Fruit & Vegetable Gardening; The Definitive Guide to Successful Growing - Dk Publishing

PLANNING 149 GROWING TREE FRUITS Planning Tree fruits are those that naturally grow Forms of young fruit trees Vigorous as trees, including apples, pears, plums, In the first growing season after grafting, a fruit tree central stem cherries, peaches, nectarines, apricots, will form a main vertical stem, and sometimes a few figs, quince, medlars, and mulberries. short side branches. A tree with a single stem is a Particularly upright In addition to producing their fresh, maiden whip. If it has side branches after one year, shoots will need to succulent fruits, these trees often have it is a feathered maiden. A two-year-old feathered be pruned out spectacular spring blossom. The shape tree should have several well-placed branches. and size of the tree is affected by the Lower branches rootstock (see p.153) and cultivar being Strong vertical likely to need grown, and the way in which it is main stem removal pruned. Many may be trained to grow in the restricted but ornamental forms of Most branches cordons, espaliers, and fans, all of which well-spaced with take up less space than the bush form. Included among the tree fruits are several wide angle to nuts: hazelnuts, filberts, and almonds are central stem all suitable for an average-sized garden. Walnuts reach a great height; consider Graft point, them only for very large gardens. or union USING TREE FRUITS IN THE GARDEN Rootstock Feathered By choosing cultivars carefully and maiden restricting their size, you can grow Maiden whip quite a range of tree fruits in a small is desirable, although thinner soils space. For instance, a useful quantity f lowering can be devastating, so choose are tolerated by most tree fruits. On of fruit can be gained from 10 apple a site on a gentle slope so the cold air thinner soils, trees will be stressed cordons, five pear cordons, three plum will f low away from the trees. South-, from water shortage and less stable in pyramids, and a cherry fan. Spacings southwest-, or west-facing slopes are wind. The ideal soil is a deep, medium depend on rootstocks chosen. Yields preferable. Avoid frost pockets (see p.11) loam and, for most tree fruits, a slightly vary widely according to cultivar, or, if this is not possible, protect the acid to neutral pH (see p.18). Tree fruits soil, climate, and site (see individual trees (see individual crops, pp.174–205). are long-term crops, so the more you crops, pp.174–205). improve the soil before planting (see Altitudes below 400ft (120m) pp.37–40), the better start they have. If growing a number of trees, plant provide best growing conditions, them in rows north to south to reduce because winds increase with altitude SOIL WATER LEVELS shading, with the largest trees to the and temperature decreases by about Tree fruits have searching roots that north. Grow the same fruits together 1.8°F (1°C) per 330ft (100m). Tree need a constant supply of water and to aid pollination and management. To fruits can be grown at higher altitudes nutrients, so both light and heavy soils save space, or for decorative effect, fruit in a sunny, sheltered position with, (see pp.14–15) should be thoroughly can be trained on fences, walls, arches, if necessary, windbreaks (see pp.12–13). cultivated prior to planting. Working and pergolas. The choice of cultivar At altitudes above 400ft (120m), and in plenty of organic matter, such as depends on preference, although mid- in cool and wet areas, exploit the well-rotted manure or compost, will and late-season apples and pears can be favorable microclimates provided improve the drainage on heavy soils and stored, whereas earlier ripening cultivars by south-, southwest-, or west-facing the moisture-retention on light soils. must be used soon after picking. For a walls and fences. limited space, use high-quality dessert The surface drainage of heavy clay cultivars—they can also be cooked. SUITABLE SOILS soils can be improved by working in a Soil requirements vary for different 1–2in (2.5–5cm) layer of coarse grit to CHOOSING A SITE tree fruits, including nuts (see individual the top 6in (15cm) of soil, but this is For healthy growth, f lowering, crops, pp.174–205). A well-drained soil, laborious. All improvements must be and pollination (see pp.156–157), and preferably 2ft (60cm) or more deep, ripening of fruit and wood, grow tree fruits on a warm, sunny site, sheltered from strong winds. Spring frosts at

150 GROWING TREE FRUITS done over the entire planting area—if Good and bad rootballs Good rootball only the planting hole is treated in this Some healthy, way, it may create a sump in which When buying a container-grown fruit fibrous roots moisture from the surrounding soil tree, don’t be afraid to take off the visible, holding collects. If waterlogging is severe, the pot and inspect the rootball thoroughly. compost together installation of a drainage system may be If the plant is in good planting necessary (see p.16) or you could resort condition, you should be able to see Pot-bound rootball to growing fruit trees in containers. larger, anchoring roots growing out of Roots coiling around the center and holding together the All types of soil will need watering compost without forming a thick mat. outside of rootball, at some time, but free-draining, shallow Finer, pale, feeding roots should also be forming thick, soils with 12in (30cm) or less of topsoil, visible. Avoid plants with roots that do matted layer especially in dry areas, require more not appear to be established in their frequent irrigation (see p.160). pot, where the soil falls away from the HEELING IN rootball. At the other extreme, avoid Trees should be planted only when the After planting, an annual mulch (see pot-bound specimens with matted roots soil is not frozen or waterlogged. If p.161) around the trees in late winter or growing around the sides of the rootball the conditions are unfavorable or you in early spring will continue to improve and even out of the top or base of the are not ready to plant, the trees will the soil’s moisture-holding capacity. pot. These roots are unlikely to spread need protecting. The aerial part of the and establish well when planted. tree is frost-hardy, but the roots must THE IMPORTANCE OF SOIL pH not be exposed to frost or allowed to If the soil pH differs very much from but bare of soil, and there is usually a dry out. Find a suitable area of ground pH 6.5, which tree fruits prefer, it will much better selection of these. They to heel in bare-root trees and keep their need to be corrected. The pH of acidic must be planted between late fall and roots moist. If you cannot heel them in soils can be increased by adding lime early spring. Container-grown trees the ground, cover the roots with moist (see pp.18–19), and the pH of alkaline can be planted all year, but need more compost or straw, and store in a cool soils can be lowered by digging in attention to watering if they are planted but frost-free place, such as a shed or sulfur. It is best to apply a little and in spring and summer (see above). greenhouse. Insulate pots of container- repeat a few months later if needed. grown trees in severe cold weather. Check the pH every few years. If soils Reputable garden centers and mail- have reverted to their former pH, you order nurseries are good sources of fruit ◀ Heeling in tree will need to apply either sulfur or lime trees. In a garden center the range may fruit saplings to the surface, a little at a time, and not be so wide, but you can inspect the Dig a trench deep rake and water it in. plant before buying. For mail-order enough to cover plants, you need to order in good time, the roots. Place the TYPES OF TREE TO BUY since trees are despatched from late fall, trees (here feathered Trees establish best if planted in their and be prepared to unpack and check maiden pears) at an final positions when young; a more over the trees when they arrive. angle along one side mature tree will usually be overtaken of the trench so they by a younger sapling within a few do not touch. Fill in years. Choose one- or two-year-old the trench with soil trees for most tree forms (see p.152). to cover the roots; or fan- and espalier-trained trees, firm gently. part-trained trees, about three years old, are best. ▶ Small orchard A productive orchard can If possible, buy a feathered maiden be created in a small space, (see p.149), which has a main stem with if planned with care. Here, a number of side branches. These are small forms such as apple particularly good for training as bush, cordons have been used to spindlebush, pyramid, and cordon trees. obtain a variety of cultivars Maiden whips (see p.149) can be trained in a cottage garden. into all forms, but take a year longer than feathered maidens. Some cultivars, such as ‘Blenheim Orange’ apples and the plum ‘Count Althann’s Gage’, do not branch easily in the first year, and so are available only as whips. Trees are available as either bare-root or container-grown. Bare-root trees are lifted and sold with the roots wrapped,



152 GROWING TREE FRUITS Tree fruit forms Fruit trees can be trained to grow case of stone fruits, and restricted a good method in high rainfall areas, in a range of different forms. forms, which are generally pruned giving improved ripening of shoots Combined with different rootstocks in summer. Restricted forms tend and buds. (see facing page), which inf luence their to be earlier into cropping and are final size, they can be trained to suit more productive per area than the Apples and pears are the most a variety of situations, for both large unrestricted forms. In less climatically versatile of the tree fruits, with a great and small gardens, and for growing favorable areas, for later ripening range of forms possible, including the in containers. cultivars, or for fruits that require elaborate restricted forms that were warm conditions to crop reliably— traditionally used in walled kitchen Before choosing a form for your such as peaches, nectarines, apricots, gardens. Other fruits cannot be trained trees, consider the space available, sweet cherries, late dessert plums, and into such a range of forms, usually due the type of fruits to be grown, the figs—the fruits benefit from being to their fruiting habit or vigor, but site, and the amount of fruit required. grown in a restricted form against a there is still a selection suitable for Tree forms can be divided into south-, southwest-, or west-facing wall training against walls or freestanding unrestricted forms, which are generally or fence. Training against a wall is also post-and-wire supports. For pruning pruned in winter, or spring in the details on each form, see pp.166–173. Common tree fruit forms Bush Cordon Cordon Espalier The bush is an unrestricted, open- These are restricted forms trained Most suitable for apples and centered tree with a clear stem of as a single stem, or several stems pears, espaliers consist of a central 30in (75cm) before the branches (a multiple cordon), and suitable stem with horizontal arms about start. All tree fruits can be trained for apples, pears, and some 18in (45cm) apart. They can be as bush trees, and the final size plums. The stems can be trained grown on freestanding posts and of the tree will depend upon the at a 45-degree, oblique angle, wires or a wall or fence. Although type of fruit and the rootstock onto horizontally, or vertically, and are productive, they take longer to which it is grafted (see facing page). closely spaced, so many trees reach maturity than cordons. A This form is most suitable for fruits can be grown in a small area. highly ornamental restricted form, that grow well in the open, such as Summer pruning is needed to espaliers are an attractive way apples, pears, plums, and quinces. control their vigor and encourage of dividing a garden. Standards and half-standards are cropping close to the stem. trained as for bush trees, but are Cordons are useful on walls grown on more vigorous rootstocks or fences, but also flourish and have a longer clear stem— on post-and-wire structures or 41⁄2ft (1.35m) for a half-standard over arches. One of the most and 6ft (2m) for a standard; they productive forms, and easy are suitable only for large gardens. for a beginner, they come into cropping early in their lives. Multiple cordon Center-leader trees Pyramid Fan In this restricted form, the branches Bush These take two forms: the pyramid radiate out on either side of the Half- low, central stem and are attached standard and the spindlebush. Each has a to wires. Fans can be trained on freestanding posts and wires or a Standard central stem and is cone-shaped, fence and can be used for almost all fruits. They are particularly useful with branches starting at 2ft for peaches, nectarines, apricots, and figs, which benefit from the (60cm) from the ground. The shelter of a wall or fence. slightly neater pyramid is used for many fruits; the spindlebush only for apples and pears. Center-leader trees are restricted forms that come into cropping early in the Spindlebush life of the tree. There is good light distribution to all parts, and they cast less shade than a bush tree. They are usually small, from 6ft (2m) to 8ft (2.4m) tall, depending on the rootstock. The spindlebush is best for more vigorous cultivars.

ROOTSTOCKS 153 Rootstocks The rootstock grafting point THE QUALITIES OF ROOTSTOCKS The point at which the rootstock and scion join Almost all tree fruits are propagated should be visible on all grafted fruit trees as a The general trend in fruit growing by grafting, in which the scion—a bump near the base of the stem. This point has been toward producing smaller, bud or shoot—from one tree is joined should never be buried, since the scion may more manageable trees and, to this onto the rootstock—or root system— root, negating the effect of the rootstock. end, research stations have concentrated of another tree to produce one plant. on selecting and breeding more Therefore the rootstock of the tree involves cutting down the rootstocks dwarfing rootstocks. This benefits is different from the fruiting part of to ground level in late winter. They commercial and garden growers, since the tree. This method of propagating will produce a number of shoots during small trees on dwarfing rootstocks fruit trees has been practiced since the growing season and these are come into fruit bearing earlier in ancient times and current techniques earthed up gradually as they grow. their lives and are generally more are little different from those carried The earthing up encourages the shoots productive. There is a greater choice out by the Romans and ancient Greeks. to develop new roots at their bases. of rootstocks available for apples than Each rooted shoot can then be severed for other fruits. It has proved difficult There are a number of advantages to during the following winter and planted to find suitable dwarfing rootstocks be gained from propagating a fruit tree out in rows in a nursery bed ready for for plums and cherries. in this way. Fruits grown from seed do grafting. This method is mainly used not usually come true, and the majority by professional growers to produce When buying a tree you need to of seedlings are inferior to the parent. large numbers of rootstocks, but can find out what rootstock it is grafted Trees grown from seed also take many be undertaken by the enthusiastic onto and the eventual size that can be years before f lowering and fruiting— amateur. For information on grafting expected. This can only be a general seven to ten years for apples—and have methods, see pp.154–155. guide, since mature tree heights vary first to go through a juvenile phase. according to soil, site, and cultivar. Most tree fruits do not root easily from Some rootstocks are more suitable for cuttings, so grafting is a more reliable training different forms (see individual method of reproducing a particular crops, pp.174–205 for specific guidelines; cultivar. Trees on their own roots have see also the table below). differing and unpredictable amounts of vigor, and tend to be very vigorous, ROOTSTOCKS FOR TRAINING maturing into large trees that are APPLE TREE FORMS unsuitable for many garden situations. Apple form Rootstock Rootstocks are usually classified by the effect they have on vigor, and Pyramid and M27, M9, M26, or they help to determine the final size spindlebush MM106 of the tree, although they may also confer other qualities, such as disease Cordon M27, M9, or M26 resistance, onto the whole plant. Espalier M26, MM106, or M111 PROPAGATING ROOTSTOCK MATERIAL Rootstocks can be propagated by a Fan M26, MM106, or M111, variety of techniques, but the most depending on size common is the stool bed method. This required and soil How rootstocks affect tree size The following chart gives an indication of the way in which different rootstocks can affect the mature size of a tree (here apple). There are 6 18 a great many rootstocks available commercially worldwide, selected according to local soil conditions, climate, pest and disease resistance, and other such factors. m ft M9 M26 MM106 MM111 M25 M27

154 GROWING TREE FRUITS Grafting tree fruits Grafting is a term that covers a number cuts—and placing the cambium layer Chip-budding (see box, below) is usually of methods of joining a rootstock—or of each together. The cambium is the carried out in mid- to late summer, root system—and a scion—or a bud tissue between the bark and the pithy and can be done the summer after or shoot—both of which have been center of a stem, and it is capable of the rootstocks have been planted. selected for desirable characteristics. producing new stem cells. Because Whip-and-tongue grafting (see box, It is a fairly challenging method of this tissue is delicate, once exposed facing page) takes place in late winter to propagation, requiring attention to by cutting it is vulnerable to bacteria early spring, and can be done the year detail, strict hygiene, and fast working, and fungi. Keep grafting knives after the rootstocks have been planted. so that the plant material does not dry (see p.57) sterile and sharp to avoid AFTERCARE OF GRAFTED TREES out during the process. infections. A tree from which you are After grafting, ensure the graft does propagating should be disease-free not dry out, and remove the tape However, for the avid fruit gardener, and growing well if good offspring once callus tissue has formed. As grafting can be a very satisfying way are to be produced. chip-budded shoots grow out, the of producing new trees, and it is new growth may need staking, particularly useful when you wish to CHOOSING A GRAFTING METHOD especially on pears and plums. Once propagate a tree not easily obtained The two simplest methods of grafting, whip-and-tongue grafts have united, from a nursery, such as an unknown with the highest success rates, are choose one shoot from the scion and garden cultivar or a seedling that you chip-budding and whip-and-tongue tie it to a stake during the growing have raised. Most fruit trees can be grafting. For both methods, rootstocks season. Remove any other shoots on propagated by grafting. Exceptions are needed. You can grow these the scion or on the rootstock when include hazelnuts, which are easily yourself (see p.153), or buy them from they are 3–4in (8–10cm) long. propagated from suckers and make a specialized nursery. If you are using medium-sized trees on their own roots. several, plant them out in the dormant For both methods, the resulting season 18in (45cm) apart in rows maiden trees can be lifted and planted Grafting involves making a matching 3ft (1m) apart. out in the following dormant season. cut on both scion and rootstock— different methods involve different 1 Chip-budding a tree fruit 1Collect scions (here of the apple 5Choose a smooth section of the ‘Laxton’s Superb’) for budding in mid- stock (here MM106) at 6–12in to late summer. Choose well-ripened shoots (15–30cm) above ground level. Make a of the current season’s growth from the toe cut just above a node or joint at the sunny side of the tree canopy, and cut same angle and depth as that on the bud. lengths of 10in (25cm) or more. 6Hold the bud against the rootstock to 2 Remove the leaves from the ripened judge where to start the second cut, part of the scion, or budstick, using then slice out a sliver of bark above the toe a clean, sharp grafting knife. Leave 1⁄8in cut to match that on the bud (see inset). (4mm) long leaf stalks (petioles), but pick off any small sub-leaves (stipules). 7Position the bud so that its base sits on the lip of the rootstock cut. Check 3Prepare buds from the scion at the site there is good contact between the cambium of the rootstock so that no time is lost layers of the scion and stock on at least 1 between taking the bud and grafting it to side. Move the bud to line up with the stock the stock, minimizing the risk of it drying cambium on 1 side only, if necessary. out. To remove a bud, first make a cut about 3⁄4in (2cm) below a bud. The cut, known 8Bind the bud firmly to the rootstock as a toe cut, should be about 1⁄8in (3mm) by wrapping the entire area with 1in deep, and angled downward at about 20°. (2.5cm) wide plastic grafting tape. Make sure that the graft is completely covered 4 Make a second cut 11⁄2in (3.5cm) so that it cannot dry out. above the first. Slice behind the bud and down to meet the first cut. Remove 9Secure the binding with a knot. Leave the bud chip (see inset), holding it by the the tape in place for 4–6 weeks until bud so that you do not touch the cambium a callus has formed around the bud, then layer, which might infect it with bacteria or cut the knot and unwrap the tape. natural oil from your hand and so impair bonding of the graft tissues. Work quickly 10In early spring of the following year, to minimize any moisture loss. cut off the rootstock just above the bud, using a sloping cut. The bud should then grow out and become a strong shoot.

GRAFTING TREE FRUITS 155 Whip-and-tongue grafting a tree fruit 12 3 4 1Collect scions for grafting (3cm) long on the opposite sloping cut, remove a sliver on 4 Bind the scion and stock in midwinter. Cut some side of the stem, with the bud the stock to match that on the together firmly using strong, hardwood shoots of the halfway down the cut. Then scion, and create a matching 1in (2.5cm) wide grafting tape. previous season’s growth, about create a tongue (see inset) by tongue (see inset). On thin rootstocks the tape may 9in (23cm) long, and keep cutting into the exposed wood cover the cut on the top of the them in a dry plastic bag in a to a depth of 1⁄2in (1cm). 3Gently fit the tongue of rootstock, otherwise paint all refrigerator. Prepare the graft in the scion into that on the exposed surfaces with grafting early spring when the rootstock 2 Cut back the rootstock to stock (see inset). If the scion is wax to prevent moisture loss. is coming into growth. Choose a 6–12in (15–30cm) from the narrower than the stock, make After 6–8 weeks, the graft healthy bud on the scion, and ground, making a gently sloping sure the edges align on at least should have callused and the remove a sliver of wood 11⁄4in cut just above a smooth area 1 side, and that the cambium tape can be carefully removed. of stem. On the high side of the layers fit snugly together. 2345 6 7 8 9 10

156 GROWING TREE FRUITS Pollination Almost all of the fruit trees need to be The structure of a flower pollinated to produce fruits. Figs are the main exception, producing fruit This is an apple flower containing male and a fruit starts to form. This occurs in in cool climates without fertilization and female reproductive parts. Most tree different ways. Apples and pears, for taking place. Pollination involves the fruit flowers conform to this structure. example, are formed of the expanded transfer of pollen from the anthers Once a flower is pollinated, by insects or receptacle of the flower, whereas the (one of the male parts of the f lower) by wind, and fertilized, the seeds develop flesh of apricots and peaches is formed to the stigmas (one of the female parts in the ovary, contained within the receptacle, of the swollen ovary wall. of the f lower). Then, under favorable conditions, fertilization will take place. Style Stigma It is vital to understand the pollination Pollen tube grows One of female parts, needs of the cultivars you wish to down style to fuse with on which pollen grains grow to ensure a good fruit crop. female nucleus in ovary germinate HOW POLLINATION OCCURS Anther Flower structure and the method Carries pollen grains of pollination can vary. Most fruit trees have flowers that contain both Stamen Petal the female parts—stigma, style, and Male part Attracts ovary—and male parts—anther composed pollinators and filament, known collectively of filament and offers as the stamen. Within this group, and anther landing some are self-fertile, that is, the flowers platform can be pollinated with the tree’s own Filament pollen. Often, however, pollen is not Stem of Pedicel Receptacle released at the same time as the stigmas stamen Flower stalk Ovary, where seed develops are receptive, so pollen needs to be after pollination, lies inside transferred from one tree to another. They include kiwi fruits. This means are male-sterile, producing little or no Completely self-fertile tree fruits that, for pollination to occur, both pollen, so are ineffective as pollinators. include most peaches and apricots, male and female plants must be grown. some plums and cherries, and a CONDITIONS FOR POLLINATION very few apples. Self-fertile cultivars POLLINATION COMPATIBILITY Flower pollination and the subsequent usually crop more reliably if grown For cultivation, tree fruit cultivars fertilization occur only if the conditions with a pollinator. No pears are truly are grouped into those that f lower at at flowering time are favorable. self-fertile, but some bear seedless about the same time (see individual crops, Pollination takes place in various ways. (parthenocarpic) fruits if not pollinated. pp.174–205). Most cultivars that f lower Many fruits, including apples, pears, at the same time are compatible with and plums, are insect-pollinated, by Some trees, even if their flowers one another, although there are some such pollinators as bumblebees, solitary have male and female parts, still need exceptions, including some apples, bees, and honey bees. These insects to be cross-pollinated. This involves pears, and a number of sweet cherries. are necessary for self-fertile plants as a transfer of pollen from the flowers well as self-infertile ones to transfer of one cultivar to those of a different Most cultivars are diploids (with pollen from one flower to another. cultivar of the same fruit that happens two sets of chromosomes) or, in a very to be flowering at the same time. Most few cases, tetraploids (with four sets of Wind-pollinated plants include apple cultivars require cross-pollination chromosomes); diploids and tetraploids hazelnuts and filberts, and walnuts, all with another cultivar to set a good crop. will pollinate each other. The triploid of which are monoecious. The male cultivars, such as those found in some catkins on these plants produce lots of Some fruit trees have separate male apples and pears, have three sets of pollen to ensure successful pollination. and female flowers on the same plant— chromosomes and are ineffective these are known as monoecious plants. pollinators, needing to be grown with For pollination by both insects They include many of the nuts. Many two other diploid cultivars that will and wind, the site is very important, of these are self-fertile trees, but they pollinate one another and the triploid. since wind speeds and temperatures crop better if cross-pollinated, since the Some cultivars, particularly of pears, can vary over a short distance. A sunny, male and female flowers do not always sheltered site can be several degrees open at the same time on the same tree. A few fruit species have male and female f lowers on separate plants— these are known as dioecious plants.

POLLINATION 157 warmer than another site just a few buds, flowers, and fruitlets are very Windbreak yards away. Insect-pollinated plants susceptible to frosts. Frost damage Deciduous trees need conditions that are warm and occurs at different temperatures, make good calm enough for pollinating insects to depending on the stage of development windbreaks for tree f ly. Wind-pollinated plants need a fair of the buds, flowers, and fruitlets (see fruits, filtering the degree of shelter, too. Conditions may box, below left). Temperatures at which wind, but providing be suitable for pollination on only a this damage occurs differs with the enough shelter to few occasions during the blossoming of fruit type and cultivar, some being protect the blossom. early-f lowering fruits such as peaches, much more resistant than others. The windbreak apricots, plums, and pears. Fortunately, should be over 8ft under favorable conditions, adequate Fortunately, in a garden situation, (2.5m) away so that pollination can take place in just a few some frost protection can be provided. it does not compete days. Once pollination has taken place, When planting, try to avoid frost for moisture and fertilization will occur only if the air pockets (see p.11). Trees grown against nutrients. This temperatures are warm enough for walls or fences are the most easily windbreak is Italian pollen tube growth to take place. protected. On nights when frost is alder (Alnus cordata), forecast, a cover of double layers of which leafs out early To improve chances of pollination, horticultural f leece, shade netting, and tolerates dry it may be necessary to provide an extra or burlap (or similar) can be rolled conditions. windbreak or hedges (see pp.12–13). It down to cover the tree. Support the is an advantage if honey bees are kept cover with bamboo stakes (or taut HAND POLLINATION nearby, and it is possible to increase wires) so that it does not touch the Fruit trees that f lower in early spring, the numbers of wild pollinating insects, tree. Secure this against the wind. such as peaches, apricots, and fruits including solitary bees and bumblebees. Roll up the cover during the day grown under glass, benefit from hand This can involve leaving part of the to allow access by pollinating insects. pollination, since there are few insects garden with longer grass, and leaving around at this time of year. Pollinate hedge bottoms unweeded. on warm days, preferably around noon, when the pollen is being shed freely. For solitary bees it is also possible It shows as bright yellow grains and to obtain bee nesting boxes. Providing collects on the finger when touched. nectar-rich plants throughout the You may need to repeat the process on year will maintain a good insect a number of occasions because different population. These include numerous f lowers open at different times. native and traditional f lowering plants. Plant species, rather than cultivars, tend to be more successful, and soft fruits, including red currants and cane fruits, also attract insects. AVOIDING FROST DAMAGE One of the greatest barriers to achieving pollination, fertilization, and subsequent crops of fruit is frost. Most fruit trees are fully winter-hardy, but the developing FROST DAMAGE TO APPLES POOR POLLINATION This table shows the temperatures at which If trees flower well but do not bear fruit, frost damage occurs at various stages poor pollination is likely to be the cause. of growth in apple trees. It illustrates the Sometimes unpollinated flowers produce general point that the later the stage of fruitlets, which will develop for a while and development, the more susceptible the tree. then drop off; this is particularly common with cherries and plums. There are several Stage of Temperature where reasons for poor pollination: development damage occurs ■ the absence of a suitable pollinating cultivar nearby Green cluster of buds 26°F (–3.5°C) ■ unfavorable conditions for pollinating Hand pollinating blossom insects to fly, for example, cool, wet, or The best tool for this task is a rabbit’s tail tied Pink (closed) bud 27°F (–3.0°C) windy weather to a stake, but you can use a fine paintbrush. ■ frost at, or following, flowering time. Simply brush each blossom on the tree gently, Full (open) bloom 28°F (–2.0°C) one after the other, to spread the pollen from flower to flower. Petal fall 27°F (–2.5°C) Fruitlets forming 30°F (–1.0°C)

158 GROWING TREE FRUITS Planting tree fruits For the future development of the tree, Planting both bare-root and container- STAKING FREESTANDING TREES it is important to plant correctly. For grown tree fruits is best done when closely planted trees, prepare the entire the trees are dormant between late All freestanding trees require staking, at area (see pp.149–150), ensuring that it fall and early spring. Planting trees in least initially. The stake supports the tree is free of perennial weeds (see pp.49–50). late fall is preferable if the soil is still until the roots have developed enough It is best to do this at least two weeks warm because this allows some root to anchor it. For trees on semi-vigorous before planting to allow it to settle. growth before the winter. If the soil and vigorous rootstocks, the stake can This is particularly crucial on soils that is frozen or waterlogged, however, be removed after one or two years, but need improving, such as heavy clay or delay planting until conditions improve trees on dwarfing and semi-dwarfing thin, sandy soils. For widely spaced (see p.150). Bare-root trees must be rootstocks need a permanent stake. trees, each planting hole can be prepared planted while dormant, while container- separately. Do this just before planting, grown trees can, in fact, be planted A softwood, or, less often, a chestnut since if a planting hole is left open for all year round, if necessary. If they stake that has been pressure-treated or a while it can fill with water or dry out, are planted during spring and summer, has been soaked with wood preservative depending on the weather, or the sides they will likely require more watering should last for at least five years. Wear become too solid for roots to penetrate. and may get off to a slower start. gloves when handling newly treated stakes. The length of stake and its angle depends on the type of tree you are Planting a bare-root tree 1Dig a hole wide enough to 1 2 spread out the roots and deep 3 4 enough so that the tree will be 5 at the same depth as it was in 6 the nursery. Check the depth with a shovel or stake across the hole—the nursery soil mark is darker than the trunk above. If the planting area has not been prepared, add well-rotted manure or compost to the soil you have removed, plus a slow-release fertilizer, such as bonemeal. 2Remove the tree and drive a sturdy stake about 2ft (60cm) into the soil. 3Place the tree in the hole and refill the hole with soil a shovelful at a time, raising and lowering the tree as you fill so the soil settles around the roots. 4Firm down the soil in the hole with your foot halfway through filling and again when you have finished, but avoid overfirming or stamping. 5Attach the tree to the stake with a tie (here a cinch tie). Loop the tie around the tree and through the buffer, then fasten it and nail it to the stake. 6Mulch around the stem of the tree with a 2–3in (5–8cm) layer of well-rotted compost or manure in an 18in (45cm) band around the tree, but do not let it touch the trunk.

PLANTING TREE FRUITS 159 planting. Upright stakes should be Planting cordons against a fence driven in before planting, angled ones afterward. Angled stakes are very useful 1 2 for container-grown trees, since they 3 can be inserted clear of the rootball. 1Fix 3 horizontal wires to the fence at 2ft (60cm) intervals, starting at 2ft Pyramid and spindlebush trees on (60cm) from the ground. Tie bamboo dwarfing and semi-dwarfing rootstocks stakes to the wires so that they are will need permanent upright stakes 8ft 30in (75cm) apart and angled at 45°. (2.5m) long that are driven 2ft (60cm) into the ground. Bush, standard, and 2Dig out a semicircular hole at the base half-standard trees require short stakes, of each stake 6–9in (15–23cm) from the either about 4ft (1.2m) long and fence. Place the tree in the hole at an oblique inserted vertically with 2ft (60cm) of angle. Ensure the graft union is above soil the stake below ground, or 5ft (1.5m) level and that the scion is uppermost, growing long, driven at a 45° angle into the soil. away from the stake; this discourages the scion from rooting. Fill in and firm the soil. CHOOSING TREE TIES A tie should form a buffer between 3Tie the stem of the tree to the stake the stake and the tree—ideally with at intervals, using soft twine in a a gap of about 3in (8cm)—and should figure-eight knot. be easily adjustable or removable to allow for the growth of the stem. if the graft union is buried, the scion is often itself may root, and the tree will in effect easier to take out a trench rather than There are three main types of tree be growing on its own roots, negating single holes. The trench size depends tie available. A cinch tie comes with the effect of the rootstock (see p.153). on the size of the trees’ root systems, a buffer, through which the end of the but a trench 2ft (60cm) wide and 18in tie is threaded. Use a short nail to secure If using a proprietary slow-release (45cm) deep is generally adequate. the tie to the stake so it does not slip fertilizer to mix with the soil from down. Check regularly that the tie the hole, always apply it in accordance MULCHING A NEWLY PLANTED TREE does not constrict the trunk. Soft plastic with the manufacturer’s instructions. The mulch that you apply after planting tubing is widely used commercially. On clay soils, fork gently around the conserves moisture and improves the It is tied in a figure-eight knot, with edge of the hole after planting to break organic matter content. If it is allowed the knot against the stake and fixed to up any compacted or smeared soil. to touch the tree stem, it could lead to it with a nail. These ties stretch so do diseases such as collar rot, canker (see not constrict readily, and are particularly PLANTING TREES TO BE TRAINED p.253), or scion rotting. On very fertile useful where a number of ties are For trees to be trained as cordons, fans, soils, an alternative to organic matter required. A chain-lock tie comes in and espaliers, whether they are against is a sheet mulch of black film plastic the form of a plastic chain in different freestanding posts and wires or fixed to or landscape fabric. To put this in place, grades. Fasten the tie around the stake a wall or fence, supporting wires should cut a square of the sheet at least 1ft then cross back through to form a be fixed in position before planting (see (30cm) larger on each side than the area buffer, fastening it on the tree. Check p.162). For all tree forms planted against of ground to be covered—so to cover and adjust regularly since these ties a wall or fence (see above), plant the tree an area of 4 x 4ft (120 x 120cm), cut can soon become constricting. 6–9in (15–23cm) from the fence so that a 5 x 5ft (150 x 150cm) piece of sheet. the roots can benefit from rainwater Cut a slit to the center of the square PLANTING FREESTANDING TREES out of the shadow of the wall or fence. from halfway along one side, to allow The same basic method of planting can With bare-root specimens, spread out the sheet to fit around the tree. Place be followed for freestanding bare-root the roots and cut back those growing it around the trunk and secure by (see facing page) or container-grown trees. toward the wall or fence. Those planted pushing the edges into slit trenches. Water them well before planting. With by freestanding posts and wires can be Check that the sheet is tight to the container-grown trees, dig a hole a little planted just in front of the wires. Where soil, and firm in. larger than the rootball; you do not need a row of cordons is being planted, it to shake the rootball as you firm it. If container-grown trees are pot-bound, any thick, thonglike roots should be cut back and the other roots teased out to encourage them to spread. When planting, always make sure that the graft union is well clear of the soil. This is to prevent the scion from rooting:

160 GROWING TREE FRUITS General care Thinning blossom and fruitlets Once you have planted your fruit trees, they need as close to ideal conditions as possible to grow well and produce good crops. This involves carrying out various routine tasks to meet their needs for water and nutrients, and making regular checks to ensure that the fruits develop without overcrowding and that they are not attacked by pests or diseases. TIMING OF WATERING Blossom thinning Thinning fruitlets The demands for water vary according On trees prone to biennial bearing, about Remove misshapen, damaged, or poorly to the tree’s stage of growth and to the a week or 10 days after flowering remove positioned fruits first to leave large, healthy, rainfall in a growing season. The most alternate blossom clusters. Use scissors or well-shaped fruits. On plums (shown here), critical times for watering are after pinch out each blossom at the stem, leaving thin the fruitlets by picking to leave a single planting in the spring, and from early the leaves below undamaged. fruitlet every 2–3in (5–8cm). summer, as the fruitlets are developing, until they are ripe. From midsummer, summer and early fall if there is a lack using a watering can or hose, water water is also needed for the production of water. Apply 2in (5cm) of water over thoroughly every two weeks rather of fruit buds for the following year. the rooting area every two weeks— than little and often. If the tree suffers drought stress at this about 12 gallons/sq yd (50 liters/sq m). time it may fail to f lower the following The rooting area extends to the BLOSSOM AND FRUIT THINNING year and so become biennial bearing. perimeter of the tree canopy. In favorable conditions, fruit trees set When this happens, a tree fruits heavily more fruit than is ideal. Overcropping in alternate years, bearing little or no WATERING METHODS results in small, low-quality fruit, poor fruit in the years in between. Apply water economically and reduce growth, and stress on the tree. This water loss wherever possible. Ideally, sometimes causes biennial bearing since Additional water applied as irrigation irrigate at night when evaporation the tree is unable to produce flower is required during prolonged dry spells, and consequent wastage is at its lowest. buds for the next year. In extreme cases, particularly on shallow and light soils. Surface mulches over the rooting area overcropping can cause the tree to die. Even in a generally wet year there (see facing page) can be very effective may be dry periods when irrigation is in reducing water loss. To counteract biennial bearing where helpful. Water loss from plants and soil this is known to be a problem, thin is greatest in early to midsummer when Drip irrigation from specially made the blossoms (see above), either removing trees are in active growth, temperatures hoses is a good method, particularly alternate clusters, or removing most are highest, and sunshine hours greatest, if trees are grown in rows or trained in a cluster. Blossom removal is also but aim to water trees all through early on walls or fences. There are several needed on all fruit trees in the first types available (see p.54), some of growing season after planting. Sprinkler watering among fruit trees which leak along their length, while These apple spindlebushes planted in rows are others have drippers at intervals Fruit thinning should be done as being watered by mini-sprinklers attached to and give out water at a controlled a routine task in early to midsummer hoses. The sprinklers can be adjusted so that rate. Drip irrigation operates at low to leave the fruits at the optimum the spray covers the soil between the trees. pressures, so pipes and outlets need spacing (see individual crops, pp.174–205). to lie close to the trees. The earlier the thinning, the better the increase in fruit size, since thinning Where trees are more widely spaced, when cell division is still taking place low-level sprinklers are useful because in the early stages of fruit formation the spray can be adjusted to fit the has the greatest effect. Many trees drop tree spacing. Both systems can be set some fruit naturally—this is known up to work at intervals using timers, as June drop—but further thinning if needed. If you water manually is usually required (see above). It is the

GENERAL CARE 161 amount and spacing of the fruit left on Trees on dwarfing rootstocks are this is not possible, a guard around each the tree that matters, not how many particularly susceptible to competition. tree is effective. There are several types: fruits you remove. Depending on how Mulching is one of the best ways a plastic or galvanized metal mesh many fruits set in a season, you may of weed control; for other methods, guard is best, since it allows air not need to thin; in heavy cropping see pp.49–50. circulation. Close-fitting, wrap-around years, you will need to remove several plastic guards are available, but are less times the number left on the tree. Trees on semi-vigorous rootstocks satisfactory, since they produce damp can be grown in grass, but they need conditions around the stem, which can FEEDING TREE FRUITS a weed-free area of 2–3ft (60cm–1m) encourage canker infection, and they All plants need a supply of nutrients and, for the first four years, an annual may cut into and restrict the stem. (see p.17) to grow and fruit well. Fruits mulch 2–3in (5–8cm) deep to a After four or five years, the stem and vary in their nutrient needs (see individual radius of about 18in (45cm). Trees on bark become thick enough to be of crops, pp.174–205). Some, such as stone dwarfing and semi-dwarfing rootstocks no interest to rabbits. fruits, pears, and culinary apples, require grow best in clear ground. A surface more nitrogen than others for growth, mulch of organic matter is beneficial. To protect against deer, taller wire while most fruit trees have a fairly high Those grown against supports should fencing is needed, of 6ft (2m) or over. demand for potassium—vital in fruit have a weed-free strip of 2ft (60cm) Where deer are a problem and the bud and fruit development. along the fence or wall or on either area cannot be fenced, half-standard or side of freestanding posts and wires. standard trees are the only types suitable Magnesium is often important since for growing because the branches will some fruits—especially vines, apples, PROTECTING YOUR CROPS AGAINST be above deer browsing height. peaches, and raspberries—are prone DEER AND RABBITS to magnesium deficiency (see p.257), Deer and rabbits can kill or damage PROTECTION AGAINST BIRDS particularly on thin, free-draining soils. young trees by girdling the tree: this As tree fruits ripen, they need to be is when a ring of bark is eaten around protected against birds (see also p.252). The major nutrients can be applied the tree, killing it by preventing Trees on dwarfing rootstocks and those as inorganic or organic fertilizer and as moisture and nutrients from traveling grown against a support can have a mulches (see below), although the latter up and down the trunk. Deer also eat net draped over them, with a stake provide limited feed value. To correct young shoots. If deer and rabbits are structure to keep it off the fruits. For magnesium deficiency, use magnesium present, the ideal solution is to fence an area of fruit trees, a fruit cage can sulfate, also sold as Epsom salts. You off the whole garden to exclude them. be made, up to 6–7ft (2–2.2m) high, can apply this directly to the soil or, with a structure of wooden posts, and for a more rapid response, in solution To be rabbit-proof, wire fencing of draped netting, or a proprietary cage to leaves at a rate of 1⁄2oz/pint (20g/ a 1in (2.5cm) mesh needs to be buried obtained. Apples, pears, and plums liter). Adding a proprietary wetting vertically 12in (30cm) deep with 12in are susceptible to bullfinches attacking agent improves the effectiveness of (30cm) laid horizontally to form an fruit buds, so need protection in winter spraying. To avoid leaf scorch, do L-shape underground. It should extend and early spring. not spray in bright, sunny conditions. above ground by 3–4ft (90–120cm). If Mulching and MULCHING AND WEED CONTROL rabbit protection There are two basic types of mulch: Each spring, spread organic and inorganic (see pp.41– a layer of mulch 42). Organic mulches are useful on around each tree. most soils to maintain a good level Use well-rotted of organic matter in the soil, helping manure, compost, to keep the soil free-draining and or bark chippings improving its moisture and nutrient about 2–3in (5–8cm) retention. A thick layer will also help deep and extending with weed control. Inorganic mulches around the tree as far are excellent for weed control, although as the canopy. Here, they may lead to a depletion of organic a plastic mesh rabbit matter in the soil in the long term. guard attached to On thin, dry soils, inorganic sheet the stake keeps the mulches work best with drip irrigation mulch away from (see p.54) beneath them. the trunk. If the mulch should lie Growth and cropping suffer if there against the trunk, is strong competition for water and it may create damp nutrients. Weeds and grass compete conditions, increasing if they are too close to a fruit tree, as the risk of disease do ornamental plants and vegetables. infection and of the scion rooting.

162 GROWING TREE FRUITS Pruning and training principles Pruning is the cutting away of growth Attaching support wires to keep a plant healthy, and influence its shape, size, flowering, and fruiting. To fix horizontal wires to a brick or stone Training encourages a plant to grow in a specific shape and direction, often so wall, use eye bolts secured to the wall with it is more productive. When a fruit tree is young, it needs formative pruning to expanding bolts. Insert the expanding bolt into create a healthy branch framework of the shape needed to carry crops in the a drilled hole and then screw it in to trigger the future. When mature, it needs routine pruning so that it bears regular crops outer casing to expand to fit the hole tightly. Fix of good fruit of a good size. At all stages, pruning is not as complex as it may at Eye bolt in the wires to straining first seem. It is crucial to understand the casing bolts slotted through basic principles to get the best possible the eye bolts. crop from your tree. Bush and pyramid forms need pruning but little training. Bolt Eye bolt Spindlebushes require more pruning and casing training than the bush and pyramid, but not as much as the restricted forms. fence or between freestanding posts. surface to allow Cordons, espaliers, and fans need both The support framework and wires air to circulate. pruning and training. need to be erected before planting so A useful method that you can start training the newly for walls is to use SUPPORTS FOR DIFFERENT planted tree at once. Use galvanized expansion bolts TREE FORMS wire for the supports. For fan-trained screwed into the wall Freestanding forms require staking (see trees the wires should be 14 gauge, or and straining bolts fixed through these. pp.158–159). Restricted tree forms need 1⁄16in (1.2mm) in diameter, and spaced Alternatively, screw 4–6in (10–15cm) to be trained onto horizontal wires. 6in (15cm) apart horizontally; for vine eyes into plugs in the wall or The wires can be attached to a wall or espaliers use 12-gauge, or 1⁄8in (2.5mm) directly into a wooden fence. Fit in diameter, wires that are spaced 18in straining bolts to the vine eyes at one (45cm) apart; and for cordons, which end to adjust the wire tension. Always are about 6ft (2m) tall, you need three take care when straining wires: use 12-gauge wires spaced 2ft (60cm) apart. safety goggles as eye protection, and avoid overstraining the wires, since There are a number of ways of fixing this may cause them to snap. wires to fences or walls. Space the If a number of closely spaced wires fixings about 6ft (2m) apart along are needed for fan-trained trees, the fence or wall. They need to be wires can be stapled directly to wooden held 11⁄2–4in (4–10cm) away from the posts or fixed to wooden battens in walls. Since there are more wires used, Recognizing the parts of a fruit tree straining bolts should not be needed. Branch leader Sideshoot Shoot (extension Also known as sublateral; grows from lateral growth) at end of branch MAKING A FREESTANDING SUPPORT Lateral Spur Support frameworks can be of timber Grows directly Found on pears and or metal posts and must be substantial from main stem many apples; clustered to withstand the strain put on them by system of fruit buds mature trees. The height depends on or branch on old wood the tree form chosen and is commonly 6–7ft (2–2.2m). Space posts up to 12ft Getting to know Graft union (4m) apart; the spacing between the posts the parts of a fruit Union of rootstock needs to be at least half the width of the tree helps with an and scion mature tree. At either end, strengthen understanding of its the post by using a diagonal strut at structure, and its growth 45º, and fix it firmly two-thirds of the and fruiting habit. Many way up the stake. apples, for example, fruit on two-year-old and older wood, whereas If you are using timber posts as peaches generally fruit on ripened wood uprights, ensure that they have been from the previous year. These differences treated with preservative and are at influence how the tree should be least 3in (8cm) in diameter. The pruned: you need to aim for a bases should be sunk at least 18–24in mixture of potentially fruitful (45–60cm) into the ground or into wood of different ages. metal post supports. Galvanized angle iron is ideal for metal uprights; these need to be sunk to a similar depth.

PRUNING AND TRAINING PRINCIPLES 163 Making a good pruning cut Base of cut Correct cut When pruning, it is important to make Second cut Final cut is not below cuts correctly to avoid damaging or Saw through Cut down to level of bud Rainwater can impairing growth or introducing disease. from top slightly meet third cut, roll off away The cut needs to be in the appropriate farther away then remove Exposed large from bud place in relation to a healthy bud or to the than first cut rough edges surface heals branch, and it should be clean to promote slowly Overlarge, swift healing. Always use clean, sharp sloping cut cutting tools. First cut Base of cut below ◀ Good and bad pruning cuts About 12in (30cm) bud weakens it A correct cut is made just above a bud, sloping as it grows at a gentle angle away from it. This allows the from trunk, cut bud to grow away strongly to form a new shoot. quarter of way through Flat surface allows Cutting too close to, or too far from, the bud water to collect allows disease to enter the wound. Third cut Cut quarter of way through from below Cut too far Branch ▲ Removing a large branch from bud collar When removing a big branch, it is vital to cut it away in sections to prevent the wood Stub above bud from splitting or tearing under its own weight. will die back Leave the branch collar intact to aid healing. Rough cut Wood has been ◀ Branch collar crushed and will be When removing a branch at the point of prone to disease origin, look for a slight ridge at the base of the branch, known as the collar. Cutting back to this allows the wound to heal naturally. If the branch is cut flush with the stem, it will wound the framework of the tree. Leaving a larger snag beyond the collar causes dieback and often a cavity. For metal or timber posts, fix the wires p.57). Pruning saws are either straight- essential to the structure, it is possible to a straining bolt through one end bladed or have a curved blade—called to treat it by cutting away the canker post, thread them through holes drilled a Grecian blade—and are much easier back to healthy tissue with a sharp in intermediate posts, and fix them to to use in a tight space than other saws. knife; disinfect the knife after use. the other end post. GOALS OF PRUNING Stone fruits are often affected by CHECKING TREE SUPPORTS Basically, pruning is performed to keep bacterial canker (see p.253). Affected Permanent ties on freestanding trees on the structure of the tree strong and open, branches should always be removed dwarfing or semi-dwarfing rootstocks, allowing light penetration and air by cutting them back, either to the or on restricted forms, should hold the circulation. This promotes the growth point of origin of the branch or to tree in position without constricting it, and ripening of new shoots and fruits, a suitable side branch at least 12in and provide a buffer against the stake or and helps to reduce pests and diseases. (30cm) below the infection. wire. Neither stake nor wire should rub against the tree in case it damages the Pruning also aims to remove dead, Any crowded and crossing branches bark, providing an easy entry point for diseased, and damaged wood to protect should be removed to maintain the open disease. Check all ties and stakes in the health of the tree. Any dead and shape of the tree. If these branches start spring and during the growing season, damaged or broken wood may attract to rub against each other, they may chafe adjusting or replacing them as needed. disease, and wood that already has the bark, causing wounds through which become diseased may infect the rest disease may enter. PRUNING TOOLS of the tree. The most common diseases Your tools should be kept clean and affecting apple and pear branches are Selective pruning produces a supply sharp to make the best pruning cuts. apple and pear canker (see p.253). Any of new wood to replace the old wood You need pruners for basic pruning of affected branches should be cut back that has been removed. It also controls shoots, loppers for larger growth, and a to healthy material, but if the infection the height and spread of the tree, and pruning saw for larger branches (see also has affected only one-third or less of the maintains it in the required form branch circumference, and the branch is and of satisfactory vigor. Vigor is also greatly affected by training (see p.164). Finally, pruning aims to promote the

164 GROWING TREE FRUITS Removing crossing, broken, and diseased wood ▲ Diseased branch This tree has canker, which will affect the entire branch above the infection. Remove the branch back to its point of origin to prevent the canker from spreading into the tree. ▲ Crossing branches ▶ Broken branch Where two branches are crossing, choose A branch may be broken by chafing with the one that is best placed—that is, growing another branch, by its own weight, or by high outward away from the center of the tree— winds. Whether it snaps off or is still attached, and remove the other by cutting it back to the wound is vulnerable, and so the branch the base where it joins the main framework. needs to be removed back to the branch collar. formation of fruit buds (see p.164), taking (see pp.169–170), branches are tied down Different types of bud account of the tree’s fruiting habit. for the same reason. Training, along with This pear shoot clearly shows one-year-old pruning in many cases, also aims to vegetative buds, and two- and three-year-old To achieve a balance between growth make the management of the tree easier, fruit buds. The age of the wood can be seen and cropping, it is vital to understand with fruits more exposed to sunlight and by the growth from the previous pruning cuts how trees respond to different pruning accessible for picking. as well as by the sizes of the various buds. intensities. Pruning too hard results in vigorous growth and light crops of large, WHEN TO PRUNE? One-year-old, poor-quality fruits, which do not store Pruning times vary according to the vegetative bud well. Underpruning or lack of pruning form and the type of fruit being grown results in poor growth and large crops of (see individual crops, pp.174–205). In Previous year’s small, poor-quality fruits that are mainly general, apples and pears are pruned pruning cut borne at the top of the tree. Any fruit in summer or winter, according to the lower down will tend to suffer more tree form being grown, whereas stone Two-year-old, from pests and diseases. Underpruning fruits should be pruned only in spring fruit bud or neglect can also lead to biennial or summer, when risk of infection from bearing (see p.160; see also Pruning to silver leaf and bacterial canker is lowest. Three-year- One-year-old, a bud, facing page). Pruning in winter or early spring old fruit bud vegetative bud promotes new, vegetative growth, while GOALS OF TRAINING summer pruning restricts growth. Previous Horizontal growth tends to be less pruning cut vigorous but more productive than RECOGNIZING FRUIT BUDS upright growth, with more fruit buds, There are two types of bud found on and so more fruit, being produced on a fruit tree: fruit buds and vegetative horizontal branches. Much of the buds. Vegetative buds, also known training of fruit trees is intended to as growth buds, produce nonfruiting maximize horizontal and low-angled growth. Fruit buds, or f lower buds, growth, and several trained forms, such are larger than vegetative buds because as the espalier, have been developed they contain embryonic f lowers. with this in mind. On the spindlebush

PRUNING AND TRAINING PRINCIPLES 165 A good supply of fruit buds is crucial Shoot lacks STERILIZING CUTTING TOOLS to the fruiting of any tree, so that the fruit buds tree has enough to produce good crops. Very vigorous On the other hand, if the tree has too Single new growth many fruit buds, the resulting crop may extending be too heavy and will strain the tree shoot physically, possibly breaking branches. An overly abundant crop will also Fruiting divert energy from the development spur of fruit buds for the following year. Light prune Heavy prune When pruning stone fruits, which are Fruit buds of apples and pears contain prone to silver leaf and bacterial canker, or a vegetative bud as well as a f lower; the Responses to pruning apples and pears that are severely infected vegetative bud produces a shoot from In the shoot on the left, light pruning has with canker, sterilize your cutting tools directly behind the f lower, known as produced some extension growth and fruiting before pruning each tree to avoid carrying a bourse shoot. Due to their natural spurs on the two-year-old wood. In the disease from one to another. An easy way habit and careful pruning, some apples example on the right, harder pruning has to do this is to carry a spray dispenser of and pears develop short, woody fruit resulted in vigorous, branching growth, household disinfectant. Before pruning bud systems, or fruiting spurs. but no more fruit buds. each tree, spray the cutting blades, then wipe them dry with a clean, dry tissue. Prunus species (plums, sweet and sour cherries, peaches, nectarines, apricots, DEGREES OF PRUNING the aerial parts of the tree. Growth is and almonds) have separate fruit and needed for replacement wood and new vegetative buds. These are found either One-year-old shoots respond differently fruit buds, but not too much; you need as single, separate buds or, more often, to varying levels of pruning. Unpruned, to decide the type of growth you want as double or triple buds, with both fruit they produce some growth at the tip— before choosing how hard to prune. and vegetative buds grouped together. extension growth—and fruit buds, The fruit buds tend to be plumper and but do not branch much. Light pruning PRUNING AFTERCARE rounder, while the vegetative buds are results in a little extension growth, some Many fruit trees used to be treated more pointed in shape. branching, and fruit buds. Moderate routinely with a wound paint to seal pruning causes more extension growth, wounds after pruning. This is now PRUNING TO A BUD strong branching, and some fruit buds. recommended only in certain cases. In general, always prune to a vegetative Hard pruning produces vigorous On apples and pears, do not seal the bud. For apples and pears, if this is not growth, little branching, and no fruit cuts, since this tends to slow the callusing possible, you can prune to a fruit bud buds. If you decide to remove a one- of the wound. For stone fruits with cuts since there is a vegetative bud behind year-old shoot, remove it at the base over 1⁄2in (1cm), seal each wound with it. For stone fruits, it is simpler to look without leaving a stub, otherwise the a proprietary wound paint immediately for a double or triple bud since you can stub will produce strong, new growth. after pruning. This helps stop infection be more certain of having distinguished from silver leaf or bacterial canker, both a vegetative bud from a fruit bud. In general, the harder you prune, the of which may enter through the newly more vigorous is the resulting growth exposed wood of pruning cuts. The fruit buds on young shoots are because the tree is trying to restore the generally of better quality and will balance between the root system and produce better fruit than those on old wood. One-year-old shoots often do Spur thinning not produce fruit buds to fruit the following year, although this depends The many apple and pear cultivars that bear on the fruiting habit of the tree. Those that do fruit on wood produced the their fruits on knobbled fruiting spurs will need previous year include tip-bearing apples (see p.175) and pears (see p.182), as well spur thinning from time to time, when the spurs as peaches (see pp.193–195) and sour cherries (see pp.191–192). become congested. Overcrowding of fruit buds On trees that bear fruit mainly on the spurs prevents fruits from developing on two-year-old or older wood, such as spur-bearing apples and pears, and to their full size and the spurs may be plums, it is still important to retain many one-year-old shoots when more disease-prone if they touch. To pruning, since these will bear fruit in the future and so you will ensure thin an overcrowded spur system, use a good supply of fruiting wood. pruners to remove any old, weak, or very congested spurs altogether. Thin out the growth on the remaining spur systems until only strong spurs bearing plenty of fruit buds remain. Before thinning After thinning

166 GROWING TREE FRUITS Pruning different tree forms To create the tree form that you would differences in timing, and pruning and take a year longer to develop than like, whether it is a freestanding tree training techniques, are covered in a feathered maiden, which has a single such as a bush or pyramid, or a restricted individual crop entries (see pp.174–205). stem with a number of side branches form, such as a cordon or fan, it is arising from it, allowing quicker necessary to start the appropriate FORMATIVE PRUNING OF A BUSH, formation of the basic bush shape (see pruning and training soon after planting HALF-STANDARD, AND STANDARD TREE box, below). During the growing season, the tree. Formative pruning is first For trees grown in the open, the most little is needed in the way of additional needed to produce a tree of the desired common form is the open-center tree. formative pruning; simply remove any shape. This pruning is fairly severe to This can be a bush, a dwarf bush, a badly placed, unwanted shoots. The produce strong growth and a good half-standard, or a standard (see p.152). goal of formative pruning is to build branch framework that can carry future The pruning is similar for all of these and extend the basic branch framework crops. As the tree matures, the pruning forms, the difference being the height of the bush. A maiden whip should start becomes lighter to encourage cropping of the stem before the branches start. fruiting in the fourth summer, and a rather than growth. The early years are feathered maiden in the third. crucial, for a lack of careful formative The bush form is suitable for trees pruning can result in a mature tree that on all but the most vigorous rootstocks. To train a standard or half-standard, is difficult to manage. Prune apples and pears immediately you will need to grow on the main after planting in the dormant season vertical stem for a season or two to This section lays down the principles and prune stone fruits in mid-spring. reach the desired stem height of 41∕2ft for pruning all the basic shapes of fruit (1.35m) for a half-standard, and 6ft tree at the formative and mature stages. In the first year, the pruning depends (2m) for a standard. Retain the Most pruning is undertaken in the on the type of maiden (one-year-old) sideshoots until the main stem is the winter while the tree is dormant. Any tree obtained. A maiden whip, which correct height, then train as for a bush. is a single stem with no branches, will Formative pruning of a bush Maiden whip 1Starting with a maiden whip, prune In first year, cut to a bud at about 30in (75cm) from down leader ground level. Ensure there are at least to encourage 4 consecutive plump buds beneath it. branching 2 Starting with a feathered maiden, Feathered maiden Maiden choose a wide-angled lateral at about In first year, cut back whip 30in (75cm) from ground level with 3 or to 4 laterals Second 4 well-spaced laterals (feathers) directly year below it. Remove the central stem above 12 3 your chosen lateral. Shorten the 3 or 4 Cropping tree laterals below the cut, by about two-thirds Branch framework Prune lightly after of their length, to buds facing in the Shape in third winter fourth summer for required direction—an upward-facing for maiden whip, or maiden whip, or bud if the shoot is near to horizontal, second winter for third summer for and an outward bud if the shoot is near feathered maiden feathered maiden to vertical. Sideways-facing buds can also be chosen. Remove any low laterals 45 not needed for the basic framework. If a feathered tree has only 1 or 2 sideshoots, remove them and then treat the tree as for a maiden whip. 3In the second winter for a maiden whip, between 3 and 6 strong shoots should have been produced. Select the best 3 or 4 to form the primary branches. The top 1 or 2 shoots are often nearly vertical so it is better to cut these back to a lower shoot that forms a wide angle to the stem—this wide angle will make the branch stronger. Shorten each selected branch by about two-thirds

PRUNING DIFFERENT TREE FORMS 167 PRUNING AND TRAINING AN Plums, sweet cherries, and apricots fruit out regulative pruning. Remove any ESTABLISHED BUSH at the base of the previous year’s wood crossing, crowding, dead, and diseased After the fourth year, annual pruning as well as on older wood, and do not branches (see p.164). Keep the center becomes lighter. There are several respond well to annual pruning once open but not bare of fruiting wood, ways to treat the mature tree mature; however, regulative pruning removing any large branches, but leaving according to the fruit type and its (see below) will sometimes be required fruiting spurs and laterals. If the tree is fruiting habit. Fruit trees can be to keep a balanced canopy. becoming too large, reduce its height broadly divided into three groups and spread by cutting back to a lower for pruning purposes, based on the Winter pruning stimulates growth— placed branch or replacement branch age of wood on which they fruit. the harder the pruning, the stronger the that is growing in the required direction, Most apples and pears fruit on spurs growth. The goal is to achieve a balance which should be at least one-third of the borne on older wood; they require between cropping and growth. A young diameter of the piece being removed. spur pruning once they are mature tree making strong growth is pruned On spur bearers, thin out spur systems to encourage new spurs to form year lightly, while a tree producing weak, as they become overcrowded (see p.165). by year and keep trees productive. drooping growth is pruned hard, until its vigor improves (see box, below). For For more detail on pruning specific Tip-bearing apples and pears, as spur bearers, the amount of pruning fruits, see individual crops, pp.174–205. well as peaches, nectarines, and sour depends on the vigor of the tree. cherries, fruit on growth made the OVERVIGOROUS BUSH TREES previous year. Apples and pears, as Renewal pruning, for tip-bearing Summer pruning is not usually carried the name implies, fruit just at the tips apples and pears, and for stone fruits, is out on bush trees, but it can be effective of the new growth. All need renewal lighter than spur pruning, focusing on in controlling overvigorous trees, since pruning to encourage a steady supply keeping an open tree shape, and making pruning when the tree is in leaf restricts of new wood, while maintaining new fruiting shoots (see box, below). growth. Prune well-ripened laterals a strong framework. longer than 12in (30cm), cutting them As the tree becomes older, whatever to a bud facing in the required direction. its fruiting habit, it is necessary to carry Remove any shoots that are below the desired framework back to the stem. Pruning an established bush 4 By the third winter for a maiden Prune laterals to ◀ Spur pruning whip, or the second for a feathered encourage spurs Shorten each branch leader maiden, the branch framework will be to form by one-third of the previous well-developed. Pruning should be lighter year’s growth to a bud facing at this stage. Shorten each branch leader in the required direction. This by one-third to a suitably placed bud. should produce branching Select 1 or 2 more shoots per branch and new spurs along the to form secondary branches, and shorten leader. If the leader is very these by one-third. Any other shoots can vigorous, do not prune it, or be either shortened to about 4 buds to at most, lightly tip prune it. form spurs, or removed if they are badly Leave laterals under 6in placed. Remove shoots growing into the (15cm) unpruned, and center and cut back to the stem any remove those over 12in shoots below the framework junction. (30cm). Prune the remaining laterals to about 6 buds. 5By the fourth summer—or the third for a feathered maiden—the tree will Renewal pruning ▶ Cut out older, Tip prune only probably have started cropping, and so Remove unproductive or fruited wood branch leaders of lighter pruning is required during the crowded branches. On apple following winter. The framework will still and pear tip bearers, tip apple and pear need to be extended, however. To do prune the branch leaders, tip bearers this, select another leader from each without removing too many branch and secondary branch and fruit buds. Leave laterals shorten by about one-third of its new less than 12in (30cm) long growth. Leave shoots of 9in (23cm) or unpruned, and shorten other less unpruned if there is space, and laterals to produce more shorten longer shoots to 4–6 buds to shoots, or remove them continue spur formation. Remove any altogether. Remove low- badly placed shoots altogether. growing shoots.

168 GROWING TREE FRUITS to a bud at about 6in (15cm). This will Before attempting renovation, weigh remove more water shoots (strong, encourage fruit bud formation on the up whether it is really worthwhile. If upright shoots with few buds) that will remaining shoots and allow better light the tree is very diseased, with cankered have arisen and more crossing branches. penetration and air circulation through and dead branches, it may not be worth In the third year, start routine pruning. the tree. Start pruning in late summer keeping. If it is very large it may be as shoots ripen, and continue into early too difficult to restore and require the Starved and stunted trees usually have fall as the remaining laterals lengthen help of a tree surgeon. If a fruit tree a mass of weak fruiting spurs and little and become woody. is dominating the garden or is heavily or no young growth. The cropping shaded by nearby trees and buildings, it and fruit quality is usually poor. To A vigorous tree pruned in this way might be easier to remove it and replace improve matters, thin out all of the spurs will require minimal subsequent winter it with a number of trees on dwarfing by about a half and remove any dead pruning, which would only stimulate rootstocks, which would be easier to or diseased branches. This will stimulate growth. If necessary, remove branches manage and more productive. You may some growth to replace worn-out to keep the center of the tree open. just wish to leave the tree untouched as a branches and create new spurs and new, feature of the garden but, if it is generally healthy fruit buds. RENOVATING A NEGLECTED BUSH sound with a good original framework, A regularly pruned tree is easier to renovation should be possible. FEEDING A NEGLECTED BUSH manage and it will maintain a balance The soil surrounding a neglected tree between cropping and growth, There are two types of neglected may be depleted of nutrients. This will producing regular crops with fruit of tree—the overvigorous, large, and compound the problems of poor growth, a good size. A tree neglected for several crowded one, and the starved, stunted poor leaf quality, and weak fruit buds. years is likely to suffer from a lack of tree—and two different approaches to Such trees will need feeding annually light and air circulation, leading to weak pruning are required. For large, after renovation; use a balanced feed growth; there will be few fruits in the overvigorous trees, thin the canopy over containing trace elements at a rate of lower part of the tree, and a buildup a couple of years (see below). Do not 2oz/sq yd (70g/sq m). After three or of pests and diseases. There may also be remove more than one-third of branches four years, change to a fertilizer generally a number of very tall branches, taking in one year. If needed, delay pruning of recommended for the crop (see individual the best fruit out of easy reach. some until the third year, when you can crops, pp.174–205). Renovation pruning a large neglected bush With overvigorous, large, and crowded trees Twiggy, vertical shoots 2 Central branches it may be necessary to spread the renovation crowd center of tree removed to improve over two or three years. This is because hard Fruiting sideshoots circulation pruning all at once can result in even more 1 Too many branches obscure have room to grow vigorous growth at the expense of fruit. Dead and diseased Flowers will fail to set and shoots will grow basic framework 3 branches cut out out in their place. It is then often difficult Lower part of to get the tree to settle down into fruiting 3In the second year, strong vertical shoots tree is clear again. By spreading out the pruning, the (water shoots) may be produced around imbalance in growth and cropping will large cuts. Leave some unpruned if a new After pruning not be as great. branch is required, otherwise remove them at their base. They can be removed in mid- 1Before renovation, the tree is a to late summer or in the dormant season for mass of twiggy growth, a mixture of apples and pears, or spring for stone fruits. healthy and diseased wood that allows In the dormant season, reduce the height for little air circulation within the canopy. if required, cutting back to a smaller branch at least one-third of the diameter of the one 2 In the first year, remove any dead, being removed, and cut out any crowding diseased, or broken branches. Also and crossing branches. remove some other branches to improve light penetration and air circulation. It is important to remove any crowding in the center of the tree and to ensure that you create a balanced shape. When removing branches, prune back either to the point of origin or to a branch at least one-third of the diameter of the piece being removed. Do not remove old fruiting spurs or laterals at this stage, even if they are of poor quality, since they may produce some flowers and fruit and so control the tree’s vigor.

PRUNING DIFFERENT TREE FORMS 169 Formative pruning of a spindlebush 1In the first winter, starting with a Ensure main stem is Prune weaker Tie leader feathered maiden tree, choose 4 evenly firmly staked shoots to to stake as spaced laterals about 2ft (60cm) from encourage it grows the base. Remove any laterals below the Remove low- growth chosen 4; leave any shorter laterals above growing Ties of soft these. Prune the leader to a bud at about shoots Cut out at the string secured 4in (10cm) above the topmost lateral. base vigorous to wire hoops Do not prune the laterals if they appear 1 uprights that or metal pegs strong, but if they are growing weakly, cannot be trained prune each to a downward-facing bud. Remove strong horizontally Remove vertical shoots older, 2 In the first summer, if the laterals 2 fruited are making vigorous growth, tie branches them down to about 20º from horizontal Check existing in late summer; otherwise leave them ties are not to grow naturally. chafing 3From the second summer, tie down Tie in new Thin growth any new laterals arising from the main horizontal by removing stem or existing branches if they are not some spurs already growing at a low angle. Remove at growth their bases any strong vertical shoots that 4 are spoiling the overall shape of the tree. 3 4 In the fourth winter, if any of the upper branches start to grow too wide, spoiling the tree’s conical shape, prune them back to a weak, low-angled lateral. Also, shorten lower branches if they are competing with nearby trees. Remove or thin congested branches or shoots to keep light and air circulating. FORMATIVE PRUNING OF A growing well, the tree should start Pruning an established spindlebush to bear fruit in the second summer In winter, prune out older growths. Cut out SPINDLEBUSH (or the third summer for a maiden the old stems back to the main central leader, whip). Thin the fruit (see p.160) to using a cut at a 45-degree angle to the The spindlebush is a conical form with keep the tree from being overloaded. trunk—a Dutch cut. This leaves a stub (see a central leader and staggered tiers of By the third summer, the tree should inset) of about 1in (2.5cm) to stimulate a new productive, almost horizontal branches. be cropping and reach its full height of shoot to grow from the dormant bud beneath it. This form, which needs a permanent, 6–7ft (2–2.2m). Continue tying down tall stake (see p.159), is suitable for pears branches as necessary and removing and apples. For formative pruning of any strong vertical shoots as before. a feathered maiden, see above. If you are starting with a maiden whip, prune PRUNING AN ESTABLISHED it to a bud at 30in (75cm) in the first SPINDLEBUSH winter. The following summer, tie in By the fourth winter, the tree should the leader to the stake and, if needed, have developed its mature cone shape, tie down the laterals that have developed with a wide tier of lower branches and (see p.170) to train them about 20º above shorter upper branches. From now on, horizontal. From then on, treat as for a the goal of pruning is to keep the cone newly planted feathered maiden. shape so that light reaches all parts. In the first two or three winters, Prune an established spindlebush on prune the leader by one-third of its new a renewal basis in winter to give a supply growth—less if it is very vigorous, more of young wood that will maintain the if it is not. Cut it to above a bud, on the tree’s vigor and replace older branches. opposite side to the previous winter’s The branches in the upper part of the cut, to form an upright central leader tree are not permanent. After three or and to promote laterals below. Remove four years, cut out a proportion as they any shoots below the lowest tier and any upright, poorly placed shoots. If it is

170 GROWING TREE FRUITS become too long and make the tree’s tightly around the branch—use a loop pears, sweet and sour cherries, peaches, shape unbalanced. Treat fruiting laterals instead. Tie lower branches to pegs in and apricots. The method shown here from the lower branches in the same the ground or to a nail low down on the is for plums, sweet cherries, and apricots. way. If the laterals are crowded, remove stake. Upper branches can be tied down Pruning differs slightly for the other them entirely or leave an angled stub to the lower branches. Remove the fruits due to their fruiting habits (see to encourage a new replacement lateral. strings once the branches have set in individual crops, pp.174–184, 191–195). In winter or late summer, remove strong position, usually after a few weeks. A dwarf pyramid is trained as for a shoots that are competing with the pyramid, but is on a more dwarfing leader, and any growing vertically from An alternative for one-year-old rootstock, available for apples and pears. the branches. In late summer or spring, branches is to lower them by attaching continue tying down new shoots. a weight to a clothes pin or a loop of Formative pruning aims to establish wire at the end of the string. the basic tree shape and a spreading, Do not allow the leader to become outward habit. If possible, start with too tall (over 7ft/2.2m) or dominant. FORMATIVE PRUNING OF A PYRAMID a well-feathered maiden (see box, below). If necessary, replace a dominant leader AND DWARF PYRAMID If you are starting with an unfeathered by cutting back to a weaker lateral and The pyramid form, which requires maiden, prune to a bud at about 3ft tying this up in its place. If the leader is a permanent stake (see p.159), consists (90cm) and follow the instructions for a crooked, it is an advantage: nonvertical of a central leader with branches feathered maiden from the next spring. growth tends to be less vigorous. radiating from it to form a cone shape. Economical with space, its shape allows PRUNING AN ESTABLISHED PYRAMID TYING DOWN SPINDLEBUSH BRANCHES the sun to reach fruits on the upper and It is important to maintain the pyramid There are several ways to tie down the lower parts of the tree. It is particularly shape of the tree. Any vigorous vertical branches so that they grow horizontally. popular for plums because the pruning shoots will become dominant and shade Use strong but fairly soft string, such as can be carried out in the spring and the more horizontal, fruiting branches three-ply twine. Avoid tying the string summer, but it is also good for apples, and so should be removed in summer. Pruning a pyramid 1In early to mid-spring 4 Once the full height has 1 Permanent Cut to downward- following planting, cut back been reached (this depends 6ft (2m) facing bud for to a bud at 4–8in (10–20cm) on the tree and its rootstock), stake outward growth above the topmost feather. toward the end of each Remove any feathers below summer when growth has Use secure, Cut or pinch out about 18in (45cm) from the stopped, prune any shoots at padded ties any low laterals ground. Cut the remaining the top of the pyramid to about growing from the feathers to a bud at about half 1in (2.5cm). At the same time, 2 main stem their length. For strong feathers, prune the current season’s choose a downward-facing bud, growth on branch leaders Cut out inward- Cut out any and for weak feathers an to about 8in (20cm) to a growing shoots unhealthy shoots upward-facing bud. downward-facing bud. Cut back laterals arising from the Remove some older, 2 In the first summer, tie branches to about 6in (15cm), crowded branches in the central leader to the also to a downward-facing bud. stake. In mid- to late summer, when the young shoots have Cut leader on Keep growth stopped growing, prune the opposite side short at top current season’s growth of of pyramid branch leaders back to above a to previous downward-facing bud at about year’s cut for 8in (20cm). Cut back laterals straight stem growing from the branches to about 6in (15cm), preferably to Check that ties 4 a downward-facing bud. Repeat are not chafing— until established. loosen as needed 3In early to mid-spring of 3 the following years until the tree is established, cut back the central leader by two-thirds of the previous summer’s growth to a bud on the opposite side to the previous year’s pruning.

PRUNING DIFFERENT TREE FORMS 171 Summer pruning of restricted tree fruit forms Summer pruning, also known as the late summer, and may need to be done correct time, some of the remaining buds modified Lorette system, is undertaken gradually over a few weeks. At this time will become fruit buds—these are on the restricted forms—cordons, espaliers, the shoots start to form terminal buds and the produced from late summer to early fall. If and fans—for apples and pears. It restricts stems are becoming woody. The exact timing summer pruning is carried growth, maintaining the tree’s shape, and varies with each season and between different out too early, weak leafy growth will be encourages the formation of fruiting spurs. areas. It is earlier in warm, dry, sunny produced at the expense of fruit buds. Timing is important. Pruning needs to be conditions, and later in cool, wet areas and If this happens, cut the weak new growth carried out as the growth slows down in seasons. If pruning is carried out at the back to one leaf in early to mid-fall. 1 1First look for any of the current season’s laterals that are more than 9in 23 (23cm) long. If the lateral is growing from another lateral or spur, cut it back to 1 leaf or about 1in (2.5cm) above the basal cluster—the basal cluster is the small group of leaves where the new season’s growth starts. 2 If the lateral is growing directly from a main branch, cut it back to 3 leaves or 2–3in (5–8cm) above the basal cluster. 3Leave unpruned until early fall any shoots that are not well ripened or that are less than 9in (23cm) long. After pruning (see the right side of this ‘Ashmead’s Kernel’ apple fan), the form of the tree will be restored, allowing the light to reach the developing fruits and ripen the remaining wood for the next year. As the tree matures, you may need to winter. In the first spring for a feathered a vertical stake to the height of the top remove or shorten branches that start maiden (or second for a whip), remove wire, and tie the stem to it. Fix two to spoil its shape. Do this in mid-spring, any blossom to prevent the tree fruiting short stakes to the wires at 45º on either cutting back to the point of origin or too early and allow it to establish well. side. From the first summer on, or if you a suitable branch at least one-third of After the initial winter pruning, no have bought a part-trained espalier, the diameter of the piece being removed. further pruning in winter is needed follow the instructions on p.172. An until the tree is well established. For espalier should start to bear a few fruits FORMATIVE PRUNING OF AN OBLIQUE variations for plum cordons, see p.186. from the second summer. CORDON The oblique cordon consists of a single PRUNING AN ESTABLISHED OBLIQUE PRUNING AN ESTABLISHED ESPALIER stem trained at an angle, with fruiting CORDON When the tree has enough tiers to reach branches and spurs. It is very productive Summer pruning is needed annually the top of the wires, remove the leader and the quickest form to fruit, usually to restrict new growth, while winter in summer after you have started to producing some fruit in the second pruning is needed from time to time train the final tier. This allows you to summer, and is suitable for apples, pears, to thin any crowding and congestion keep it as an insurance until the shoots and plums. It is also possible to grow (see p.172). For pruning established have been trained in on either side, and apples and pears as vertical or multiple plum cordons, see p.186. allows them to develop at a wider angle cordons ( for details, see p.176 and p.182). to the stem. Over the next few years, FORMATIVE PRUNING OF AN ESPALIER continue to train in the leaders of the The best tree to obtain for training An espalier is a symmetrical form with tiers of the branches until they have is a feathered maiden or a two-year-old pairs of branches extending horizontally reached the required length, leaving the part-trained cordon. Otherwise, start at about 18in (45cm) intervals from extension growth unpruned. Prune with a maiden whip. For instructions a central, vertical trunk. This form is the rest of the laterals and any new on planting, see p.159. If you are starting good for apples, pears, and mulberries. shoots on the basic summer pruning with a feathered maiden or part-trained system (see box, above). cordon of apple or pear, see p.172. Start with a maiden whip and, during the first winter, prune the stem at 18in As the espalier matures, it may be If you are starting with a maiden (45cm) from the ground where there necessary to carry out some spur whip, lightly cut back the tip of the are four healthy buds below. This height thinning in winter (see p.165). Full leader to an upward-facing bud to should roughly correspond with the cropping will not be reached until all promote sideshoots, then prune as for level of the first wire (see p.162). Insert the tiers of the espalier are formed. a feathered maiden from the following

172 GROWING TREE FRUITS Pruning an oblique cordon 1Following planting, prune back Leader is tied in Pruning laterals New laterals from any laterals longer than 4in (10cm) and left unpruned encourages spur existing lateral to 3 buds. Leave the leader and any formation pruned to 1 leaf shorter laterals unpruned. above basal cluster 2 From the first summer onward, If graft union faces Tree is angled at the main pruning takes place in the upward, scion is about 45º on summer, following the basic summer less likely to root planting pruning for restricted forms (see p.171). Tie the leader into the stake as it develops 1 New laterals 2 during the summer, leaving it unpruned. from main stem 3Each summer, follow the basic pruned to 3 summer pruning guidelines, tying leaves above in the leader to the stake until it has basal cluster reached the required length—this is usually about 6ft (2m) from the New laterals pruned Completely remove ground, which is the height of to 3 leaves above or thin old, the top wire. If space allows, lower the basal cluster cordon to 35–40º to provide a greater congested spur length and so a greater crop. When the leader has reached its final length, prune Thin spurs to leave it back and treat subsequent growth as healthy, well-spaced for other laterals. fruit buds 4 Winter pruning may be necessary after a few years. Thin out and Laterals from spur 3 Shoots are woody reduce crowded spur systems (see also pruned to 1 leaf at base before p.165) over a period of several years being pruned since winter pruning stimulates growth. above basal cluster 4 Pruning an espalier 1In the first summer, select 3 strong If other shoots grow, Lower shoots tied to shoots and, as they develop, tie one prune to 2 or 3 leaves stakes in early fall to each stake. Remove any others. In early fall, lower the shoots and stakes on either 1 Prune leader to bud side so that they are horizontal, and tie just above wire with them to the wires. Lower shoots tied 3 good buds below it to stakes in early 2In the second winter, look for Tip prune weaker 4 healthy buds at the level of the fall growth for vigor second wire, and prune the leader just above the topmost of these. Fix a stake 3 2 to the wires on either side at 45º, ready for the next tier. Repeat each winter until Prune shoots all the tiers are formed. from main stem to 3 leaves from 3In the second summer, tie in 2 shoots basal cluster to produce the next tier, and tie the central leader to the vertical stake. Prune Tie in leaders Mature apple espalier any sideshoots on the first tier or main as they develop This ‘Ellison’s Orange’ apple is stem on the basic summer pruning 40 years old and continues to system (see p.171) in late summer crop well on its established when the shoots are mature. In the fall, espalier framework. the shoots trained at 45º can be lowered to the horizontal. Repeat this process of training in and lowering the arms each summer until all the tiers are formed, pruning the existing arms on the basic summer pruning system.

PRUNING DIFFERENT TREE FORMS 173 Formative pruning of a fan 1 Make sure there are 2 Tip prune 2 3 4 healthy buds main laterals 1Starting with a maiden whip, prune in below pruning cut to prompt winter to a bud at 15–18in (38–45cm) branching with 3 or more consecutive healthy buds beneath it. Fix two stakes to the wires, Remove shoots 4 one on either side, at 45º. In the growing other than those season, train in a shoot on either side, chosen to train in fixing it to the stake. Once these are growing well, remove any other shoots. Cut out any central, Often the topmost shoot needs to be vertical growth removed, since it is near vertical. ◀ Pruning a part-trained fan 2Starting with a feathered maiden, cut Choose a tree with a well-balanced the tree back in winter to 2 sideshoots framework (usually 2 or 3 main branches at 15–18in (38–45cm). Shorten these by on each side). If there is a strong shoot two-thirds to an upward-facing bud. In the in the center, cut this out after planting. growing season, treat the tree as a At the same time, remove any unwanted second-year maiden whip. shoots on each side or any growing directly away from the wires to leave an equal 3In the second year for the maiden number of shoots on each side (between whip, prune back the 2 shoots by 2 and 4). Shorten these by one-third to about two-thirds of their length to an an upward-facing bud. During the growing upward-facing bud in winter. During the season, prune as for step 4, above. growing season, train in the new growth, attaching it to the stake. Choose 2 equally spaced shoots on the upper side and 1 on the lower side of each branch and tie these to stakes fixed to the wires. 4In the third year for the maiden whip (second year for a feathered maiden), cut back the 4 shoots on each side by one-third of their length to an upward- facing bud. During the growing season, tie in leaders from each branch to the stakes. Select more shoots from each branch to extend the framework as space allows. Rub out shoots growing inward. FORMATIVE PRUNING OF A FAN PRUNING AN ESTABLISHED FAN Renovation will take one or two years, From the fourth year onward for depending on how overgrown the tree A fan tree has a short vertical stem and a maiden whip, or from the third if is. In the winter, for apples and pears, two main arms that bear a network of pruning a feathered tree, you should or spring for stone fruits, cut back any permanent ribs and sideshoots spread aim to extend the branch framework branches not needed for the framework out evenly on each side. There is no while keeping a strong, balanced shape. to the point of origin or to a spur near central leader, since this vertical growth How you should treat individual shoots the base. Cut back all the growth at the would tend to dominate the rest of varies according to the fruit type being top of the tree to bring it down to the tree. This form is suitable for all trained (see individual crops, pp.174–199). the level it should be. Thin any tree fruits including almonds, although congested spurs (see p.165). If there is the timing and details of pruning RENOVATION OF FANS, ESPALIERS, a lot to do, spread the pruning over will vary according to the specific fruit AND CORDONS two years to avoid producing too much (see individual crops, pp.174–199). Basic If the basic summer pruning (see p.171) vigorous growth; remove every other formative pruning, essential for a well- of restricted forms is neglected for only unwanted branch in the first year and balanced framework, is the same for all. a few years, trees can soon lose their the rest in the second. If the top tier shape, developing branches that are of an espalier has become dominant, Fans can be developed from a maiden unbalanced and detract from the vigor remove it and then train a new tier in its whip, feathered maiden, or from a part- of fruiting branches. Renovation may place (see formative pruning, pp.171–172). trained fan obtained from a nursery. In not be worthwhile if the form is lost, In the summer after pruning, start to all cases, follow the instructions given except in the case of figs (see p.199). prune new shoots as for routine summer above. When choosing a feathered If the tree is healthy and the original pruning (see p.171) and continue in maiden, make sure it has two suitably shape still clear, it can be restored. subsequent years to restrict growth. placed shoots opposite one another to form the first two branches of the fan.

174 TREE FRUIT CROPS TREE FRUIT CROPS Apple Apples (Malus domestica) are the most Standard and half-standard trees are versatile of the tree fruits. A wide range suitable only for larger gardens and of dessert and culinary cultivars ripens orchards. They make tall trees, which in different seasons, offering fruit from are more difficult to prune and pick. midsummer to mid-spring, provided For most sites, a bush is a better choice. that they are correctly stored. The spindlebush is a useful form for small gardens and container growing. Apples originated in Central Asia, The pyramid and dwarf pyramid and so are adapted to cold winters and forms are also ideal for the small can be grown in the open in most garden, casting less shade than a bush areas. There are cultivars suited to most tree, and producing well-colored fruits. sites and soils. A sunny, sheltered site is best, with shelter if needed (see pp.12– Of the restricted forms, the cordon 13). Planting in a frost pocket (see p.11) allows a range of cultivars to be grown, should be avoided. Most apples tolerate even where space is limited. Espaliers a range of soils if they are well-drained and fans are both decorative and with a pH of about 6.5. Poorly drained suitable for the average garden. Some and shallow soils, and soils of unsuitable apple cultivars are sold as Ballerina pH (see p.18) can be improved. trees. These are genetically bred to have compact, columnar growth (see CHOOSING A TREE FORM Classic apple p.177) so they can grow in small spaces. There is a great range of apple cultivars to Apples can be grown in a diverse choose from, including old favorites such as CHOOSING A ROOTSTOCK range of tree forms on a wide choice of this crisp ‘Cox’s Orange Pippin’, widely grown The rootstock you choose, combined rootstocks. Some forms are more suited since the mid-nineteenth century. with the tree form, will have a decisive to one of the two types of fruiting habit effect on the final size of the apple (see facing page) and this might influence Because fruits are borne on spurs along tree. It is essential to choose one that your choice of apple cultivar. Suitable the stems of cordons, espaliers, and fans, is appropriate for the space you have freestanding forms are the standard, a spur bearer is again the best choice for available and the amount of fruit you half-standard, bush, spindlebush, and these forms. Cultivars for espaliers may wish to grow (see chart below, and p.153). pyramid. The bush suits both tip be available part-trained (usually with and spur bearers, whereas a spur bearer two tiers), which saves two years of The very dwarfing rootstock M27 is is the best choice for the spindlebush pruning and training. However, the ideal for vigorous cultivars, particularly and pyramid forms. The latter both choice of rootstocks and cultivars is triploids (see p.156). It is less suitable for need permanent staking (see pp.158–159). limited, and part-trained trees are more very weak cultivars, such as ‘Sunset’. expensive than maidens. Part-trained Horizontal cordons (see p.176) need to Apples also thrive in the restricted fans are available, but it is more likely be on an M27 rootstock. Trees on M27 cordon, espalier, and fan forms, all that you will have to buy a maiden tree. need good soil, no competition from grown on a wire framework either weeds or other plants, and permanent with freestanding posts and wires support (see pp.158–159 and p.162). or against a wall or fence (see p.162). SPACINGS FOR APPLE TREE FORMS AND ROOTSTOCKS Type of rootstock Standard Half- Bush Spindlebush Pyramid Cordon Espalier Fan and vigor standard 30in – – M27 very dwarfing – – 4–6ft 5–6ft 4–5ft 30in – – 30in 10–12ft 10–12ft M9 dwarfing – – 6–10ft 6–7ft 5–6ft 12–15ft 12–15ft – 15–18ft 15–18ft M26 semi-dwarfing – – 8–12ft 6–7½ft 6–7ft – – – MM106 semivigorous – – 12–18ft 12–18ft 8–10ft 7–8ft MM111 semivigorous 15–21ft 15–21ft 15–21ft – – M25 vigorous 20–30ft 20–30ft – – –

APPLE 175 Trees on the dwarfing rootstock M9 Almost all apples are, to some extent, PLANTING also need permanent support and must self-infertile and so will not set a good The best time to plant apples is in the have no competition from weeds or crop with their own pollen. They crop dormant season (see pp.158–159). Prepare other plants. M9 is a good choice for more consistently when pollinated by the stakes and wires (see p.162) required spindlebushes, pyramids, and cordons compatible cultivars. Exceptions are for the form you have chosen before on good soil, and for vigorous cultivars. ‘Crawley Beauty’, which is self-fertile planting. Bare-root plants will usually and will fruit despite f lowering after establish well. You can also plant M26 is a semi-dwarfing rootstock, all other common cultivars, and a self- container-grown apples, but before you reliable for most conditions. It is ideal fertile clone of ‘Cox’s Orange Pippin’. buy, check that they are not pot-bound. for bushes, spindlebushes, in the ground or in a container, as well as for dwarf Most apples are diploid (see p.156), PRUNING AND TRAINING pyramids, cordons, and small espaliers and need another pollinator to set a The fruiting habit of the cultivar (see up to three tiers. Freestanding trees on good crop. Some are triploid (see p.156) below) dictates which pruning methods M26 need staking for one or two years. and must be planted with at least two are needed for the mature tree. It is compatible diploid cultivars to ensure important to prune correctly in order The semivigorous MM106 is widely successful pollination. to avoid removing the following year’s used, especially for bush trees, espaliers, fruit buds. If pruning an unknown and fans. Freestanding trees on MM106 Apple cultivars are grouped cultivar, you can identify its fruiting need staking for a year or two. Ballerina according to the time at which they habit by looking at where the fruit trees are sold on MM106 rootstocks. f lower. For good pollination, choose buds (see p.164) arise. Partial tip bearers Slightly more vigorous than MM106, cultivars from the same group, if may demand a combination of pruning MM111 is useful for half-standards, possible (see p.180), although those methods to obtain the best crop. Most bush trees, and espaliers, particularly on from adjacent groups will also serve pruning is carried out in winter while poorer soils. M25 is very vigorous and as pollinators. Some cultivars are the tree is dormant. Summer pruning so is best in orchards or large gardens cross-infertile, generally because they is done on restricted forms. for standards grown in grass. Trees on are closely related, such as ‘Cox’s this rootstock are large even on poorer Orange Pippin’ with ‘Kidd’s Orange Some forms, such as standards, half- soils, and slow to start fruiting. Red’, ‘Holstein’, or ‘Suntan’; and standards, and bush trees, may be pruned ‘Mutsu’ with ‘Golden Delicious’. as described on pp.166–168. Some details POLLINATION of pruning a mature apple bush will Apples f lower in mid- to late spring, Sports (natural mutations) of cultivars, depend on the fruiting habit of the tree depending on the season and cultivar. such as color sports, russet sports, and (see right). The pruning of spindlebush This is not early compared with other the self-fertile clone of ‘Cox’s Orange apples (see pp.169–170) is carried out in tree fruits, but they are vulnerable to Pippin’, usually flower at the same the dormant season to promote damage by late spring frosts. In frost- time as the cultivar from which they vigor, and in the prone areas, choose late-f lowering originated. Trees grown close by in summer to restrict cultivars (see chart, p.180) or those with neighboring gardens and ornamental growth. some resistance to frost (see chart, p.179). Malus trees can act as pollinators if they flower at a suitable time. Fruiting habits of apples Apples fall into two groups according to Tip bearer Spur bearer their cropping habit: Tip bearers bear fruits at the tip of each Spur-bearing apples bear their blossoms and fruits on sideshoots, or spurs, along the main Spur bearers: ‘Arthur Turner’, ‘Ashmead’s shoot. Partial tip bearers produce branches. This habit is more convenient for Kernel’, ‘Beauty of Bath’, ‘Charles Ross’, some spurs as well as fruit buds at all forms, but is especially useful for pyramids, ‘Cox’s Orange Pippin’, ‘Edward VII’, the shoot tips. Both types of tip cordons, and espaliers. ‘Ellison’s Orange’, ‘Howgate Wonder’, bearer are best grown as bush trees. ‘James Grieve’, ‘Lane’s Prince Albert’, ‘Lord Derby’, ‘Reverend W. Wilks’, ‘Ribston Pippin’, ‘Sunset’ Tip and partial tip bearers: ‘Bramley’s Seedling’, ‘Cornish Gilliflower’, ‘Discovery’, ‘Irish Peach’, ‘Kerry Pippin’, ‘Worcester Pearmain’

176 TREE FRUIT CROPS For pruning of apple oblique cordons and espaliers, see pp.171–172. For formative pruning of a fan, see p.173. Once a fan is established, shoots that are not needed to extend the framework are pruned using the summer pruning system (see p.171). PRUNING AN APPLE PYRAMID Check and Remove any badly loosen tie as placed shoots AND DWARF PYRAMID needed Once the basic framework is formed, pyramids are summer pruned to control Pruning an established bush (spur bearer) Pruning an established bush (tip bearer) vigor and maintain a compact shape. In winter, shorten the branch leaders by a In winter, cut out some of the older branches A dwarf pyramid, grafted on a dwarfing quarter to one-third of the season’s growth. that have fruited for several years to make rootstock, is pruned similarly. Pruning Prune the sideshoots to 4–6 buds. This space for younger ones. Cut the branch to apple pyramids differs slightly from the pruning should stimulate formation of where it meets an outward-facing young shoot basic pruning method (see pp.170–171) fruiting spurs from the sideshoots. or back to the trunk to stimulate a dormant bud. and in the timing, with additional formative pruning being done in the PRUNING A HORIZONTAL oblique cordon (see pp.171–172). During winter while the tree is dormant. If APPLE CORDON the summer leave the leader unpruned possible, start with a feathered maiden. The horizontal cordon is trained into a and prune any other shoots on the single wire suspended 18in (45cm) from summer pruning system (see p.171). Tie In the first winter, shorten the main the ground and secured to posts, so the leader extension growth to the wire stem to a bud at 2ft (60cm). Shorten any that the tree forms a low barrier, hence in early fall. Repeat this until the leader sideshoots over 6in (15cm) long to a bud the name “stepover.” For a continuous has reached the required length, then at 5in (13cm), and remove any that are boundary, trees are usually spaced treat it as any other shoot when less than 18in (45cm) from the ground. 5–6ft (1.5–2m) apart, with support following the summer pruning system. In the first summer, tie the developing posts that are 10–12ft (3–4m) apart. leader to the stake. In the second winter, PRUNING A VERTICAL APPLE CORDON shorten the leader to 8–10in (20–25cm) To start training, select a very young, This form, sometimes also called of the previous season’s growth, to a weak maiden whip that is f lexible a minarette, can consist of one, two, bud facing in the opposite direction to enough to bend over. Plant the whip or several stems (three is not advisable that chosen in the first winter. Shorten next to a support post, or a stout stake as the central stem tends to become branch leaders and laterals to 6–8in if it is in-between posts, and tie the dominant). To obtain a single-stemmed (15–20cm) to a downward- or outward- tree to it. In the spring after planting, cordon, plant a maiden tree next to facing bud. carefully bend the tree until it is a vertical stake that is 8ft (2.5m) long horizontal, and tie it into the wire at and has been driven 2ft (60cm) into From the second summer, start several points. From the first summer, the ground. Prune the tree as for an summer pruning (see p.171), but prune when the tree should have developed oblique cordon (see pp.171–172), except branch leaders to 5–6 leaves above a several sideshoots, prune as for an basal cluster and a downward-facing that the leader should be pruned by bud. In subsequent winters, shorten one-third of the new growth the central leader to 8–10in (20–25cm) each year until it reaches its of the previous season’s growth until the mature height of 6–8ft full height of 6–7ft (2–2.2m) is reached. (2–2.5m). This pruning On a mature tree, pruning is done in method stimulates the the summer. You may need to do some production of laterals and winter spur thinning (see p.165) or remove branches that spoil the shape. fruiting spurs. For a multiple cordon with two stems, plant a maiden whip Horizontal apple cordon (stepover) against wires as for an oblique cordon (see p.159), but place it vertically. Prune This highly decorative tree form summer and winter pruning to to about 18in (45cm) from the ground in makes an unusual and productive maintain its restricted form and edging to a path or bed. It requires ensure a good supply of fruit.

APPLE 177 winter. In the first summer, train one or compost is used, or if the trees are planted trees, and restricted forms shoot on each side at about 45º, then growing vigorously. grown on dwarfing rootstocks can lower these to the horizontal in fall. In quickly become short of moisture in the second winter, prune both branches On thin soils and in regions with drought conditions. Water in prolonged to about 16in (40cm). In the second high rainfall, apples can suffer from dry periods in spring and summer and summer, tie the leaders of both branches magnesium deficiency—which appears also while the fruits are swelling in to vertical stakes and start to train both as a yellowing between the leaf veins midsummer. Water can be supplied leaders as for a single vertical cordon. in early summer. Correct by spraying in several ways (see pp.53–54). For rows magnesium sulfate (see p.161), giving of trees, such as cordons, drip irrigation For a multiple cordon with more two further sprays at 14-day intervals. hoses are particularly efficient. than two stems, in the second summer If this problem occurs regularly, apply choose two shoots at the end of each magnesium sulfate to the soil at FRUIT THINNING branch. Train one of each pair of 2oz/sq yd (70g/sq m) in mid-spring. Given favorable conditions at their shoots upright, and one at 45º. In the flowering time, most apple trees set a following fall, lower the shoots from MULCHING lot of fruit, but a heavy crop of small, 45º to the horizontal, and proceed as Apply an organic mulch to young trees poor-quality fruits can lead to biennial for a two-stemmed cordon. for the first three or four years, and then bearing with the tree unable to produce annually for trees on dwarfing rootstocks fruit buds for the following year. Most TRAINING A CORDON OVER AN ARCH on thin soils. Apply in spring while the apple cultivars shed some of their fruitlets This is an ornamental and effective way soil is moist, at a depth of 2–3in (5–8cm) in early summer. However, if there is a of training a cordon. At first it is trained over a radius of 18in (45cm), keeping it heavy set, most require further thinning, as a vertical cordon, with the stem clear of the stem (see p.161). For closely particularly young trees that are still going up the side of the arch. Once the planted trees on dwarfing rootstocks, extending their framework. cordon reaches the curve, it is trained mulch the area with a 1–2in (2.5–5cm) as an oblique cordon. Summer pruning layer of a light organic material, such as Start thinning (see p.160) in early to restricts it and maintains its shape. chipped bark or straw. On fertile soils midsummer with the earliest ripening with a high organic matter content, sheet cultivars. The earlier the thinning, PRUNING A BALLERINA TREE mulches (see p.42) are a useful alternative the greater is the increase in fruit size. If any sideshoots are produced on the to organic ones. Like organic mulches, Remove the king fruit—this is the Ballerina, use the summer pruning they should cover an 18in (45cm) radius. central fruit of a cluster; it tends to system (see p.171). Once the required be misshapen and have a short stalk. height of 6–8ft (2–2.5m) has been WATERING reached, remove the leader. Thin Apples grow best in a moist, freely Vigorous trees are likely to bear more out the spurs (see p.165) in winter. drained soil. Newly planted and closely fruit than weakly growing ones. Use the following as a general guide. Thin FEEDING Ballerina apples A Ballerina tree is Apples usually benefit from an annual bred to grow in a application of potassium and nitrogen. vertical, columnar Apply sulfate of potash in late winter shape with compact, at 1oz/sq yd (35g/sq m). Top-dress fruiting spurs and with nitrogen at the same rate in early few long sideshoots. spring, using calcium ammonium It requires little nitrate on acid soils or sulfate of summer pruning. ammonia on alkaline soils. For trees Four dessert cultivars in grass, and for culinary apples, you are available: will need to increase the rate of ‘Bolero’, ‘Polka’, nitrogen; if the leaves are pale rather ‘Waltz’, and than mid- or dark green, double the ‘Flamenco’. There application. As an alternative to straight is also one culinary fertilizer, a compound of 1:1:2 N:P:K cultivar: ‘Charlotte’. can be used at 2oz/sq yd (70g/sq m). Every third year, apply phosphorus in the form of super phosphate at 2oz/sq yd (70g/sq m) in late winter. Sprinkle the fertilizers over the tree’s rooting area; that is, to just beyond the branch canopy. You will need to moderate these quantities if a mulch such as well-rotted manure

178 TREE FRUIT CROPS dessert apples to one or two fruits every to pick several times; the well-colored 4–6in (10–15cm), and culinary apples apples on the sunniest side of the tree to one fruit every 6–9in (15–23cm). first and those toward the center last. Dwarf trees growing on M27 and M9 Some signs that fruits are ripe are that rootstocks should usually be thinned they may change color, or there may to one fruit per cluster. be some first windfalls, or the pips turn from white to straw-colored to HARVESTING APPLES Supporting fruit-laden branches brown—although some early apples Where branches are particularly heavily laden, are eaten before the pips turn brown. Apple yields vary according to the form tie string around the center of the branch and Harvest apples carefully. Line a bucket in which trees are grown, the cultivar, secure the other end to a temporary stake with soft paper, straw, or hay, or use rootstock, and growing conditions. For through the middle of the tree or to the trunk. a special picking bucket (see below). an apple bush tree, you may expect an average of 60–120lb (27–55kg) per tree, storage. Pick too late, and they will STORING APPLES for an apple spindlebush or pyramid not store well. The time of ripening Storage conditions are important, 30–50lb (13.5–22.5kg), for a single varies with season and site, and is partly but need not be sophisticated. Apples cordon 5–10lb (2.25–4.5kg), for an affected by the rootstock. Pick apples require a cool, dark, frost-free, and espalier 30–40lb (13.5–18kg), and for only when they are ready (see facing page), rodent-proof place with some humidity. a fan 12–30lb (5.5–13.5kg). and avoid bruising them. You will need There should be some air circulation: too much can cause shrivelling, while Early and some second early dessert too little can deprive apples of oxygen. apples can be eaten straight from the An ideal temperature is 36–38°F tree, but most mid- and late-season (2.5–4.5°C); make sure it does not ones benefit from storage before they exceed 45°F (7°C). Cellars, sheds, are eaten. Correct timing for mid- and and unused garages are suitable, unless late-season apples is important. Pick too the apples could be tainted by chemical early and they will not have developed fumes, such as those of paint. Lofts their full flavor and may shrivel in and attics are usually unsuitable due to temperature fluctuations. Harvesting and storing apples Store undamaged fruit with stalks (see left), keeping cultivars apart because they ripen at different rates. Remove rotting and overripe fruits regularly. 1 COMMON PROBLEMS 1To test whether an apple is ripe, lift 2 Apples suffer from a range of pests, it in the palm of the hand and give diseases, and disorders, but some it a slight twist (never pull it as this Lined fruit bucket cultivars have good resistance to the can bruise it). If it is ripe it should Soft liner chute can be unfastened more common problems. Pests that part easily from the spur. If the stalk to empty fruits through base may affect apples include codling and spur are broken, it is not ready. moth (see p.254), apple sawf ly (see 3 p.251), aphids (see p.251), in particular 2 Place the apples as you pick rosy apple aphid (see p.261) and woolly them into a padded picking aphid (see p.264), apple sucker (see bucket, taking care not to drop them p.251), birds (see p.252), capsid bug or cause bruising in any other way. (see p.253), caterpillars (see p.253), especially winter moth caterpillars (see 3To store apples, use either p.264), and red spider mite (see p.261). moulded liners used by grocers Frost can cause damage (see p.255). (far right, with ‘Pixie’ apples) or a plastic Apples may also be affected by the or wooden crate with slats (right, with following diseases and disorders: ‘Blenheim Orange’ apples). Ensure that the container is clean and the apples are not canker (see p.253), apple scab (p.251), touching—rots spread quickly from one to apple powdery mildew (see p.251), another if the fruits touch. brown rot (see p.253), blossom wilt (see p.252), fireblight (see p.255), iron deficiency (see p.256), replant disease (p.261), and bitter pit (see p.252).

APPLE 179 RECOMMENDED APPLE CULTIVARS Cultivar Pollination Picking Storage time Characteristics (T) Triploid group time (months) Dessert apples – Crisp, juicy and heavy cropping. – Excellent flavor, crisp white flesh, juicy and sweet. Golden yellow skin ‘Delbarestivale’ (‘Delcorf’) 3 Late summer with a reddish orange blush. Vigorous. ‘Gala’ 3 Late summer – Aromatic flavor. Hardy, may overcrop, prone to canker. Spur bearer. – Crisp with aromatic flavor. Reliable and a partial tip bearer. ‘Laxton’s Epicure’ 3 Late summer 3 Excellent, sweet flavor. Good immunity to scab and cedar-apple rust. ‘Scrumptious’ 3 Late summer 3 Firm, crisp, and very juicy. Mildly sweet-tart. Heavy crops. ‘Belmac’ 2 Early fall 1 Crisp, with a tart, rich flavor. Highly resistant to apple scab and ‘Braeburn’ 3 Early fall ‘Goldrush’ 3 Early fall powdery mildew; moderately resistant to fire blight. Stores very well. 1 Crisp, juicy, good flavor. Heavy crops, reliable. Spur bearer. ‘Greensleeves’ 3 Early fall 1–2 Crisp texture and well-balanced sweet-tart flavor. Moderately ‘Honeycrisp’ 2 Early fall vigorous, reliable. ‘Jonafree’ 3 Early fall 1 Fairly sweet flavor, juicy and crisp. Vigorous, bears heavy crops. ‘Pristine’ 4 Early fall Scab resistant. 1 Texture is firm and juicy, with a pleasant, sweet-tart flavor. Vigorous ‘Cox’s Orange Pippin’ 3 Early–mid-fall and very scab resistant. ‘Idared’ 2 Early–mid-fall 3–4 Excellent, juicy, aromatic. Prone to scab, canker, and mildew. ‘Kidd’s Orange Red’ 3 Early–mid-fall 4 Not suitable for cooler areas. Choose the self-fertile clone. Spur ‘Ashmead’s Kernel’ 3 Mid-fall bearer. 3 Mid-fall 6–7 Firm, crisp, juicy, with fair flavor. Moderate vigor. Spur bearer. ‘Golden Delicious’ 4 Mid-fall 3–4 Excellent, rich, aromatic flavor. Reliable, hardy, needs thinning 4 Mid-fall to maintain good fruit size. Spur bearer. ‘Jonagold’ (T) 4 Mid-fall 4–5 Excellent, firm, aromatic, russet flavor. Light to moderate cropping, ‘Orleans Reinette’ Mid-fall flowers prone to frost damage. Spur bearer. ‘Pixie Crunch’ 3 3–4 Sweet flavor. Firm, juicy, and crisp. Reliable, will produce heavy 3 Midsummer yields if properly thinned. ‘Winston’ 4 Late summer 4–5 Good flavor, juicy. Reliable cropping, fairly vigorous. Spur bearer. Culinary (cooking) apples 3 3–4 Nutty flavor. Vigorous. Fruits shrivel easily in storage. Spur bearer. ‘Emneth Early’ 3 Early fall 5–6 Super sweet, incredibly crisp, and very juicy. Produces hardy, reliable 4 Mid-fall crops. ‘Grenadier’ 4 Mid-fall 4–6 Firm, good flavor. Fairly vigorous, reliable. Spur bearer. 3 Mid-fall ‘Golden Noble’ 2 Mid-fall – Good flavor, breaks down in cooking. Compact, heavy cropping, Mid-fall needs thinning to prevent biennial bearing. Spur bearer. ‘Blenheim Orange’ (T) Mid–late-fall 1 Sharp flavor. Reliable, hardy, some scab and frost resistance. ‘Bramley’s Seedling’ (T) Spur bearer. ‘Dummellor’s Seedling’ 2–3 Excellent flavor, breaks down in cooking. Reliable, quite vigorous. ‘Gravenstein’ Partial tip bearer. ‘Lane’s Prince Albert’ ‘Liberty’ 3–4 Excellent dual-purpose, rich flavor, stays in slices when cooked. Very vigorous, best on dwarfing rootstock, can be biennial. Partial tip bearer. 4–5 Excellent, acid flavor. Very vigorous, best on dwarfing and semi- dwarfing rootstock. Blossom susceptible to frost. Partial tip bearer. 4–6 Good, acid flavor, breaks down in cooking. Fairly hardy. Spur bearer. 4–6 Sweet-tart flavor. Crisp and juicy. Some fireblight and scab resistance. 4–6 Acid, stays intact. Hardy, reliable, susceptible to mildew. Spur bearer. 5–7 Crunchy, mildly tart flavor. Resists scab, fire blight, and cedar apple rust. Heavily spurred. Heavy producer..

180 TREE FRUIT CROPS APPLE POLLINATION GROUPS (B) Biennial bearer ‘Baumann’s Reinette’ (B) ‘Miller’s Seedling’ (B) ‘Gloster ‘69’ (T) Triploid ‘Belle de Boskoop’ (T) ‘Mutsu’ (‘Crispin’) (T) ‘Golden Delicious’ ‘Belle de Pontoise’ ‘Norfolk Royal’ ‘Golden Noble’ Group 1: very early ‘Blenheim Orange’ (TB) ‘Peasgood’s Nonsuch’ ‘Hawthornden’ ‘Gravenstein’ (T) ‘Bountiful’ ‘Polka’ (Trajan) (B) ‘Herring’s Pippin’ ‘Lord Suffield’ ‘Braeburn’ ‘Queen’ ‘Howgate Wonder’ ‘Manks Codlin’ (B) ‘Bramley’s Seedling’ (T) ‘Red Devil’ ‘Ingrid Marie’ ‘Stark Earliest’ (‘Scarlet Pimpernel’) ‘Brownlees Russet’ ‘Red Victoria’ (B) ‘Jester’ ‘Vista-bella’ (B) ‘Charles Ross’ ‘Redsleeves’ ‘Joybells’ ‘Cobra’ ‘Reinette du Canada’ (T) ‘King’s Acre Pippin’ Group 2: early ‘Cox’s Orange Pippin’ ‘Rival’ (B) ‘Lady Henniker’ ‘Adams’s Pearmain’ (B) ‘Delbarestivale’ (‘Delcorf’) ‘Rosemary Russet’ ‘Lady Sudeley’ ‘Alkmene’ ‘Discovery’ ‘Rubinette’ ‘Laxton’s Superb’ (B) ‘Baker’s Delicious’ ‘Duchess’s Favorite’ ‘Saint Cecilia’ ‘Lord Burghley’ ‘Beauty of Bath’ ‘Elstar’ ‘Scotch Dumpling’ ‘Lord Derby’ ‘Belmac’ ‘Emneth Early’ (B) ‘Scrumptious’ ‘Mannington’s Pearmain’ ‘Ben’s Red’ (B) ‘Exeter Cross’ ‘Spartan’ ‘Monarch’ (B) ‘Bismarck’ (B) ‘Falstaff’ ‘Stirling Castle’ ‘Newtown Pippin’ (B) ‘Bolero’ (‘Tuscan’) ‘Fiesta’ ‘Sturmer Pippin’ ‘Orleans Reinette’ ‘Cheddar Cross’ ‘Gavin’ ‘S.T. Wright’ ‘Pixie’ ‘Christmas Pearmain’ (B) ‘Granny Smith’ ‘Sunset’ ‘Pixie Crunch’ ‘Devonshire Quarrenden’ (B) ‘Greensleeves’ ‘Taunton Cross’ ‘Pristine’ ‘Egremont Russet’ ‘Grenadier’ ‘Tom Putt’ ‘Roundway Magnum Bonum’ ‘George Cave’ ‘Goldrush’ ‘Tydeman’s Early Worcester’ ‘Saturn’ ‘George Neal’ ‘Holstein’ (T) ‘Wagener’ (B) ‘Sir John Thornycroft’ ‘Golden Spire’ ‘James Grieve’ ‘Waltz’ (‘Telamon’) ‘Sweet Society’ ‘Honeycrisp’ ‘Jerseymac’ ‘Wealthy’ ‘Tydeman’s Late Orange’ ‘Idared’ ‘John Standish’ ‘Winter Gem’ ‘Winston’ ‘Irish Peach’ ‘Jonafree’ ‘Wyken Pippin’ ‘Woolbrook Russet’ ‘Kerry Pippin’ ‘Jonagold’ (T) ‘Keswick Codling’ (B) ‘Jonathan’ Group 4: midseason Group 5: late ‘Margil’ ‘Jupiter’ (T) ‘Annie Elizabeth’ ‘Coronation’ (B) ‘McIntosh Red’ ‘Katja’ (‘Katy’) ‘Ashmead’s Kernel’ ‘Gascoyne’s Scarlet’ (T) ‘Michaelmas Red’ ‘Kidd’s Orange Red’ ‘Barnack Beauty’ ‘Heusgen’s Golden Reinette’ ‘Norfolk Beauty’ ‘King of Tompkins County’ (T) ‘Cellini’ ‘King of the Pippins’ (B) ‘Owen Thomas’ ‘King Russet’ ‘Chivers Delight’ ‘Mother’ (‘American Mother’) ‘Reverend W. Wilks’ (B) ‘Lane’s Prince Albert’ ‘Claygate Pearmain’ ‘Newton Wonder’ ‘Ribston Pippin’ (T) ‘Langley Pippin’ ‘Cornish Aromatic’ ‘Reinette Rouge Etoilée’ ‘Ross Nonpareil’ ‘Laxton’s Epicure’ ‘Cornish Gilliflower’ ‘Royal Jubilee’ ‘Saint Edmund’s Pippin’ ‘Laxton’s Fortune’ (B) ‘Cox’s Pomona’ ‘Suntan’ (T) ‘Striped Beefing’ ‘Limelight’ ‘D’Arcy Spice’ ‘William Crump’ ‘Warner’s King’ (T) ‘Loddington’ (‘Stone’s’) ‘Delicious’ ‘Woolbrook Pippin’ (B) ‘White Transparent’ ‘Lord Grosvenor’ ‘Duke of Devonshire’ ‘Lord Hindlip’ ‘Dummellor’s Seedling’ Group 6: late Group 3: midseason ‘Malling Kent’ ‘Ellison’s Orange’ ‘Bess Pool’ ‘Acme’ ‘Mère de Ménage’ ‘Encore’ ‘Court Pendu Plat’ ‘Alexander’ ‘Meridian’ ‘Fall Pearmain ‘Laxton’s Royalty’ ‘Allington Pippin’ ‘Merton Knave’ ‘Gala’ ‘Liberty’ ‘Arthur Turner’ ‘Merton Russet’ ‘George Carpenter’ ‘Barnack Orange’ ‘Merton Worcester’ ‘Gladstone’ (B) Group 7: very late ‘Crawley Beauty’ ‘Adams’s Pearmain’ ‘Blenheim Orange’ ‘Lane’s Prince Albert’ ‘Malling Kent’ ‘Winter Gem’ ‘Claygate Pearmain’ ‘Pixie’

PEAR 181 Pear Pear espalier Restricted forms, Fully ripe pears (cultivars of Pyrus such as this espalier communis) are possibly the most delicious of ‘Doyenné du of tree fruits. They need more warmth Comice’, are and sunlight than apples to fruit well; particularly suitable they also flower early so are more for growing pears in at risk from late spring frosts. Pears the warm, sheltered therefore need a warm, sheltered site. locations that they A warm, south-, southwest-, or west- need to thrive. Highly facing wall or fence is of benefit in trained forms such less favorable conditions, and for late- as this also make the ripening cultivars. You may also need tree more decorative. extra windbreaks (see pp.12–13). rootstocks, although some promising cultivar onto the quince stock in one Pears will tolerate a range of soils pear stocks that have a more dwarfing year and grafting or budding the chosen providing they are well-drained, fairly effect are currently being developed. pear cultivar as a scion onto the inter- moisture-retentive, and of reasonable stock in the next year. This will already depth—about 18–24in (45–60cm). Quince C rootstock is semi-dwarfing have been done on nursery-raised trees. The ideal pH is 6.5. They do not grow and trees grown on it are early to well in thin, calcareous soils, such as come into bearing. It is good for POLLINATION those over chalk, because the lack of fertile soils and is particularly useful Pears flower in early to mid-spring moisture and the high pH cause lime- for cordons and for more vigorous and so are at risk of frost damage at this induced chlorosis (see p.254). On these, cultivars. Trees grafted on Quince time. Avoid planting in a frost pocket and other thin soils, incorporate plenty C will require permanent support. (see p.11), but, if this is not possible, of organic matter before planting. choose late-flowering cultivars (see Quince A is a good rootstock for all chart, p.184) and be prepared to protect CHOOSING A TREE FORM conditions and is slightly more vigorous the trees at flowering time. Use fleece, Pears can be trained in a wide range than Quince C. Trees on Quince A will shade netting, or burlap when frosts are of forms (see p.152): as half-standards, normally need staking for the first two forecast, either rolling the protective bushes, spindlebushes, pyramids, years only. BA29 is similar to, but a little cover down over a restricted tree form cordons, espaliers, and fans. Generally, more vigorous than, Quince A. The (see also p.157) or draping it carefully half-standards are not a good choice: chart below details how the rootstocks over a freestanding tree. they form large trees that are difficult affect spacing for different tree forms. to protect to ensure reliable cropping, All pears need pollen from a second and are often too big for the average Not all pear cultivars are compatible cultivar to produce a satisfactory crop. garden. The few tip bearers (see p.175), with quince rootstocks; they need to Most pears are diploid but some are including ‘Jargonelle’ and ‘Joséphine de be double grafted or double budded triploid (see p.156); a triploid requires Malines’, are best grown as bush trees. using a cultivar compatible with both the a diploid to pollinate it and a second The restricted forms are particularly quince and pear cultivar as a bridge, or diploid to pollinate the first one. Pear successful for pears because they readily interstock, between the two. It involves cultivars are grouped according to the form fruiting spurs and benefit from whip-and-tongue grafting or chip- the shelter of a warm wall or fence. budding (see pp.154–155) the interstock CHOOSING A ROOTSTOCK Pears are usually grafted onto quince rootstocks; these are more dwarfing and earlier into cropping than pear SPACINGS FOR PEAR TREE FORMS AND ROOTSTOCKS Type of rootstock Half- Bush Spindlebush Pyramid Cordon Espalier Fan and vigor standard Quince C semi-dwarfing – 8–12ft 6– 7½ft 5–6ft 30in 10–12ft 10–12ft Quince A semivigorous 12–18ft 12–18ft 7½–10ft – 30in 12–15ft 12–15ft BA29 semivigorous 12–18ft 12–18ft 8–10ft – 30in 12–15ft 12–15ft

182 TREE FRUIT CROPS time at which they f lower (see chart, IN C O M PATIBILIT Y PRUNING A PEAR SPINDLEBUSH p.184). To ensure good pollination, OF PEAR CULTIVARS For formative and established pruning, choose cultivars from the same group, see pp.169–170. The only modification if possible. Cultivars from adjacent There are three recognized incompatibility for pears is that branches should be tied groups will, however, also provide groups for pears. Cultivars in these groups down to 20–30 degrees above the some cross-pollination. are all self- and cross-infertile, so will not horizontal, not any lower, otherwise pollinate themselves or each other. fruiting suffers. Pears produce better fruit Some cultivars, including ‘Beurré Incompatibility group 1 on compact spurs, which are less subject Bedford’, ‘Bristol Cross’, and ‘Fondante d’Automne’, ‘Louise Bonne of to wind damage and bruising from other ‘Marguérite Marrillat’, produce Jersey’, ‘Précoce de Trévoux’, ‘Seckel’, branches. Shorten laterals not required little viable pollen, so are ineffective ‘Williams’ Bon Chrétien’ for the framework to four to six buds in pollinators. ‘Conference’ is not self- Incompatibility group 2 winter to encourage more spurs to grow. fertile, but may produce seedless ‘Beurré d’Amanlis’, ‘Conference’ (parthenocarpic) fruits without Incompatibility group 3 PRUNING A PEAR PYRAMID AND being pollinated. (See also box, right.) ‘Doyenné du Comice’, ‘Onward’ DWARF PYRAMID Pruning a pear pyramid is done in the PLANTING Pear espaliers are pruned in the usual same way as for apples (see pp.175–176), Before planting, prepare the stakes way (see pp.171–172), but other forms using the basic system (see pp.170–171) and wires (see p.162) for the form you require different degrees of pruning. with a few adaptations of technique have chosen. Plant (see pp.158–159) and timing. Once established, the in the dormant season because pears PRUNING A HALF-STANDARD OR BUSH pyramids are maintained by routine start into growth in early spring or PEAR TREE summer pruning (see p.171 and below left). even late winter. Bare-root plants For formative and established pruning usually establish well. Container- of pear half-standards and bushes, see PRUNING A PEAR CORDON grown plants grow away well if they pp.166–167. Pears tend to be upright in For formative and established pruning, are not pot-bound. habit so if branch leaders start to crowd see pp.171–172. In summer, follow the the center, you should replace them summer pruning system (see p.171). PRUNING AND TRAINING by pruning each to an outward-facing Pears can also be trained as vertical Most pears are pruned as spur bearers, lateral. Remove the stakes of trees on cordons and over arches in the same but the few cultivars that are tip semivigorous rootstocks after two or way as for apples (see pp.176–177). bearers require a modified pruning three years of pruning. On a mature However, they cannot be trained as technique. Pears can be pruned tree, in winter, thin spur systems (see horizontal cordons, since there are no harder than apples if needed without p.165), and, from time to time, thin out suitable dwarfing rootstocks for pears. producing excessive growth—except crossing branches (see p.164) by cutting for very vigorous cultivars such back to a suitable replacement branch. PRUNING A PEAR FAN as ‘Pitmaston Duchess’. For formative pruning, see p.173. For pruning and training an established Pruning a pear pear fan in winter, see facing page. For pyramid summer pruning, see p.171. In late summer, prune back the sideshoots FEEDING AND MULCHING to reveal the branch leaders and maintain Under most conditions, pears benefit the basic pyramid from an annual application of potassium shape of the tree and nitrogen and an application of (here ‘Conference’). phosphorus every three years. Follow the guidelines given under apples Select sideshoots for feeding and mulching (see p.177), over 9in (23cm) long although pears may require an additional and cut to 1 leaf nitrogen fertilizer. above a basal cluster if they are growing WATERING from an existing spur, or 3 leaves above a Pears benefit from plenty of moisture basal cluster if they during the growing season and do not are growing from tolerate dry conditions well. Water the main stem. during dry periods in summer. This can be done by several methods (see Cut branch leaders pp.53–54), including drip hoses, which back to a downward- are ideal for rows of trees. or an outward-facing bud 5–6 leaves above the basal cluster (see right).

PEAR 183 FRUIT THINNING Pears need to be picked while they are Store undamaged fruits in shallow trays Pear fruits should be thinned out (see still firm, before they are fully ripe. with the fruits separated—rot spreads p.160) to gain good-sized fruits and When it is time to pick there should quickly if fruits touch. Check regularly to reduce the risk of branches breaking be a slight color change, to a lighter to remove rotting fruits. or the tree becoming overstressed. Thin green in most cases. Test late cultivars in early to midsummer, starting with the by lifting the fruit in the palm of the COMMON PROBLEMS earliest ripening cultivars; the earlier hand and giving it a slight twist. If it is Pears suffer from fewer troublesome the thinning, the greater is the increase ready it should part easily from the spur. pests and diseases than apples, but in fruit size. As a general guide, thin Early and midseason pears may shrivel may be affected by: birds, bullfinches the fruits on vigorous trees to two fruits in storage if picked too early or become in particular damage fruit buds (see per cluster 4–6in (10–15cm) apart. For rotten at the core if left on the tree for p.252), squirrels (p.262), codling moth compact forms such as cordons, thin too long. To test an early or midseason (p.254), pear midge (see p.259), pear and to one fruit per cluster 4–6in (10–15cm) pear for readiness, bite into the pear; cherry slugworm (p.259), pear leaf blister apart. It may be necessary to support if it is hard but sweet it is ready, if it is mite (see p.259), caterpillars including heavily laden branches (see p.178). hard but starchy it is not yet ready. winter moth (see p.264), and aphids (see p.251) including pear bedstraw aphid. HARVESTING PEARS STORING PEARS The latter is a whitish-gray, sap-sucking Pear yields will vary according to the Early and midseason pears require insect that infests pears in late spring season and site, the form of the tree, storing for one to three weeks before and early summer, causing the leaves the cultivar, and the rootstock. In they are ready to eat. Some late-season at the shoot tips to become yellowish- general, the more vigorous the tree, pears can be stored until mid-spring green and curl up. Use a plant oil wash the heavier is the crop. For a pear in relatively simple conditions. in midwinter to control overwintering bush, you can expect an average yield eggs; if aphids are seen in spring, spray per tree of 40–100lb (18–45.5kg), for Store pears in a cool, dark, rodent- with deltamethrin after petal fall. a spindlebush or pyramid 20–40lb proof place with some humidity. An (9–18kg), for a single cordon 4–8lb ideal temperature is 32–40°F (0–4.5°C); Pears can also be affected by the (1.75–3.5kg), for an espalier 20–30lb do not allow the temperature to exceed following diseases and disorders: canker (9–13.5kg), and for a fan 12–30lb 45°F (7°C). There should be some air (see p.253), pear scab (see p.251), pear (5.5–13.5kg). circulation, but not too much, since this rust (see p.261), brown rot (see p.253), can cause shriveling in storage. Cellars, blossom wilt (see p.252), fireblight (see It is particularly important with sheds, and garages can be suitable; p.255), replant diseases (see p.261),and pears to take care in picking and storing attics are usually unsuitable, due to especially on light, sandy soils, boron the fruit to prolong the season of use. fluctuations in temperature and dry air. deficiency (see p.252). Pruning an established pear fan 1 23 1While the fan is dormant in branches. This simplifies the spur 4 winter, thin out the complex and so that it produces fewer flowers and overcrowded growth to maintain fruits, but of better quality, and allows the balanced shape of the fan and light and air circulation. encourage even fruiting the following year. At this time of year, it is easier 4 Take out any wood showing to see the basic framework of the fan. signs of canker, or that is bare or dead-looking. Remove the affected 2 Cut back overly long shoots to section back to a spur or shoot a strong, outward-facing spur. showing healthy buds. If the shoots are more than about 1⁄2in (1cm) thick, 3Prune spurs that have too many use a pruning saw for a smooth cut. branches to a point with only 1-2

184 TREE FRUIT CROPS RECOMMENDED PEAR CULTIVARS Cultivar Pollination Picking time Storage time Characteristics (T) Triploid group (months) Dessert pears ‘Aurora’ 4 Late summer– – Dessert pear that has large, regular fruit. Skin is bright yellow, ‘Williams’ Bon Chrétien’ early fall lightly overlaid with a beautiful russet; frequently blushed. ‘Buerré Hardy’ ‘Buerré Superfin’ 3 Late summer– – Sweet, strong musk flavor. Fairly hardy, but scab-prone. Will not early fall pollinate ‘Fondante d’Automne’ or ‘Louise Bonne of Jersey’ and vice versa. 3 Early fall 1 Medium to large fruits, tender, juicy flesh. Vigorous upright growth, fairly slow into bearing, but hardy with some scab resistance. 3 Early fall 1 Sweet, rich flavor. Fairly reliable, moderate cropping. ‘Concorde’ 4 Early fall 1–2 Juicy, good flavor. Compact, reliable, and early into bearing. ‘Conference’ 3 Early fall 1 Juicy, sweet, and good flavor. Regular, reliable, and heavy cropping. ‘Flemish Beauty’ 3 Early fall – Large, rounded fruits have creamy-yellow skin blushed red, along with ‘Gorham’ 4 Early fall firm, creamy-white flesh that becomes tender, sweet, and aromatic. – Juicy, musk flavor. Fairly reliable, moderate cropping. ‘Hosui’ 2 Early fall 1 Excellent taste and eating qualities. Flesh is off-white, tender crisp, very juicy, very sweet. ‘Magness’ (T) 3 Early fall – High-quality dessert pear that will survive fireblight pressure. ‘Monterey’ Tardy to start bearing, but quality makes up for light early cropping ‘Harrow Delight’ ‘Doyenné du Comice’ 4 Early fall – Large apple-shaped pear with yellow-green skin. Smooth textured, ‘Kieffer’ crisp, with high-quality, sweet-flavored flesh. ‘Le Conte’ 2 Early–mid-fall 1–2 High-quality, early-to-mid, fresh-market pear with excellent blight resistance. 4 Mid-fall 1–2 Juicy and melting with excellent flavor. Fairly vigorous, needs a sunny situation to crop well, susceptible to scab. 4 Mid-fall 3–4 An Oriental pear with large yellow fruit. The white flesh is crisp, and juicy, with a coarse texture. 3 Mid-fall 3–4 Good dessert-quality, medium-sized, attractive fruit that ripens in August-early September. Culinary (cooking) pears ‘Maxine’ (T) 4 Mid-fall 5–6 Very good dessert-quality fruit with medium-to-large attractive fruit. Fair to good fire blight resistance. PEAR POLLINATION GROUPS (MS) Male sterile and ‘Duchesse d’Angoulême’ ‘Bergamotte Esperen’ ‘Le Conte’ (T) ‘Clapp’s Favourite’ ineffective as a pollinator ‘Easter Beurré’ ‘Beurré Dumont’ ‘Le Lectier’ ‘Doyenné du Comice’ (T) Triploid ‘Harrow Delight’ ‘Beurré Hardy’ ‘Magness’ (T) ‘Gorham’ ‘Hosui’ ‘Beurré Superfin’ ‘Olivier de Serres’ ‘Improved Fertility’ Group 1: very early ‘Invincible’ ‘Black Worcester’ ‘Roosevelt’ ‘Kieffer’ ‘Brockworth Park’ ‘Marguérite Marillat’ (MS) ‘Concorde’ ‘Souvenir du Congrés’ ‘Laxton’s Foremost’ ‘Précoce de Trévoux’ ‘Packham’s Triumph’ ‘Conference’ ‘Thompson’s’ ‘Marie Louise’ ‘Passe Crasanne’ ‘Docteur Jules Guyot’ ‘Triomphe de Vienne’ ‘Maxine’ (T) Group 2: early ‘Seckel’ ‘Doyenné Boussoch ‘(T) ‘Williams’ Bon Chrétien’ ‘Monterey’ ‘Baronne de Mello’ ‘Uvedale’s St. Germain’ (T) ‘Doyenné George Boucher’ ‘Nouveau Poiteau’ ‘Beurré Alexandre Lucas’ (T) ‘Vicar of Winkfield’ (T) ‘Durondeau’ Group 4: late ‘Pitmaston Duchess’ (T) ‘Beurré d’Amanlis’ (T) ‘Fertility’ ‘Aurora’ ‘Santa Claus’ ‘Beurré Clairgeau’ Group 3: mid-season ‘Flemish Beauty’ ‘Beurré Bedford’ (MS) ‘Winter Nelis’ ‘Beurré Six’ ‘Belle Julie’ ‘Hessle’ ‘Beurré Mortillet’ ‘Doyenné d’Eté’ ‘Bergamotte d’Automne’ ‘Jargonelle’ (T) ‘Bristol Cross’ (MS)

PLUM 185 Plum Ripe damsons The damson is a less Plums form a group of stone fruits that commonly grown includes gages, and damsons, and form of plum. It is too bullaces (Prunus insititia), and cherry tart to be eaten raw, plums or myrobalans (Prunus cerasifera). but when cooked, They originate mainly from northern makes delicious jams, Asia and from southern Russia. Plums fruit cheeses, and (cultivars of Prunus domestica) and gages sauces. The older are the most widely grown; all have cultivars have the similar cultivation needs. most intense flavors, but modern cultivars A warm, sunny, sheltered site is best produce larger fruits. for plums; improve upon the available Damsons thrive on shelter, if necessary (see pp.12–13). They alkaline soils. flower early so, if possible, avoid planting in a frost pocket (see p.11). Plums can be grown as freestanding trees in the open in sheltered areas, or trained as cordons or fans against a warm south-, southwest-, or west-facing wall or fence in less favorable areas. Plums tolerate a range of soils provided that they are well- drained, but prefer a heavy clay loam at least 2ft (60cm) deep with a pH of 6–6.5. CHOOSING A TREE FORM a warm wall or fence, and in less fairly early in their lives, and seldom favorable areas. Usually a good range of produce suckers. It is suited to bushes, There are several tree forms in which cultivars may be bought as part-trained pyramids, fans, and for less vigorous plums can be grown, but not as great fans. You could also use a maiden tree. cultivars grown as cordons. On a Pixy a range as for apples and pears. Of the rootstock, a plum pyramid will reach freestanding forms, the pyramid is Plums are less suitable for training 6–7ft (2–2.2m) in height; fans will the best choice, since it is economical as cordons than are apples and pears, reach a minimum height of 6ft (2m). with space, easily managed with due to the lack of a suitably dwarfing Ferlenain is a semi-dwarfing rootstock summer pruning, and the low-angled rootstock. Some of the more compact of similar vigor to Pixy, but with fruit of branches are less subject to branch cultivars, however, including ‘Blue Tit’, better size. It is prone to suckering. breakage than those of bush trees. ‘Czar’, ‘Early Laxton’, and ‘Opal’, can The bush form is also suitable for be grown as cordons on Pixy rootstocks St. Julien A is semivigorous. It is a plums, but the half-standard and (see chart, below). reliable rootstock and is suitable for standard forms are not so satisfactory, half-standard, bush, pyramid, and fan since such large trees are unsuitable CHOOSING A ROOTSTOCK forms. On St. Julien A, a pyramid for the average-sized garden. A relatively limited range of rootstocks reaches 7–9ft (2.2–2.7m) high, and a is available for plums, with no truly fan reaches a minimum of 7ft (2.2m). Of the trained forms, the fan is dwarfing rootstock. Pixy, which is semi- Brompton is a vigorous rootstock. the most successful. It is particularly dwarfing, is a good rootstock for garden It can be used for standard and half- suitable for growing well-flavored cultivation; trees come into cropping standard trees, but these are generally plums and gages, which can benefit too large for most garden situations. from the improved microclimate of POLLINATION SPACINGS FOR PLUM TREE FORMS AND ROOTSTOCKS Plums usually flower in early to mid- spring and so are at risk of damage Type of rootstock Standard Half- Bush Pyramid Cordon Fan from frosts at this time. In areas prone and vigor to spring frosts, choose late-flowering standard cultivars (see chart, p.188) and be prepared to use some frost protection Pixy – – 8–12ft 8–10ft 2½–3ft 12–15ft (see p.157); this is easiest to do on wall- semi-dwarfing or fence-trained trees. – – 8–12ft 8–10ft 2½–3ft 12–15ft Ferlenain A large number of plums are self- semi-dwarfing – 12–15ft 12–15ft 10–11ft – 15–18ft fertile, so if you wish to grow only St. Julien A 18–21ft 18–21ft – ––– semivigorous Brompton vigorous

186 TREE FRUIT CROPS one tree, choose one of these. All Pruning an established plum fan to the stake. Pinch out sideshoots at six cultivars benefit from cross-pollination. in spring leaves of the new growth, usually in Plum cultivars are grouped according As the fan matures, you will need to thin out midsummer, and any regrowth later to the time at which they f lower (see crowded spur systems (here on ‘Reine-Claude in the season, to just one leaf. In late chart, p.188). In order to be sure of Vraie’), either before flowering or at petal fall. summer, further shorten the sideshoots good pollination, choose cultivars Cut back each old spur to a strong bud. that were pinched back to six leaves, by from the same group, if possible, cutting them down to three leaves in although those from adjacent groups may be pruned in the standard way order to encourage the formation of will give some cross-pollination. (see p.170), but other forms have more compact, fruiting spurs. A few cultivars are not compatible particular pruning requirements. with each other (see box, below). In mid-spring of the second year, PRUNING A STANDARD, HALF- shorten the leader by about one-third PLANTING STANDARD, OR BUSH PLUM of its new growth to a bud. Repeat Plant plum trees during the dormant Formative pruning of standard, half- this until the cordon has reached the season (see pp.158–159) before they standard, and bush trees is as described top of the wires. If space allows, you start into growth in late winter or on pp.166–167. The main distinction, as can then lower the leader to about 35º early spring. Bare-root plants usually with other stone fruits, is that formative and allow it to grow further. Once at establish better than do container- pruning is carried out in mid-spring. its final length, treat the leader as any grown ones, although the latter will other lateral, pinching it back and grow well as long as they are not pot- After formative pruning, little regular pruning it further in summer. bound. Prepare before planting the pruning should be carried out, because stakes and wires (see p.162) required for pruning cuts can lead to infection from PRUNING A PLUM FAN the tree form that you have chosen. disease. As the branches become more For formative pruning, follow the crowded, some thinning out may be standard method (see p.173). From PRUNING AND TRAINING necessary, but not too much, since a the second summer for a maiden tree, Pruning is usually carried out in spring plum tolerates a more crowded head or the first summer if a part-trained or summer. Never prune stone fruits in than apples or pears. Do this in spring tree is being grown, regular summer the dormant season, or in mid- or late after flowering, removing dead and pruning will also be needed to produce fall. Pruning cuts at these times expose broken, and weak and spindly branches compact fruiting spurs. In early summer, the plant to the risk of infection by back to their point of origin or to thin out to 4in (10cm) apart any shoots silver leaf (see p.262) and bacterial a suitable replacement. that are not required to extend the canker (see p.253). To guard against framework, or those growing from these potentially serious problems, take PRUNING AN OBLIQUE PLUM CORDON spurs on the framework; at the same care to observe good hygiene when The pruning method for plum cordons time, pinch these shoots back to six pruning and use wound paint on all differs slightly from that employed for leaves. If there is any regrowth on these large cuts immediately. Plums fruit on apples and pears. If possible, start with shoots, pinch it out to one leaf. After a mixture of one- and two-year-old a feathered maiden tree. In the mid- picking, shorten to three leaves the wood and older shoots. Plum pyramids spring following planting, shorten any laterals previously pinched to six leaves sideshoots back to about three buds. in order to maintain the compact spurs. INCOMPATIBILITY OF Shorten the leader, beyond the topmost PLUM CULTIVARS feather, by about half. If you are starting Prune an established fan in spring, with an unfeathered maiden, you should either after the buds break and before There are three recognized incompatibility also shorten the leader by about half. flowering, or when the petals fall, to groups for plums. Cultivars in these groups The following summer, tie in the leader take out unhealthy material. Cut out are all self- and cross-infertile, so will not any dead, diseased, or damaged shoots, pollinate themselves or each other. as well as any badly placed shoots that Incompatibility group 1 are growing toward the support or the center of the fan, and thin out spurs ‘Allgrove’s Superb’, ‘Coe’s Golden Drop’, (see above, left). In the summer, prune ‘Crimson Drop’, ‘Jefferson’ and train the fan to keep its shape Incompatibility group 2 well defined (see above, facing page). ‘Cambridge Gage’, ‘President’, Reine- FEEDING AND MULCHING Claude group* Plums need a steady supply of nutrients Incompatibility group 3 for healthy growth. In late winter, apply sulfate of potash at 1⁄2oz/sq yd ‘Blue Rock’, ‘Rivers’s Early Prolific’ (20g/sq m). In early spring, apply a *This group includes several similar cultivars nitrogen fertilizer, such as sulfate of (such as ‘Reine-Claude Vraie’). They are ammonia, at 2oz/sq yd (70g/sq m). seedlings or sports of each other and have Every third year, in late winter, top- the same pollination incompatibility.

PLUM 187 Pruning an established plum fan in summer 1In early summer, tie healthy laterals them with pruners because they will into the support wires to fill in gaps be getting woody. After fruiting in late in the fan shape. Use garden twine summer, shorten these pruned shoots tied in a loose figure-eight knot to again to 3 leaves. avoid chafing. 3Look for any unhealthy or badly 2 Pinch back sideshoots that are not placed shoots and cut them out going to be part of the framework at the base. Here an unproductive to 6 leaves. If the shoots have more shoot bare of leaves is pruned back than 9–10 leaves, you may have to cut to a junction with a healthier shoot. 12 Established plum fan after summer pruning In addition to routine summer pruning and cut them again to 1 leaf after 3 as outlined above, keep shoots at the fruiting. This allows the tree to direct top of the fan pinched back to 3 leaves, its energies into ripening fruit. dress with superphosphate at 2oz/sq yd HARVESTING AND STORING PLUMS preserving may be picked slightly early. (70g/sq m). Alternatively, apply a Plums can be stored in a refrigerator compound fertilizer (see p.20) annually Plum yields differ according to the form for a short while before use. in late winter at 70g/sq yd (2oz/sq m). in which they are grown, the cultivar Plums also benefit from an annual and rootstock, and the growing COMMON PROBLEMS organic mulch, (see p.161) in early spring. conditions. For a plum bush, you might Plums are subject to a number of expect an average yield of 30–60lb pests and diseases: silver leaf (see p.262), WATERING (13.5–27kg) per tree, for a pyramid bacterial canker (see p.253), brown Plums need more watering than apples. about 30–50lb (13.5–22.5kg), for an rot (see p.253), caterpillars (see p.253), Water especially during prolonged dry oblique cordon 8–15lb (3.5–6.75kg), and including winter moth caterpillars (see periods in spring and summer (see for a plum fan 15–25lb (6.75–11.25kg). p.264), frost damage (see p.255), several p.160). In early to midsummer, keep species of aphid (see p.251), including plums watered as the fruit is swelling Plums develop their best flavor if the plum leaf-curling aphid (see p.259), and continue until harvesting if dry left to ripen on the tree. If they feel plum fruit moth (see p.259), red spider conditions persist. Irrigation can be soft when gently squeezed, they are mite (see p.261), and birds (see p.252). supplied to plums by several methods ripe. A tree will generally need picking (see pp.53–54); for rows of trees, drip over several times. Fruit to be used for Using a plum or hoses are particularly efficient. codling moth trap Proprietary traps FRUIT THINNING come as flat packs, It is particularly important to thin the easily assembled. fruitlets on plums—if any overladen A small pheromone branches break, the trees can be badly capsule in the trap affected by silver leaf or bacterial attracts male moths, canker. Begin thinning in early summer which stick fast to when the first fruitlets fall naturally (see the glue on the base. p.160). You may also need to support This may reduce the heavily laden branches by tying them number of females temporarily to a central pole or sturdy laying fertilized eggs, stake (see also p.178). and therefore of caterpillars eating the plums or apples.

188 TREE FRUIT CROPS RECOMMENDED PLUM CULTIVARS Cultivar Compatibility group Picking time Characteristics Dessert plums ‘Early Laxton’ B Mid–late summer Yellow fruits, red flushed, sweet flavor. Small tree. Mid–late summer Abundant harvest of sweetly flavored, dark purple fruit. ‘Santa Rosa’ B Sweet & juicy taste. Gives bushels of fruit that last months. Late summer A good flavored and reliable red plum of medium size. ‘Burbank’ C Late summer Quite small, dull green color, turning yellow when ripe. Late summer Orange-red fruits with fairly sweet flavor. Very reliable. ‘Mallard’ A Late summer Greenish-yellow, fairly sweet fruits. Reliable gage-type. Late summer Black-red skin and amber flesh. ‘Old Green Gage’ C Late summer–early fall Green, rich, sweet fruits. Most reliable of the gages. Late summer–early fall Red, large fruits. Needs good pollination to fruit well. ‘Opal’ C Late summer–early fall Orange-red, juicy fruits. The best dual-purpose plum. Late summer–early fall Cooks well. ‘Oullins Gage’ C Yellow, sweet, rich flavor. Fan train for full ripening. Early fall Large, yellow, juicy, and sweet fruits. ‘Black Amber’ A Early fall ‘Cambridge Gage’ B ‘Reeves’ A ‘Victoria’ C ‘Coe’s Golden Drop’ A Mid–late summer Blue fruits, rich but sharp. Makes a neat pyramid. ‘Laxton’s Delight’ B Late summer Blue fruits, improved with cooking. Reliable, compact. Culinary (cooking) plums Early–mid-fall Called a blood plum because of its dark red flesh. ‘Rivers’s Early Prolific’ B ‘Czar’ C Early fall Rugged, late-blooming, cold-hardy, heavy bearing. ‘Elephant Heart’ C Early fall Blue fruit, larger than other damsons. Damsons Early–mid-fall Produces dark blue fruit, and bears in August. ‘Blue Damson’ C ‘Merryweather Damson’ C ‘Damson Plum’ C PLUM POLLINATION GROUPS Flowering A: self-infertile Compatibility group C: self-fertile Unclassified group B: partly self-infertile Group 1 ‘Jefferson’, ‘Mallard’ ‘Angelina Burdett’, ‘Blue Rock’, ‘Monarch’ (very early) ‘Utility’ Group 2 ‘Black Diamond’, ‘Coe’s Golden ‘Ariel’, ‘Avalon’, ‘Curlew’, ‘Edda’ ‘Brandy Gage’, ‘Guthrie’s Late Green’, (early) Drop’, ‘Edwards’, ‘President’, ‘Imperial Gage’, ‘Reine-Claude de ‘Valor’ Brahy’, ‘Warwickshire Drooper’ Group 3 ‘Allgrove’s Superb’, ‘Bryanston ‘Belgian Purple’, ‘Cox’s Emperor’, ‘Bonne de Bry’, ‘Bountiful’, ‘Czar’, ‘Swan’ (mid- Gage’, ‘Reeves’, ‘Washington’ ‘Early Laxton’, ‘Goldfinch’, ‘Golden Transparent’, ‘Herman’, season) ‘Laxton’s Delight’, ‘Merton Gem’, ‘Jubilaeum’, ‘Laxton’s Cropper’, ‘Laxton’s ‘Reine-Claude Violette’, ‘Rivers’s Gage’, ‘Merryweather Damson’, ‘Opal’, Early Prolific’, ‘Sanctus Hubertus’ ‘Pershore’, ‘Purple Pershore’, ‘Severn Cross’, ‘Victoria’ Group 4 ‘Count Althann’s Gage’, ‘Kirke’s’, ‘Cambridge Gage’, ‘Stint’ ‘Early Transparent Gage’, ‘Farleigh (mid- ‘Wyedale’ Damson’, ‘Giant Prune’, ‘Ontario’, season) ‘Oullins Gage’ ‘Excalibur’, ‘Laxton’s Delicious’, Group 5 ‘Reine Claude-Vraie’ (‘Old ‘Belle de Louvain’, ‘Blue Tit’, (late) Greengage’), ‘Pond’s Seedling’, ‘Marjorie’s Seedling’, ‘Prune Damson’ ‘White Magnum Bonum’

SWEET AND DUKE CHERRY 189 Sweet and duke cherry The sweet cherry is a cultivated form PLANTING of the wild cherry (gean or mazzard), Prunus avium. The duke cherry is Plant cherries in the dormant season thought to be a hybrid of P. avium and (see pp.158–159). Dig in plenty of P. cerasus (sour cherry), and is cultivated well-rotted organic matter beforehand. in the same way as the sweet cherry. Bare-root plants usually establish better than container-grown ones, although Cherries f lower fairly early (usually the latter should grow well if they are in mid-spring), so are at risk from not pot-bound. Prepare the stakes and spring frosts and poor pollinating wires (see p.162) for the form you have conditions at f lowering time. A warm, chosen before planting. sheltered site is best, and training a cherry against a wall or fence that Cherry in blossom PRUNING AND TRAINING faces south, southwest, or west is Sweet cherries (here ‘Stella’) need warm, Sweet cherries fruit on one- and advantageous, particularly so in less sheltered conditions when flowering to achieve two-year-old wood and on spurs favorable areas; this also helps fruits pollination and a good set of fruit. of older wood. Never prune in the to ripen well. Avoid planting in a frost dormant season due to the risk of pocket (see p.11). Cherries tolerate are also incompatible with some others infection from silver leaf (see p.262) a fairly wide range of soils. Good that flower at the same time. Sweet or bacterial canker (see p.253). For drainage is important and soils should cherry cultivars are grouped by the time pruning a young bush, see pp.166– be at least 2ft (60cm), preferably 3ft at which they flower (see chart, p.190). 167; of an established bush, see p.186, (90cm), deep, with a pH of 6.5–6.7. A cultivar will be pollinated by another and of a pyramid, see p.170. Shallow and waterlogged soils are not from the same pollination group or suitable and need improving, by deep adjacent groups, provided that they are PRUNING A SWEET CHERRY FAN cultivation (see p.39) or drainage (see not in the same incompatibility group. In addition to doing the basic formative pp.15–16), if cherries are to be grown. pruning for a fan (see p.173), you should follow the guidelines for plums (see TREE FORMS AND ROOTSTOCKS pp.186–187) regarding formative Cherries are naturally vigorous and summer pruning and pruning of an produce large trees. They can be grown established fan. A cherry fan will as bush or pyramid trees or as fans. Generally, the fan form is the most Protecting cherry blossom from frost suitable because it controls the cherry’s vigorous nature and can be most 1To protect the blossoms and easily protected against frost and birds. fruits of a trained fan (here ‘Stella’) from frost, cover it with There are few rootstocks available a “tent” of fine netting overnight. for cherries. Colt is semivigorous and Drape the netting over a most suitable for fan-trained trees. crossbar of 1 x 1in (25 x 25mm) On a Colt rootstock, a fan requires lumber wired onto the support a space 15–18ft (5–5.5m) wide and wire above the fan. Use 3 stakes 8ft (2.5m) high. Gisela 5 is a quite as struts to hold the netting new semi-dwarfing rootstock and is clear of the plant. an improvement on Colt, producing smaller trees that are more easily netted 2 Weigh down the edge of against birds. On Gisela 5 space bush the netting by wrapping the trees 9ft (2.7m) apart and pyramids end around 2 or 3 bamboo 8ft (2.5m) apart. Fans need a space 12ft (3.6m) wide and 6ft (2m) high. 1 stakes. Secure with thin garden POLLINATION wire by feeding the end of Be prepared to protect trees at flowering the wire in and out of the net time if frosts threaten (see right). Sweet as if stitching with a needle. cherry pollination is complex, and by far the best choice for garden cultivation are 3Uncover the fan during cultivars that are self-fertile (particularly the day to allow access if there is space for only one tree). Other by pollinating insects. Hold cultivars are not only self-infertile, they the rolled-up netting at the top of the plant by securing it 2 3 to the crossbar with twine or, as here, with small tree ties.

190 TREE FRUIT CROPS quickly fill its space, and it is important Erecting a raincover to shorten the new growth produced To protect the ripening fruits, each year by about half to stimulate place a length of clear plastic, the production of sideshoots and spurs, 8ft (2.5m) wide, over the top of otherwise bare wood can develop. the plant (here ‘Stella’). Hold it in place with vertical guy ropes of FEEDING AND MULCHING thin cord tied to pegs. To attach Sweet cherries are naturally vigorous, the cord to the plastic, wrap a with fairly high nutrient needs. In late golf ball or stake ball in the plastic winter, apply a compound fertilizer (see at the edge and knot the end of p.21) at 4oz/sq yd (110g/sq m) over the the cord around it (see inset). This rooting area. For mulching, see p.161. prevents the plastic from tearing. Do not cover the sides to avoid WATERING AND PROTECTION scorching the fruits or creating Cherries grow best in a moist but freely excessively humid conditions. drained soil. They benefit from an even supply of water in the growing HARVESTING AND STORING COMMON PROBLEMS season, which may demand extra watering in dry periods (see p.160), An average yield for a sweet cherry Birds (see p.252) are a serious pest and especially on shallow soils. Irrigation bush might be 30–100lb (13.5–45.5kg), eat fruits and buds. Other problems can be supplied by several methods for a pyramid 30–60lb (13.5–27kg), include aphids (p.251), fruit fly (p.256), (see pp.53–54). and for a fan 12–35lb (5.5–15.75kg). winter moth caterpillars (p.264), pear Pick cherries when they are fully ripe. and cherry slugworm (p.259), bacterial Fruit splitting is one of the main Once harvested (see below), they are best canker (p.253), blossom wilt (p.252), causes of fruit loss. It can occur eaten within a few days. Alternatively, brown rot (p.253), frost damage (p.255), through alternate dry and wet soils they can be stored if cleaned and frozen silver leaf (p.262), scorch (p.262), and as the fruits are swelling. The most as soon as they are picked. magnesium deficiency (p.257). common cause, particularly as the fruit reaches maturity, is rain or overhead RECOMMENDED SWEET CHERRY CULTIVARS irrigation falling on the fruit. Once the fruits begin to ripen, the skins stop Cultivar Compatibility Picking time Fruit color growing and any absorbed moisture Black will swell the f lesh and split the skins. ‘Lapins’ Self-fertile Late summer So, once the cherries form but before ‘Meteor’ Partly self-fertile Late summer Dark red they ripen, protect them with a ‘Montgomery’ Midsummer Black raincover (see above). Use a similar ‘Stella’ Self-infertile Midsummer method to protect blossom from ‘Summer Sun’ Self-fertile Midsummer Dark red frost and fruits from birds (see p.192). Self-infertile Dark red ‘White Gold’ Self-fertile Midsummer Black SWEET CHERRY POLLINATION GROUPS Many sweet cherries are incompatible with one another. Those in this table can be pollinated by cultivars in the same group or an adjacent group unless otherwise mentioned. Pollination Self-infertile Self-fertile group Group 1 ‘Early Rivers’ Group 2 ‘Mermat’ (incompatible with ‘Waterloo’), ‘Merton Glory’, ‘Noir de Guben’ Group 3 ‘Roundel Heart’, ‘Van’, ‘Vega’; ‘Elton Heart’ and ‘Governor ‘Starkrimson’ Wood’ are incompatible with each other and ‘Amber Heart’, ‘Inga’, ‘Merchant’ Group 4 ‘Amber Heart’ (incompatible with ‘Governor Wood’ and ‘Elton ‘Celeste’, ‘Lapins’, Heart’), ‘Bigarreau Napoléon’, ‘Kordia’ (incompatible with ‘Stella’, ‘Sunburst’, Harvesting cherries Governor Wood and vice versa) ‘Hertford’, ‘Penny’, ‘Regina’ ‘Sweetheart’ When the cherries (here of ‘Stella’) are ripe, (incompatible with ‘Van’ and vice versa), ‘Summer Sun’, ‘Summit’ cut the stalks with scissors or pruners. Take care to hold the stalk to prevent the fruit from Group 5 ‘Bigarreau Gaucher’ (incompatible with ‘Bradbourne falling and bruising. A tree will usually need Black’), ‘Florence’ picking over 2 or 3 times as the fruit ripens. Group 6 ‘Bradbourne Black’ (incompatible with ‘Bigarreau Gaucher’)

SOUR CHERRY 191 Sour cherry POLLINATION ‘Morello’ cherry Sour cherries generally flower in mid- This sour cherry has Sour cherries are derived from Prunus to-late spring. Be prepared to protect been trained on wires cerasus. The fruits are generally too trees at flowering time if frosts threaten as a fan and still fruits sour to eat raw, but are full of flavor (see p.189). They are self-fertile, so there well after 20 years. and cook and preserve well. Being is no problem with pollination and, in A fan makes a highly less vigorous than sweet cherries, sour most cases, only one tree is required to attractive structural cherries are well suited to gardens. provide a satisfactory crop. form in the garden, They also have different pruning needs. allows the fruits to PLANTING ripen well, and gives In general, sour cherries crop reliably. Plant cherry trees during the dormant easy access to the They are, however, susceptible to frost season (see pp.158–159) before they tree at harvest time. at f lowering, although less so than start into growth. Dig in plenty of sweet cherries, and do not need full well-rotted organic matter before the stakes and wires (see p.162) required sun. Fan-trained trees can be grown planting, especially on shallow soils, for the tree form you have chosen against a north-facing wall or fence, to improve moisture-retentiveness. before planting. making them very useful for cooler Bare-root plants usually establish better positions. They tolerate a range of soils than container-grown ones, although PRUNING AND TRAINING as long as they are well-drained and the latter should grow well as long As for other stone fruits, sour cherries moisture-retentive, with a pH of as they are not pot-bound. Prepare are susceptible to silver leaf (see p.262) 6.5–6.7. The soil needs to be at least and bacterial canker (see p.253) if pruned 18in (45cm) deep; shallow soils or in winter. To avoid these problems, waterlogged soils will need improving, always prune in early spring and by deep cultivation (see p.39) or summer. Since the tree fruits on the drainage (see pp.15–16). previous season’s wood, pruning aims to remove some fruited wood and TREE FORMS AND ROOTSTOCKS promote new, vigorous wood, while Sour cherries bear most of their fruit maintaining the structure of the tree. on wood made the previous year. Because of this, they need to be grown PRUNING A SOUR CHERRY BUSH as tree forms that are maintained by Formative pruning of a bush is replacement pruning. These forms undertaken in early to mid-spring are the bush, pyramid, and fan. The (see pp.166–167). After the first four pyramid casts less shade than the bush, and is easier to net against birds. Bushes need spacing 11–15ft (3.5–5m) apart and pyramids 10–11ft (3–3.5m). Fans need a space 11–15ft (3.5–5m) wide and 6–7ft (2–2.2m) high. Sour cherries are not large trees, so the semivigorous rootstock Colt is suitable for all forms. Pruning an established sour cherry fan in early summer Thin the new shoots along the Established fan framework that is bearing fruit, there should be ribs of the fan (here a ‘Morello’) 1 or 2 new shoots that will replace to 2–4in (5–10cm) apart. Aim to After pruning, the fan should be it in the next season. keep shoots near the base of balanced and free of crowded, those that are bearing this year’s crossing shoots. For each shoot fruits. The shoots you retain will form the fruiting wood for next year. Tie these new shoots into the supports. Shorten to two leaves any shoots growing directly outward from the fan. This thinning allows the fruits and new shoots to ripen well without being crowded. Thinning new shoots

192 TREE FRUIT CROPS or five years, prune it after fruiting, Pruning an established fan after fruiting as for the cropping tree (see Renewal pruning, p.167), in late summer to early In late summer, after fruiting, that are growing outward fall. Cut out a quarter of the older wood thin out the fan (here from the fan or toward the to young shoots to stimulate production ‘Morello’) and train in shoots wall or fence. Also remove of more new wood. As the tree matures, that will fruit next year. Cut shoots that have grown it will be necessary to take sections of back shoots that have fruited beyond the boundaries three- and four-year-old wood back to this season to leave a of the fan, cutting back to young shoots. If the tree is unpruned replacement shoot of new a lower-placed shoot. Tie or pruned lightly, it will eventually crop growth, which will fruit next in the remaining shoots to only around the edge. year. Then cut out any badly the supports with twine in placed shoots, including any a figure-eight knot. PRUNING A SOUR CHERRY PYRAMID Starting with a feathered maiden in Removing fruited wood early to mid-spring, cut the leader to 4in (10cm) above the topmost feather Established fan before pruning Established fan after pruning or sideshoot. Remove any feathers below 18in (45cm). Shorten remaining some three- and four-year-old wood important on shallow soils. Irrigation sideshoots by half to a downward-facing to replacement shoots. Once the tree is can be applied in several ways (see bud. In the first summer, tie the leader at its full height, cut back shoots at the pp.53–54). Drip hoses are useful, to the stake. In the second spring, top to two buds in late summer. since they allow for regular, even shorten the leader by half of the new application of water. If the soil dries growth to a bud on the opposite side PRUNING A SOUR CHERRY FAN out and then becomes wet, fruits to the previous pruning cut. Shorten After formative pruning (see p.173) and may split as they ripen. Protect them other one-year-old shoots by half. Tie once the fan framework is established, with a raincover (see p.190). the leader to the stake in the summer. thin shoots (see p.191) in late spring to In the third spring, prune the leader by early summer, and remove fruited wood HARVESTING SOUR CHERRIES half, but leave laterals unpruned; repeat in late summer (see above). As the fan An average sour cherry bush or the process with the leader until it gains becomes older, remove three- and four- pyramid may yield 30–40lb (13.5–18kg) its full height of 6–8ft (2–2.5m). No year-old sections of the framework back of fruit, and a fan 12–35lb (5.5–15.75kg). pruning is needed in the third summer. to young replacement shoots. If this Harvest fruits when they are fully ripe, replacement pruning is not carried out, cutting them off by the stalks. You From the fourth summer, prune after the fan will fruit only at the periphery. may need to pick over a tree twice. picking. Remove some sections of older wood, cutting back to young shoots and maintaining the pyramid shape. As the tree matures, you may need to cut back Protecting the fruits from birds ROUTINE CARE COMMON PROBLEMS In midsummer, erect a fine net over wall- Sour cherries suffer the same problems trained trees. Use 8ft (2.5m) stakes as struts To produce strong replacement shoots, as sweet cherries (see p.190). Protect over which to drape the net. Insert them 2ft sour cherries need more nitrogen than ripening fruits against birds (see left). (60cm) clear of the base and tie at the top with many other fruits. In late winter, apply twine. The net should not touch the fruits. sulfate of potash at 1oz/sq yd (35g/sq m) RECOMMENDED CULTIVARS over the rooting area. In the early spring, apply 2oz/sq yd (70g/sq m) of ‘Morello’ Self-fertile cultivar; harvest sulfate of ammonia. Every third year in the fruits in late summer and in late winter, apply 2oz/sq yd (70g/sq m) early fall; this is a very old cultivar of of superphosphate. Mulch to help keep excellent flavor. soil fertile and moist (see p.161). ‘Northstar’ Self-fertile; harvest the fruits Water during dry periods in in late summer; good disease resistance. spring and summer; this is especially

PEACH AND NECTARINE 193 Peach and nectarine Peaches (Prunus persica) and nectarines Protecting flower buds from frost PLANTING (P. persica var. nectarina) originate from Wall-trained trees (here ‘Hale’s Early’) need Plant (see pp.158–159) in the dormant China. They have similar cultivation protection in early spring from frosts: cover season, preferably in late fall, since needs, so throughout this text all details them with fleece or shade netting from just peaches start to grow in early spring. on peaches apply also to nectarines. before bud break to protect the buds. When Bare-root plants usually establish well. The trees are fully winter-hardy but the flowers open, roll up the fleece during the Container-grown plants grow away flower early—usually in early spring day to allow access by pollinating insects. well as long as they are not pot-bound. or even late winter—and so the blossom Before planting, prepare stakes and wires is at risk from frost damage and poor and 6–8ft (2–2.5m) high. Bushes and (see p.162) for the form you have chosen. conditions. However, it is possible pyramids may produce fruit outdoors For planting in a pot, use a loam-based to grow peaches successfully in a in particularly favorable locations. There compost. Start a young tree in a 6–8in warm, sheltered site, preferably trained are few rootstocks for conventional (15–20cm) diameter pot. against a wall or fence that is facing peach cultivars. The most common is south, southwest, or west. Provide the semivigorous St. Julien A. Peaches PRUNING AND TRAINING extra shelter (see pp.12–13) if needed. can also be raised as seedlings to obtain Peaches fruit on young wood formed in For cultivation outside, it is important ungrafted trees (see p.195). the previous season, as do sour cherries, to choose the cultivars that will ripen and so they also require replacement in mid- to late summer (see chart, p.195); Compact peaches produce extremely pruning to produce a supply of new later-ripening cultivars will not do well short-jointed, neat growth and so are wood each year. When you are pruning outside in most areas. Both early- and suitable only for growing as bush trees. to produce a new shoot, it is important to late cultivars can be grown successfully prune to a growth bud, rather than a fruit under glass. POLLINATION bud, so you need to recognize the two Peaches and nectarine cultivars are self- types (see below). If necessary, prune to There are two types of peaches: the fertile, so it is possible to obtain a crop a triple bud and remove the two side conventional cultivars, which grow from just one tree. They are pollinated fruit buds. As for all stone fruits, prune fairly vigorously and naturally produce by insects, but since they flower very peaches in spring and summer to avoid a medium-sized tree, and genetically early there are often few pollinating infection from silver leaf (see p.262) and dwarf compact peaches, which are insects around. Hand pollination is bacterial canker (see p.253). sometimes known as patio peaches. usually necessary, using a soft brush or a rabbit’s tail (see p.157). For conventional peach and nectarine Conventional peach and nectarine cultivars, prune the bush and pyramid cultivars will grow in a range of soils as Since both the flowers and fruitlets forms as you would for sour cherries long as they are well-drained, moisture- are very vulnerable to frost damage, be (see pp.191–192). Compact cultivars retentive, and at least 18in (45cm) deep, prepared to protect them against frost grow slowly and need little or no with a pH of about 6.5. Thin soils over (see above) on nights when it is forecast. pruning, apart from the removal of chalk are not suitable unless improved Alternatively, a plastic raincover in place dead or diseased wood when necessary. with plenty of organic matter (see p.22). to avoid peach leaf curl (see p.195) gives 2–3.5°F (1–2°C) of frost protection and PRUNING A PEACH OR NECTARINE FAN Compact cultivars are most successful will improve the ambient temperatures, Formative pruning of a peach fan is grown in containers in a warm situation which will also be an aid to pollination. undertaken following the basic method such as a sheltered patio. They flower (see p.173), with some extra pruning early, but are susceptible to peach leaf in early summer (see overleaf ). Peaches curl (see p.258). However, they can be brought under cover—into an unheated usually grow quite vigorously at greenhouse, a porch, or a polytunnel— over winter and while flowering to Fruit bud in overcome these problems. triple bud TREE FORMS AND ROOTSTOCKS Single The type of peach cultivar you choose growth bud will dictate the tree form in which it can be grown. The conventional peach Growth bud cultivars can be grown as bushes, in triple bud pyramids, and fans, but the fan-trained tree is the only form that is generally Fruit bud in triple bud successful outdoors in cool climates, and is also the best method for growing Recognizing peach buds peaches under glass. Fan-trained trees Peaches, as well as other Prunus tree fruits, need a space of 11–15ft (3.5–5m) wide, have separate fruit and growth buds, but some are found together as double and triple buds. The growth buds can be distinguished because they are pointed, while fruit buds are round.

194 TREE FRUIT CROPS first, so it is vital to train shoots early be kept pinched to one leaf to feed the the next year’s crop. In late winter, on into position. Remove all vertical fruits. Tie in any shoots required to apply a general compound fertilizer or near-vertical shoots in the center, extend the framework if it has not yet (see p.20) at 3oz/sq yd (100g/sq m) over since these will tend to dominate at reached its full size. If shoots outgrow the rooting area—beneath the canopy the expense of the rest of the fan. In the the available space, pinch them back. of the tree or along the length of a fan- third summer, a few fruits appear along trained tree. Wall-trained trees benefit the ribs of the fan, but the first real crop After picking in midsummer to late from an additional liquid feed with a will be in the fourth summer. fall, cut back the fruiting laterals to the high-potash fertilizer, such as tomato replacement shoots unless there is room fertilizer, at about 5 quarts (5 liters) per On an established peach fan, routine to extend the lateral. Cut out any dead tree every 10–14 days from fruitlet stage pruning is in spring (see box, below) and or diseased wood to a healthy shoot. If until the fruits are full size. All forms summer, after fruiting. The goal is to a rib has developed a lot of bare wood, grow better with a mulch (see p.161). choose a replacement shoot for each cut the section back to a replacement fruiting shoot and then to train it in shoot. If replacement pruning is not Peaches, especially wall-trained trees, alongside the fruiting shoot—a shoot carried out, the tree will eventually need plenty of moisture in the growing higher up is also kept as a reserve. Keep fruit only around the edges. season. Do not allow them to become the replacement shoots tied in flat so dry, since this can cause checks to that plenty of light reaches the fan and ROUTINE CARE growth and the problem of split stone also because they are difficult to bend Peaches require annual feeding to (see p.262). The most effective method flat later in the summer when growth produce large, good-quality fruits and for wall- and fence-trained trees is becomes woodier. Other shoots can replacement shoots and fruit buds for to use drip irrigation (see pp.53–54). Pruning a peach or nectarine fan 1Starting with a feathered maiden, stop laterals from growing straight out and choose a strong lateral on either side at any other surplus shoots at 2 leaves. Tie in 10–12in (25–30cm) from soil level to form the retained laterals to fruit the next year. the main arms. In early spring, prune each 4 On an established fan in spring, choose Stake at about one to about 15in (38cm) and an upward- a replacement shoot near the base of 40° to wires facing bud, and tie them to stakes attached each fruiting shoot, and a second reserve Prune low shoots to 1 bud to the wires. Remove the leader above these one farther up the lateral; tie them in. Pinch Cutting outward-growing laterals; cut back any shoots below. In out all other shoots at 1 leaf. shoot to 2 leaves Remove inward-growing summer, select shoots to tie in to form the and crossing shoots framework—2 on the top of each arm and Fix stakes to wires, 1 1 below. Pinch back all other shoots to 1 then tie in new shoots leaf. The next spring, prune main shoots by a quarter of the last year’s growth. 2 In early summer, keep tying in shoots as they grow. Remove any growing into the support and below the 2 main arms; cut those growing outward to 2 leaves. 3In early summer of the following year, thin laterals arising from the framework branches to 4–6in (10–15cm) apart. Remove any shoots growing directly toward the wall; Remove vertical 2 shoots Continue to tie in new Sideshoot kept to framework shoots replace fruited shoot Shorten surplus Surplus shoots pinched to 1 leaf 3 4and overlapping laterals to 2 leaves

PEACH AND NECTARINE 195 Feed container-grown, compact Thinning peach fruits After thinning, healthy peach cultivars with a liquid feed Thin in 2 stages. First, when the fruits have room to grow or slow-release fertilizer during the fruitlets are about the size of a growing season. Top-dress annually hazelnut, thin to single fruits with bottom heat of 59–68°F with fresh potting compost and repot 4in (10cm) apart, removing (15–20°C). As each seedling grows, into a larger container every other misshapen fruits and those tie it into a vertical stake. In late year. Once a tree has reached the next to the wall or in other spring, once risk of frost is past, place maximum suitable pot size—16in places where they have no the pots outside, preferably plunged (40cm) diameter—repot it into the room to swell. When the fruits in soil. The next winter, plant out the same pot, removing and replacing are the size of walnuts, thin best seedling in its permanent position. any loose compost and cutting away to 8–10in (20–25cm) apart. It is best not to keep it in a container pot-bound roots. unless you want to grow it in one RAISING PEACHES FROM SEED permanently. A seedling tree can be FRUIT THINNING Peaches are one of the few fruits that trained in the same forms as a grafted Fruit thinning is important to obtain can be grown successfully from seed. tree (see p.193). good-sized peaches (see right) and avoid The seedlings do not grow true from overstressing the tree. Thin nectarines seed, but they are usually similar or COMMON PROBLEMS to about 6in (15cm) apart. inferior to the peach from which it is Peaches are affected by a variety raised—and only occasionally better. of problems. The most troublesome HARVESTING AND STORING PEACHES Seedlings generally take about four disease is peach leaf curl (see p.258). AND NECTARINES or five years to bear fruit. Other problems include aphids (see Peaches are variable in their fruiting, p.251), red spider mite (see p.261), but in favorable conditions a peach To be sure of success, select several particularly with wall- and fence- or nectarine bush may yield an average pits. Clean them and leave them in trained trees and those cultivated of 30–60lb (13.5–27kg) and a peach the sun to dry for a few days. The under glass, brown scale (see p.253), or nectarine fan 12–25lb (5.5–11.25kg). pits require a period of cold before bacterial canker (see p.253), silver germination can take place, so store leaf (see p.262), brown rot (see p.253), Harvest peaches when they are ripe them over the winter in a mixture replant disease (see p.261), split stone or almost ripe. To test for ripeness, cup of 50:50 sharp sand and peat in a 10in (see p.262), and squirrels (see p.262). the fruit in one hand and gently press (25cm) pot. Plunge the pot in soil in a near the stalk with the fingertips. If shady part of the garden, cover it with the f lesh is soft, it is ready and the fruit a fine wire mesh to deter rodents, and should part easily from the tree. Place keep the sand and peat mixture moist. the fruits in containers lined with soft Protect the pits against hard frosts with material so that they are not touching a layer of straw or similar material. each other. Some will be ready to eat immediately, while some will require In late winter, sow the pits singly a day or two to ripen fully. in 51⁄2in (14cm) pots of a loam-based compost. Place on a sunny windowsill or, ideally, on a propagating bench RECOMMENDED PEACH AND NECTARINE CULTIVARS Cultivar Picking time Characteristics Peaches Late summer Reliable with some resistance to peach leaf curl. ‘Avalon Pride’ Large fruits with a red flush and yellow flesh. ‘Red Haven’ Late summer Grow rapidly for an abundance of fruit quickly. ‘Red Star’ Late summer Large free-pit; 80 percent rich, red color. Nectarines ‘Fantasia’ Midsummer Textured flesh with a sweet, tangy flavor. ‘Arctic Jay’ Late summer Medium-sized, very firm, subacid flavor. ‘Humboldt’ Late summer Orange and crimson fruit. Best under glass. Compact peach cultivars Raincover for a wall-trained peach ‘Flamin’Fury’ Midsummer Brilliant red color with yellow background. Use a raincover from early winter to late spring to keep buds dry, avoid peach leaf curl, and give ‘Garden Anny’ Midsummer Pale yellow, juicy fruits with excellent flavor. frost protection. Make a wooden frame with clear plastic sheeting to cover the fan, leaving the Compact nectarine cultivars ends and base open for air circulation. ‘Nectarella’ Late summer Orange fruits flushed red, with juicy flesh.

196 TREE FRUIT CROPS Apricot Apricots (Prunus armeniaca) originate from China and Central Asia. They are fully winter-hardy but flower early— generally in early to mid-spring, but sometimes in late winter—so cropping in the open is often unreliable. Apricots will grow on a range of soils, providing they are well-drained, fairly moisture- retentive, and at least 18in (45cm) deep with a pH of 6.5–7.5. On light, sandy soils (see p.22), add plenty of organic matter to improve moisture-retention. TREE FORMS AND ROOTSTOCKS Growing an apricot under cover Frost protection for a wall-trained apricot Apricots can be grown as bushes or In colder areas, apricots crop most reliably Cover the tree with fleece or netting just before pyramids in favorable, warm, sheltered under glass. The fan form is decorative as the buds break to protect them from frost. positions. A pyramid is also suitable well as practical: the buds and ripening When the flowers open, roll up the covering for growing in a container, which can fruits receive plenty of light and warmth. in the day to allow access by insects. be moved under cover for protection. Due to early f lowering, the most p.253). For formative pruning of a HARVESTING AND STORING practical tree form is as a fan against bush, see pp.166–167; for established Harvest apricots when they are fully a warm south-, southwest-, or west- pruning, see Plum, p.186. For pruning ripe and soft; they should part easily facing wall or fence. Fan-trained trees of an apricot pyramid, see p.170. from the spur. Use them as soon as need a space 11–15ft (3.5–5m) wide possible after picking, storing them and 6–8ft (2–2.5m) high. The most PRUNING AN APRICOT FAN brief ly, if necessary, in a cool place. often used rootstocks are St. Julien A Carry out formative pruning for the and Torinel; both are semi-dwarfing. basic framework (see p.173) in late COMMON PROBLEMS winter or early spring as the tree starts Apricots suffer from a few pests and POLLINATION early into growth. In addition, follow diseases, including brown scale (see Apricots are self-fertile and so just one the guidelines for plums (see pp.186– p.253), dieback (see p.254), silver leaf tree is required for fruits. The blossom 187) for formative summer pruning (see p.262), and bacterial canker (see is pollinated by insects, but the flowers and pruning an established fan. p.253). Birds (see p.252) can attack open at a time when there are often the ripening fruit, and so netting few pollinating insects around. Hand ROUTINE CARE may be necessary (see p.192). pollination is generally necessary (see In late winter, apply sulfate of potash p.157). The flowers and fruitlets are at 1oz/sq yd (35g/sq m) over the rooting RECOMMENDED CULTIVARS very vulnerable to frost damage: be area (to just beyond the extent of the prepared to protect against frost on branches). In early spring, apply calcium The available cultivars are generally nights when it is forecast (see above, right). ammonium nitrate at 1⁄2oz/sq yd (20g/ similar in reliability. The following sq m). Every third year, apply super are in order of season of ripening. PLANTING phosphate at 2oz/sq yd (70g/sq m) in ‘Tomcat’ Large, orange fruit is firm Plant (see pp.158–159) in the dormant late winter. Apply a mulch (see p.161) and the flesh is sweet. season, preferably in fall, since apricots after the fertilizer in spring. Give extra ‘Alfred’ Mid- to late summer. may start to grow away in late winter. water in dry periods in spring and Bare-root plants usually establish well. summer. For wall-trained apricots, drip Rich-flavored orange flesh. Some Container-grown plants also grow away irrigation (see pp.53–54) is very useful. resistance to dieback. well if not pot-bound. Before planting, ‘Early Moorpark’ Mid- to late summer. prepare the stakes and wires (see p.162) FRUIT THINNING Juicy, fine-textured, orange flesh. for the form you have chosen. Apricots seldom set enough fruit to ‘Gold Kist’ Low-chilling variety need thinning. However, if a heavy crop best suited for warm winter PRUNING AND TRAINING is set, thin (see p.160) in late spring or climates. Apricots fruit on one- and two-year-old early summer, when fruits are the size ‘Moorpark’ Late summer–early fall. wood, and on older fruiting spurs. As of hazelnuts, to 2–3in (5–8cm) apart. Old cultivar with orange, red- for all stone fruits, prune in spring and flushed fruits. summer to avoid infection from silver leaf (see p.262) and bacterial canker (see

FIG 197 Fig Figs (Ficus carica) have long been grown inspect it before buying. Plant in late and a concrete path, or planting it in the Mediterranean region, where spring when the danger of severe frost in a hole set in a paved area. there are warm, sunny conditions, low has passed; if you have bought it before rainfall, and few frosts. These are the then, keep it in a cool but frost-free Growing figs in containers will garden conditions in which figs grow place, such as a greenhouse or porch, automatically provide root restriction. best. If it is to fruit well in cooler areas, until planting time. Generally, containers of 12–16in it is essential to grow a tree in a warm, (30–40cm) in diameter are most sunny position. A fig can be fan-trained When planting a fig in open ground suitable; a larger pot can be used, against a south-, southwest-, or west- it is a good idea to restrict the root run; but will be too heavy to lift. Ensure facing wall or fence; a house wall is this keeps the tree compact and enables good drainage by filling the base of ideal for providing some extra warmth it to fruit well rather than putting all its the pot with crocks. Use a loam-based all year. Figs can thrive in containers. energies into producing new growth. potting compost. In very favorable, sheltered areas, it is The size of the rooting area will possible to grow a fig as a freestanding determine the ultimate size of tree. PRUNING AND TRAINING half-standard or bush. Although figs fruit freely in a warm For a fan-trained tree 6–8ft (2–2.5m) climate, in cooler areas only one crop Figs can be grown on a range of soils tall and 11ft (3.5m) wide, a rooting per year is produced. Figs develop in the providing they are well-drained. Light volume of about 5 cubic feet (0.15 axils of the leaves of the young shoots and shallow soils, including thin soils cubic meters) is needed. This can be and, provided that they are not subjected over chalk, are suitable; very fertile provided by making an open-bottomed to frost, overwinter as embryo figs about soils tend to induce too much growth. box with paving slabs, bricks, or heavy- the size of peas. These fig embryos duty hard plastic sunk into the soil (see ripen in midsummer to early fall of the CHOOSING A TREE FORM below). For a freestanding tree, make following year (see p.198). Occasionally, The best form for growing a fig outside the open-bottomed box with four sides or when grown under glass, a second is a fan-trained tree. Each tree needs a instead of three. Other ways to provide crop will develop in one season and space about 11ft (3.5m) wide and 6–8ft root restriction include planting a fig ripen from early to mid-fall. However, (2–2.5m) high. Grow it as a bush in in a narrow border between a wall a very sheltered spot or in a pot. You can choose the height of stem before Constructing a planting pit the branches start—a convenient stem height is generally 2–3ft (60–90cm) in 2 open ground. In containers, figs can be grown as a multistemmed bushes (see p.199) or as standards with a clear stem of 2–3ft (60–90cm). Figs are grown on their own roots and propagated from hardwood cuttings (see p.199). Unfortunately, there are no rootstocks to control their vigor, and they grow very vigorously on fertile soils where there is plenty of rainfall. POLLINATION 13 The fig cultivars that are cultivated in cool temperate regions develop 1For a fan, construct a pit about 18in 2 Fill the pit with soil enriched with parthenocarpic fruits—that is, seedless (45cm) deep against a wall and line it compost, or with loam-based potting fruits produced without fertilization. with three 24 x 24in (60 x 60cm) paving compost plus a slow- or controlled-release Therefore, no pollination is necessary. slabs. The tops of the slabs should stand fertilizer, leaving a watering rim of 1in Figs are unusual among tree fruits proud of the surface by at least 2in (5cm) (2.5cm). Plant a young fig (here ‘Brown because the f lower is enclosed within so that roots cannot stray along the soil Turkey’) in the center, leaning it toward what becomes the fruit and so is never surface. Fill the bottom 6–8in (15–20cm) the training wires; fill with more compost. visible; the fig simply grows in size. with large crocks or rubble to provide good drainage and to discourage any large roots 3Firm in the plant and cut back the PLANTING AND ROOT RESTRICTION from growing through. stem to a bud facing to one side 18in Figs are available as container-grown (45cm) from the ground. Water and label. plants. Choose a young plant that is not pot-bound—take it out of the pot and

198 TREE FRUIT CROPS if this second crop does not Embryo figs for next Pinch soft ripen, remove it in late fall. year’s crop develop shoot firmly in leaf axils with fingertips Prune figs twice a year. In early to mid-spring, after This year’s the danger of frost has passed, secondary fruit cut them back to regulate the shape. In summer, pinch out Overwintered fruit Summer pruning the shoot tips (see right); this now ripening In order to produce compact, short-jointed encourages the formation of shoots with plenty of embryo figs, pinch a new supply of embryo figs Development of fig fruits or cut out the tips of the shoots when they for the next year, and allows Figs at 3 stages of development are visible on have formed 5 leaves in early summer. This light to reach ripening fruits. this shoot. At the base is a ripening fruit that allows time for the shoots that grow out to has overwintered from last year. Above it are ripen and produce embryo figs in the fall. PRUNING A HALF-STANDARD FIG OR 2 figs formed this spring that may ripen in A FIG BUSH favorable conditions. Near the tip are embryo in the center. For a neglected bush Formative pruning of a half-standard figs that may overwinter and ripen next year. tree, remove a proportion of the older, or bush is similar to that for other bare branches in mid-spring back to tree fruits (see pp.166–167), with the choose two well-placed shoots and a stub of about 2in (5cm). If there are pruning being done in early spring. prune them back by only one-third quite a few old branches to remove, For spring pruning of an established of their length to an upward-facing spread the pruning over two or three bush, see box, below; it may not bud, and remove the rest. years to avoid stimulating excessive be necessary to remove large, bare new growth in the fig. As new shoots branches every year, but just as For pruning an established fan in grow, select the strongest and best- needed. In early summer each year, spring, see box, below. In midsummer, placed for a balanced tree, and prune pinch or cut out the growing tips continue to tie in the developing out the others. of all the shoots once they have five shoots to the wires so that they are leaves (see above, right). For pruning exposed to the full sun and ripen well. For a fan-trained tree, also prune in a container-grown fig, see facing page. mid-spring. Start by removing branches RENOVATING A NEGLECTED FIG growing directly out from the wall or PRUNING A FIG FAN If a fig tree has been neglected for fence, cutting back to their point of Formative training and pruning of a number of years, most of the fruit a fan is as for other tree fruits (see will be borne on young shoots around p.173), and is done in early spring the edge of the tree, with bare sections after the worst of the frosts. If the tree has two or more sideshoots, Pruning an established fig tree in spring Pruning an established fig bush In mid-spring, cut back branches that have become long and bare to a stub of about 2in (5cm) to stimulate new shoots from the base. Remove frost-damaged growth and shoots that are crowded and crossing the center. Balanced, open, crown after pruning 1Take out about a quarter of the oldest 2 In late spring, before bud break, look for Keep base of and most congested stems, cutting any badly placed shoots that are growing trunk clear them to a stub of 2–3in (5–8cm) at the into or away from the fence, or, as here, are base to encourage new, vigorous growth. crossing other branches. Remove them and Use a pruning saw for a clean cut. tie in the remaining new shoots.