of evolution begins, with occasional mass extinctions wiping out the dominant and the self-copying molecules species and allowing new forms of life to emerge. become more complex. 4.3 billion years ago (bya)

The age of dinosaurs Rhamphorhynchus Modern humans have existed for about 200,000 years, but dinosaurs dominated life on Earth for nearly 200 million years. This vast span of time is called the Mesozoic Era and is divided into three distinct periods. The reign of the dinosaurs and other giant reptiles came to an abrupt end in a mass extinction 66 million years ago, but not every kind of dinosaur was wiped out. Eudimorphodon Plateosaurus Cryolophosaurus Stegosaurus Isanosaurus Scelidosaurus Eoraptor Coelophysis Anchiornis 240 million years ago 220 210 200 190 180 170 160 Triassic Period Jurassic Period The first dinosaurs appear in the middle of the Triassic Period. In the Jurassic Period, plant-eating dinosaurs reach They are small, nimble animals that scamper on powerful hind gigantic sizes, making them the largest animals ever to legs, using their stiff tails to balance and their small arms to walk on Earth. Exactly why this happens isn’t clear, but handle food. This successful formula soon leads to variations. one theory is that predators target smaller animals, Some dinosaurs evolve into plant-eaters, growing longer necks driving a process of natural selection that makes both that help them reach leaves or armored skin for protection. prey and predator become larger and larger. Meanwhile, Others specialize in hunting. While dinosaurs rule the land, the smallest dinosaurs evade predators by taking other prehistoric reptiles adapt to life in the ocean and air. flight—they evolve into the first birds. Nothosaurus Liopleurodon Mixosaurus 16

Argentinosaurus Diplodocus Quetzalcoatlus Pteranodon Therizinosaurus Confuciusornis Tyrannosaurus Allosaurus Sauropelta Iguanodon Struthiomimus Triceratops 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 Velociraptor Cretaceous Period 80 70 During the Cretaceous Period, Earth’s continents slowly drift Mosasaurus toward their current configuration, moving about as fast as human toenails grow. There are now more kinds of dinosaurs 17 than ever, including flightless, feathered giants and small but ferocious carnivores with hooklike foot claws that might be used to disembowel prey. At the end of the Cretaceous, all types of giant prehistoric reptiles disappear in a mass extinction, perhaps victims of a catastrophic asteroid strike, but birds survive. Albertonectes

End of the dinosaurs Almost 66 million years ago, a catastrophic event occurred that wiped out more than half of life on Earth, including the dinosaurs. Most experts believe this mass extinction was caused by an enormous meteorite crashing into Earth. Such a huge impact would have created a worldwide cloud of dust and fumes, choking animals and blocking out the Sun’s light and warmth. The planet’s climate would have changed dramatically, making life impossible for many species.



Upright walking Australopithecines In the African forests, apes Several species of bipedal evolve the ability to walk ape, Australopithecines, spread across the grasslands upright. This frees their hands of East Africa. The most for carrying and throwing. famous Australopithecus is The first known ape which Lucy, a female whose 3.2 may have been bipedal million-year-old bones were (two-legged) is called discovered in Ethiopia in 1974. Sahelanthropus tchadensis. 4 mya Human ancestors7–6mya(millionyearsago) Hand axe Humans originated as African apes and are related to chimps and gorillas. Around 6 million years ago, our Homo erectus moves out closest ape ancestors, called hominins, began to walk of Africa and into Asia. It on two legs. Over time, they developed bigger brains invents a new kind of stone and learned to make tools and control fire. As hominins tool—a hand axe with a evolved, they left Africa to settle all over the world. leaf-shaped cutting blade. This is the first tool made to a design. 1.8–1.75 mya Making fire Homo heidelbergensis Homo erectus uses fire, allowing the species to cook, Homo heidelbergensis keep warm, and protect itself appears in Africa, later moving into West Asia from wild animals. The and Europe. It is the first earliest evidence of fire is hominin species to build shelters and use spears a 1 million-year-old collection of charred animal to hunt animals. bones found in a cave in 700,000 ya (years ago) South Africa. 1 mya Warming climate First art Last Neanderthals The climate warms, causing sea Humans in Europe and Asia Neanderthals die out, levels to rise. Big game animals, produce the first works of perhaps unable to adapt art: paintings and carvings to the rapidly changing such as mammoths, die out. of animals and people. The climate. Our own species Humans adapt by eating new paintings, created in caves, (Homo sapiens sapiens) is plant foods and catching more now the last type of human fish. The bow and arrow, a new probably serve a ritual on the planet. However, invention, allows them to hunt purpose, such as contacting today, most of us carry animal spirits to bring about some Neanderthal genes. small game such as deer. a successful hunt. 14,000–12,000 ya 35,000 ya 39,000 ya 20

Homo habilis Human migrations NORTH AMERICAEUROPE ASIA Following the first use of stone Modern humans left Africa SOUTH AMERICA AFRICA tools by Australopithecines 3.3 120,000 years ago, beginning million years ago, Homo habilis a journey that would take them AUSTRALIA (“handy man”) spreads across to every inhabitable place on ANTARCTICA Earth. Sea levels were much East and southern Africa. It lower than they are now. A makes simple chopping tools by bridge of land linked Asia and America, and the distance smashing river pebbles. by sea to Australia was far shorter than it is today. 2.5 mya Homo erectus Homo erectus (“upright man”), the first hominin with the body size of modern humans, evolves in Africa. Like an ape, Homo erectus has a low, flat forehead and a projecting jaw with big teeth. 1.9 mya Neanderthals Homo sapiens sapiens Our closest hominin Modern humans (Homo relatives, the Neanderthals, sapiens sapiens) appear in Africa. appear in Asia and Europe. Modern humans and Neanderthals They are the first hominins have similarly large brains. Both to bury their dead—they do learn to make clothes from animal so in caves with offerings. skins, allowing them to move 400,000 ya to cooler regions. 200,000 ya Cro-Magnons Homo floresiensis Modern humans called Homo floresiensis, a tiny Cro-Magnons move into hominin just 3 ft 6 in (1 m) Europe, where they live tall, lives on the island of alongside Neanderthals. Flores in Indonesia. It is They are the first humans to thought to have died out sew, using bone needles, around 50,000 years ago. and make jewelry from 100,000 ya shells and bones. 45,000 ya 21

gbi“uvAcetgatsrhnrieciccuoahlntlelulshyreetroirncoahownet onastn.s”iolhyne,CdrAweDe99vcfhs0ete0ece.l01ltreoaa001tntp,h,atbas00ec(nniwFenldd0ab,eSfisbtca0srhtyaretseIremr–ciltarNeeenydfaiArlAaesoningssdgarVTeuftisrmaaeIhfDhgerer,laaeaelgionteegrrenhcreFgdesynre.eosoero)ssbdBt.imtwrs,aNsAmsbyteftmia—piheielenlaeserfvaacegbmgfaitntoddrocutoiimrefnouhwa.mstmrng1nteerhoodics0efcefliseiivelaptari.hl,roensarPft0nrermrsotosCusiode’kg.v0sg.eomriscinhydrw0’est.setes8haTarCbeate5hcisnvdreoca0dem,ibrrrwlpaei0emedaempiaSggantrsfotysoaiibthsihlnlvmkpboataoeceaeowprSonafaernreiacimerkdnlepinsehsrdidaagtnomaactamverosguftynpomiioelnnacedenkfuoroigedldn.iiengpgabdrWdercswdolb.tigss.chhfTaah.Tli4rrehtae7eaohtehnh0.ssemtsem0nPeh0itpdsadih.yere00rewfecoeogbsa0porrceoraloteeehifbl.astlcweioanectrcikbitIdoneslrolkeaapcftsIrccoqnhshs,kr)ia.tMs,5hfnfwlaeeon5rysaoemIohy0ndglARspfeadsrilusiIs0ooorclirffibasawceoteroram,obba.ad,.ifimImswMlutcgwteltehrifgihrelaaaaaitddgecrhitnrco(eteeliemwmaerhwiRdrriagovroeicmoisgisneifinrdnndia.cteliaeand5goewttsyleih’dsrsopwt0atnhrthsnoapotaba-aee0.addpouthvroendaglp.oe0erdEiyhwuleodfvolsobarelu,iotgcnoitdoiternmun.faaiuwetlscepllSCyidohdleB,latswhiooorimrnioeinpfnsunaeltgeekicspclsiuelnk.fJoerso2sgpeofcwwCeeerchreu0sderehostonIonoosshduphr0vstppittamiliaisoeoaenlslsutertrnkbbrganpaphianesn,ie,ncnerEtoaisuEteenpovefnwFHnbtofaueuggrprldjeoairsnoeigolrerioeesydonoetcmchnphwnw,apnttlDt.jeosoadso1teatndyh.unhab0rutFuwlnteaiehret.nhsaertat0Aafosaeafitoreosootrobmnc.f0tprfnpariychlaleeel.llkiifelorevcnroomdstenwresfsitri:neottogolotdnacsetkein Agriculture The history of agriculture is essentially the history of producing food as opposed to finding it. It includes farming, rearing animals for food, and learning how to improve techniques. Before agriculture took off, people relied on hunting and gathering—activities that involve a lot of chance. By contrast, farmers can influence food production by sowing seeds and raising animals. 22

Scythe The scythe is an agricultural tool used to mow grass and reap crops. It is swung along the ground, and the sharp blade slices the grass or crop at the base. The first scythes may have been developed around 500 bce. pfroobct11maaiw5t4rwttrlothhueA0ho0eeiesylerses,0xl0gfda,EArctlauo,noshsumcnidmbtar–rdsoeeonrapryc.cgptiCeceoohesCaameoicdlaesnsfo,refr.s,teepmAoocfeeeerooneoxp,px.ritpfmmcpnersloh,eaoaAbamwr,rlsseessnuaiEmagaamgnreu;poeosawrdvo,rr,heeapaeceonar;fodtt,shrseeagtphraeawpirtnaitcatahbeuisdrnHatesshtasa,soitncrkrhtRvyshicrneeteereghsossrteahwpeipn.eaupCohgsplralyi,ikeisnratr,vrunas,dgesdlalooosMbrmnntwieugnecaan.gCwbcnd.yhoHdleairhnibmssraeadniccdksk- icnlvsoeogniagltBoiisnofltgnaethceuiseklpswpAcmliomaldiwstelShtyr-tJiiostcrouoeakhcnenenceppleDplrospaetswhilerfosueiree.lw.sHfitrniioscvmkeynts 1794 1831 186ist6uhseeogdhreobsbniwyrzpeeefreceaea,aedraxt1mirppro8cteleaneGar8oprisrnnirspa.m5CetTtSssstgrezo.hs.aoeMeneiisstrctdselesMhke,lnoewnsfecdnrcuoiniettactwthidlhvrihdlevferealaoeloldenyscuswgdogccbeesnrhoricrdblsoiepueaearucsnerniltnutldsdivtsdhaetiimennncdttegohenhrrrteaetJaShsraordahtylhetectntaosrrromaFewmcprp-oitostpaohevroaraleeiTwrctt.eahehAersaeragmietexnr.ccpdvaeaeeirttninnhnocftrsarserionvsmehers AmmtmhureeiiendcrUmmivhdceSlaoaeen’-tvastoebissnbfroiiegaitarghrnlmsgCeaweienan1eiosvl9cdldtehtbtfsehniatenxtfcoscorepteoorneotnmmhErrt.taguleB.citrWioyymnt,thtahoitkenneesy 1837 clemmaasnicugsphchcrcitnoryeAoedsrupuotssshcCtftaauwertatlosiicncltithmaoguhnmtoebsbnHbl,faeitiiurhdnnspgreeteaheschss.Voahshmirecovastmfeo,risatrevstnMreecdrci,asaKltlayeyr 1890s nfnrpauocottmurwcrtoireGatoap“innotrlesatreniinymbanc,elfecaopotfrcnoiserecodGyormaamisdrnsllMteayegeessn”mamyciyswcfi.oeeotaimrtpltdrdyhoeeim,frtsibapiehsotodseksno,s(.bsGTuthMte)y 1990s 1940s pmrtaaenocccFovtrhGeaiuocnmrrsemoirssselehoetnahigrentnseigtendoignsfpoluRoMsropopbeedddrexe.av.uTiatccoehdoeeflalumeramtodirioenagn 23

Working with metals c.9000 bce c.4500 bce c.4500 bce c.3100 bce c.2200 bce The use of metals was one of the greatest technological leaps in 24 history. Unlike stone tools, metal ones can be molded or beaten into any shape, and metal blades are easy to resharpen. The first metal tools were made mostly with copper, a soft metal that was easy to find. Later, people discovered how to work iron—a much harder metal that had to be Pouring extracted from rock in a furnace. bronze Bronze is a soft metal that is relatively easy to melt and pour into a mold. Gold, silver, copper, tin, and lead are also soft metals. Iron is harder and melts at a much higher temperature. Metalworking begins The Copper-Stone Age Metalworking begins in western The people of western Asia discover Asia, where the world’s first farmers how to extract copper from copper-rich rocks by heating them in a fire (this is live. Early farmers find naturally called smelting). They pour the molten occurring copper nuggets and hammer copper into molds to make tools. Most them into beads. Soon after, they make people still use stone tools, so this period is called the Copper-Stone Age. objects from gold, silver, and lead. Malachite is a copper-rich Oldest gold treasure mineral found in rocks. In Varna, in what is now Bulgaria, The Bronze Age people are buried with thousands of In western Asia and Central items of gold jewelry. The oldest Europe, the use of bronze becomes gold treasure in the world, it will lie widespread. Bronze is made by hidden underground for over 6,000 melting copper with a small amount years before being discovered by of tin. This results in a much harder metal. A trade in tin, which is a rare accident in 1972. metal, also develops. Iron Iron is first made by the Hittites of western Asia, who use it to make weapons. Although iron is the most common metal, it requires great heat to extract from rock. Instead of being poured into molds, it is softened and beaten into shape.

The Iron Age c.1200 bce 1200–1101 bce 800–300 bce c.700 bce c.600 bce Chinese statues The use of iron spreads from Western Asia to bce 6th century 5th century The Sanxingdui people of China make Europe, and India’s Iron Age takes off at around large bronze statues with masklike faces. Their bce bronze includes lead, as well as tin and copper, the same time. Iron’s hardness makes it making a stronger, heavier metal. The biggest ideal for tools, cooking pots, and 13th century ce statue, of a tree, stands almost 13 ft (4 m) high. nails, as well as weapons. Iron-Age Europe Peru and Bolivia Iron working spreads throughout Europe, where readily available In Peru and Bolivia, people iron weapons lead to an increase in begin large-scale smelting of warfare. This 6th-century-bce Greek copper. They use gold, silver, vase shows blacksmiths using a forge (a powerful fire) to soften iron before and tumbaga (gold mixed shaping it with a hammer. with copper or silver) to African iron make beautiful works of art in various colors. The Iron Age reaches sub- Saharan Africa, where the Indian steel Nok people of Nigeria use iron to make spearheads, knives, Indian metalworkers make the highest quality and bracelets. The use of iron steel in the ancient world. It is later exported tools helps farming spread to China and the West, where it is called across Africa. “wootz.” It is used to make exceptionally sharp, hard-wearing swords. Cast iron European In China, people discover blast furnaces how to make iron in a blast furnace—a furnace powered by The first European blast a blast of hot air. The resulting furnaces begin operating in iron can be remelted and poured Germany, Switzerland, and into molds to make cast iron. Blast furnaces will not be invented in the Sweden. They use water West for almost 2,000 years. wheels to power bellows that blow air into the furnace, and because of this, are built by rivers. 25

9000–4000 bce Prehistoric communities Early farmers establish villages with basic buildings and shared structures. The first of these are found in Mesopotamia in West Asia. Gradually, they expand to become small towns with organized communities. 8000 bce Walled settlements Communities begin to surround their settlements with protective walls. In the town of Jericho in Palestine, a huge stone wall is constructed for defense, surveillance, and flood protection, keeping the 3,000 inhabitants safe. Towns and cities Byzantine bazaars The first settlements started in prehistoric times. In the Byzantine Empire, Basic buildings provided shelter and safety as around the Mediterranean, these communities grew into towns and villages. public areas and main roads in With more opportunities for trade and work, cities start to become closed the populations of many increased, eventually off by shops. These eventually resulting in the growth of major cities. The birth evolve into bazaars—covered of new technologies enabled many of these markets where locals barter to towns and cities to develop even faster into get the best price for goods. the modern metropolises we know today. Replacement walls 500–700 ce King Philip II of France orders a new wall to Factory towns be built around Paris, stretching beyond the outskirts of the city. It is 8 ft (2 m) wide with During the Industrial Revolution, people move to work in factories. around 70 towers. Many other medieval New towns grow rapidly around the European cities also rebuild their original factories to house workers. walls to contain their growing centers. 1190 1807 1750–1800 Street lights The first public street lighting that uses gas is demonstrated in London. This becomes the norm across towns and cities, solving the problem of limited light at night.

Early cities Trading hubs The first great cities develop in Mesopotamia’s cities become Mesopotamia. These are each important trading centers, using rivers to transport ruled by a king. Grand stone goods. Long-distance trade structures called ziggurats are takes place between cities in Mesopotamia and in the built, containing shrines, staircases, and towers. Indus Valley in Pakistan. Luxury items such as spices, textiles, metals, and precious stones Sewer systems are exchanged. The first sewer systems are constructed by the Indus Valley civilization. Underground tunnels carry water from place to place, allowing most homes to have a bath, toilet, and water supply. 4000–3000 bce 2900–2300 bce 2600 bce Record-breaking Rome City-states Rome becomes the first city to reach a In ancient Greece, cities population of 1 million people. Most Romans establish themselves as live in blocks of flats called insulae that are independent states with their own political systems. 6 or 7 stories high, maximizing space in the city. Athens, Sparta, and Thebes are some of the most important city-states. 1 ce 800 bce Skyscrapers City slickers The first high-rise building, Half of the world’s population nicknamed a “skyscraper,” is now lives in cities. Megacities, built in Chicago, IL. Building upward saves space in the which have populations of more than 10 million, have packed city center and is become more common. Tokyo, possible due to the Japan, is the biggest city in the world, with around 13 million invention of the elevator and sturdy steel. people living there. 1863 1885 2008 Underground railway “What is the city but the people?” The world’s first underground railway system opens in London. Moving William Shakespeare, Coriolanus, c. 1608 ce transportation underground saves 27 space and provides a quicker way to get around the bustling city.

Inventing the wheel The story traTWnmhosaeffftaaochtgshrthartmeei-innnfTewrlepdohdiaeiwwunne7tbosvgei0wnypeehro0glsntiewenfhtyst,edcehheettodmoreeaielnrefpriwnavolsllo.merai,wTswintan,oheterni6inraosro’to0tnathfh0bemaeercriell.. of the wheel Wheels can be seen in so many objects ArAcGrchrehiersimmokctteairenradtviendneeasgwsnelf,lottcoarsogrowanmr’rrn,oiakdnssusngefineccrvwrdrrieieergaeltnwoaotdtepthtirfsohritgonaaohmtbbgyelorowund. c.100 bce around us that it is tricky to imagine a Early humans realized that heavy tury time when they didn’t exist. Nobody objects could be moved more knows exactly how the wheel evolved easily if they were rolled instead to form the wheel we see today, but of dragged. It took thousands of archaeologists think it all began years to develop the wheel. Many thousands of years ago with simple inventions developed over the log rollers and sleds. past 3,500 years would not have been possible without it. Rolling along The ancient Sumerians realized that they “The greatest inventors could move bulky objects more easily if are unknown to us. they rolled them over round log rollers. Someone invented the wheel—but who?” Simple sled Rollers proved awkward to move around, Isaac Asimov, so the Sumerians developed a sled with a science-fiction writer, 1988 The first wheel curved front that could be pulled along more easily. The first wheels are potters’ Teaming up inwwhhdMgileefafobeedllebeersta.etleclio.efTnnorth3hawbceras5uoyrlotpduw0blueenersn0odgeiaepslb3nndeta5cdctcjol0eroaa0aoryc,pssbr.tscpehetae.aTacsethnarfhhtereeedoearerrabineltamluroaicotlooWraen.tlrsnivnwfshe3eersarMpseepopn5teeabodeomssor0lewitrclfosphlsatya0opotererlitiftoaetebtohl.sdt.ooaniascrtnwTeauromirohsaaenoevenydedlec.nEscre2ghgpemyuamooTli0iapnkohetzSidked0esesaedispatlfn0inrnhwsomgobbcathiohtkartcoemetteeeeetwnlolrthheqsdubteeuEaria4ylegllnucmtw.cysokndlhuahpTtttcwtyfs.rithhietacoacaeenunhbia4eehdnsartnglenecasbenenhdrxdieetidactmonwtusbeoiaimlsrlpn,gccmptleyehyeacuitleervccwnlhsoGdyehheeiec.eanbarsentk.apctnTesruel,epohdssiasilecfelntasnaGaoyrehrurrcCeireaabcsc,httrneileheaiotanwreoohsaftsoseetrhatkehde The Sumerians decided to combine 3rdbcceen the sled and roller, finding that the sled glided over the rollers more smoothly than over the ground. Making grooves Over time, the movement of the sled over the roller wore grooves in the log roller, which helped keep the sled in place. Early wheels To improve the design, the Sumerians chipped away at the log to create two wheels and an axle. Pegs fixed on the sled hooked it onto the axle. The first cart The Sumerians later fixed individual wheels onto an axle and attached the sled to it securely by drilling holes in its frame. 28

The Penny Farthing The enormous front wheel enabled high speeds, but the Penny Farthing was dangerous. It lost popularity in the 1880s with the introduction of “safety bicycles.” TaohannwbinsdijghdeaahecpsstettltssarlrsokfontihyAnntneo,adoothsstfmmteicnhtalieaprdcenrnoiaidntrshlbgwluicedaesaanepebsylacno.evteuthseiigflieanytaimtoisotnontrtatrouohsrssfees mssaetptodc1nhaicrenh0eeensvsi.rnd1ifgr0eglsoey1ylsnoo’tws.0pbaipTfiOamhtitc0cmhicceonFaeoieesaenenmclnnlahtoyirtelseitafsneewnaut1fcconcthtvs0urefhteh.yee1omtrn0ahdm3gwesoseyait0hboelne.oonwecs0lgrcdaeteehaiclerasel1l,014c0ulosmcekdetctiotcshmhahkametiegphnaacsdeiatincMtkhaaetrDaoaeneavrraTdl’agneeestcVahhppuilnrsoclnAileeroonolamoapurcwnhtccphirpamniae’khestauwaidstvnihl,semiilnaadeoefwtneaonprdeeernLndhdtrthtawdisrwestectfclvoeeioiooeiloatostiaaschrfnhrraadnfdcenodelastbsrdeethp.crliopihclv.dvstartcercefeeeooediiantswralenooldlPclteosphattiprdoreaVoclotdelciilfcnsrpktelc.eoeaivfdtleteelhresleyirgns a WTihtIhneRtdtheuIeecnsdhctvbedrnarioeveaonluoecalldlooRloustoigimomnetptivvnerismeeoosi,osaensldufncptnlmtuirotiisnoruotaninnncenfsi,iganamytsmhgltunehteocmeecewhwhntahagahcenisehnieipsenlmose.wss,earnd c1.050 0bccee 101706b0ce 101803b4ce EThlMeemoefcimrlroeipstmtetcztraooctuviJrrcht,esaioccmaascramrnbsoaetlihlbccaeweoeahtin,eeeliwetcnldeueooraegnscbnysreeytyvrftreiioiognncrrdyttmot.sahIytae.ny 9b3ce Pneumatic tires 101808b8ce bUpriwunuunmmvibttttehaiibuplrnkeppeywctisnrnoejwooewgamdoiuurt,hfdfehrmtoonererfuareeanitlanvylltaesoeicsmcb.dlroePloteuhmwirnnrcasreeifhivtrodhshudermaewmethad.anoiieacrbter,rtloeleeidycs asrperasew,woawrfhdaWcth,espowuiToecpnientrhlhetsslaediendhwpvouWeeeaoneoalnrnpaieorugsrslgasiuh.eIrcinTtbtoashdomhatsuTvstenntaoaewiadddtrvnramo.eneokan.fsoookkTltarravrhesuremergidsesareoe,dbmrsrsueaoiltbfioler 101901b5ce 29

The written word c.3300 bce Spoken language has existed since prehistoric times. World’s first writing The need to keep records of trade led civilizations around the world to invent ways of writing language The Egyptians invent hieroglyphs, down. This allowed knowledge to be collected a system of around 700–800 picture and passed on from person to person both reliably and over great distances. It’s thanks to the written signs, which stand for words, word that we know the thoughts and ideas of sounds, and ideas. people who lived thousands of years ago. c.800 bce c.650 bce c.800 bce Roman alphabet Greek alphabet Brahmi script In Italy, the Romans adapt the Greek The Greeks adapt the Phoenician alphabet, This script is developed in India, using alphabet to write their own language, Latin. adding letters for vowels. It has 24 letters, signs for consonants with additional The Roman alphabet goes on to become markings for vowels. Brahmi is the and is usually written from left to right. ancestor of around 200 later Asian scripts. the world’s most widely used script. c.150 bce 3rd century ce c.300 bce Mayan writing Runes Arabic script In Central America, the Mayan people In Scandinavia and modern-day Germany, Arabs create an alphabet with 28 letters, develop a writing system with signs people begin to use runes, with 24 signs. written from right to left. With the spread standing for syllables as well as ideas. They The system is inspired by contact with the of Islam, the Arabic script is later adopted carve monumental inscriptions, paint text Roman alphabet, but uses straight lines, so across North Africa and much of Asia. on vases, and write on fig tree bark. it can be easily carved onto wood or stone. 30

c.3200 bce c.2600 bce c.2500 bce Cuneiform Indus script Chinese writing The Sumerians of Mesopotamia The Indus people of India invent a The earliest surviving Chinese writing uses (see pages 36–37) invent cuneiform, script that remains undeciphered picture signs called “ideograms.” Each picture a writing system of shapes pressed stands for an idea or an object. The signs later to this day. Evidence suggests into clay with a reed stylus. it was written from right to left. develop into the script used in China today. c.1200 bce c.1850–1650 bce Phoenician alphabet First alphabet Phoenicians (from the eastern Mediterranean To the east of Egypt, the first alphabet, coast) simplify the Proto-Sinaitic alphabet. Proto-Sinaitic (or Canaanite), is created. Based on Egyptian hieroglyphs, people only They use 22 signs, all standing for consonants. need to learn 30 signs to be able to write. The script later inspires the Hebrew, Arabic, and Greek writing systems. c.860–880 5th century Japanese scripts Slavic scripts The Rosetta Stone Japanese people adapt Chinese writing to Bulgarian churchmen adapt the Greek The Rosetta Stone is an inscribed basalt block, create a script called kanji. They also invent alphabet to create the Glagolitic and Cyrillic discovered by French soldiers in Egypt in 1799. two other scripts, hiragana and katakana, alphabets, which they use to translate the Carved in 196 bce, the same text is written on it with signs standing for syllables. As a result, in Ancient Greek, hieroglyphs, and demotic (an Bible into Slavic languages from Central everyday Egyptian script). In 1822, French linguist Japan has three writing systems. and Eastern Europe. Cyrillic later evolves Jean-François Champollion used the inscriptions on the stone to work out how to read hieroglyphs, into the modern Russian alphabet. which until then had been impossible to decipher. 31

THE ANCIENT WORLD 3000 BCE–500 CE



The Ancient World The earliest civilizations established their cultures around huge rivers that could support farming, such as the Tigris and Euphrates in West Asia, and the Nile in Egypt. As technology developed and trade expanded after 3000 bce, great empires also sprang up across Europe and East Asia. As these new societies took shape, many of them came into conflict with one another in competition for land and resources. c.2500 bce c.950–612 bce 550 bce 490–479 bce 336–323 bce The first recorded war takes place, The Assyrians of Mesopotamia Cyrus the Great founds The Persians make two Alexander of Macedon unites Greece between the cities of Umma and create an empire stretching the First Persian Empire, unsuccessful attempts to and conquers the Persian Empire. Greek Lagash in Mesopotamia. from Egypt across West Asia. based in West Asia. conquer the cities of Greece. cities are founded as far east as India. 2589–2566 bce c.1900 bce c.509 bce 508 bce c.450–50 bce 321–185 bce The Egyptians The Amorites conquer most The people of Rome in Italy The Athenians of The Celtic La Tène Chandragupta Maurya of South construct the Great of Mesopotamia, which they overthrow their king, and begin Greece establish culture develops in Pyramid at Giza. rule from the city of Babylon. to expand the city’s influence. the first democracy. modern-day Switzerland. India invades the north and establishes the Maurya Empire. Mesopotamia Land of the Pharaohs Ancient Greece The Celts The earliest cities were built in Ruled by kings known as In Athens, one of the warring Spread across Central and West Asia, in a historical region pharaohs, the ancient Egyptians city-states of ancient Greece Western Europe, the Celts (see known as Mesopotamia (see pages pages 58–59) were warriors who 36–37). The cultures of this area (see pages 40–41) built large (see pages 52–53), great invented farming and the wheel. monuments called pyramids thinkers developed early shared a single culture. They philosophy and democracy. were experts at crafting metal. to house their royal dead. 34

Pottery The process of creating pottery was first discovered in prehistoric times, but in the ancient world, many cultures— particularly the Greeks—perfected pottery design as an art form. Objects such as this Greek amphora (jug) give historians many visual clues about the fashions, stories, and societies of the ancient world. 221 bce 27 bce c.320 ce The king of Qin unites the kingdoms After a civil war, Octavian Chandra Gupta I conquers the of China under his rule, becoming becomes Rome’s first emperor, Ganges Valley in northern India, Shi Huangdi (“First Emperor”). taking a new name, Augustus. founding the Gupta Empire. 202 bce–220 ce 30 bce 79 ce 476 ce The emperors of the Egypt is conquered by the Mount Vesuvius in Italy Rome falls to Germanic invaders, Han Dynasty rule China Romans, bringing an end erupts, destroying the towns but its empire survives in the for more than 400 years. to the rule of the pharaohs. of Pompeii and Herculaneum. east as the Byzantine Empire. The Persian Empire Imperial China Rome Ancient India Centered in West Asia, the Emperor Qin Shi Huang created Beginning as a small hilltop town Greatly influenced by the Persian Empire (see pages the first of a series of imperial in Italy, Rome (see pages 72–73) religions of Hinduism and 60–61) was split into provinces, dynasties that would go on to became the capital of an empire Buddhism, a series of empires each one ruled by a regional rule China (see pages 68–69) that spanned much of Europe, sprang up across the Indian governor known as a satrap. for the next 2,000 years. subcontinent (see pages 82–83). North Africa, and West Asia. 35

Mesopotamia Early beginnings Mesopotamia means “the land between the two rivers,” Farming people in northern Mesopotamia referring to the Tigris and the Euphrates in western Asia. develop systems to supply their fields with It was here, more than 5,000 years ago, that the world’s water. Fine Mesopotamian painted pottery is first cities were built. The Mesopotamians invented organized religion, royalty, armies, law, and many other exported across southwest Asia. fundamental features of civilization as we know it. c.6000–4000 bce Babylonians Ziggurat Akkadians The Amorites, a people from the western The first ziggurats (stepped temples) King Sargon of Akkad (a region in deserts, conquer most of Mesopotamia, are built in Ur, Eridu, Nippur, and Uruk. northern Mesopotamia) conquers all of which they rule from Babylon. They are Sumer, creating the world’s first empire. known as the Babylonians, and their new These huge stone structures were built as places of religious worship. The Akkadian language gradually empire is called Babylonia. replaces Sumerian in Mesopotamia. c.2100 bce c.1900 bce c.2350 bce Hammurabi’s law code Hittites and Kassites Assyrians King Hammurabi reigns over Babylon. The Hittites and Kassites invade The Assyrians of northern Mesopotamia He is famous for his law code, which, Babylonia using iron weapons and create an empire stretching from Egypt although based on earlier codes, he fast chariots pulled by horses. The to western Persia. They speak Aramaic, Kassites conquer Babylonia, which which becomes the standard language claims to have received in person from Shamash, the god of justice. they rule for 500 years. used across southwest Asia. 1792–1750 bce c.1595–1530 bce c.950–612 bce 36

Sumer First city Kings and writing Northern Mesopotamians move into Villages at Uruk join together to form the Around a dozen city-states emerge. Each the flat southern plains, later called world’s first city. It has walls, is ruled by an ensi (king), who lives in a Sumer. They establish large villages, build the first temples, and invent the monumental architecture, and a society palace and claims to govern on behalf of split into specialized classes, including the local god. Cuneiform writing (see potter’s wheel. priests, merchants and craftworkers. page 31) is invented. c.5000 bce c.4500 bce c.3300–3100 bce Warfare Royals tombs of Ur Bronze The first recorded war in history takes Kings and queens of Ur are buried in Sumerians learn how to make place, between the cities of Lagash and tombs with treasures made of gold, bronze by mixing copper and tin. Umma. A carving shows King Eannatum At first they use it to make tools silver, lapis lazuli, and carnelian. and weapons, eventually creating of Lagash leading his army to victory, The tombs also contain the bodies of marching over fallen enemies. servants who have been sacrificed. sculptures with it. c.2500 bce c.2750–2400 bce c.3000 bce The Standard of Ur This box was found in a royal tomb in the city of Ur. It was made around 2500 bce and its mosaic decoration shows what life was like in early Mesopotamia. This side depicts warfare, while the other side shows life during peacetime. Fall of Assyria Cyrus the Great There are widespread rebellions against King Cyrus the Great of Persia Assyrian rule, led by the Babylonians conquers the Babylonian Empire. and the Medes. The Assyrian cities are He claims to rule on behalf of Marduk, burned, and Babylonia takes control the chief god of the city of Babylon. of the Assyrian Empire. 539 bce 614–612 bce 37

Senet The royal game of Ur Tic-tac-toe Board games are popular in This game is played on a People all across the Roman ancient Egypt, with some royalty board of 20 squares with four- Empire play a version of tic-tac- deciding to be buried with their games. A favorite game is senet, sided dice and two sets toe (also known today as of seven pieces. The aim is for noughts and crosses). which is played on a board marked with 30 squares. a player to get their pieces The Roman version is called from one end of the board terni lapilli (meaning “three to the other. pebbles at a time”). c.3500 bce c.2600 bce 1st century bce c.2800 bce Chess This skill and strategy game is first played in either Northern India or Central Asia. As trade routes from India and Persia in West Asia expand, chess will reach Europe by 1000 ce. Dice c.500 bce c.600 4th century ce People have been rolling Go objects as part of games for thousands of years, but Invented in China, go is played on a the oldest known dice come grid board, with players taking turns from Shahr-e Sūkhté, a to place white and black stones at the grid intersections. It is one of the Bronze Age city in modern-day Iran. Dice oldest board games that is still soon become common. played today. Fun and games Pachisi People have been sitting down to play games The Indian game of pachisi is together for many thousands of years. Board played on a cross-shaped games were popular in ancient Egypt, while board. Six or seven cowrie card games were created in imperial China. shells are thrown to decide Today, old favorites are enjoyed alongside how many places a player new fantastical storytelling adventures. Games provide hours of entertainment and competition moves their pieces. Emperor at every roll of the dice or choice of a card. Akbar (1542–1605) has a 38 gigantic board built, on which humans are moved around as game pieces.

Dominoes In the 12th century, the Chinese created two-sided tiles with dots to represent numbers on each side. They were given the name “dominoes” in Italy and can be used to play a variety of games. Snakes and Modern board games ladders Families and groups of friends Originally called rediscover tabletop games as mokshapat, this board a fun group activity. There is a game is invented by an huge rise in people playing Indian saint named games and a surge in the Gyandev. It is meant to help production of new games. children understand the There are now many difference between good thousands of titles on the and evil, with the ladders market to choose from. representing good and the snakes representing evil. 21st century c.13th century Monopoly Role play American Elizabeth Magie Fantastical role-playing invents “The Landlord’s Game” games become popular to warn children against pitfalls of capitalism. Magie’s original with the release of Dungeons and Dragons. board uses made-up street names, but later versions of the With its nonhuman game (now called Monopoly) characters and magical each use real place names from narrative, the game soon spreads around the world. a city around the world. 1974 1904 9th century Playing cards 1870 1933 1944 Clue The Chinese invent the Mahjong Scrabble earliest playing cards. This classic crime mystery board When cards reach Europe, This tile-laying game is first An American architect named game is invented by British the suit markings are cups, developed in China and becomes Alfred Butts invents the word musician Anthony E. Pratt. gold coins, swords, and popular across Asia. The game of game Scrabble to mix spelling polo sticks. In about 1480, skill and strategy is usually played skills with a scoring system. Players are suspects who must the French suits familiar During the 1950s, it becomes follow clues to decide which of today (hearts, diamonds, with a set of 144 tiles featuring such a big hit that stores ration them is the murderer, where the Chinese symbols. crime was committed, and what spades, and clubs) supplies per customer. become standard. weapon was used. 39

Ancient Egypt “Hail to you O Nile! … Come, O Nile, come Around 3000 bce, the people of Egypt created the world’s first united state. It was governed by a king and prosper!” known as a pharaoh, who was believed to be the representative of the gods on Earth. For 3,000 years, Hymn to the Nile, Egyptians wore similar white linen clothing, spoke the same language, and followed a regular cycle of work, c.2100 bce governed by the annual flooding of the River Nile. 2181–2055 bce 2589–2566 bce Dark period Great Pyramid The fall of the Old Kingdom At Giza, Pharaoh Khufu builds the Great Pyramid, after a period of political which remains to this day the world’s biggest stone strife and widespread building. The whole nation takes part in the project, either drought is followed by a time hauling stone or growing food for the workforce. of disunity, called the First Intermediate Period. There are few monumental building projects during this time, as the power of royal authority was in decline. 2055–1710 bce 1650 bce Middle Kingdom The Hyksos Egypt is reunited by Pharaoh A people from western Mentuhotep II, the founder of Asia, the Hyksos, move what historians would later into northern Egypt and call the Middle Kingdom. destroy the Middle This period is remembered for Kingdom. They bring with its great achievements in art them the new technology and literature, which leave of fighting from horse- behind clues about the daily drawn chariots. While the lives of ancient Egyptians. Hyksos rule the north, Mentuhotep II Egyptian pharaohs continue to govern in the south. 332–30 bce 664–332 bce 1279-1213 bce Ptolemaic Dynasty Foreign rulers Ramesses the Great Egypt is ruled by 15 Macedonian During the Late Period, pharaohs, all called Ptolemy. Egypt is conquered by a Ramesses II rules for an The capital of Egypt during this series of foreign powers. astonishing 66 years and period is Alexandria, founded by The first invaders are the Alexander the Great on the fathers around 100 Mediterranean coast. The last ruler Nubians, followed by children. He has many is Queen Cleopatra (ruled 51–30 the Assyrians and the colossal statues built of bce). Egypt is then conquered by himself, as well as a temple the Romans, bringing an end Persians. Finally, in at Abu Simbel, where he is to the rule of ancient Egypt. 332 bce, King Alexander worshipped as a god. the Great of Macedon, Coins showing Cleopatra ruler of an empire that extends from Greece, takes control.

c.4500 bce c.3300 bce First settlements Early writing Farming people settle in Egyptians invent the world’s first writing villages by the Nile. They system: hieroglyphics. grow wheat and barley, keep cattle and sheep, It uses hundreds of picture and make polished red signs, standing for ideas, pottery with blackened words, and sounds. These tops. This early culture is are carved on stone or painted on sheets of papyrus, a writing later called Badarian, material made from the reeds after the site of El Badari, along the Nile. the remains of which Early hieroglyphs on were excavated in 1923. wooden labels 2667–2648 bce c.3100 bce Stepped pyramid A kingdom united Pharaoh Djoser, the first ruler of a period that historians call the Egypt, previously two kingdoms, is united under one king. The first Old Kingdom, builds the first king we know of is called Narmer. pyramid. This is a royal tomb He is shown in art as a warrior where the king’s body, defeating enemies while wearing preserved as a mummy, is the crowns of Upper (southern) thought to live on after death. Djoser’s pyramid has stepped and Lower (northern) Egypt. rather than smooth sides and is Egypt’s first monument Narmer wears the white Narmer wears the red to be built out of stone. crown of Upper Egypt. crown of Lower Egypt. 1550–1525 bce 1504–1425 bce New Kingdom Egyptian Empire Ahmose, ruler of Thebes, drives out Thutmose I aggressively expands the Hyksos and reunites Egypt, Egyptian rule into Nubia, a country that lies to the south of Egypt, as founding what would become known well as into areas of western Asia. as the New Kingdom. Pharaohs are The Egyptian Empire continues to no longer buried in pyramids, but in grow under his successors, hidden tombs in the Valley of the Thutmose II (1492–1479 bce) and Kings, in the desert to the west of Thebes. The Theban god Amon-Re Thutmose III (1479–1425 bce). becomes chief Egyptian god. Thutmose I Depiction of Amon-Re 1352–1336 bce 1336–1327 bce Sun worship Tutankhamun Pharaoh Akhenaten makes sweeping Under the rule of changes to Egypt’s religion, closing Pharaoh Tutankhamun, the down the temples to the gods and old religion is restored. After introducing worship of the Aten, a disk that represents the Sun. his death at the age of He builds a new capital called around 18, Tutankhamun is Akhetaten (modern-day buried in a tomb filled with El Amarna), with open-air temples treasures. Discovered in for the worship of the Sun. 1922, the tomb of Tutankhamun is the only unrobbed Egyptian royal tomb ever found. 41

Ancient monuments Dolmens For most of prehistory, people lived as nomadic hunter- In western Europe, people begin gatherers and left behind little trace of their existence. It to build dolmens—tombs using was only after people became settled farmers that they began to build monuments, such as tombs and temples. three or more huge standing Most were simple structures, but some were built on an stones supporting a flat table- enormous scale that required hundreds of laborers—a stone. These are covered with sign they were built for powerful leaders. earth or rocks to form a mound called a barrow. 10,000–9000 bce c.4500–2000 bce c.4000 bce Abu Simbel First temple Standing stones At Abu Simbel in southern People in Göbekli Tepe in Turkey In Brittany in France, farming Egypt, Pharaoh Rameses II build the world’s oldest religious people set up more than 3,000 has a great temple carved out structure, with more than 200 standing stones in long lines. of solid rock. It is dedicated to Their purpose is a mystery, but three gods. Colossal statues pillars arranged in 20 circles. of the pharaoh sit outside and Unusually, it seems to have been it is possible that each one line the temple’s entrance hall. built by hunter-gatherers in the was placed in honor of a 1264–1244 bce process of becoming farmers. dead person. Korean dolmens 700 bce c.250 bce In Korea, people begin to build dolmen tombs. Some stand above ground, but others have an underground burial chamber. About 45,000 are built, giving Korea the world’s largest collection of dolmens. Sanchi Stupa c.200 bce At Sanchi in India, Emperor Great Pyramid of Cholula Ashoka builds a great stupa— a domed monument holding The people of Cholula in Mexico build a pyramid relics of the Buddha. Stupas temple to worship the god Quetzalcoatl. Over the next thousand years, it is rebuilt on a progressively bigger are places of pilgrimage for Buddhists, who walk around scale, until it is the largest pyramid in the world. them praying and meditating. 42

Newgrange Stonehenge First pyramid In Ireland, people use 200,000 In Wiltshire, England, people arrange standing The Egyptian pharaoh Djoser tons of rock to build an stones in circles. Some of the stones are builds the first pyramid as his tomb. It has stepped sides in enormous, mound-shaped tomb hauled hundreds of miles from Wales. Their six levels and is made of stone. with a long passage leading to a purpose is unclear, but certain stones align with the midwinter Sun, so Stonehenge may The steps may have been central burial chamber. The seen as a stairway to the passage is aligned with the be used to establish calendar dates. heavens for the pharoah. midwinter sunrise, which lights up the burial chamber for 17 minutes. c.2950–2500 bce Pyramids in Peru 2630–2611 bce People at Caral in Peru build Pyramids and Sphinx the first pyramids in South America. They have stepped At Giza, the largest of Egypt’s pyramids sides like Djoser’s, but they are built by the pharaohs Khufu, Khafre, serve as temples rather than and Menkaure. Khafre’s is guarded by tombs. They are arranged around a plaza in the middle the Great Sphinx, a colossal statue of a lion with the head of a pharaoh. of a great urban center. c.3200 bce c.2600 bce Ziggurats 2589–2504 bce In Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq), Easter Island statues rulers build stepped temples, called ziggurats. Each is seen as the home On Easter Island in the Pacific of the local god, whose statue is kept Ocean, islanders carve 887 statues in a shrine at the very top. of their chieftains and ancestors. These have eyes of white coral with c.2100 bce black obsidian pupils, and caps Monk’s Mound 1113–1150 ce made of red stone. At the meeting of the Mississippi, Angkor Wat 1300–1500 ce Missouri, and Illinois rivers, North Americans build Monk’s Mound, an In Cambodia, King Suryavarman 43 immense, pyramid-shaped mound of II constructs Angkor Wat, a Hindu soil and clay. Its base is as large as temple containing his tomb. It that of Egypt’s Great Pyramid. takes around 30 years to build and today remains the world’s 900–1200 ce largest religious structure.

The Great Sphinx The ancient Egyptians built sphinx statues to guard important areas such as tombs and temples. The most famous sphinx is the Great Sphinx of Giza, situated on the west bank of the River Nile. It was carved out of a huge outcrop of limestone that sticks up above the desert floor to guard the pyramid of Khafre in Giza. It was built 4,500 years ago, and is one of the largest and oldest statues in the world. The Sphinx has a human head, probably that of Pharaoh Khafre, and the body of a lion.



Sharing stories “Those who tell stories Many of the earliest stories were composed as rule the world.” poems, as the rhythm and repetition of poetry made it easier for storytellers to learn them. With Hopi American Indian proverb the invention of writing around 6,000 years ago, these stories began to be written down. Drama and, much later, the novel developed as new forms of storytelling. Today, books are still a popular format for reading stories, but they are also available digitally as e-books or online. In the story, the Monkey King had a magic staff that could shrink or grow in size. 13th century 13th–15th century 16th century 1623 Scandinavian sagas Medieval romances Monkey magic First Folio Most Icelandic sagas are tales of Tales of chivalrous knights going Journey to the West (also known Shakespeare adds many words to historic voyages, battles, and kings on quests and having heroic as Monkey) is a Chinese novel the English language and has a of northern Europe. Some sagas based on the true story of a monk’s huge impact on the development adventures are known in medieval journey to bring Buddhist scrolls tell of a legendary past full of Europe as romances. Old French from India to China. The novel of literature around the world. After dwarves and giants. As well as and British legends of King Arthur adds characters from Chinese his death, 36 of his plays are sagas, the Icelanders write down and his Knights of the Round Table collected together for the first stories of Thor and Loki from are written down as romances in mythology, such as the time in the First Folio. Monkey King. Norse mythology. the late Middle Ages. 1864 1884 1887 1914–1918 Science fiction Great American Novel Elementary, War poets my dear Watson Science and fantasy meet in US novelist Mark Twain’s A number of British and French French writer Jules Verne’s Adventures of Huckleberry Finn Scottish writer Sir Arthur Conan soldiers fighting on the front lines Journey to the Center of the Earth vividly portrays the American Doyle creates the world’s and, later, 20,000 Leagues Under South and the language of its in World War I write about their the Sea (1870). These stories are people. It is considered one of the best-known fictional detective, horrific experiences in early masterpieces of what we “Great American Novels”—works Sherlock Holmes, as well as his that capture the spirit of America. sidekick, Dr. Watson, in his novel haunting poetry. Sadly, many now call science fiction. of them never come home A Study in Scarlet. from the war. 46

Ancient Greek The story of Aladdin and the genie actors wore was added by the French writer Antoine Galland in the 18th century. masks to identify The tale of the character Gilgamesh from they played. Mesopotamia in modern-day Iraq is the oldest surviving epic. After 2100 bce 5th century bce 8th–15th century ce c.1000–1012 Ancient epics Greek drama 1001 stories First novel Societies of the ancient Early Greek plays involve only a One Thousand and One Nights The Tale of Genji by the Japanese world produce long poems called single actor and a chorus (a group is a collection of popular stories lady-in-waiting Murasaki Shikibu is epics. Performed by storytellers of performers who comment on from Arabia. Although they appear rather than written down, these in Arabic folk tales, many of its maybe the world’s first novel. the action). Playwrights add a well-known characters—Sinbad, Written on sheets of paper pasted epics celebrate a civilization’s second and then a third actor to Aladdin, and Ali Baba—will be culture through stories the stage, laying the foundations and folded together, it tells the of great heroes. added much later. story of “Shining Genji,” the son of for Western drama. an ancient Japanese emperor. 18th–19th century 1812–1822 1818 1865 Rise of the novel Once upon a time Gothic horror Wonderland The novel becomes an extremely Brothers Jacob and Wilhelm Mary Shelley writes Frankenstein, English clergyman Lewis Carroll’s popular form of literature. Many Grimm collect traditional German one of the greatest works of Gothic Alice in Wonderland is full of European and American writers folk tales such as Snow White and horror—a type of story that deals produce their novels in serial form. Hansel and Gretel, in Children’s and with the supernatural, ghosts, and nonsense speech and fantastical They are published in sections as Household Tales. The cruelty and characters. It brings about a monthly parts to make them more violence of the original stories is haunted houses. One of the last examples of Gothic horror is “Golden Age” in which children’s affordable to the public. toned down in future editions. books focus on entertainment Dracula (1897) by Bram Stoker. rather than education. 1920s 1950s 1960s 1997–2007 Stream of Postcolonial writing Black voices Harry Potter consciousness As European powers lose hold of African-Americans inspired by British novelist J.K. Rowling’s seven A new style of writing, called their international empires, the Civil Rights Movement books about Harry Potter and the “stream of consciousness” (see pages 290–291) write wizard school of Hogwarts become a attempts to show fragments writers from former colonies in about the experiences of worldwide phenomenon. The novels of thoughts and feelings as Africa, South America, and their people. The decade have since been translated into also sees the rise of female around 80 languages and have sold they pass through a Asia—particularly India—begin African-American poets. character’s mind. to write about the experience more than 450 million copies. of being colonized. 47

“I adore wearing gems, RTovhameluRaeponiiommnfnreaoapanSrmomemsersttapbihbinIlneieatn)err,ilcssaiwn(nerhfrmoogghohrsseiartictgs,ehdoqhaihseleuinptzaohadiernsfeondttatytteohmeitrencineuetBsEletcahutklsertloai(cwccpeheesaa. ,rremrs). wInwaeAvnMaeoodzraelbdclrtnixspaeeooiitcncdtpsucohioieecraa,eqrnnjAnaprrueod,tdlztouaecaywtfigdekpnsvesc.eteeeawsT,mrstnliyshhatoroahheenhybfderydjajalseleerlae.dsdwsola,esfero, lry but not because they 13152251– are mine. You can’t possess radiance, you can only admire it.” Elizabeth Taylor Actress and jewelry collector CfareTnlbothrdBrsreoimiglAiwtynwotvlaoGgianoedrenrmiorefomcenairtimnnwxsabwWodioCronarfIefsoyrtneshhctlneiealebzteogdcairyaeprhnvn(coprmCyda.seaEetelrtnsyuntiraoteekall.,corlocnpkuoTdcmseht,owiseureynna-)la.lrym c.100 ce 1c0.05 b0c0e– Scythian gold c.700 bce The Scythians are nomads ETghbeyriaapgnnthitdcijaceeehnniatwlmsrjeradelEirrdengbemylie.ygnfuwpspr,rtaMeileoellealacannirmn,wpodiseyglsuwapollsoroegavldscnmzteaoodeuolslrlians,n,acnertabosss,nepsadpudcecsr,.oclh.oar3s3e0d0000b–ciJegsafoidlpotrCreidi,iiszthkantieselhhdaneooanrpeoumcidkg,odsershegnteerattmcjhen.iooCea1dgnhbnihbsd0lenseytaeaa0c,towbahlnb0auaeeoy,.sttnbehoce living in Central Asia who carry their wealth with them. They wear jewelry and decorate their armor and clothing with gold ornaments. This comb is topped with a group of fighting warriors. Jewelry thberritamuctsaemtlolAradifecrrktwinileEselag.rcartenrhaldTheoyalhmoecfneeofkSmlsymdniieoatthenvmcdohisle.aeeseglrysolherntMeailfwhlbhndoeesurdredalartmaenoaddEnass istn c.100,000 bce Humans have always worn jewelry, whether it is made from simple items such as shells and feathers, or expensive metals like gold and silver. Modern manufactured materials such as plastics have expanded the range even further. Throughout history, there have been many reasons for people to wear jewelry. Some societies and cultures have used jewelry to protect against evil, some to display wealth or rank, and some simply for decoration. 48


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