Fundamentals of Anatomy, Physiology and Kinesiology in Sports 143 (a) Slow Twitch: Slow twitch (Type I) or red muscles have a lot of mitochondria and myoglobin which give color to the muscular tissue. These muscles can produce power for a longer period. It carries more oxygen and continues the aerobic process for a long time by using fat and carbohydrates in the form of fuel. These muscular fibers keep on contracting for a long time but they have less power. (b) Fast Twitch: These muscles have less number of mitochondria than the slow twitch muscles. Muscles contraction speed is higher. In addition the force produce by these muscles is also greater than the slow twitch muscles. Fast twitch muscles are of three kinds – IIa, IIx, IIb. These enhance contractions. I. cTayppilelaIrIieasMaundscauplaperafrisbererd: It is aerobic, rich in mitochondria and when deoxygenated. II. tfTahysepteneraImkIixenMdofuofsIIcmdu. ulIastrclleafsicbkirsne:maTithhouicsmhmoannudsrbciuaeilnaargn.dfiAbmsreycoiosgmlaopblasiorne.kdInttoowisnsltohbwye twitch muscles fibre (oxygenated muscle), it contracts with terrific speed and with full force. It can continue a process for very little time. Afterwards, it begins to ache. III. Type IIb Muscular fibre: It is anaerobic (white) muscle which lacks mitochondria and myoglobin. 2. Involuntary or Smooth muscles These muscles are also called unstriped muscles. These muscles function on their own, at their own sweet will. These muscles are responsible for the characteristic movements associated with alimentary canal. These muscles control and adjust the diameter of blood vessels and the ducts of glandular tissue. These muscles contract without nervous stimulation. These muscles respond slowly to stimuli but are capable of long time sustained contractions. These muscles do not get fatigued easily because of their slowness of response. These muscles possess active or myosin filaments. But the structural arrangements of these filaments are very different as compared to the skeletal muscles. 3. Cardiac Muscles These muscles are in our heart. Unlike voluntary muscles, these muscles have stripes. But there are some differences because its fibers have branches. Each cell has a large oval centrally located nucleus. These cells are red in color. These muscles do not function as per our will. They have full independence.
144 Health and Physical Education—XI Practice Questions 8.3 I. Short–I Question Answers (3 Marks, 100 Words) 1. Explain the functions of muscular system. 2. Explain the muscles involved in the internal reactions of our body. 3. Explain the construction of muscles. II. Short–II Question Answers (5 Marks, 200 Words) 1. Explain the constructive classification of muscles. 2. Explain the properties of muscles in details. 8.4 Function and Structure of Respiratory System and Circulatory System Respiratory System Human being’s first need is oxygen. Without food and water a human being can survive for some days but without oxygen the life is not possbile for even few minutes. Breathing is the process that brings oxygen in the air into our lungs and moves oxygen through our body. Our lungs remove the oxygen and pass it through our blood-stream, where it is carried off to the tissues and organs that allow us to walk, talk, and move. Our lungs also take carbon dioxide from our blood and release it into the air when we breathe out. Due to some chemical changes carbon dioxide (CO2) is produced. There is a need for the constant development of CO2. Respiration is a two way process. One process is called internal respiration and the other process is called external respiration. Oxygen is inhaled. After some time, chemical changes take place. As a result, some waste substances get accumulated. Complete respiration involves inhalation oxygen (O2) and exualation of carbon dioxide (CO2). Functions of Respiratory System The functions of the respiratory system are as follow: 1. It helps in external respiration, i.e., exchange of O2 and CO2 in human body. 2. Internal respiration takes place between cells and capillaries. 3. It helps in regulation of body temperature. 4. It helps in maintaining and control of pH level of the body. 5. It affects the blood flow and heart rate. Respiratory rate and heart rate increases and decreases simultaneously. 6. It protects from bacteria. Structure of Respiratory System The process of carrying oxygen and after its use the process of exhaling out carbon dioxide is called respiration.
Fundamentals of Anatomy, Physiology and Kinesiology in Sports 145 This is a process wherein oxygen is taken in from the environment and this oxygen produces heat and energy through several chemical reactions in our body and carbon dioxide (produced quite some chemical changes in cells) is thrown out. Man can live for some time without water but without oxygen man’s life is not possible. If oxygen is stopped to enter a human being for 4 minutes, he may die. That is why our body is in constant need of oxygen. Respiratory system has many organs. Function of these are as under: 1. Nose, 2. Pharynx, 3. Larynx, 4. Trachea, 5. Bronchi, 6. Diaphragm, 7. Lungs 1. Nose The nose is an important organ of the respiratory system. It helps us to smell things. It plays a key role in the respiration process. It has two parts—external feature and internal cavities. (a) External Features: It is triangular frame of bones and cartilage. It is covered with skin. There are two nostrils in the inner side of the nose. (b) Internal Cavities: These two cavities are divided into two parts. Each cavity has a lot of small hair. The hair acts as a filter. The oxygen we inhale is cleared so some unwanted particles are trapped by the hair. 2. Pharynx Behind the nose is pharynx. It is a muscular tube which extends from the base of the skull to its junction with the oesophagus at the level of Cricold cartilage. 3. Larynx After pharynx the wind passes through larynx which is made of cartilage. It has two pairs of membranes. Air causes the vocal cords to vibrate and it produces sound. 4. Trachea Trachea is also called wind pipe. It is somewhat cylindrical shape. Its length is 11.9 cm and its diameter is 2-2.5 cm. It is in the front of food pipe (oesophagus). After that, it gets divided into two bronchi. Each tube is related to its own lung. The wind pipe has walls. There is a valve at the entrance of the wind pipe. This valve stops food from entering the wind pipe. 5. Bronchi The two bronchi are somewhat different from wind pipe. The right bronchus is smaller wider and more vertical than the left bronchus. Both the bronchi enter the right and left lungs respectively and then break up into a greater number of smaller bronchus. 6. Diaphragm Diaphragm is a sheet of internal skeletal muscle that extends across the bottom of the rib cage. It separates the thoracic cavity (heart, lung and ribs) from the abdominal cavity and performs an important function in respiration. When it contracts, the volume of thoracic cavity increases and air is drawn into the lungs. 7. Lungs The right lung has 3 sections called lobes and is a little larger than the left lung, which has 2 lobes. The bronchial tubes are divided into smaller air passages called bronchi, and then into bronchioles. The bronchioles end in tiny air sacs called alveoli, where oxygen is transferred from the inhaled air to the blood. After absorbing oxygen, the blood leaves the lungs and is carried to the heart. The blood then is pumped through your body to provide oxygen to the cells of your tissues and organs. When cells use oxygen, carbon dioxide is produced and transferred to the blood. Your blood is carried the back to your lungs and it is removed when you exhale.
146 Health and Physical Education—XI Types of Respiration There are two types of respiration, i.e., external respiration and internal respiration. The external respiration is a process that takes place in the lungs and the internal respiration is a process that takes place in the cells that make up the tissue. (A) External Respiration: This process takes place in lungs with the help of alveoli (air sacs). In alveoli, the carbon dioxide diffuses from blood and oxygen fuses with blood. It is also called breathing. Inhalation and exhalation are the two processes of external respiration. This breathing process oxygenates to the blood, it gets purified as carbon dioxide is removed from the blood. External respiration makes internal respiration possible as oxygen rich blood goes to different parts of the body. (B) Internal Respiration: The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the tissues constitutes the internal respiration. It consists of the passage of oxygen from the cells into the tissue fluid and then from the tissue fluid into the blood. Mind Vocabulary Related to Respiratory System (a) Tidal Volume: It is the amount of air in normal inspiration and expiration of breathing. (b) Vital Capacity: Vital capacity (VC) is the maximum amount of air a person can expel from the lungs after a maximum inhalation. It is equal to the sum of inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and expiratory reserve volume. It is measured by Spirometer. In males its amount is 4800cc and in females its amount is 3200cc. (c) Residual Volume: It is the amount left in lungs after a maximum expiration. (d) Respiratory per minute Volume: It is that amount of air which is inspired and expired per minute from the lungs. It is equal to the Tidal Volume taken per minute and is approximately 7 litre. It increases by exercising regularly. (e) Respiratory Quotient: It is the ratio of expired CO2 and consumption of O2. It is affected by Food, Exercise and Diseases. Introduction to Circulatory System Physiological aspects of physical education order to remain in a state of good health body cells, tissues and organs, supply of nutrients and oxygen. The waste products and CO2 must be continuously removed along side by side. The system of the body that carries out both of these specialized functions continuously both in and out is called circulatory system, i.e., the heart and the blood vessels through which the blood is continuously circulated to and fro. The system that circulates blood and lymph through the body, consisting of the heart, blood vessels, blood, lymph, and the lymphatic vessels and glands is called circulatory system. Blood plays an important role in this system that’s why it is also called as blood circulatory system.
Fundamentals of Anatomy, Physiology and Kinesiology in Sports 147 Blood Blood is a red colour liquid tissue present in body. It has two factors: Plasma Blood cells 1. Plasma About 55% of blood is blood plasma, a fluid that is the blood’s liquid medium, which by itself is straw-yellow in color. It is essentially an aqueous solution containing 92% water, 8% blood plasma proteins, and trace amounts of other materials. Plasma circulates dissolved nutrients, such as glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids (dissolved in the blood or bound to plasma proteins), and removes waste products, such as carbon dioxide, urea, and lactic acid. 2. Blood Cells These are of three types: (a) Platelets: They take part in blood clotting (coagulation). Fibrin from the coagulation cascade creates a mesh over the platelet plug. (b) White Blood Cells: White blood cells are part of the body’s immune system; they destroy and remove old or aberrant cells and cellular debris, as well as attack infectious agents (pathogens) and foreign substances. The cancer of leukocytes is called leukemia. (c) Red Blood Cells: Red blood cells contain the blood’s hemoglobin and distribute oxygen. Mature red blood cells lack a nucleus and organelles in mammals. The red blood cells (together with endothelial vessel cells and other cells) are also marked by glycoprotein’s that define the different blood types. The proportion of blood occupied by red blood cells is referred to as the hematocrit, and is normally about 45%. The combined surface area of all red blood cells of the human body would be roughly 2,000 times as great as the body’s exterior surface. Functions of Blood Blood performs many important functions within the body, including: 1. Coagulation, the response to a broken blood vessel, the conversion of blood from a liquid to a semisolid gel to stop bleeding. 2. Messenger functions, including the transport of hormones and the signalling of tissue damage. 3. Supply of oxygen to tissues (bound to haemoglobin, which is carried in red cells). 4. Supply of nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids (dissolved in the blood or bound to plasma proteins (e.g., blood lipids)). 5. Regulation of core body temperature and hydraulic functions. 6. Removal of waste such as carbon dioxide, urea, and lactic acid. 7. Immunological functions, including circulation of white blood cells, and detection of foreign material by antibodies. Blood Circulation The blood circulatory system (cardio-vascular system) delivers nutrients and oxygen to all cells in the body. It consists of the heart and the blood vessels running through the entire body. The arteries carry blood away from the heart; the veins carry it back to the heart. The system of blood vessels resembles a tree—The “trunk,” the main artery (aorta), branches into large arteries, which lead to smaller and smaller vessels. The smallest arteries end in a network of tiny vessels, the capillary network. There is not only one blood circulatory system
148 Health and Physical Education—XI in the human body, but two, which are connected—The systemic circulation provides organs, tissues and cells with blood so that they get oxygen and other vital substances. The pulmonary circulation is where the fresh oxygen we breathe in, enters the blood. At the same time, carbon dioxide is released from the blood. In our body blood is circulated in two types: (a) Pulmonary circulation (b) Systematic circulation (a) Pulmonary Circulation The impure blood from the right atrium passes into the right ventricle. When the right ventricle contracts, the blood goes into pulmonary artery. From here, tphleacbelohoedrer.eaAcfhteerswtahredtsw, opululmngosn.aHryercea,ptihllearbileosodunleitaeveusnCtiOl 2veainnds takes O2 .The exchange of CO2 and O2 takes are formed. Then blood comes back to the heart by four pulmonary veins which emit the purified blood into the left auricle. Again the blood passes into the left ventricle and then goes into aorta for systemic circulation again. The sequence is: Venacava (Impure Blood)—Right Atrium (Impure Blood)—Right Ventricle (Impure Blood)—Pulmonary Artery (Impure Blood)—Lungs (Pure Blood)—Pulmonary Vein (Pure Blood)—Left Atrium. (b) Systematic Circulation In systemic circulation blood comes out from the left ventricle by aorta. Afterwards, blood reaches small arteries which circulates blood to all parts of the body unless pure blood reaches the arteries. These arteries are divided and further subdivided. Arteries resist the flow of blood because they have narrow passage. Here arteries perform two functions: (i) Maintenance of arterial blood pressure. (ii) Regulation of blood flow into capillaries. These capillaries have thin walls, so that exchange between plasma and interstitial fluid may take place well. The capillaries unite and form veins which, in turn, become inferior vena cava and superior vena cava. The sequence is: Left Atrium (Pure Blood)—Capllaries—Aorta (Pure Blood)—Arteries (Pure Blood)—Capillaries Supply to Body Parts. Exchange of blood → Veins (Impure Blood) → Superior Venacave → Interior Venacave → (Heat Impure blood) → Right Atrium Heart Rate The heart rate is the number of times the heart beats in the space of a minute. The heart is a muscular organ in the centre of the chest. When it beats, it pumps the blood containing oxygen and nutrients around the body and brings back waste products. A healthy heart supplies the body with just the right amount of blood at the right rate for whatever the body is doing at that time. For example, being frightened or surprised automatically releases adrenaline, a hormone, to make the heart rate faster. This prepares the body to use more oxygen and energy to escape or confront potential danger. The pulse is often confused with the heart rate but refers instead to how many times per minute the arteries expand and contract in response to the pumping action of the heart. The pulse rate is exactly equal to the heartbeat, as the contractions of the heart cause the increases in blood pressure in the arteries that lead to a noticeable pulse. Taking the pulse is, therefore, a direct measure of heart rate. Pulse Rate Heart rate, also known as pulse, is the number of times a person’s heart beats per minute. Normal heart rate varies from person to person, but a normal range for adults is 60 to 100 beats per minute. However, a normal heart rate depends on the individual, age, body size, heart conditions, whether the person is sitting or moving,
Fundamentals of Anatomy, Physiology and Kinesiology in Sports 149 medication use and even air temperature. Emotions can affect heart rate; for example, getting excited or scared can increase the heart rate. Most importantly, getting fitter lowers the heart rate, by making heart muscles work more efficiently. A well-trained athlete may have a resting heart rate of 72 to 80 beats per minute. Stroke Volume Stroke volume is the volume of blood pumped from the left ventricle per beat. Stroke volume is calculated using measurements of ventricle volumes from an echocardiogram and subtracting the volume of the blood in the ventricle at the end of a beat from the volume of blood just prior to the beat. The term stroke volume can apply to each of the two ventricles of the heart, although it usually refers to the left ventricle. The stroke volumes for each ventricle are generally equal, both being approximately 70 ml in a healthy 70 kg man. Cardiac Output The cardiac output is simply the amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute. Necessarily, the cardiac output is the product of the heart rate, which is the number of beats per minute, and the stroke volume, which is amount pumped per beat. The cardiac output is usually expressed in litres/minute. For someone weighing about 70 kg (154 lbs), the cardiac output at rest is about 5 litres/minute. In this case, if the heart rate is 70 beats/min, the stroke volume would be a little more than 70 ml/beat. Blood Pressure Blood pressure is the pressure of circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels. Used without further specification, “blood pressure” usually refers to the pressure in large arteries of the systemic circulation. Blood pressure is usually expressed in terms of the systolic pressure (maximum during one heart beat) over diastolic pressure (minimum in between two heart beats) and is measured in millimetres of mercury (mmHg), above the surrounding atmospheric pressure. Blood pressure is one of the vital signs, along with respiratory rate, heart rate, oxygen saturation, and body temperature. Normal resting blood pressure in an adult is approximately 120 millimetres of mercury systolic, and 80 millimetres of mercury diastolic, abbreviated “120/80 mmHg”. Traditionally, blood pressure was measured non-invasively using a mercury-tube Sphygmomanometer. Practice Questions 8.4 I. Short–I Question Answers (3 Marks, 100 Words) 1. What do you mean by blood circulation? 2. What are the functions of blood? 3. What are the functions of heart? 4. Explain the functions of respiratory system. 5. Write the mind vocabulary related to respiratory system. 6. Explain the construction of heart. II. Short–II Question Answers (5 Marks, 200 Words) 1. Explain in details the blood cells. 2. Write notes on following: A. Stroke Volume B. Cardiac Output C. Heart Beat D. Pulse Rate E. Blood Pressure 3. Explain the circulatory system. 4. What is the construction of respiration? Explain. 5. Explain the respiration process in details.
150 Health and Physical Education—XI 8.5 Equilibrium—Dynamic and Static and Centre of Gravity and its Application in Sports Equilibrium The condition of a system in which competing influences are balanced, resulting in no change is called Equilibrium. When all the forces acting on the body are counter-balanced by equal and opposite forces, so that the sum of the forces may equal zero, it is called the state of equilibrium. In other words, equilibrium takes place when the resultant force acting on a point is zero, i.e., the vector sum of all forces is zero. A state of equilibrium occurs when the body’s centre of gravity is over its base of support and the line of gravity falls within the base. The greater is the body surface in contact with the ground, the larger is the base of support. Thus a sitting position has a larger base of support than a standing position. Type of Equilibrium Equilibrium is of two kinds: (1) Dynamic Equilibrium, (2) Static Equilibrium. 1. Dynamic Equilibrium Keeping balance of the body while doing various physical activities is called dynamic equilibrium. As motion is the main part of most of the sports, equilibrium is a must for getting success and for doing activities in exciting and efficient manner. For example, when someone is running or doing a cartwheel in gymnastic. 2. Static Equilibrium When the centre of gravity is in static position, it is static equilibrium. It is a must for static equilibrium that the centre of gravity of body should be inside fulcrum. For example, doing hand stand in the beginning of floor events in gymnastics is static position. Principles of Static Equilibrium Stability is related to equilibrium in sports. Here are the following principles of maintaining the stability of body. 1. Stability can be achieved by widening the base of support: Widening the base of support helps to achieve greater stability. For example, while standing spreading the feet in the direction of movement adds stability. Where a stance is required, using both hands and feet creates the widest base. 2. Stability is proportionate to the weight of body: The person or the thing which is weighing more will have the higher stability. For e.g., it is harder to move a heavier person than a lighter one. Games like boxing, judo and wrestling are played according to weight on the principle of this. 3. The lower the centre of gravity is to the base of support, the greater the stability: When a player does an activity which needs stability, the player should lower his centre of gravity. For example when a player bends his knees while running, he can stop sooner and more efficiently. Similarly, a wrestler half sits to maintain his stability. Even a shot put thrower bends his knees in the end so that he may avoid a foul. 4. The nearer the centre of gravity is to the centre of the base of support the more stable the body: When the centre of gravity extends beyond the boundaries of the base of support, man’s balance is lost. Keeping the body’s weight centered over the base of support helps maintain stability. For example, while walking on a balance beam one requires a small base of support. Balance is lost soon
Fundamentals of Anatomy, Physiology and Kinesiology in Sports 151 in these activities. When balance is lost, the arm or legs on the opposite sides from which the gymnast is leaving is raised to shift the centre of gravity back towards the base of support. 5. Stability increases by keep the centre of gravity low: If anyone has the lower centre of gravity then he will have better stability. Example, a wrestler sits half to get more stability. 6. Direction of an acting force: If the direction of an acting force is known, stability can be increased by moving the line of gravity as close as possible to the edge of the base where the force is expected. Centre of Gravity and Its Application in Sports Centre of gravity is an imaginary point around which the body or an object is balanced. This point plays an important role in all situations of balance. Each person or a thing has a centre of gravity which keeps on changing according to their movements. In man’s body, the centre of weight is known as centre of gravity. It can be within or outside the body. As a person moves on, it keeps on changing. It also depends on a person’s shape. When a person stands straight keeping both his hands at the sides, centre of gravity is located at the level of bullocks. The knowledge of centre of gravity for players is a must. For example, in basketball, during a jump a player swings both arms forward and upward to assist in gaining height. When a player is in the air, he allows one arm to drop to his side and tries to get maximum reach with the other arm. In sports, player’s centre of gravity plays an important role in his playing capacity. So the players should pay attention towards their centre of gravity and balance. While playing a player should follow the below mentioned things: I. The edge of the base line of centre of gravity is proportionate to the movement in one direction. II. Balance is indirectly proportional to the height of centre of gravity from the base, i.e., the higher the object the lesser the balance. III. To maintain balance, the centre of gravity should be kept under base line. IV. Balance is proportionate to the weight of body or the balance will be greater as the weight is heavier. Use of Centre of Gravity in Sports To get the better result and to be strong, the position of centre of gravity is quite important. 1. Defense Position in Basketball and Volleyball: To get a high defense position in volleyball and basketball the players spread their legs to lower the centre of gravity towards the base. 2. Sprints: Starts in Sprints in athletics is another example of use of centre of gravity. We have to take an instant start in sprints. So, we take our weight on our hands in “Set” position. So, we can start immediately while balancing our weight. Initially, the centre of gravity of the body falls on the edge of the base line of hands. If the centre of gravity falls behind the line then it may take time to start because it will require a greater force to go ahead.
152 Health and Physical Education—XI 3. Wrestling: If a wrestler falls on the mat and his arms spread and his both knees and legs are on the mat then at this stage he gets a proper balance position. In this position, it is quite tough for the opposite player to remove him. 4. Gymnastics: If a gymnast is performing hand stand then his centre of gravity should be between the vertical lines of hands, otherwise he will lose his balance and fall. Practice Questions 8.5 I. Short–I Question Answers (3 Marks, 100 Words) 1. Explain the principles of equilibrium. 2. What things should a player keep in mind while playing? 3. Explain the types of equilibrium. 4. Which position is compulsory for static equilibrium? II. Short–II Question Answers (5 Marks, 200 Words) 1. What is centre of gravity? Explain its role in sports. Multiple Choice Type Questions 1. Anatomy is the study of structure of human body (a) Partly true (b) True (c) No (d) None of these 2. The knowledge of ................. helpful in preparation of training programme. (a) Anatomy (b) Physiology (c) Both (d) None of these 3. Physiology provides knowledge about .......... . (a) Human behaviour (b) Human structure (c) Functioning of human body (d) None of these 4. Human skeleton is made up of ........... . (a) Bones (b) Muscles (c) Skin (d) Blood 5. Upper limb is divided in .......... . (a) Three regions (b) Four regions (c) Ten small regions (d) Five big regions 6. How many bones are there in the lower limb? (a) 32 (b) 30 (c) 23 (d) 50 7. Skull is attached with ............... . (a) Vertebral column (b) Lower part of legs (c) Near the heart (d) Between the lungs
Fundamentals of Anatomy, Physiology and Kinesiology in Sports 153 8. Face is lower part of ............ . (a) Skull (b) Brain (c) Heart (d) Lungs 9. The rib cage is composed pairs of ribs ............... . (a) 12 (b) 03 (c) 15 (d) 20 10. How many bones are there in a rib cage? (a) 24 (b) 32 (c) 42 (d) 62 11. Skull has ............ bones. (a) 82 (b) 28 (c) 29 (d) 39 12. On the basis of their structure muscles are classified in ........... . (a) 3 parts (b) 5 parts (c) 10 parts (d) 8 parts 13. Bones are protected by .......... . (a) Small muscles (b) Large muscles (c) Ribs (d) Skin 14. How many muscles properties are support for its functioning? (a) Four (b) Two (c) Three (d) Five 15. Muscles give shape and size to the ......... . (a) Body (b) Heart (c) Lungs (d) Skeleton 16. For how many minutes a man can survive without oxygen? (a) 4 minutes (b) 10 minutes (c) 2 days (d) 10 days 17. How many reactions are there in respiratory system? (a) 2 (b) 5 (c) 3 (d) 10 18. Respiratory system regulates ........... . (a) The temperature of body (b) Increase heart beat (c) Supplies oxygen to lungs (d) None of above 19. To maintain the balance the centre of gravity should be kept ........... . (a) Above base line (b) Between base line (c) Under base line (d) None of these 20. One kind of equilibrium is static, other one is .................. . (a) Dynamic (b) Powerful (c) Strengthy (d) None of these 21. A state in which opposing forces acting upon a body are balanced or equal to zero is called ............. . (a) Line of gravity (b) Centre of gravity (c) Equilibrium (d) Base of support
154 Health and Physical Education—XI 22. Appendicular skeleton-bones: (a) 64 (b) 65 (c) 62 (d) 126 23. ............. refers to the ability to activate muscles causing them to contract. (a) Extensibility (b) Elasticity (c) Excitability (d) None of the above 24. The .............. cartilage provides a smooth surface for opposing the bones, lubericated by synovial fluid. (a) Hyaline (b) Elastion (c) Fibroelastic (d) All 25. Which of the following is/are property of muscles? (a) Contractility (b) Excitability (c) Elasticity (d) All 26. Approximate weight of the heart in ............. . (a) 400 gm (b) 300 gm (c) 500 gm (d) 350 gm 27. The respiratory pigment in Humans is ............. . (a) RBCs (b) WBCs (c) Haemoglobin (d) Platelets 28. Study of all the systems of human body and their mutual relationship in called ............. . (a) kenisiology (b) physiology (c) anatomy (d) all 29. When some one is performing a cartwheel in gymnastics which type of equillibrium is the person showing? (a) Static (b) Dynamic (c) Both (d) None 30. Which of the organs is not involved in respiration? (a) pharynx (b) bronchi (c) stomach (d) diaphragm 31. A person will die if he doesn’t get O2 for ............. . (a) 8 mins (b) 4 mins (c) 12 mins (d) 3 mins 32. Skeleton A Axial Skeleton B Appendicular skeleton C Give the numberic value of A, B and C (a) A—206, B—80, C—126 (b) A—120, B—80, C—206 (c) A—206, B—126, C—80 (d) None of these 33. What is the meaning of word ‘Sesamon’ in sesomoid bone? (a) Resemblance (b) Seed of the sesamune (c) Cup of sesamum (d) Head of the sesamum
Fundamentals of Anatomy, Physiology and Kinesiology in Sports 155 34. Synchrondrosis is found between .............. and .............. in long bones (a) Epiphysis and diaphysis (b) Paraphygsis and Cepiphyses (c) Symphysis and Paraphysis (d) Symplysis and diaphysis 35. ............. circulation, blood comes out from the left ventricle of the heart through aorta. (a) systematic circulation (b) pulmonary circulation (c) none of the above (d) both (a) and (b) 36. Which joint is present in elbow. (a) Hingle (b) Gliding (c) Ball and Socket (d) Saddle 37. ............. joint are called fibrous joints. (a) immovable joints (b) seightly movable joints (c) freely movable joints (d) none of the above 38. Synchondrosis is a type of ............. joint. (a) immovable joint (b) slightly movable joint (c) freely movable joint (d) none of the above
9Unit Psychology and Sports KDniodwYou?Contents 9.1 Definition and Importance of Psychology in Physical Education and Sports 9.2 Definition and Difference between Growth and Development 9.3 Development Characteristics At Different Stages of Development 9.4 Adolescent Problems and their Management Introduction The brain in our body does the job of thinking. The rest of the organs do work accordingly. Psychology is the science which studies the human mind, based on his behaviour. It is the process of thinking by male and female at different situations. Body is the home of mind. They both have strong connection. So, it is possible that the study of one part of the body is the analysis of other part of the body. Psychology is that science which evaluates the behaviour of one person to read his mind. First of all, we should have the knowledge of psychology. The origin of psychology is often traced to the Greek philosophy. In fact, the word ‘Psychology’ is made up of two greek words—psyche and logos. ‘Psyche’ means soul and ‘logos’ means science. So, psychology is the science of soul. But in absence of complete knowledge of soul, this meaning has not been considered appropriate. After some time, psychology was considered as the science of mind. But knowing what is inside one’s heart is a hard task. Later on, heart/mind was given up and consciousness came into being. With the passage of time, even this meaning of psychology was also rejected. At last, psychology came to be known as the science of behaviour. According to Woodsworth “First of all, psychology lost its soul then it lost its will. Later on, it gave up consciousness. Now, It adopts behaviour of sport.” ➡ Different theories come in light in the connection of psychology such as science of soul, science of mind, science heart and mind, study of consciousness, science of behaviour. ➡ Originally psychology theory comes into existence from Greek philosophy. ➡ Sports psychology is branch of Psychology. ➡ Mainly role of sports psychology is start during the pre-competition phase as to control on sentiments, emotions, behaviour, increases the physical and mental efficiency and skill of the sport. ➡ Growth and development moving side by side and separated after a particular age during human life span. ➡ Most common problems during adolescence are lack of stability and adjustment and decision on Carrier. 156
Psychology and Sports 157 9.1 Definition and Importance of Psychology in Physical Education and Sports Meaning and Definition of Psychology The word ‘Psychology’ is made up of two Greek words, psyche and logos. ‘psyche’ means soul and ‘logos’ means science. So, psychology is the science of soul. The following definitions will help to understand the meaning of psychology much better: According to Woodsworth, “Psychology is the pure knowledge of behaviour.” According to Pillsbury, “Psychology is the science of human behaviour.” According to Mac Dugal, “Psychology is the study of human behaviour, its causes and its stages.” According to Crooks and Sten, “Psychology is the scientific study of the behaviour and tasks of humans.” So in simple words we can say that psychology is that science which is related to the investigation of behaviour. Sports Psychology Sports psychology is a important branch of psychology influences sports, authentic performance, physical activity and exercise. The main objective of sports psychology is to understand the every players mindset. Psychology of a sports person influence the performance of a player. Sports psychology is an associative/multi-disciplinary science that acquire of knowledge from many associated field including biomechanics, physiology, kinesiology and psychology. It includes, how psychological factor affected the sports person and their related response. Definitions According to Singar, “Sports psychology is the search of human’s behaviour in sports.” According to K.M. Burns, “Sports psychology for physical education is that branch of psychology which deals with the physical fitness of an individual through his participation in games and sports.” According to John Luther, “Sports psychology is an area which attempts to apply psychological facts and principles of learning performance and associated human behaviour in whole field of sports.” According to Brown and Makoney, “Sports psychology is the study of the application of psychological facts and principles to learning performance and associated human behaviour whole field of sports.” “Sports psychology is the scientific study of person and his/her behaviour in sports contexts and the practical application of that knowledge.” From the above definitions it becomes simply clear that sports psychology is the study of players’ behaviour and their different psychological aspects in the field of sports. In new era of global sports, the concept of every particular domain of physical education has changed. The concept of sports training is too old. In Gurukul’s teachers used to teach the children. But today this concept has changed because today’s era is competitive. No player or team can make its place without proper training. Due to the proper sports training, with proper team of each expert in the small countries win the medals in Olympics. Importance of Psychology in Physical Education and Sports It is a fact that sports psychology and biomechanics in the field of sports have reached a significant level. For example, power motion and endurance which are different aspect of sports psychology have reached their highest level.
158 Health and Physical Education—XI KEYPOINTS Similarly, development of techniques has reached the highest level. ★ Psychology There is therefore intense pressure on athletes to perform. As a result, ★ Woodsworth sports psychology is projected to grow. There are little possibilities of ★ Pillsbury development in these aspects. So, the possibility of more development in ★ Mac Duagl the field of sports depends upon the psychological aspects of physical ★ Crooks and sten education for example, personality traits in relation to sports and games, ★ Singer sports intelligence, motivation for physical activities, growth and ★ K.M. Burns development, inclination, emotions, interest, attitude, motor skill learning ★ John Luther and individual differences. So, sport psychology play an important and ★ Brown Makoney elaborate role in the field of physical education. The following points ★ Growth illustrate the importance of sports psychology: ★ Development ★ Infancy 1. Helps player Psychologically in Preparation for Pre- ★ Childhood ★ Adolescence Competitions or Post-Competitions ★ Adulthood ★ Motor Functional Sports psychology also plays its role in preparation of athletes ★ Selection of carrier psychologically for competitions. In fact, it has become a trend to give ★ Lack of stability and psychological tips to athletes or team players before and after the competitions. That is why sports psychologists services are required with adjustment a national level and international level teams. They create the will ‘to win’ ★ Aggressive behavior in the players. ★ Professional Guidance ★ Adequate liberty 2. Increase in Physical Activities Efficiency ★ Sex Education ★ Education of psychology Sports psychology plays very unique role in the enhancement of physiological capacities such as strength, speed and flexibility, etc. Motivation plays a major role in the enhancement of physical capacity of sports person. It is a well-known as well as established fact that psychological capacities or powers can increase physiological capacities of individuals. 3. Role in Sentimental Problems of Players Stress, tension and anxiety are natural during practice period and competitions or tournaments. There may be some other emotional problems such as depression, frustration and panic etc. The knowledge of sports psychology may be helpful in such situations. Techniques of relaxation and concentration for stress management can be applied on sports persons who are facing such problems. Conclusion, it can be said that sports psychology plays a very vital role in enhancing the performance of sports persons to deal with the problem. 4. Learning Speed or Motor Skills Sports psychology plays its major role in the learning of motor skills. Motor skills’ learning depends on the individual’s level of readiness, i.e., physiological readiness and psychological readiness. Physiological readiness in children is the development of the necessary strength, flexibility and endurance as well as the development of various organ systems so that they may perform motor skills required in the activity. Psychological readiness is related to the learner’s state of mind. It means the desire and willingness to learn the particular skill. In psychological readiness, sports psychology plays an important role. Sports psychology is also helpful in the cognitive stage, the associative stage and the autonomous stage of motor skill learning. 5. Helpful to Control Emotions or Sentiments Sports psychology plays a very important role in controlling the emotions of sports persons during practice as well as competition. Generally, these emotions may bring spontaneous changes in the behaviour of sports person. These are anger, disgust, fear, negative self-thinking and feeling of ownership, etc. If these emotions are not controlled well in time, the performance may be decreased. Sports psychology plays a vital role at such juncture. It helps in balancing the arousal of emotions which further improves the performance.
Psychology and Sports 159 6. To Understand Behaviour Sports psychology helps in understanding the behaviour of athletes or sports persons engaged in competitive sports. Coaches also come to know the interest, attitude towards physical activity, instincts, drives and personality of sports persons. It plays its role not only in understanding the behaviour but also in modification of behaviour in various sports situations. 7. Improves Skills Sports psychology helps to enhance the sports skills of the players. So, it can be said that sports psychology enhance the performance of players. 8. Keeps Mental Hazards Away One of the major ways sport psychology helps you is through stress reduction in learning and performance. While some stress is inevitable and natural, levels of stress that is excessive lowers performance. Sport psychology helps you manage stress and turn it into success. 9. Helpful in Learning Innovative Techniques and Style Psychological training should be an integral part of an athlete’s holistic training process, carried out in conjunction with other training elements. This is best accomplished by a collaborative effort among the coach, the sport psychologist, and the athlete; however, a knowledgeable and interested coach can learn basic psychological skills and impart them to the athlete, especially during actual practice. 10. Helps in Making Training Plans Sports psychology also plays its role in preparation of athletes psychologically for competitions. Infact, it has become a trend to give psychological tips to athletes or team players before and after the competitions. That is why sports psychologists’ services are required with a national level and international level teams. They create the will ‘to win’ in the players. 11. Increase in Mental Efficiency/Toughness It is critical that you know how to prepare mentally and emotionally for lessons, practices and performances. Sport psychology helps you devise a customized mental readiness process that helps you transition from your normal work, school or social worlds into the special world of competition. Practice Questions 9.1 I. Short–I Question Answers (3 Marks, 100 Words) 1. What is the importance of psychology in sports? II. Short–II Question Answers (5 Marks, 200 Words) 1. Explain the importance of sports psychology. 9.2 Definition and Difference between Growth and Development Growth Growth is related to the process of height, weight and size. It is a quantitative change and it can be measured in kilogram, inch, centimetre, pound etc. Growth brings a physical change in the human skeleton and size. For
160 Health and Physical Education—XI e.g., When a child is born, he only weighs 2.5 to 3.5 kg but as he grows, there is a gradual increase in his height and weight. This kind of increment is due to the increase of his skeleton, muscles, body parts and the size of whole body. So, growth is a quantitative change. Development Development is a process of such as work skills of child, working capacity and progress in behaviour. It is different from growth because development is related to the body systems. Example—in development the bones not only increase in size but also become hard and strong and become capable of having more weight. This process of change is called development. So, we can say that development brings change in shape and size of body parts which leads to the improvement in their actions. The main aim of physical education is to wholesome growth and development of any individual. The aims of physical education can’t be achieved unless the principles of growth and development are recognized. The persons, who are engaged in the field of physical education, should have vast knowledge of growth and development of individuals for bringing about development in students physical, mental, social and emotional aspects. The knowledge of growth and growth means increase in size. When a body is explained in terms of growth it means—increase in size, height, length and weight. It can be measured as well. Development means change in size and structure, so that work may be improved. Growth is a part of development. The meaning of development is not limited to growth only. But also it is much more than that. Definitions of Development According to Hurlock, “Development is not limited to growing larger; instead it consists of a progressive series of change of an orderly, coherent type towards the goal of maturity.” According to Gesell, “Development is more than a concept. It can be observed, appraised and to some extent even measured in three major manifestations, i.e., anatomic, physiologic and behavioural…. Behaviour signs however constitute a most comprehensive index of developmental status and development potentials.” Difference between Growth and Development Growth and Development can be used in interchangeably these are two sides of one coin and they are dependent on each other. Development indicate a progressive change or ongoing process. The differences between them are as follow: S.No. Growth Development 1. Growth is quantitative. 2. It can be measured. Development is quantitative as well as qualitative. 3. It happens for a certain age. 4. It is a part of development. It can’t be measured but it can be evaluated. It is a long process and continues till life time. It is a wide phenomenon which consists growth also. Development is universal as physical development, mental development and social development etc. 5. It is related to the process of increment of height, Development is related to all the changes such as physical, social and emotional etc. weight and size. 6. Growth is related to a factor of personality and it has Development is related to all areas and has a huge field. limited field. 7. Growth can be seen and feel. Development can only be measure by the behaviour and it is invisible.
Psychology and Sports 161 Practice Questions 9.2 I. Short–I Question Answers (3 Marks, 100 Words) 1. Give two definitions of development. II. Short–II Question Answers (5 Marks, 200 Words) 1. Differentiate between growth and development. 9.3 Development Characteristics At Different Stages of Development It is necessary for us to know that both growth and development are synonymous to each other. Infact, growth and development are like two sides of the same coin. Growth is the expansion of bodily organs, whether in size, height or weight whereas, development itself is exhaustive. Development is not limited to growth only but it take place through out the life of an individual. There are so many factors of growth and development such as—Heredity, Environment, Living, Nutrition, Disease and Gender. These factors differentiate the growth and development of children. Development is not limited to growing larger instead it consists of a progressive series of changes of an orderly, coherent type towards the goal of maturity. Growth is related to changes in man’s size, weight and height on the other hand, development is related to changes in physical, mental, social, emotional and motor skills aspects. Growth takes place up to a definite age. It comes to an end when man attains maturity whereas process of development is never ending. It keeps on going throughout one’s life. The different stages of growth and development can be classified as follows along with their characteristics: 1. Infancy (birth 0 to 5 years) 2. Childhood I. Early Childhood (6 to 9 years) II. Later childhood (10 to 12 years) 3. Adolescence (13 to 18 years) 4. Adulthood (more than 18 years) 1. Infancy Deals with the Period (0 to 5 Years) The time from the birth of a child to its 5 years of age is called infancy which has some physical, mental and practical characteristics. These are as follows:
162 Health and Physical Education—XI 1. Physical Characteristic 1. At the time of birth a healthy child’s weight is 2.5 to 3 kg. 2. The neck’s muscles develop less. 3. The child’s development is visible because of the development of bones, nerves and muscles. 4. The ratio of different organs of the body is quite strange. 5. The child’s muscles are soft and less developed. By the age of two, his/her muscles become more developed very quickly. 6. During this stage both boys and girls develop similarly. 7. By the age of three, a child’s activities become noticeable. 8. Between the ages of 3 and 5, development ratio becomes a bit slow. By then, the ratio between a child’s weight and length becomes clear. 9. The child starts to use its physical organs and sensory organs in a balanced way and learns the activities related to motor skills such as walking, running, jumping, catching, throwing, etc. 2. Mental Characteristics 1. A child does not have control on his/her emotions. The emotions which emerge in the child do not last long. For example, weeping a child at once starts to laugh the very next moment. 2. The child’s emotions get reflected on its face. For example, a weeping child attracts its mother’s attention. 3. The emotional development of a child is based on its mother’s love towards it. 4. The child’s receptivity gets increased very quickly. It leads to the enhancement in its memory and thinking power. 5. Child begins to understand the language and tries to speak accordingly. 6. A child’s curiosity gets increased. Child begins to ask question. He/she gets satisfied with its elder’s answers. 7. The emotional development of a child depends on various experiences rather than happiness and sorrow. 8. A child’s behaviour depends on imagination. Child loves to listen fairy tales and likes to play with dolls. 9. By the age of 5, a child tries to do whatever he/she likes. He/she not concentrate on one thing for a long time. 3. Motor Functional Characteristics 1. At the ages of 2–3 year, the child loves to play a lot most of the time. 2. A child begins to take meals himself and his control over the activities related to its motions. 3. A child does the activities which it loves. He leaves the activities which he does not love to do. 4. A child begins to comb its hair himself and also learn to brush his teeth himself. 5. A 5 year child begins to button and unbutton its shirt itself. 6. As muscles become developed for functioning, a child does various activities, such as writing reading, catching, etc. 7. In this age, a child learns skills, mostly by imitation.
Psychology and Sports 163 Sports Activities for Development of Infants A child should be motivated to play with color balls and musical instruments. A child should be motivated to copy some physical skills like hand movement, clapping and wave hand etc. The opportunities should be provided to child to play inside and outside the house. A child should be motivated to kick, catch, throw and hit the ball by a plastic soft bat. 2. Childhood Childhood starts at the age of 6 and lasts till end of 12 years. It can be divided into two parts: 1. Early childhood (6 to 9 years) 2. Later childhood (10 to 12 years) 1. Early childhood (6 to 9 years) A. Physical Characteristic (i) Body grows continuously but slowly progress in this period. Bones are soft and can be damaged easily. It is necessary to take care of right pose in this age because after the whole development of bones it is hard to correct any damage. (ii) Physical activities gain weight. (iii) Pulse rate is higher than adults but blood pressure is low. (iv) Heart size is smaller in comparison to body size. (v) Strength does not develop completely. (vi) Endurance is low. (vii) Coordinative abilities are lesser in physical activities. (viii) Muscle develops less so there is no perfection in skills. (ix) Bones are softer in this age, so there is chance of fracture. B. Mental Characteristics (i) Children’s interest is more in large muscle activities, like running, catching, throwing and jumping etc. (ii) Children like to participate in physical activities and exercises. (iii) Children do not want to take part in team events but like to play alone. (iv) Copying is the main specification of this age. (v) Children become more curious and insist. (vi) There is no gender difference of participating in physical activities as they have same performance in different events or activities. (vii) The children take more interest in rhythmic activities like dancing, chasing, seeking and formal activities. (viii) Children take decision by watching colors of different things. Sports Activities for Development of Early Childhood In this age group, the physical activities should not be too tiring and tough because body develops slowly. Rhythmic activities should be increased because these activities develop coordination, balance and stability. The motor skills should be done at this age. Dances can also be performed to increase the coordination and balance. Simple skills sports should also be organised for these age group children.
164 Health and Physical Education—XI 2. Later childhood (10 to 12 years) A. Physical Characteristic (i) Body build affects both the height and weight of a child in late childhood. The bones harden; the height and weight increase at this stage and there is improvement in a child motor development, skill and endurance. (ii) The heart becomes strong and can do some hard work. (iii) There is an increase in height and weight. (iv) The milk teeth start falling and permanent teeth appear. (v) Children become conscious about his self respect. (vi) There is a gradual increase in the body and mind coordination start doing some skills by his own. (vii) Strength increases but not up to high level, endurance lowers down. (viii) Activities of the child develop and increase in skills and endurance. (ix) The child become anxious that it is necessary to keep him busy in some activities. B. Mental Characteristics (i) The child is in a position to exercise his or her power of memory, attention, thinking and imagination and can solve problems intelligently. (ii) His knowledge and experience not merely remains receptive but gradually take the creative turn in the late childhood stage. (iii) The child is intellectually and alive and active individual. I.Q. at this stage developed considerably and by the end of this stage it becomes stable. (iv) The child acquires mental readiness to learn at this stage. He can pay attention to and develop interest in reading, writing and arithmetical activities. (v) He shows awareness and sense of subordination to the school rules, laws and discipline. (vi) A sense of discipline and some sense of responsibility to school acquired by him. (vii) He tries to learn new knowledge and experience through imitation. (viii) Children follow only those things which they like. Motor Functional Characteristics 1. In this stage, the child is mostly active. It can be seen as playing in school, park or at home. 2. The child learns to coordinate its different activities. 3. In later childhood, both types of muscles—big and small—develop very quickly. 4. The small muscles get developed in girls more quickly than in boys. That is why girls tend to learn the art of stitching, drawing, etc. quickly, on the other hand due to power in their muscles boys tend to play football, make a high jump, run, skip, etc. 5. Between the ages of 6–11, a child’s hand writing gets improved slowly but steadily. It can write better and faster. Sports Activities for Development of Later Childhood At this stage the child likes to play competitive sports and wants to play in teams. So, the games and sports become more important in his sports activities. It is also important that the child should not be left behind to others in strength, coordinative abilities and skills otherwise the social and emotional stress will be born in him. At this stage the children should be provided with the facilities of running, jumping, badminton, table tennis and gymnastics. These activities are for motor development of the child.
Psychology and Sports 165 3. Adolescence (13 to 19 Years) Adolescence is a stage of complex changes. It starts after childhood and lasts till adulthood. This is a period of human growth from 13 year to 19 years. During this stage, young stress develops quickly. Adolescence has been described as the transition period in life. When an individual is no longer a child, but not yet a child. This stage has some physical characteristics, mental characteristics and emotional characteristics which are as follow: 1. Physical characteristics 2. Mental characteristics 3. Emotional characteristics 4. Social characteristics 5. Motor characteristics Definitions of Adolescence According to Ross, “The adolescent lives intensely emotional life, in which we can see once more the rhythm of positive and negative phases of behaviour in his constant alternation between intense excitement and deep depression.” According to Stanley Hall, “Adolescent is the stage of great stress and tension, storm and pressure.” According to Jersield, “Adolescent is that stage in which the child moves towards the maturity.” 1. Physical Characteristic 1. In this stage, physical changes take place very quickly. A child’s height and weight increase quickly. Girl’s height increase between 11-13 years whereas boy’s height between 14-18 years. That is why the girls aged between 13-14 years look older than the boys of the similar age. 2. Both girls and boys experience sexual changes. Their sexual organs begin to develop. 3. Girls chest and shoulder are less wide but their pelvic region as compared to boys are wider. In absence of the knowledge of these changes youngster begin to get tensed, depressed, worried and anxious. 4. Boy’s voice becomes heavy and their chest and shoulders become wide. 5. Soft hair begins to grow on boy’s face. Later, it becomes hard and dense and takes the form of beard and moustache. 6. In enlargement of girl’s breasts become widened and her voice becomes melodious and soft. 2. Mental Characteristics 1. All youngster’s developmental and physical characteristics at the same time. But the rate of development is different from youngster to youngster. A youngster develops physical maturity first. On the other hand another youngster develops mental maturity first. 2. At youngsters, take interest in exciting activities such as imaginary stories, exciting novels. They try to do off the beaten track. 3. In youngsters, the respect towards their role model increases. 4. In this stage, boys and girls start showing off their attitude. 5. There is a strong will develops to do adventurous activities in this stage. 6. Youngsters learn to take decision on their own. They learn to have trust on their friends and so they make a group of friends. 7. The individual tries to solve the hard problems by tricky ways. 8. Interest towards the competition increases.
166 Health and Physical Education—XI 9. Youngsters get attached with their peer group and try to give more and more time. 10. The role of individual independency increases. 11. At this stage, youngsters take decisions regarding their education and profession. 12. Attaining a body like his elders’ bodies, a young boy considers himself like an adult. 13. Attraction increases towards the opposite sex. 14. Now youngster’s aspect more respects from their elders and learn to criticize others. They become innovative as well. 15. Due to fast physical changes, indifference of parents and friends towards them, youngsters become mentally tensed, stressed and worried. 16. Youngsters learn to build castles in the air as regards future aspirations. 3. Emotional Characteristics 1. At this stage, youngsters become angry when others say even little things which do not suit them. They don’t like to be interrupted. 2. They become self-centered. On one hand, they tend to be in their group. Apart from it, they want to have their stay in each and every matter of the group. 3. Youngsters are very curious; they want to gain the knowledge of everything. At this stage, there is a great desire to acquire new things. 4. There is a great desire to attract a opposite sex. They tend to become very emotional and serious in love. 5. Since adolscence is a period of uncertainy of emotions such as anger, fear, love, etc. 4. Social Characteristics 1. Youngsters always oppose the criticizing behaviour of the family and society. 2. They get influenced more by their friends than their family. 3. Sometimes youngsters fall prey to addiction in the company of some bad friends. They even get engaged in criminal activities. 4. Every teen’s always try to do different for search of identity, so that they may be recognized in society and among friends on their own. 5. Youngsters always tend to make their personality appearing in front of the opposite sex, so that they may find good life-partners. 6. During this stage, they communicate in different ways. Youngsters take part in different social activities, such as picnic, drama, music competition etc. 5. Motor Characteristics 1. In adolescence there is an increase in coordinating activities. As compared to girls boys have much better development related to their motor skills. So that many restrictions are imposed on the girls during adolescence. So, their participation in games and sports remains limited. 2. In adolescence boys as compared to girls develop power more quickly. 3. Girls have more flexibility than boys. But boys can gain flexibility through daily exercise. 4. In different competitions boys perform much better than girls, especially in the sports which require power and energy. 5. Boys attain more explosive power than girls who gain little power during adolescence. Sports Activities for Development of Adolescent It’s recommended that teens get atleast 1 hour of physical activity on most, preferably all, days of the week. Many teens drop out of organized sports, and participation in daily physical education classes is a thing of the
Psychology and Sports 167 past. But given the opportunity and interest, teens can get health benefits from almost any activity they enjoy—skateboarding, in-line skating, yoga, swimming, dancing, or kicking a foot ball. Weight training, under supervision of a qualified adult, can improve strength and help prevent sports injuries. 5. Adulthood (After 19 Years) It is the state of mental and physical matureness of a person. This stage basically starts after the age of 19 years. Some of the characteristics of this age are as follow: A. Physical Characteristic (i) A person may continue to add a bit of height and weight. (ii) Hormonal changes also continue to occur, but the effects are less pronounced than they were during adolescence. (iii) Muscles have the peak of coordination. (iv) Endurance develops the most. Physical abilities are as their peak at this stage including muscle stress reaction and cardiac function. B. Motor Characteristics (i) Interest in team games increases but it is limited to several games. (ii) The hunger of excellence in the selected activities increases. (iii) If the adults do not motivate to take part in games and sports then there are chance that they leave games and sports. Physical Activities for Development of Adulthood A person tries to achieve the excellence in this age in the field of games and sports. They take interest in team games like football, hockey, volleyball etc. and individual games like swimming, badminton, tennis, golf and wrestling etc. In adults, physical activity includes leisure time physical activity (for example: walking, dancing, gardening, hiking, swimming), transportation (e.g., walking or cycling), occupational (i.e., work), household chores, play, games, sports or planned exercise, in the context of daily, family, and community activities. They should do yoga and exercise continuously. Practice Questions 9.3 I. Short–I Question Answers (3 Marks, 100 Words) 1. Explain the physical activities for development of adolescents. 2. Explain the social characteristics of adolescence. 3. Explain the physical characteristics of adolescence. 4. Explain the mental characteristics of early childhood. 5. Explain the mental characteristics of infancy. 6. Explain the functional characteristics of later childhood.
168 Health and Physical Education—XI II. Short–II Question Answers (5 Marks, 200 Words) 1. Explains the physical, mental and social characteristics of early and later childhood. 2. Explain the physical activities for development of early and later childhood. 3. Explain the physical, mental and social characteristics of adolescence. 4. Explain the physical, mental and social characteristics of adulthood and also writes the physical activities for development. 5. Explain the physical, mental and social characteristics of infancy. 9.4 Adolescent Problems and their Management Adolescence is the age of storm and stress. It is associated with many physiological and psychological changes and is a time of sudden changes in emotgional stability. Adolescence is the age when the development of sex organs reaches their mature size and the secondary sex characteristics, e.g., menstruation, the wet dream is observed due to hormonal development. These changes are unique experiences in their life which may be sometimes painful and stress. As it is a bridge between puberty and adulthood they become unable to adjust their youngsters as well as with the elders. Development of new interests, peer pressure, peer group, values, beliefs, social behaviour and ambitions are seen somehow different than the established social behaviour and trends. These differences may create mental tension in adolescence. Similarly, they interact toward hetero- sex, new peer group. Great emotional upheaval, and emotional instability are common characteristics of adolescence that may create mental tension and stress. This complexity creates mental tension and leads to dropout from the schools, discarding social norms, running away from home, drug addiction, suicidal tendency and other social crimes. Adolescence is a period of emotional instability. The feelings in adolescence develop in such a way that they want to survive only for present and do not see beyond this which leads to the behaviour of imitation of hairstyle, eating, walking, clothing, etc. It is due to lack of farsightedness and pleasure seeking attitude, they develop the habit of imitation. The adolescents want to develop their own identity by imitating other different things like hairstyle, clothing, speech, manners, etc. Due to some changes in this stage children face a lot of problems. This is the subtlest period of a child’s life. Some of these problems have been explained as under: 1. Mental Problems: During this age, stress, tension and strife are common. These traits create many problems such as difficulty in cooperating with others, maladjustment, etc. He faces anxiety. If the child’s real body structure is differing from his imagine one than there may be so many mental problems. Due to these problems the child does not relate with the other children and he remains mentally immature. 2. Emotional Problems: The life of an adolescent is full of emotions. Under such emotion, he performs some uphill task, which seems to be impossible in the beginning. Sometimes, the adolescent becomes so excited that he considers himself to be at the top of the world and, sometimes, he finds himself in a state of depression. He feels himself emotionally disturbed. 3. Physical Problem: During adolescence, physical changes take place at a very rapid pace. Sexual characteristics are clearly seen at the stage whereas girls are more tensed about their physique. 4. Behaviour Problems: Adolescence is a time for developing independence. Typically, adolescents exercise
Psychology and Sports 169 their independence by questioning, and sometimes breaking rules. Parents and doctors must distinguish occasional errors of judgment from a degree of misbehaviour that requires professional intervention. The severity and frequency of infractions are guides. 5. Feeling of Importance: An adolescent begins to understand himself important. He thinks that he should also get respect. But sometimes, parents do not take it seriously. They fail to understand the feelings of adolescent. That’s why he feels himself unimportant and it becomes a great problem. 6. Lacks of Stability and Adjustment: An adolescent does not remain stable and he faces adjustment problem. His behaviour does not remain constant. He feels himself unable to adjust with other people. He fails to coordinate with others. Not only outside but he cannot adjust himself in his family. He does not cooperate with his family members. He feels that he is under pressure of his parents. He wants to have free atmosphere at home. 7. Problems related to Sex: During adolescence, children face many problems, which are related to sex. They try to meet the opposite sex. Sometimes, they become so eager that they do not hesitate to leave their family. They feel restless due to their sexual urge. Rose says, “Sex then, is the fundamental fact of adolescence, if not all life. Like the overflow of great river, it irrigates and fertilizes great tracts of life’s territory.” 8. Addiction Problems: Some symptoms seen in adolescents with the disease of chemical dependence are similar to those seen in adults. Because of their age, lack of personality development, dependent family role, immaturity, and acting out of age-related behavioural tendencies, however, symptoms specific to this population occur. A plan to solve the problem of adolescent chemical dependence must focus on education, demonstration, cooperation, prevention, intervention, habilitation, treatment, and recovery. The phenomenon of denial in a chemically dependent adolescent yields a more complex delusional system that dictates age-specific intervention approaches. 9. Problem of Selection of Carrier: Each and every adolescent needs self-support. He wants to make his own place in society. He desires to live a fruitful life. According to Rose, “The adolescent desires to find his place in the world. The desire is a genuine need and refers to the need for self-support. He faces the problems of career selection. He does not want to depend upon his family members. He remains between dependence and independence.” 10. Social Problems: It has been observed that adolescents want to adopt their own ways. But society creates many hindrances in their paths. So, adolescents revolt against the social customs and traditions. Friends are very important for this age group. They share their views, knowledge and experience and hence, sometimes, the group acts as the medium of spreading social vices and dissatisfaction. If this group gets proper guidance, it is the best institution for developing sociability, confidence and comprehension. 11. Problem of Depression and mood swing: Depression and mood swings in adolescent is a very common and serious medical problem that leads to long-lasting feelings of sadness along with a loss of interest in once enjoyed activities. Teen depression affects the way a teen thinks, feels, behaves, and can lead to significant emotional, functional, and physical problems. While problem of depression and other mood disorders may occur at any time in life, the symptoms of depression experienced by teens may be different than those experienced by adults with depression. There are a lot of ups and downs involved in being an adolescent. Pressure from peers, expectations of high academic achievement, or hormones associated with puberty will naturally bring about mood swings. 12. Problem of Aggressive Behaviour: In this age group, children tend to show aggressive behaviour. They become aggressive on small matters. They become irritate easily. When they are asked to do certain activity, they become repulsive. They try to become hero. They misuse the hidden powers. They behaves unsocial in their peer group to prove themselves many times.
170 Health and Physical Education—XI 13. Problems of Juvenile Delinquency: If a child does not make a correlation among his physical, mental and social changes then he moves towards the unsocial behaviour. He tries to get others attention by doing some work. So, he starts telling lie, stealing, fighting and abusing with others to get others attention by teasing friends, make their fun, running from home, smashing and grabbing things in school, not studying and by over powering his friends. Management of Adolescent Problems Adolescence is the stage of stress and tension. It depends on the environment which is provided to teenagers. The teenagers who are given good and healthy environment, they face very few problems. There is no denying the fact that this is the stage full of problems. If the problems are not set at rest, the results may be terrible. Parents and teachers can help youngsters sort out their problems. Though, it is a difficult task yet if done sincerely and with dedication the problems can be overcome easily. The following are the solution to these problems: Provided Professional Guidance Teachers should provide vocational guidance to the adolescents. This guidance should be provided keeping in view their intelligence, capabilities, aptitude and interest. This guidance is must because many adolescents fail to select their vocations. Kashyap and Puree say, “Vocational education and vocational guidance is of an extremely great importance during the high school period.” Provided Moral and Religious Education Moral and religious education should be provided to adolescents. Religious and moral education will give them mental peace. Although, religious education should not be provided in educational curriculum, yet, it is better to provide it at home. But moral education should be imparted in educational institutions. Through moral education, some problems like indiscipline, anxiety and worry can be tackled easily. Social Educations Social education is also important in adolescence. As we know that social virtues are necessary to lead a social life. So, these virtues should be taught through social education. They should be taught, how to adjust themselves in society. It is a fact that man is a social animal. His existence depends on society but too much dependency is not good for leading a good life. As a matter of fact, adolescence is a stage of struggle, tension and anxiety. So, proper attention should be paid on the problems of adolescents, so that their development could be proper. Parents and teachers should always try to solve their problems, so that they could give their valuable contribution in the development and upliftment of their nation in future. Empathy and Broad Mindset of Parents Every parent has a different outlook towards parenting. A healthy relationship between the child and parents is the most essential during the teenage years. Communication is the key to developing a rapport, which results in the child feeling comfortable talking to their parents. Finding the correct balance between being a friend and a parent is important as this will help develop the required rapport. For e.g., teens facing body image concerns like being too fat, too skinny, too tall or too short will benefit from balanced approach towards parenting, which may stem from good rapport. Be their best friend and guide them without being demanding. The years between 13-19 years are usually classified as turbulent times as the children are going through many growth changes, physically and mentally. One of the best options is to approach these concerns with empathy and love.
Psychology and Sports 171 Adequate Liberty or Independence Adolescents want freedom in every phase of life. They wish to express their views independently. They should be given proper chance to express their feelings and expressions. They should be allowed to go for picnic and other recreational activities. Orders should not be imposed on them. Parents should try to understand the sentiments of adolescents. To Provide Sustainable Environment in House and School Adolescents should be provided suitable environment for growth and development in home and school. Adolescents should be provided proper facilities and opportunities for development. They should be taught how to behave and live. They should be provided balanced diet at home and should be taught how to behave and should be provided suitable and healthy environment at house and school. To Provide Right Direction to Mobilise the Energy It is compulsory to have a positive flow of the energy in adolescent. The best way to transfer the flow in positive direction is to motivate them to take part in physical activities. By making them participate in games and sports not only we let them away from negative thoughts but also can help them to remove anxiety, stress and tension. Sports not only make adolescents physically and mentally fit but also develop the moral and ethical values. Friendly Behaviour When the interests of adolescents do not match with the interests of family members and teachers, a kind of misunderstanding is created. This results in emotional instability, like anger, jealously and hatred, etc. and bigger problem among adolescents. They may even adopt anti-social practices due to misunderstanding. For this, parents, teachers and adults have to understand their feeling, needs and demands and try to create a better atmosphere for mutual understanding. For this, parents, teachers and adults have to be very friendly with the adolescents and counsel them. Education for Motor Development An adolescent should be provided the education for his motor development. He should be encouraged to play various games and sports. Through these games and sports his motor development will take place properly. B.N. Jha says, “If left unexercised at this stage, a flabby constitution for the rest of life results.” Education of Psychology Teachers and parents should have the basic knowledge of psychology. They should be able to understand the psychology of an adolescent. It is essential to sort out the problems and their management. They should provide the knowledge of psychology to the adolescent, because many problems can be solved by the adolescent himself. Sex Education We have been living in such type of society, where sex education is not provided properly. However, it should be taught in school and colleges. An adolescent has attraction for the opposite sex. Most of the adolescents develop wrong concept about sex. Teachers as well as parents should provide sex education to adolescents without hesitation, so that they may not depend upon others and may not resort to cheap literature. They should be allowed to move freely and mix up with the opposite sex. Dr. Stroll says, “Information on sexual subjects should be given in exactly the same tone of voice, in the same manner, with the same directness as information on other subjects.”
172 Health and Physical Education—XI Practice Questions 9.4 I. Short–I Question Answers (3 Marks, 100 Words) 1. How is the problems of adolescent tackled? II. Short–II Question Answers (5 Marks, 200 Words) 1. How can the adolescents problems be managed? 2. Explain the problems of adolescents. Multiple Choice Type Questions 1. Who said sports psychology is the search of human behaviour in sports? (a) K.M. Burk (b) Woodsworth (c) Singar (d) Crooks 2. Who said, Psychology is the science of human behaviour? (a) Dugal (b) Woodsworth (c) Pillsburry (d) Crooks and Sten 3. Through study of psychology what are improved? (a) Brain (b) Skin (c) Skills (d) Confidence 4. The normal weight of new born child is between ........... . (a) 2.5 to 3.5 kg (b) 6.5 to 8.5 kg (c) 1.5 to 1.8 kg (d) 3.6 to 3.9 kg 5. Growth can be ........ . (a) Measured (b) Cannot be measured (c) Can be seen (d) Cannot be seen 6. Growth is related to the process of height, weight and ............... . (a) bone (b) size (c) brain (d) skin 7. Adolescence age is determined between .......... . (a) 13 to 19 years (b) 20 to 40 years (c) 10 to 15 years (d) 12 to 18 years 8. Later childhood age is ........ . (a) 10 to 12 years (b) 15 to 17 years (c) 18 to 50 years (d) 0 to 10 years 9. Early childhood age is ............ . (a) 6 to 9 years (b) 9 to 16 years (c) 0 to 5 years (d) 0 to 8 years 10. Man becomes adult after the age of .......... . (a) 19 years (b) 35 years (c) 20 years (d) after 15 years
Psychology and Sports 173 11. One main problem faced by adolescence is ........ . (a) Heart weak (b) Blood pressure (c) Depression (d) None of these 12. Adolescent is the age of ...... . (a) Storm and stress (b) Fun and marry (c) Serious and funny attitude (d) None of these 13. What types of change took place in adolescence? (a) Physical and mentally (b) Biological and physical (c) Unwanted (d) Desired by parents 14. Psychology is the study of the .............. and .............. . (a) Woodwarth (b) Human behaviour (c) Human relationship (d) Both (b) and (c) 15. According to .............. sports psychology is an area which attempts to apply psychological facts and principles. (a) John Lauther (b) KM Burns (c) Singer (d) Brown and Makeoney 16. Ram tends to show aggresion behaviour and becomes aggression on small matter. He also becomes invitated early. Which type of major problem in adorants is Ram facing? (a) Mental problems (b) Problems related to use (c) Feeling of importance (d) Problem of aggressive behaviour 17. According to .............. development is not limited to growing larger: (a) Gesell (b) Clark and Clark (c) Hurlock (d) Pillsbury 18. Generally, after .............. growth does not take place: (a) Development (b) Maturity (c) Energy (d) Reality 19. In the .............. age making physical changes take place spontaneously in human body. (a) Childhood (b) Growth (c) Adolescent (d) Mentality 20. Development of internal and external .............. organs begins. (a) Maturity (b) Childhood (c) Thrilling (d) Sexual 21. The word .............. is derived from the Latin word ‘adolesara’. (a) Strength (b) Exercise (c) Adolescence (d) Imaginative 22. According to .............. adolecence is the period of great stress and strain (a) Sadler (b) Stanley Hall (c) Jersield (d) KM Burns
174 Health and Physical Education—XI 23. Physcology is a combination of two greek words—phyche and logas. ‘phychi’ means .............. where ‘logas’ means science (a) Mind (b) Power (c) Strength (d) Soul 24. The word ‘Adolsance’ is derived from the word .............. which means ‘to grow to maturity’ (a) Adeleskecher (b) Adolfter (c) Adolesaker (d) Adospmitten 25. According to .............. “Adolsuma is that period in which a child tries to be capable of doing everything by himself” (a) Ross (b) B.N. Jha (c) Sadle (d) Stanley Hall
10Unit Training and Doping in Sports KDniodwYou?Contents 10.1 Meaning and Concept of Sports Training 10.2 Principles of Sports Training 10.3 Warming Up and Limbering Down 10.4 Skill, Technique and Style 10.5 Concept and Classification of Doping 10.6 Prohibited Substance and their Side Effects 10.7 Dealing with Alcohol and Substance Abuse Introduction Training is not a new concept for anybody to reach their fitness goal but it is a long-time process of preparation for some task. In other words we can state that sports training is the preparation for some sports or competition for attaining better results. The main aim of sports training is to provide players with wellness, fitness and adaptability. It affects player’s development in direct manner and motivates him to attain success. Training process has been in existence for ages for attaining different aims. So, training becomes necessary to prepare for competitions and attain success. Right from the year 776 (Ancient Olympic Games), the custom of participating in training programmes for the preparation of competitions has been in existence. At present, players do a lot of training to be physically well and fit and to attain success. Some other factors are there which make a player’s performance better such as special rehabilitation treatments, means of assessment of performance capacity, use of supplementary extra training, special diet, psychological factors, extra competitions etc. Apart from physical exercises, it is mandatory to utilize these factors in order to attain better results in sports training. When a player does these activities, the body gets used to bearing more and more weight. So, he can easily face difficult situations. That is why it has been stated that sports training help a player to adapt to the difficult situations through planned exercises. Such kind of adaptability prepares a player to face the pressure situations more courage. ➡ Sports training concept is up to limit of skill training to achieved winning of any tournament or championship. ➡ As per modern concept of sports training included fitness training, training for rehabilitation, Individual championship, team tournament, special diet, psychological training, training for CWSN etc. ➡ Warming up can be done without any movement or exercise. ➡ Warming up process is completed in four stages. ➡ Limbering down is also done in four stages. ➡ WADA was founded in 1999. 175
176 Health and Physical Education—XI 10.1 Meaning and Concept of Sports Training Meaning of Sports Training Preparation for any sports, is a long-time process and a hard task. The main aim of training is to prepare player to do much better in competitions. This complex system includes sports training, sports competitions and special nutrition. Such a training programme enhances a player’s wellness and fitness. But special training is needed for success. For example, load training helps a player to increase muscular power. But it can’t enhance endurance. So, training method should be chosen by keeping in mind the aim of training. Reality is not known. It has been often seen that the players who have strong motivating factor, scale great heights in competition. So, it can be rightly stated that sports training must have a process based on scientific principles and facts. It enables a player to make all- round development and constantly motivates him to perform better. Sports training is a process which is based on scientific facts and directions. The main objective of sports training is to enhance the player’s performance. It enables the player to do the best performance mentally and physically. Definition of Sports Training The following definitions can be helpful in understanding the concept of sports training in better manner. According to Tod Towness, “Sports training is the point of view to focus on our game of choice.” According to Harre, “Sports training is based on scientific knowledge and a pedagogical process of sports performance which, through systematic effect on psycho-physical performance ability and performance readiness, aims at leading a sportsman to top level of performance.” According to Matwejew, “Sports training is the basic form of preparation of sports men.” According to P. Gareson, “Sports training is a planned and controlled process in which, for achieving a goal, changes in complex sports motor performance, ability to act and behaviour are made through measures of content, methods and organization.” Sports training are a planned process which aims at improving a player’s fitness and wellness. It is a long- time process which is progressive. It recognizes the personal needs and abilities of a player. Sports training programmes utilize exercises for developing the necessary characteristics for a particular event. So, it can be concluded that sports training is based on scientific principles and facts. It is helpful for the highest performance of a player in a sports competition. It is the main component for attaining the highest achievement in sports. But sports training alone can’t be of any use, its various components play an equally, important role.
Training and Doping in Sports 177 Concept of Sports Training POINTSThe concept of sports training is not a new thing. The aim of sports training KEY is to achieve maximum individual or team efficiency in a selected sports discipline limited by rules. Performance is understood as an extent to which ★ Sports Training motor task is accomplished. In the case of the athlete, performance is ★ Components of Physical evaluated following rules of the sports discipline which were set in advance, it is expressed by the length of the throw and is understood as a sports Fitness performance. An ability to achieve a given performance repeatedly is referred ★ Principle of Progression to an efficiency. ★ Principle of Continuity ★ Training Overload ★ Rest and recovery ★ Principle of Verity ★ Warming up ★ Rate of Metabolism ★ Passive Warming up ★ Specific Warming up ★ Limbering Down ★ Restore of Energy ★ Adrenaline ★ Hamstring ★ Gluteus Reaching maximum efficiency in any activity is not possible over a day. ★ Quadriceps Efficiency is conditioned by several interrelated areas. Sports training focuses ★ Skill on reaching maximum efficiency in motor abilities associated with a certain ★ Technique sports discipline. Sports person’s performance depends on motor ability and ★ Style motor skill which are closely related to the sports discipline. Motor abilities ★ Open skill can be described as relatively stable sets of inner genetic presuppositions ★ Close Skill needed to carry out locomotive activities. They include force, speed, ★ Gross Skill endurance, coordination and flexibility. Motor abilities are manifested on ★ Complex Skill the outside by sports skills. Sports skills are supposition needed for ★ Serial skill implementing performance in a selected sports discipline which is limited ★ Doping by rules. Such presuppositions are gained through motor learning. However, ★ WADA it would not be possible to implement sports skills or develop locomotive ★ Autologous abilities without motivation. Motivation is understood as an inner incentive ★ Homologous to carry out certain activity. The final area needed for performance ★ Gene Doping implementation is represented by tactical skills. Tactics means conducting ★ Stimulant a sports competition in a purposeful way. ★ Anabolic Steroids ★ Beta-2 Agonists Component of physical fitness means motor abilities which are the ★ Tod Towness condition for maximum jump height. What is crucial in this matter is quick ★ Harre force. In volleyball, technical component is an acquired skill of offensive hit. ★ Matwejew Tactical component is represented by choosing direction and force of hit ★ P.Gareson which depends on game situation analysis. Psychological component is manifested on the outside by the player’s reliance on him/herself to solve game situation successfully. So it will not be wrong to say that sports training is understood as a process of systematic development of each component in dependence on the duration of preparation which leads to achieving maximum efficiency in senior age within the selected sports discipline.
178 Health and Physical Education—XI Practice Questions 10.1 I. Short–I Question Answers (3 Marks, 100 Words) 1. Give two definitions of sports training. II. Short–II Question Answers (5 Marks, 200 Words) 1. What is the concept of sports training? 10.2 Principles of Sports Training Sport training is a complex process which prepares players for attaining the highest performance. The entire process does not depend only on a successful training programme but also on sports biomechanics, sports medicine exercise, physiology, sports psychology, etc. For this, the knowledge from these disciplines of physical education has to be applied into actual practice. These principles of sports training work as instructions for trainers and players. The description of the important principles of sports training for preparing a planned training process are as follows. 1 Principle of Individuality The principle of individuality states that each person has unique abilities. Each sports person’s response to exercise or load will definitely vary. Large muscles heal slower than smaller muscles. Fast twitch muscle fibres recover quicker than slow twitch muscle fibres. Women generally require more recovery time than men. Fast or explosive movements require more recovery time than slow movements. 2. Principle of Progression According to this principle, the exercise should not be increased too rapidly. If the exercise is increased too rapidly, it may result in injury or muscle damage. Exercising above the target zone can be dangerous. The principle of progression also makes us realize the need for proper rest and recovery. The constant overload can lead to exhaustion and injury. To reach the roof of your ability, you have to climb the first flight of stairs before you can exit the 20th floor and stare out over the landscape. You can view this from both a technical skills standpoint as well as from an effort/distance standpoint. 3. The Principle of Continuity According to this principle, the training should be a continuous process. There should not be any break. It should be a regular phenomenon. In fact, there should not be a long period of inactivity. It has been observed that discontinuity of training reduces the physiological capacities of sports persons. Improving your ability in a sport is very specific. If you want to be a great pitcher, running laps will help your overall conditioning but won’t develop your skills at throwing or the power and muscular endurance required to throw a fastball fifty times in a game. Swimming will help improve your aerobic endurance but won’t develop tissue resiliency and muscular endurance for your running legs. 4. Principle of Reversibility If a player discontinue application of a particular exercise like running five miles or bench pressing 68.03 kg. 10 times, you will lose the ability to successfully complete that exercise. His/her muscles will atrophy and the cellular adaptations like increased capillaries (blood flow to the muscles) and mitochondria density will reverse. He/she can slow this rate of loss substantially by conducting maintenance/reduced programme of training
Training and Doping in Sports 179 during periods where life gets in the way, and that is why all sports coaches ask their athletes to stay active in the offseason. 5. Principle of Overload The principle of overload states that there should be greater than normal load on the body as required for training adaptation to take place. The normal training load cannot improve the performance. If the training load remains static, the effectiveness of the load diminishes with the passage of time. It can only maintain to achieved adaptation of load. It means that for the continuous improvement of performance, the training load should be increased after the adaptation of previous training load. 6. Principles of Rest and Recovery We are well aware of this fact that the body regenerates during rest and becomes better and stronger than before. So the training programmes should be made in such a way that there should be proper rest and interval between training activities. 7. The Principle of Transfer of Training The apex aim of sports training is to attain good results. It can be said that sports training’s aim is to enable the sports person to put up better performance in the competitions. Therefore, this principle aims at guaranteeing good performance and for maintaining it for a longer period. However without implementation of other principles, this principle cannot be achieved. So, proper stress should be laid on the implementation of other principles by the coach or physical education teacher. 8. The Principle of Variety Training is a long term process and recovery can become boring for both the athlete and the coach. So a successful coach should plan variety into the training programme to maintain the interest and motivation of the athlete. 9. Principle of Balance This principle states that exercising a certain part or component of the body primarily develops that part. It means that to become better at a particular exercise or skill, you must perform that exercise or skill regularly. 10. The Principle of General and Specific Preparation For the improvement of performance, both the general and specific preparation are equally significant. General preparation serves as the base for specific preparation. The general preparation increases the functional capacity of all the body systems and organs, on which the performance of sports persons directly depends. For example, the speed improved through running will also be beneficial in football. Practice Questions 10.2 I. Short–I Question Answers (3 Marks, 100 Words) 1. Explain any three principles of sports training. II. Short–II Question Answers (5 Marks, 200 Words) 1. Explain the principles of sports training briefly.
180 Health and Physical Education—XI 10.3 Warming Up and Limbering Down Warming up It is a process of training or set of exercise which is done before going on main training schedule which prepares an individual physically and mentally. We often see that the players of football, hockey, handball, tennis and badminton do some warm-up exercises prior to the play. Warming-up helps players to handle tough situations in initial stages. For example, a basketball player without proper warming-up can’t shoot the ball in the ring. So, most of the scholars are in favour of warming up which enhances the performance of players. Warming up enables a player to do very few mistakes while playing. Warming up is usually performed for doing a particular part activity in the most refined and efficient manner. It should be in accordance with the activity which is to be performed. If proper warming up is not done prior to a competition, muscles get torn away. Such incidents occur on play grounds. For example, if we take part in a triple jump without proper warming up, we can face severe injury like ankle injury, knee injury, leg injury, etc. It is a short-term activity which is undertaken before a competition. It enables a player to prepare him physically, mentally and psychologically for any sort of competition. It is such a process which warms up muscles (prior to a competition) through jogging, running and taking some free-hand exercises. The body is warmed-up to make it stiff, so that the further activities may be performed efficiently. The preparation prior to a competition is called warming-up. Definitions of Warming-Up The following definitions can be helpful in understanding warming-up in a better manner. Warming up is an initial exercise which prepares a player to do the toughest of the tasks physically and mentally. According to Hill, “If the normal temperature of a body reduces, the reaction time will decreased and the contractile time will also be decreased. Extension of muscles will be less. If body temperature is increased beyond normal temperature, contractile force and speed of muscles will be increased.” According to Davries, “Warming up enhances the temperature of blood which in turn, enables the muscles to improve the performance.” Benefits of Warming up Warming-up is a must to attain good performance. The benefits of warming-up are as follows. 1. Increases the Body Temperature: A proper warm-up increases the body and muscle temperature. So, it is beneficial for the sports-person. Failure to warm-up before vigorous activity may lead to tearing of muscles fibers. In fact, if the muscle is warmed up, the speed with which the muscle contracts and relaxes and the force of contraction are increased. 2. Increases the Speed of Nerve Impulses: Warming-up increases the speed of nerve impulses, which improves and sharpens the reacting time of sports persons. Improvement in reaction time is always beneficial almost in all of the games and sports. 3. Increases Flexibility: Warming-up increases flexibility but, if proper warming-up is not done, then the body will be less flexible. After warming-up, we can exert the force upto maximum reach (distance).
Training and Doping in Sports 181 4. Psychology Preparation: Warming-up is very useful in reducing the anxiety and tension of sports person especially at the time of competition. It is also advantageous in helping to increase the motivational levels of a sports person. 5. Reduces Viscosity of Muscles: Warming-up decreases the viscosity of muscles. Research studies indicate that a previously inactive muscle is stimulated. Hence, the rate of muscular contraction and relaxation becomes faster and efficient. The chances of injury or wear and tear of muscles and ligaments are also reduced. 6. Improves Performance: Owing to some physiological changes, the level of performance is improved. After a complete warm-up, it has been observed that it improves the level of performance. All the involved muscles exert maximum force with highest speed. This is applicable only in complete warming- up. 7. Increases Power and Tolerance: Warming-up increases the strength whereas local heating does not increase the strength rather decreases it. There are many information that strength can be increased upto some extent by proper warming-up. Some eminent physiologists hold the opinion that warming-up does not increase endurance and speed. But, on the other hand, authentic research studies indicate that certain types of warming-up increase both speed as well as endurance. Thompson found in his study that formal warming-up exercises improves swimming endurance. Mangel concluded that vigorous warming-up improves performance in the one mile run. So we can enhance the endurance if we do proper warming-up prior to training. 8. Decreases Fatigue: Research studies indicate that warming up enables the players to perform better physical activities. Consumption of oxygen is more and heart rate increases, thus, lactic acid in blood is also reduced. 9. Time of Reaction is Reduced: After a thorough warming-up, reaction time can be decreased upto some extent, because muscles contract with fast speed. Neuro-muscular co-ordination also plays an important role in decreasing reaction time. 10. Increase Skills: If specific warming-up is performed, then sports person or player gets warmed-up through fundamental exercises. There are basic skills of a specific game. Using such type of warming- up skills can be improved a lot. 11. Increases Rate of Metabolism: Warming-up increases the metabolic rate which ultimately enhances energy level. In fact, the metabolic rate increases due to rise in core temperature. If there is an increase in temperature by 0.5°C ; the metabolic rate increases by 7 per cent. If the metabolic rate is higher, there will be higher production of energy. 12. Reduces Stoppage in Muscle Cells: Research studies also reveal that warming-up decreases the resistance in muscle capillaries. 13. Increases Transporting of Oxygen Tissues: A proper warming-up increases the speed of transfer of oxygen and fuel to tissues. It occurs due to the enhancement of blood flow through the muscles by dilating the small blood vessels. This improves the functional condition of muscle by increasing its oxygen supply. 14. Second Wind comes slowly: Second wind results from adjustment of the body systems to the additional demands placed on them as a result of increased activity. When second wind is reached, the supply has caught up with increased demands. That is why, after proper warm-up second wind comes easily and promptly and sometimes athletes do not feel it. 15. Safety from Injuries: Several scholars claim that failure to warm-up may lead to tearing of the muscles. Morehouse and Miller also support this idea. Muscles remain in tone up position after proper warming-up whereas without proper warming-up, muscles are loosened, without proper warming-up, muscles may get cramp more frequently. Thus, the danger of injury is reduced when an athlete or a sports person is completely warmed-up, which increases the speed with which he is able to react. Injury is a common phenomenon to those who do not perform adequate warming-up before training period or competition.
182 Health and Physical Education—XI Types of Warming Up 1. Passive Warming Up In this kind of warm up the body temperature is increased by the outer factors. The body does not lose any energy because there is no physical movement. For example: Hot water bath, steam bath and hot drinks etc. 2. Active Warming Up It is basically done through physical activities. It brings more sweat and bodily changes than inactive warm up. It is also of two kinds: (i) General Warming up General Warming-up is performed for different kinds of activities. This kind of warming-up consists of jogging, running, stretching exercises, calisthenics, striding, wind sprints and other general exercises. This kind of warming-up enhances the coordinate abilities and flexibility of muscles and joints. Muscles come in the half- stress position. (ii) Specific Warming up In this kind of warming-up, exercise is done with equipment. Specific exercises are performed. They are related to the activities to be carried out. It is performed just after general warming-up. In each game specific warming-up is of its own kind. For example, a fast runner can take a start before the real competition and can run races from a short distance. A basketball player can practice lay off shot or free throw before the start of the play. This kind of player can practice coordinative ability. The exercises which are performed in specific warming-up, are described below according to the concerned game. 1. Lawn Tennis: Practicing ball, doing service, practice playing shots, knocking, etc. 2. Badminton: Bending forward, bending sideways, bending backward, exercises related to body twisting, servicing, playing shots etc. 3. Basketball: Dribbling, shooting, lay-up shot, doing shuttle race, dodging, free throw, etc. 4. Hockey: Dribbling, stick rotation, stopping ball from stick, short passes, hitting a long shot, scooping, etc. 5. Shot Put: Shifting the shot from left to right hand, shifting it several times in same manner, throwing while standing, throwing shot from both hands practice gliding with or without the shot doing full activity, etc. 6. Cricket: Bowling, catching the ball, batting and fielding, etc. Methods of Active Warming up Different types of techniques of warming-up are as follow. 1. Exercise: The simple and best method to warm up the body is exercise. In most of the games this technique is used. It includes several activities.
Training and Doping in Sports 183 2. Jogging: Each player should do jogging to begin with. In this way, he can enhance his physical endurance/capacity. He should loosen his body before jogging. Thereafter, he should run slowly on his toes along the inside line of the track. He should take 2-3 rounds of the track. As he practices more and more, he can increase his rounds for a body to warm up properly, one need to jog for at least 5-10 minutes, so that the body temperature may be increased. 3. Bending and Stretching: After jogging the player outstretching his feet and inhaling should raise his hands. After bending his back he should release the breath. These can be exercises related to neck, shoulders, waist, hip, wrists, knees and ankles. Never do these exercise with a jerk. The exercises should be from simple to hard. It may include exercises related to bending, turning, stretching and little jerk. 4. Striding: The player should take long strides and the steps should be stretched out. He should run for 60-80 m with his full might and return with the same speed. After resting for a while this activity should be repeated 4-6 times. 5. Wind Sprints: These exercises involve running for 20-25 m at a terrific speed in short breaks like the wind motions. This activity should be repeated 4-8 times. This kind of running should be done with spikes on. Never do this activity with shoes on. The main objective of this kind of activities is to prepare the players physically and mentally for upcoming tournaments. It is to be keept in mind while doing these activities that player should not have any kind of pressure. After this kind of races, the heart beat and respiration of players will be normal before starting the competition. Methods of Passive Warming Up 1. Massage: The body is warmed-up with massage. It is an ancient technique. Through massage muscles become half-stressed and they begin to function properly, but massaging one’s body requires to keep another person. Each and every person can’t do good massage. Now-a-days persons specialized in massage are appointed in each and every sports teams. 2. Hot water/Sauna/Stream Bath: It is a very popular technique for warming-up the body. The player bath with warm water and warms up his body. It increases his body temperature and blood flow as well. Muscles become active. These techniques are prevalent in the countries where climate is cold. 3. Through hot Drinks: Before a competition the body can be warmed-up by drinking hot drinks—tea or coffee to stimulate the body. This helps players to get ready for the competition. These drinks should be in low amount so that there will be no problem. But now-a-days, this technique is not considered appropriate. Limbering/Cooling Down After a competition training session when a body is brought back to a relaxed and normal state, the process is called limbering down. Limbering down is also called warming down cooling down. It is the process of bringing back the body from the state of fatigue to the state of rest. For proper cooling down a player should do jogging for at least 5-10 minutes. The body temperature is lowered and waste products from the muscles are flushed out. Thereafter, static stretching exercises should be done for 5-14 minutes. Stretching exercises are more helpful in cooling
184 Health and Physical Education—XI down. The players should stretch all the major muscle groups which he might have used during training or competition. Stretching should be done for at least 10-20 seconds. Cool downs should involve the following important steps to ensure an effective cool down. After exercise, a gradual yet continuous decrease in exercise intensity (i.e., from a hard run to an easy jog to a brisk walk) should be the first step in cooling down the body. Duration can be vary for different people, but 3–10 minutes is considered adequate. Stretching, especially static stretching allows the muscles to be elongated and lengthened. This is the next step athletes should take to cool down. Rehydration is an essential part of the procedure and should be done either during stretching and light intensity or after these steps. Activities should be done in the form of walking or jogging. These activities should be done after the competition without relaxing. The metabolic process inside the body keeps going on by doing these activities which results into (A) removal of waste products, (B) continuous blood supply and (C) decrease in heart rate and respiration. Importance of Limbering down It is an important part of sports training. It is like warming up. As warming-up is must prior to any competition or training, similarly limbering down is equally important after the competition/training. Cooling down or limbering down should not be undervalued. The importance is as below: 1. Restorage of Energy in Body: It helps to come in relax position from exercise position. It increases the supply of blood and oxygen in body which helps the body to get energy for the activities to be done in future and body will be free from stress and tension. 2. Reduces in Stiffness of Muscles: The lactic acid and chemicals accumulate in the body after hard and fast workout which results in stretch in muscles. Limbering down helps to remove these chemicals. 3. Removal of waste Materials: When a sports person performs training or takes part in competition, the waste products such as lactic acid, uric acid, phosphate, sulphates, chlorides and carbon dioxide etc. are accumulated in his body. Due to more accumulation of these waste products in the body, muscles cannot work efficiently. Proper cooling down reduces the accumulation of such waste products very quickly from the muscles appropriately. 4. Prevents in Faints: The most significant function of appropriate cooling down is to reduce the chances of dizziness or fainting. As a matter of fact, strenuous exercise causes the blood vessels in the legs to expand, bringing more blood into the legs and feet. When exercise is stopped spontaneously without taking time to cool down or limber down, the heart rate slows abruptly and that blood can pool in the lower body (legs and feet), causing dizziness or fainting. The risk is greater for serious athletes whose heart rates slow down faster and whose veins can hold more blood. Proper cooling down reduces the heart rate slowly and blood does not pool in the legs and feet. It continues to flow back to the heart through veins and consequently such process reduces the chances of dizziness or fainting. 5. Heart rate returns to its Starting stage: Performing cooling down after strenuous work out or competition, heart rate does not return to its initial stage immediately but it definitely takes some time. In fact, the heart rate must come to initial or normal stage. However, the normalization of heart rate depends on the physical condition of the sports person and the sports activity in which he was involved. In such condition the total duration of cooling down should be enhanced and more static cooling down process.
Training and Doping in Sports 185 6. Supply of Oxygen: During strenuous training, there is a lack in amount of oxygen in comparison to resting position. Appropriate cooling down helps in supplying the blood and oxygen to muscles, restoring then to the position they were in before performing training. Along this recovery becomes fast. 7. Prevents from Injuries: Some limbering down exercise helps to get rid of the stress and strain of muscles. It also helps to recover from injuries soon. Some exercise like hot water bath makes a good effect on body. 8. Normalize Body Temperature: During high intensity and strenuous training or competition the body temperature increases more than 160 Fahrenheit. Appropriate cooling down helps in reducing the body temperature. 9. Reduction in Tension: During training or competition muscles remain under tension. Proper cooling down decreases the muscular tension. They tend to relax. Along this, mental tension is also reduced up to some extent after performing an appropriate limber/cooling down. 10. Reduction in the Level of Adrenaline: During warming-up and training, the level of adrenaline in the blood is enhanced which increases the speed of blood flow. Proper cooling down decreases the level of adrenaline in the blood which ultimately normalizes the blood flow in the body. Stretching Exercise for Limbering Down Static stretching exercises which are important for proper cooling down have been described as follows: 1. Hamstrings: Lay on your back, raise and straighten one leg directly above hips. Holding the calves and thighs press the heels towards the ceiling. As soon as you pull your leg towards your chest, do the same stretch with the next leg. 2. Chest: Standing straight, interlace fingers behind your back. As you straighten out your arms, lift your chin towards the ceiling. 3. Gluteus: Lying on your back crossing the right leg over and the bent the left knee. Then bring the left knee to the chest, holding onto the back of your thigh, gently pressing the right knee wide. Then do the same stretch by changing the position of legs. 4. Quadriceps: Lying on your right side, pull the left hell towards the left glute, feeling the stretch in front of the thigh. Thereafter repeat with the right leg. 5. Triceps: Take one arm overhead, bend it at your elbow joint and extend the palm down, bend the centre of your back, gently pulling the elbow with the opposite hand. Take the same arm across the chest gently pulling at the elbow joint, to extend through the shoulder. Then do it again by changing the position of arm. Effects of Limbering Down Heart rate and blood pressure become normal. Breathing becomes normal. Normalize the body temperature. Blood flow becomes normal. Adrenaline hormone level becomes normal in body. Muscles relax and come back to its normal state. Practice Questions 10.3 I. Short–I Question Answers (3 Marks, 100 Words) 1. Explain the effects of warming up in physical activities. 2. Explain the effects of limbering down in physical activities. 3. Write the types of warming up.
186 Health and Physical Education—XI II. Short–II Question Answers (5 Marks, 200 Words) 1. Explain the importance of limbering down. 2. Explain the methods of limbering down. 3. What are the advantages of warming up? 4. Explain the principles of warming up. 5. Explain the methods of warming up. 10.4 Skill, Technique and Style Skill A skill is the ability to perform a whole movement. While performing skill motor waves from the brain reach in definite quantity and at the appropriate time. It makes the co-ordination of activities possible. Through regular exercise a player becomes proficient in different skills. The skills which are more complex, should be learnt by dividing them into parts. By combining the different parts a complete skill can be accomplished. The ability to perform a sporting skill consistently well at speed, under fatigue and pressure conditions in a competition environment is called Skills. It is an action which is learnt for a purpose and which is must to take part in a special action. Sport skills are voluntary, coordinated tasks with sport-specific goals. Learning basic movement skills is the first step towards learning sports-specific skills for athletic performance. Understanding these basic movements helps coaches make good training decisions for proficiency as well as for fitness, strength and conditioning. Skills are of various kinds – shooting in basketball, badminton, and squash or doing a service in tennis and passing, overhand throw in football etc. By seeing these players it can be observed that all skills are done beautifully and without any pressure. Factors Affecting Skills A player’s skills depend on the following factors. 1. Height: If a player is too tall, his sports performance will be affected because a tall player has a high centre of gravity. 2. Weight: The more a player has weight, the more he faces problems while excreting his skills because a fat person has less flexibility. 3. Reaction Time: When the reaction time is less the player’s performance will be highly skillful. 4. Eyes and Muscles Co-ordination: If the co-ordination between eyes and muscles is good, the player’s skills will be good as well. 5. Muscular Response: If the central nervous system does not instruct muscles on time, it badly affects player’s performance. 6. Muscles Tones: When a player performs various activities. His muscles get stressed. It, in turn, affects the performance of the player’s skills. Types of Skills There are such sports activities which require skills to perform them. Due to many characteristics of skills, it is quite impossible to classify them. They can’t be classified clearly. So, they have been categorized as follows: 1. Simple Skills: The skills which do not require large amounts of coordination, timing and decision making, are simple skill. These skills have limited physical demand and may not be dangerous. These skills are straight forward, easy to learn and not difficult to perform. For example, chest pass, under arm serve, push pass, straight jump and flick service in badminton.
Training and Doping in Sports 187 2. Complex Skills: The skills which require large amounts of co-ordination, timing and quick thought process are called complex skill. They require more concentration. They are more difficult to perform. They might be dangerous. For example, handspring in gymnastics, lay-up shot in basket ball, overhead kick in football and smash in badminton. 3. Continuous Skills: This type of skill has no obvious beginning and end. The end of one cycle of movements is the beginning of the next and the skill is repeated like a cycle. Swimming, running and cycling are examples of continuous skills. 4. Open Skills: The skills which are not under control and are unpredictable are classified as open skills. Sports such as football, hockey, badminton and lawn tennis etc, involve open skills. For example, in badminton, performing any skill may be affected by many different circumstances such as your opponent’s position on the court. 5. Closed Skills: Closed skills take place in a stable, predictable environment and the performer knows explicitly what to do and when to do. These skills have clear beginning and end. For example, free throw in basketball and serving in squash or tennis. 6. Gross Skills: The skills which involve large muscles movements and do not have precise movements are called gross skills. These skills include many fundamental patterns such as walking, running and jumping. The best example of such skills is shotput. 7. Fine Skills: These skills include complex precise movements using small muscle groups. A high level of hand-eye co-ordination is required while performing these skills. A snooker shot and playing the piano are appropriate examples of fine skills. 8. Serial Skill: These skills are a group of discrete skills which are performed in serial to make a complex movement such as the sequence of skills for the triple jump. 9. Individual Skills: Individual skills are those skills which are performed in isolation such as high jump and long jump etc. 10. Coactive Skills: Coactive skills are those skills which are performed at the same time as others but without direct confrontation such as swimming and running etc. 11. Discrete Skills: These skills are brief and have a clear cut beginning and end. The penalty flick in jockey is an example of discrete skills. 12. Interactive Skills: Interactive skills are those skills where other participants or performers are directly involved such as football, netball, hand ball and basketball etc. Technique Techniques are the basic movements of a game or an event. When a skill is developed, the player tries his level best to improve upon the different aspects of his techniques. A single skill can be performed by utilizing more than one technique. For example, if serving in badminton is a skill, then high serving and flick serving are techniques. Players prioritize the technique (while choosing among the different techniques of a skill) which suits his level. He chooses the technique which is sure to grant him success. There are many examples of different techniques for performing particular skill. For example, taking a block start in a 100m race is a technique. In a triple jump, there are different techniques of movements and running and then hop, step and jump phases. In fact, technique is a way of performing a skill. Doing a piece of work scientifically is called a technique. The batting of Sachin Tendulkar and Rahul Dravid is assumed as the best in the principles of Technique.
188 Health and Physical Education—XI Style No two players can be alike in different factors which determine motor action. Therefore, each sports person due to his specific or particular physique, physical and biological capacities realizes the technique in a different way. It is called his style. In other words, we can say that style is a way of doing a particular piece of work related to a particular person, there are some examples of a style – there are many styles of taking a high jump, belly roll, westerns roll etc. In the same way in cricket, the batting style of Virendra Sehwag has become famous. While batting his foot movement is satisfactory but this style is his own and he uses it very nicely. If these styles become famous, they will be recognized by the names of those players who used them. The style of holding T.T. bat by the Chinese players is another example of style. They hold the T.T. bat like a pen and it is used by all the Chinese players. For example, the technique of throwing shot put by Perry O. Bryan became famous by his name. Practice Questions 10.4 I. Short–I Question Answers (3 Marks, 100 Words) 1. Write factors affecting Skills. II. Short–II Question Answers (5 Marks, 200 Words) 1. Explain types of Skills. 10.5 Concept and Classification of Doping Concept of Doping The word ‘doping’ is used in games, when players use/take banned drugs in order to enhance their performance in different fields/games. In fact, some players in order to be better in their performance resort to banned drugs. The process of taking banned/illegal drugs is known as doping. In sports and games, players use banned drugs officially recognized by International Olympic Committee, either intentionally or unintentionally, so that they may earn name and fame. Sometimes players take these drugs unintentionally, which come under doping.
Training and Doping in Sports 189 By taking these banned drugs, players’ performance becomes better but these drugs also have harmful effects on players. For example, in 1904 Olympic Games, the American runner Thomas Mix, just after winning the marathon race fell down unconscious on the ground. It took many hours to revive him. Banning these drugs is a must because some player’s enhance their performance by taking these drugs. But at the same time, these drugs have harmful effects on players’ physical health. With the sincere efforts of International Olympic Committee, WADA (World Anti Doping Agency) was founded is 1999. The main aim of this agency is to control doping. Keeping this aim in mind WADA made many anti-doping rules. Meaning of Doping in Sports “Doping is the use of any method and substance which enhances the performance of an athlete.” Definition of Doping According to WADA (World Anti Doping Agency), “Doping is defined as the occurrence of one or more of the anti-doping rule violation set forth in Article 2.1 through Article 2.8 of the code.” According to International Olympic Committee, “Doping is the use of any method or substances that might harm the athlete in a quest to gain an unfair advantage over his/her fellow competitors.” Types of Doping Doping is usually done during or before competition. It is done in two ways: (a) Using the Drug that Enhances Performance (b) Physical Methods 1. Materials that Increase Demonstration Performance enhancing materials are of different kinds which are used in sports. Some of these are discussed below: 1. Stimulants: Stimulants are such drugs that enhances alertness and physical activity by increasing heart and breathing rates and the functions of the brain. It also reduces fatigue. This drug is taken orally, by nasal spray and by injection. These drugs are-amphetamines, cocaine, adrafinil, etc.
190 Health and Physical Education—XI 2. Peptide Hormones: Peptide hormones are produced by the glands in the body. These substances circulates in the body. They improve the growth of muscles and increases the production of Red Blood Cells. These substances also increase the ability of blood to carry oxygen. They change the balance of other hormones in our body. These substances are banned in games. The examples of these substances are human growth hormones, insulin, erythropoietin, etc. 3. Anabolic Steroids: After taking this steroid the player can do training for hours, without any fatique. These steroids are also helpful in regaining the lost strength. They increase the strength and size of muscles which in turn, enhances the players’ performance. These steroids are drostanolone, metenolone and oxandrolone. The players can take them orally or by injecting in muscles. 4. Narcotics: These drugs are used by players when they have to do training for a long time without feeling any fatigue. When a player gets injured and he feels a lot of pain, he uses these drugs to lessen pain. His attention towards the injury is diverted and he continues his game and improves his performance. Some players take these drugs to reduce stress. These drugs are morphine, heroin, pethidine, etc. These drugs have harmful effects on players. 5. Glucocortico-Steroids: These drugs enhances the players’ capacity to bear pain and reduce fatigue as well. By taking these drugs players continue their work as usual. Beta-2 Agonists: These drugs are used in asthma. These drugs are taken in, through inhalers. Through these drugs, more oxygen is transported in the body. This is why the players of long-distance races or players who play sports of long duration, takes these drugs. These drugs are taken to enhance the respiratory functions to increase capacity for strenuous efforts and resistance. Diuretics: Through the use of these drugs, performance in sports is not enhanced. But through their use, the quantity of water in the body is reduced. These drugs are used in boxing, wrestling, weightlifting. These drugs are used to reduce the weight loss rapidly. These drugs are taken to avoid anti-doping test. For example, dexatran and diuretics. Cannabinoids: The examples of cannabinoids are hashish and marijuana. These are banned drugs. Using these drugs activates the brain and players have a feeling of relaxation. 2. Physical Methods This category include Gene and Blood doping which are discussed below: Blood Doping Blood doping is defined by WADA, as the misuse of techniques or substances to increase one’s red blood cells count. 1. Autologous: Usually two units of athlete’s blood are taken, some weeks prior to competition. Then the blood is frozen for one or two days before the competition, when it is injected into the athlete. This is known as autologous blood doping.
Training and Doping in Sports 191 2. Homologous: Homologous blood doping is the injecting of fresh blood, removed from a second person, straight into the athlete. By increasing the number of RBCs, the oxygen carrying capacity of the muscles is increased, so the muscle endurance is increased which ultimately enhances the sports performance. Artificial Oxygen Carrie It is also a second method of blood doping which involves the use of artificial oxygen carriers. Haemoglobin oxygen carriers are chemicals or purified proteins which have the ability to carry oxygen. These are helpful in enhancing aerobic capacity. Gene Doping Gene doping is the manipulation of cells or genes to enhance the body’s sport’s performance. Modifying genes enables faster reaction and increases physical strength. Genes doping is based on the principles of gene therapy. The process of gene doping is likely to be used by athletes in future in an attempt to enhance the function of normal healthy person. Gene therapy may play a vital role in the growth and development of muscular-skeletal structures. It will speed up the recovery of the injuries of muscles, tendons and ligaments etc. Practice Questions 10.5 I. Short–I Question Answers (3 Marks, 100 Words) 1. Enlist the types of Doping. Explain any one medicine. II. Short–II Question Answers (5 Marks, 200 Words) 1. Explain in details the types of Doping. 10.6 Prohibited Substances and their Side Effects Prohibited Substances Prohibited substances and methods are those substances and methods which are completely banned in sports and games. WADA is responsible for maintaining and updating these substances and methods annually. Some of these substances are banned at the time of competition, whereas other substances depend on tablets, injections or breathing. These substances are included in the list of prohibited substances, which enhances the performance of any player or harm a player’s health, or violate the spirit of sports and games. If a player takes these substances for treatment/therapeutic use he will have to apply to the International federation for exemption and it must be verified by the physical in order to get it approved, here are the following points: 1. Drugs: Some narcotics such as fontanel, morphine and oxycodone are prohibited in-competition. These substances are also banned, because these substances interface with the function of estrogens or female hormones and are often used in the treatment of cancer. The examples are tamoxifen and clomiphene. 2. Beta-2 Agonists: Beta agonists are administered for the treatments of asthama. These drugs are banned during the competition and even’ after the competition. Players take them for increasing the efficiency of the breathing system.
192 Health and Physical Education—XI 3. Stimulants: Stimulants such as amphetamines, ephedra and cocaine are prohibited in competition but it is also included in the monitoring programme. These stimulants improves the performance in sports by stimulating the mind and body artificially. That is why these are prohibited in competition. 4. Anabolic Steroids: Anabolic Steroids such as drostanolone, mesterolone, oxandrolone tetrahydrogestrimonl(THG) and stanozolol are prohibited in-and-out-of-competition. These are prohibited because they enhance the performance and has serious side-effects on the player—increase in B.P (Blood Pressure), harms liver, shivering, heart beat increases. Females tend to adopt males’ qualities such as growth of hair on face etc. 5. Diuretics: Dextran, diuretics and probenecid, etc. dulines the presence of prohibited substances in urine. These drugs are banned in -and-out-of-competition. 6. Peptide hormone: Peptide hormones such as erythropoietin, human growth hormone, insulin, H.C.G., Adrenocorticotropic hormone, etc. are banned hormones. These drugs increase the power and strength of muscles and also enhance the level of RBCs, which increases the capacity of blood to carry oxygen. These drugs are banned in-and-out-of-competition. 7. Alcohol: Alcohol (ethanol) is prohibited in-competitions only. 8. Beta-Blockers: Beta-Blockers are prohibited in competition only such as archery, shooting and golf. In fact, they keep the heart rate low and reduce tremble in hands. 9. Glucocorticosteroids: These are used mainly to relieve pain. These are prohibited in-competition. Prohibited Methods The following ways are banned for players: (i) Blood Doping: Blood doping is a method to increase the count of red blood cells. Autologous blood doping and homologous blood doping are further two methods of blood doping, through which number of RBC’s are increased which ultimately enhances the oxygen carrying capacity of an individual. Artificial oxygen carriers are also a second method of blood doping in which some chemicals or proteins increase the ability to carry more oxygen to the muscles. All these techniques are prohibited. (ii) Gene Doping: Gene doping plays a significant role in the growth and development of muscular- skeletal structures. It is also prohibited at all times in sports. To tamper or an attempt to tamper the validity or samples collected during doping controls is also prohibited at all times or in-and-out-of- competition in sports. Methods to Use 1. Tablets 2. Injection 3. Body patches which helps the prohibited substances to enter in the body slowly. 4. Cream or Gel containing Testosterone on skin 5. Spray Side Effects of Prohibited Substances Anabolic steroids are used in the medical field to increase the muscles and to develop strength. But the regular use of these can cause critical health problems. The side effects of these prohibited substances are as follows: 1. They increase the low density cholesterol which is harmful and decrease the high density cholesterol. 2. Long time use of these substances can harm the liver and kidneys.
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